■ r MANUAL OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE. MANUAL OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE. FROM THE GERMAN OF j. j/eschejvburg, PROFESSOR IN THE CAROLINUM, AT BRUNSWICK: WITH ADDITIONS. BY N. W. FISKE, Professor of the Latin and Greek Languages in Amherst College. PHILADELPHIA : KEY AND BIDDLE, 23, MINOR STREET. 1836. s o°' ^ $>, \<*° Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and thirty-six, by Key & Biddle, in the Clerk's office of the District Court for the Eastern district of Pennsylvania. z?#9 Amherst, J. S.andC. ADAM9, Printers. PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR. 1. It will be natural to ask, why this book is offered lo the public. The translator knows not how to introduce the reasons, in a better way, than by first allowing the author himself to explain the design and character of the orig- inal work. For this purpose, the reader is requested to peruse the following ex- tracts from the Prefaces of Eschenburg. From the Preface to the Fifth Edition. — Twenty-seven years ago I was induc- ed to commence a revision and enlargement of that portion of Hederick's Intro- duction to the Historical Sciences, which treats of Classical Literature, Mytholo- gy and Roman Antiquities. In doing this I expected to aid an esteemed friend, who had been requested by the booksellers to prepare an improved edition of the whole work. But what determined me to the attempt was a conviction, that it was undertaking a work of very useful tendency, and a hope, that by it a want, long felt in elementary instruction, might be supplied. Other duties hindered the seasonable accomplishment of this purpose; and I was led to enlarge the original Elan, so as to include the Grecian Antiquities, and what is embraced under the ead of Archaeology of Literature and Art. Thus is formed a complete Manual, furnishing the most essential aids in reading the classical authors, and with suffi- cient fullness for all elementary purposes. My work so designed has, therefore, now scarcely a trace in it of the treatise of Hederick. My aim, in this work, was to furnish both Learners and Teachers with a book, which might at the same time serve as a general introduction to the reading of Classical authors, and likewise afford further and constant help in understanding and explaining them. It surely is unnecessary to prove, that a knowledge of Greek and Roman Mythology and Antiquities, and some acquaintance with the Archaeology of Literature and Art, and also with the general History and Criti- ■cism of the Ancient Authors, are not only useful, but absolutely indispensable, in the pursuit of Classical study. And it appears to me, that it must greatly facili- tate the acquisition of this knowledge, to have the whole range of it brought into one collected system, as it is in this work, and all digested with one common end in view, and reduced as far as possible to one uniform method, with a careful se- lection of what is most essential, and omission of what is comparatively unim- portant, and a constant reference to its appropriate use. The Teacher will find presented to him throughout the work occasions and hints for further illustrati- ons and additions ; while the Learner has in the book itself what is of indispensa- ble importance, and in such a form, that he may easily re-peruse and review it. The Archaology of Literature and Art had never, previously to the attempt in this work, been exhibited in a form adapted for general instruction. Yet some such acquaintance with the subject as this work may furnish, is of the highest importance to the scholar. It may be expected, that the glance, which he will here obtain of the rich monuments of antiquity, will lead him to seek the plea- sure of a more complete and full knowledge, especially of Grecian art. And certainly the Classical teacher needs to be in some degree familiar with the ob- jects presented in this field of study, in order to do justice to his pupils. — The View of the Classical Authors was necessarily confined within brief limits. I pre- ferred to arrange them in Departments, instead of following purely chronologi- cal order, because I could thereby more conveniently introduce the brief remarks I wished to offer respecting the form, which each Department of writing assum- ed among the Greeks and Romans. In giving the editions of the classics, and the works helping to illustrate them, I confined myself chiefly to such as are most suitable for scholars, and best calculated in my view for their advancement. In describing the authors, only a short and condensed summary could be given, not F IV PREFACE. including a complete enumeration of their works, but merely naming the most impoi tant. — The sketch of Greek and Roman Mythology is that, which I first drew up for list- in my own lectures, and which has been separately printed. Here I have endeavored to separate the circumstances most important for the scholar's notice from those of minor consequence; introducing the historical or tradition- ary pari of the fables, without saying much of the theories and. speculations em- ployed in solving them; yet presenting hints at explanations, which may be wor- thy of the S( holar's notice. The references to the Metamorphoses of Ovid are added, because I deem it highly useful to connect a reading of these with the study of mythology. — A new system of Greek and Roman Antiquities might seem, at first view, less needed than the other parts of this work, since there are other systems and compends easily accessible, especially of Roman Antiquities. But it was necessary to the completeness of the Manual to include these branches. Nor was this all : I hoped here, as in the rest of my work, to furnish something especially valuable on account of its embracing all that is most essential to the subject, with the exclusion of extraneous and unimportant matter. Since the last edition of this Manual, there have appeared some performances of a similar kind, in which I thankfully find evidence of the utility of my own work, and am ready to acknowledge their excellence in some particulars. These works might perhaps render a new impression of mine superfluous; but the very frequent call for the Manual, the urgent request of the book-sellers, and the ap- prehension now awakened of a second counterfeit emission of the work, have ersuaded me to prepare this fifth edition. In the emendations and improvements have been guided by the same considerations, which controlled me in the pre- ceding editions. In the additions in the part treating of the classic authors I have received very friendly assistance from Professor Scheppler, of this place. Brunswick, Dec. 7, 1807. From the Preface to the 6lh Edition. — In a former preface, the occasion, design and plan of this Manual have been stated. In each successive edition I have en- deavored to make useful improvements ; but have throughout adhered to the original design, and confined myself, of course, to substantially the same limits. Although much progress has been made in classical studies in Germany during the last thirty years, and there are now several books of great merit, which may serve as guides and introductions to such studies, yet the demand for another impression of this Manual has compelled me again to take it in hand and to perform the renewed labor of revision. In this labor I must again gratefully mention the assistance kindly rendered me by Professor Scheppler. Brunswick, May, 1816. The 6th edition was the last published during the life of the author. But the work has been printed once or twice since his death. The following is taken from the Remarks prefixed to the seventh edition. — The continued acknowledge- ment of the great excellence of this Manual of Classical Literature, which is proved by the constant demand for the book, renders it unnecessary to say much by way of preface to a new edition. After the death of Eschenburg, the society of book-sellers employed a well qualified editor, who has revised the work and superintended it with greatcare and fidelity. An examination will show, that in doing this, advantage has been taken of the important results of modern clas- sical researches. It is therefore confidently believed, that this work will still' be found one of the most useful of the kind ; perhaps the very best Manual, both for the Gymnasia and other Seminaries, and also for private use. Berlin, Nov. I, 1824. 2. In view of this account of the character, design, and reputation of the origi- nal work, it is easy to see the reasons why it should be presented to the scholars of our country. Many instructors have felt the want of a Comprehensive Text- book in the department of Classical Literature and Antiquities. After much in- quiry, the translator has been able to find no work, which, on the whole, seem so well adapted for the object, as Eschenburg's Manual. It will be seen, by a mere glance, that the general design and plan of the work, in its present form, is to exhibit, in a condensed but comprehensive summary, what is most essential on all the prominent topics belonging to the department of PREFACE. V Classical Literature and Antiquities, and at the same time give references to va- rious sources of information, to which the scholar may go, when he wishes to pursue any of the subjects by further investigations. I cannot doubt, that a Manual on this plan, thoroughly executed, would prove one of the greastest aids to the classical student, which it is possible to put into his hands ; and I cherish thehope that, in the entire want of a book of this sort not only in our country but also in the English language hitherto, the present attempt to introduce one from abroad will meet with a candid reception ; especially as it is one, whose value has been so fully attested in the land most of all celebrated for classical at- tainments. Here it may be proper to mention, that some years since this work was trans- lated into the French. The translator, after some preliminary remarks, says, ' from such considerations, I supposed I should render the public a service, by making known in France a series of elementary works universally esteemed and circulated in Germany. I begin with the Manual of Classical Literature by Eschenburg. This author is Councillor in the Court of the Duke of Brunswick, andProfessor in the public Seminary called the Carolinum. As estimable for his moral character as for the variety of his attainments, known as editor of the posthumous writings of Lessing, and dear to all the celebrated men of the coun- try; living also in the vicinity of one of the richest libraries ; he united, along with these advantages, all the light and experience derived from a long series of years devoted to instruction, and that good judgment, admirable but rare, which knows how to avoid the superfluous without omitting the necessary and the useful. I shall not attempt an encomium on thebook, of which I here offer a translation ; it is sufficient to refer to the public suffrage and decision, by which this Manual has been adopted as the basis of public and private instruction in a major part of the Universities and Colleges in Germany.' — Subsequently to the time of this translation, in a Report made to the French Institute respecting the literary la- bors of the Germans, by Charles Villers, the distinguished author of the Essay on the Reformation of Luther, the Manual of Eschenburg was noticed as a valu- able gift to the world. I feel at liberty also to state, as evincing the value of this work, in the estimation of competent judges, that the present translation was commenced with the warm approbation and encouragement of Prof. Stdart of Andover, and Prof. Robinson, now of Boston. In fact, under the advice of these eminent scholars, Mr. Isaac Stuart, Professor of Languages in the University of S. Caro- lina, had made preparations for translating the same work, and wholly without my knowledge, but had been compelled to renounce the design, just before I con- sulted their views of the utility and expediency of my attempt. It is likewise worthy of notice here, that from a conviction of the great value of the Manual and of its adaptedness to be useful in our country, it had actually been translated, before I entered upon the work, by Mr. Cruse, whose translation of the part per- taining to Roman Authors is introduced into the present publication ; for further explanation of which the reader is referred to the Advertisement on page 290. 3. No more needs to be said respecting the design and merits of the original work and its claims to be introduced to the knowledge of American scholars. But something more may be desired respecting the author himself. This desire I am able to gratify, through the friendship of Prof. Robinson, whose repeated advice and assistance in the present work I here gratefully acknowledge, and who has furnished the following brief notice of Eschenburg. 1 The name of Eschenburg stands high in Germany, as one of their best wri- ters on taste and the theory of the fine arts, including fine writing. The article [below] is condensed in the Encyclopaedia Americana; bat I have preferred to translate the original [from the Conversations Lexicon"] as being more full. John Joachim Eschenburg, Professor in the Carolinum at Brunswick, was born 1743 at Hamburg, and died at Brunswick, 1820. This distinguished scholar and writer received his earliest education in the Johanneum at Hamburg ; after- wards in Leipzig, where Ernesti, Gellert, Morus, and Clodius, were his instruc- VI PREFACE. tors; then under Heyne and Michoelis in Gottingen. He then came, through the agency of Jerusalem, as a private tutor, to Brunswick; where he afterwards received the Professorship in the Carolinum, vacated by the death of the poet Zacharia. This post he held during his life. To him Germany is indebted for a nearer acquaintance with many good English writers in the department of JEs- thetics; e. g. Brown, Webb, Burney, and Hurd, whom he translated and in part accompanied with notes and additions. He published, moreover, at different times in Journals and Magazines, accounts of the most remarkable appearances in English Literature, by means of which a love and taste for the literary treas- ures of that island and people were greatly promoted among the Germans. His greatest desert, however, lies in his translation of Shakspeare (Zurich, 1775-87, 14 vols. 1798-1806, 12 vols.). Although not the first in this great undertaking, since Wieland had already begun a similar, yet he has long had the merit of being the most complete ; even though so many excellent translations of the great tragic writer have been since begun. Indeed his version of the collected works of this poet is to this moment sought after, although not possessing the charm of metre nor the literal fidelity, which others exhibit. In making his translation, moreover, by means of his literary and social connections, he enjoyed many ad- vantages, which another would with difficulty possess in an equal degree; and his own private library contained, so long ago as 1807, more than 400 volumes in reference to Shakspeare, exclusive of engravings, &c. Another great bene- fit, conferred on the public by Eschenburg, was the publication of his Lectures in the Carolinum, his Theorie und Literaiur der schOnen Wissenschaften, his Lehr- buch der Wissenschaftskundc, and his Handbuch der Classischen Literatur ; of the last work a seventh edition was published in 1825. — In social intercourse Eschen- burg was exceedingly amiable, and notwithstanding his occasional satirical re- marks, generally beloved. Three years before his death he celebrated his offi- cial jubilee or 50th anniversary. He was also Senior of the Cyriacus-founda- tion, and a knight of the Guelphic order. — In the 6th Supplementary Volume of JSrden's Lexicon deutscher Dicliter und Prosaisten, there is a minute catalogue of his works, both original and translated, and also of his editions of other authors of former or recent times.' 4. It remains for the translator to speak briefly of the principles and method, by which he has attempted to execute his task, in preparing the work in its pre- sent form ; and the following remarks contain all, that it seems important for him to say on this point. For the rest, he who may use the book, must judge. As to the translation itself, my aim has been throughout to express the author's meaning with strict fidelity ; but in doing this I have endeavored to avoid the long periods and involved arrangement of words and clauses, for which the German language is of known celebrity; I have almost uniformly employed shorter sentences, and have sometimes departed very much from the phraseology of the original. — The alterations are not many; in some instances I have omitted a clause or sentence, and in a few a whole section or paragraph, without any notice to the reader ; in a few cases also I have altered the arrangement of the sections. Otherwise, wherever I have not presented the author entire and unal- tered, a distinct intimation of some change by the translator is given to the reader, by one of the marks which will be explained below.-i-The additions are very considerable; and whatever maybe their pertinency W their value, they cer- tainly have cost some labor. In making them, I have endeavored to keep con- stantly in mind the grand design of the work, and to render it more complete in the respects, which, as has been before remarked, constitute its peculiarity, dis- tinguishing it from every other work on these subjects in our language. The ad- ditions may generally be distinguished from the original, either by the size of the type, or by particular marks ; as will be described under the Explanations below. It will be seen, that large additions have been made in the portion relating to the Greek Literature and Authors; it was my intention to make similar additions to the View of the Roman Authors ; but the design was renounced for the reasons stated in the Advertisement on page 290. I regretted, on receiving Mr. Cruse' s Translation, to find that it did not include the notices of editions and illustrative works mentioned by Eschenburg ; and should the present effort meet with ap- probation, it is my purpose to prepare for separate publication something more complete on the Roman Literature. I flatter myself, that the condensed view of PREFACE. VU the Sacred writings and the writings of the early Christians, as found in the Greek language, will be considered a useful addition. — The whole of Part V. is also added by the translator, as explained on page 572; only it ought to be fur- ther remarked, that a few paragraphs pertaining to the remains of Athens and Rome, placed under Antiquities by Eschenburg and omitted in the translation, are introduced, with alterations, in this part under the Topography of those cities. The work is now offered as a humble contribution to the service of the public, and commended to the candid examination of the scholar; in the hope, that un- der the blessing of Him, in whom is the fountain of all wisdom and knowledge, it may prove an auxiliary of some value in the cause of liberal and good edu- cation. Amherst College, April 12, 1836. EXPLANATIONS. The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from the authorand what from the translator. All in the largest type is translated directly from the original, excepting such sec- tions as have a star or the letter t annexed to their number (as, e. g. 5 80' on page 48, and § 761 on page 46); the star indicates thatthe section is wholly added by the translator; the t indicates that the section is altered by him so as to differ more or less from the original. All in the smaller type is ad- ded by the translator excepting such sections or paragraphs as have the letter u annexed to their num- ber, and excepting also most of the mere references to books and authors. The u indicates that the sec- tion or paragraph, although in the smaller type, is taken directly from the original. A s to the references, which are usually in the smaller type, it did not seem of much consequence to discriminate carefully between what was put in by the author and what by me; if any one should find some of them irrele- vant or unimportant, he may safely charge such upon me rather than Eschenburg ; if any inquire why the numerous references to German works are retained, I only remark, that it is becoming more and more common to import such works into this country', and more and more important for our scholars to be acquainted with the German language ; and if any deem it superfluous to have given so many refe- rences, let such consider, that the same books are not accessible to all students, and an increased num- ber of references increases the probability of presenting seme to becks within the reach of every reader; and it should be borne in mind also, that some references are given chiefly as bibliographical statistics, which Is the case especially with respect to some of the editions of Greek classics. In correctlngthe press, the translatorhas enjoyd no a<*hrance; a circumstance, which he much regrets. Some sheets, It ought also to be remarked, were impressed, when he was unable to give them the usual attention. Although a number of typographical errors will be found in the following pages, it Is believed that the reader will ackowledge, that the general appearance of the work is highly credit- able to the office of the Messrs. Adams. For any degree of nea'ness and accuracy, which the work may possess, the publishers and the writerare much indebted to the patience, c.irc, and skill of Mr. J. A. Tenney, who has superintended the whole mechanical execution.— Most of the errors, which have been observed, are such as to occasion the reader no difficulty, either not affecting the sense, or suggesting at once their own correction. The following ERRATA are of a more important character. On page 59, lath line from bottom, 91, § 143 (a) «h line, " lb. 5th line, " 95, 12th line from top, " 166, §2S, 7th line, & ss. " 182, §51, 4th line, " 195, 7th line from top, " 242, § 154,3. 6th line, " 248, 17th line from top, " 348, 19th line from top, " 361,178, 6th line, " 569,§341.3. 3d line, " 560, § 30, 5th line, lb. B for mituus read lituvs. " Evangcliacum " Evangcliarum. " quartcrnion? " quaternions. II a tOijOii ii uiat!);o"ic\ " 'sXiyog ii t/.tyo;. " moral " rural. " eloquence " elegance. before Fables Insert these. for §243 read § 248. " P. II. " P.I. " Zephyr " Zephyrus. " last " least. " Gaudalquiver " Guadalqulvtr. " GauJtana " Ouadiana. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I.— Archaeology of Lit- erature and Art. Introduction, p. 1 — 21. §§ 1—32. 1 The original capacity and knowledge of men. 2 Develope- mentof thesame. 3 Aided by language. 4 Origin of arts and sciences. 5 First character of the same. 6 Attainments made before the Deluge. 7 Effects of the dispersion of the human family, by the confusion of tongues at Babel. 8 Earliest employments; food. 9 Ef- fect of climate and other causes ; influ- ence of agriculture on arts. 10 Rise of architecture and use of metals. Tools of stone. 11 Imitative arts. 12 Origin of Language. 13 Origin of Writing. 14 Previous methods of communicat- ing thought. 15 Picture-writing; by Mexicans ; N. Am. Indians. 16 Hiero- glyphics. 17 Abbreviated pictures. 18 Syllable-writing; Chinese; Cherokee. 19 Alphabetic writing, 20 Materials and implements. 21 Contents of earli- est writings; writings of Moses and Job the most ancient; claims of the oriental records. 22 The earliest sci- ences. 23 Origin of medicine. 24 Of arithmetic. 25 Of Astronomy. 26 Of Geometry. 27 Of Geography. 28 Egypt and Asia the cradle of the sciences. 29 High culture of the Greeks and Ro- mans. Importance of classical studies. 30 Object of the present treatise. 31 Utility of thesame. 32 References to works illustrating the subjects in- cluded. Archeology of Greek Lite- rature. /. _ Of the origin and first steps of Grecian culture, p. 23 — 30. §§ 33—44. 33 First population of Greece. The Pelasgi. 34 Early state of society. Colonies from the east. 35 Origin of Greek language. 36 Lan- guage of Noah ; nature of the Confu- sion of tongues. Languages of west- ern Asia. 37 Japheth and descendants. 38 One of the Shemitish dialects prob- ably the foundation of the Greek. Va- rious theorieson the subject. 39 Causes of the great perfection of the Greek. 40 First impulse to civilization. 41 In- fluence of eastern nations on the reli- gion of the early Greeks. 42 On their arts. 43 Influence of the Greek bards. 44 Of the Greek games. II. Of the Alphabet, Method of Writ- ing and Boohs, p. 31 — 38. §§ 45 — 60. 45 Letters introduced by Cadmus. Resemblance of Grecian and Phoenician Alphabets. 46 Number of letters in the Alphabet of Cadmus. 47 Changes in form of Greek letters. 48 Direction of letters and lines in wri- ting. 49 Uncial and Cursive charac- ters. Abbreviations. 50 Breathings. 51 Accents, 52 Punctuation. 53 Ma- terials used in Greece for writing. 54 Instruments. 55 Material used for ink. 56, 57 Form of books. 58 Copy- ists. 59 Infrequent use of writing in early times, Whether Homer com- mitted his poems to writing (cf. p. 183). 60 Instruction given orally. III. Of the most flourishing period of Greek Literature, p. 38 — 47. §§ 61 — 77. 61 Circumstances favor- able to progress in letters. 62 Actual studies and attainments. 63 Design of the author under the present head of the subject. 64 The Grecian system of education. Gymnasia, Music. 65, 66 The Musical and Dramatical contests. 67 Rehearsals public and private. 68 Professed Readers. 69 The 'Symposia or literary feasts. 70 No learned pro- fessions among the Greeks, 71 Gram- mar as a part of education. 72 Philos- ophy ; Esoteric and Exoteric. 73 Meth- ods of teaching ; Socratic. 74 The great public schools; Academy, Lyce- um, Porch, Cynosarges, Garden. 75 Regulations and discipline of the Gym- CONTENTS. IX nasia and schools. 76 Greek libraries. 77 Travels of learned men. IV. Of the decline of Greek Litera- ture, p. 47 — 51. §§78—85. 78 Causes of its decline. 79 Greek language still extensively used. 80 Greek letters cultivated at some places ; Rhodes, Pergamus, Al- exandria &c. 81 Greek letters patron- ised by some of the Emperors. 82 Schools of Athens suppressed. 83 Op- position between Christianity and pagan literature; influence of Christianity. 84 Loss of classical manuscripts, in va- rious ways. 85 Political condition of the Greeks after the Christian era. V. Of the Remains and Monuments of Grecian Literature, p. 51 — C8. §5 86—108. 86 Division of these in- to three classes. — I. Inscriptions. 87 References to works on Greek in- scriptions. 88 General design and char- acter of inscriptions. 89 Qualifications requisite for interpreting inscriptions. 90 Notice of some of the most impor- tant inscriptions of a date prior to Al- exander. 91 Of those of a date be- tween Alexander and the Christian Era. 92 Of a period subsequent to the Christian Era.— II. Coins. 93 Util- ity of an acquaintance with coins. 91 Uncoined metal first used. 95 Earliest Greek coins ; Chronological classifica- tion of Greek coins. 96 The coins in most common use among the Greeks. Number of ancient coins preserved. 97,98 Forms of letters on Greek coins. 99 References to works on Numismat- ics.— HI. Man u scripts. 100 Util- ity of them. 101 Their antiquity. Pa- limpsesti. 102 How made and preserv- ed. 103, 104 Marks by which the age of a Ms. is known ; or criteria of Palae- ography. 105, 106 Importance and ad- vantages of collating manuscripts, 107 Notice of some of the oldest and most curious manuscripts extant ; Hercula- nean Rolls; Egyptian Papyri. 108 Li- braries containing Greek manuscripts. Archaeology of Roman Lite- rature. J. Of Ike sources of Roman culture. p. 69—74. §§ 109—118. 109 Origin of the Ro- mans. Two different theories respect- ing the inhabitants of Italy. Five early- tribes. Uncertainty of the early history of Rome. 110 Origin of Latin written characters. Ill Intercourse of the Ro- mans with the Greeks. 112, 113 State of culture before the Punic wars. 114 Origin and progress of the Latin Lan- guage. Monuments of its early char- acter. II. Of the Alphabet, Writing and Books, p. 74 — 76. § 115 Number of original letters. 116 The early and later orthography. 117 Forms of letters. Abbreviations; Notre Tironiancs. 118 Form of Books. Materials and instruments for writing. List of names and terms used in rela- tion to writing &c. III. Of the most flourishing period of Roman Literature, p. 76—82. §§ 119—127. 119 Influence of the Greek colonies in Magna Grascia. 120 Introduction of the Greek philosophy. 121 Most brilliant age in Roman let- ters. Causes. 122 Branches cultivat- ed. 123 Change in the system of edu- cation. 124 Instructions of the Gram- marians and Rhetoricians. 125 Public schools. Athenaeum. Literary exerci- ses specially practiced by the youth in the course of education, &c. 126 Li- braries at Rome. 127 Customof finish- ing study abroad. Places visited for the purpose. IV. Of the decline of Roman Lite- rature, p. 82, 83. § 128 Causes of the decline. Com- mencement of it. Exertions and influ- ence of some of the Emperors. Effect of intercourse with provincials; of the removal of the seat of government to Constantinople. Schools of learningin the empire ; Byzantium, Berytus, Mas- silia, Auguslodunum. V. Remains and Monuments of Ro- man Literature, p. 84 — 91. §§ 129—143. 129, 130 Roman In- scriptions; References to works on the subject. 131 Abbreviations and in- itial letters on Roman coins. 132 Pe- culiar advantages of study of Roman inscriptions. 133 JN'otice of some of the most important inscriptions that are preserved. 134 Roman C oin s; when first struck. Division into Consular and Imperial. 135 Legend on coins. CONTENTS. 136 False coins. 137 Peculiar forms of writing on earl)' coins. 138 Refe- rences to works on Roman coins. 139 The most valuable collections of an- cient coins. 140 Roman Manu- scripts; few existing of a very early- date. 141 Successive changes in the manner of writing. 142 Zealous search for manuscripts on the revival of let- ters, Petrarch, Poggio and others in- terested in it. Depositories of Latin manuscripts. 143 Some of the most ancient Latin manuscripts known. Archaeology of Art. Preliminary Remarks, p. 92 — 95. §§ 144—153. 144 Meanings of the word Art. 145 Division of the arts into the Mechanical, and the Fine. 146 The plastic arts. 147 Objects repre- sented by them. Allegorical images. 148, 149 Requisites in the artist, con- noisseur, and amateur, severally. 150 Utility of some knowledge of the his- tory of art. 151 Antiques and the study of them. 152 Original design of the monuments of ancient art. Science of ^Esthetics ; references on the same. 153 Object of the present treatise. Four branches of art particularly included. /. Sculpture, p. 95 — 116. §5 154—191. 154 Comprehensive meaning of the term. 155, 156 Origin of Sculpture. 157 Character of the first specimens. Image of Cybele. 158- 162 The materials used ; first soft; va- rious kinds of wood; Ivory also; Mar- ble and stone of different kinds ; Bronze. 163 Classes of statues; costume; atti- tudes. 164 Busts. 165 The kind of figure called Hermes. 166 Bas-reliefs, 167 Mosaic. 168 Inscriptions on stat- ues. 169, 170 Egyptian sculpture. 171 Sculpture among the Asiatics. 172, 173 Character and remains of Etruscan Sculpture. 173, 174 Rise of sculpture in Greece : circumstances favorable to its advancement. Dasdalus. 175 The four periods of Grecian sculpture. 176 Its character in the first period, 177 Different schools. 178 Frequent de- mand for statues in Greece. 179—181 Grecian sculpture in its subsequent pe- riods. 182—185 Sculpture among the Romans. 186 The most celebrated re- mains of ancient sculpture ; of statues 187 Of Busts. 188 Of Mosaic. 190 The most famous collections of such remains. 191 References to works on this subject, //. Lithoglyphy or Gem-Engraving. p. 110—127. §§ 192—213. 192 Explanation of the term. 193 Gems early known. 194 Respecting the nature and classification of gems. 195 Notice of some of the principal gems employed in this art. 196 Manner of forming the figures on them ; intaglios ; cameos. 197, 198 Va- rious objects represented. 199 Origin and earliest instances of the art. 200, 201 Gem-engraving of the Egyptians. Scarabczi ; Abraxas. 202 This art a- moiig other nations, especially the Etru- rians. 203, 204 Among the Greeks. 205 Among the Romans. 206 Use made of sculptured gems. 207 Me- chanical operations in engraving. 203 Fictitious gems. 208 Advantages of some knowledge of ancient gems. 210 This study facilitated by thl use of paste imitations. The impressions of Lip- pert; of Wedgewood; of Tassie. 211 Some of the most remarkable ancient gems. 212 The most celebrated collec- tions. 213 References to work illustrat- ing the subject. III. Painting, p. 127—134. §§ 214-227. 214 Explanation of this art. 215 Date of its origin. 216 Its early existence in Chaldasa and Egypt. 217 Earliest pictures among the Greeks. 218 The colors employed by Greek painters. 219 Materials and instru- ments for painting. 220 Encaustic painting. Mosaic. 221 Merit of an- cientpainting. Perspective. 222 Schools in painting among the Greeks. Cele- brated masters. Four periods. Com- parative number of paintings and stat- ues. Portraits. 223 Etruscan paint- ings. 224, 225 Painting at Rome. 226 Monuments of ancient painting. 227 References to works on the subject. IV. Architecture, p. 134 — 144. §§ 228—243. 228 Both a mechanic and a fine art. 229 Its origin. Leading principles, or causes affecting its char- acter. 230 Materials in early times. 231 Egyptian Architecture. Asiatic, as exhibited in the Scriptures. The grand branches of Architecture, Civil, Milita- ry, Naval. 232 Architecture as exhib- ited in Homer. 233 Most flourishing period of this art in Greece. 234 De- scription of ancient temples. 235 Of CONTENTS. XI Theatres and Odea. 236 Of Gymna- sia. 237 Of Porticos. 238 Of pillars and columns ; and the several orders of Architecture. 239 Ornaments of an- cient Architecture. Caryatides, Atlan- tides &c. 240 Most celebrated Greek architects. 241 Tuscan and Roman Architecture. 242 Remains of ancient Architecture. Works illustrating- the subject. 243 Notice of several styles of Architecture, more modern; Roman- esque, Sararenic, Chinese, Gothic. PART II— History of An- cient Literature, Greek and Roman. Greek Literature. Introduction, p. 147—160. §§ 1 — 10. 1 Circumstances favora- ble to literature among the Greeks. 2 Excellency of Greek classics; impor- tance of acquaintance with them. 3 Beauty and perfection of the Greek lan- guage. 4 Its dialects. 5 Pronuncia- tion of Greek. 6 Principles and meth- ods in studying. Analytical and Syn- thetical methods. Interlinear transla- tions. Grammatical and logical analy- sis. Other exercises. Use of Reading- books. System in the London Univer- sity. 7 List of various helps in the study of Greek. 8 Plan to be pursued in the present view of Greek literature. 9 Six periods in Grecian political his- tory, very conveniently applied to the history of literature. 10 The several" departments or classes of writers to be noticed. /. Poetry, p. 160—204. §§ 11—81. 11 Subjects of earliest Greek poetry. 12 Poetry first cultivat- ed in the northern provinces of Greece. 13 Poetry originally connected with music among the Greeks. References on the origin and progress of Greek poetry. 14 Kinds or varieties of Gre- cian poetry. 15 Sacred. 16 The Si- byls 17-20 Epic. 21 The Cyclic poets. The Homeridae. Iliac Table. 22-26 Lnjric poetry. 27 The Scolion. 28, 29 Elegiac. 30 Bucolic or pastoral. 31. 32 Didactic. 33 Erotic. 34 The epigram. 35 Anthologies. 36 Dramatic poetry, including (37-40) Tragedy, (41-43) Comedy, and (44) Satyre. 45 Diiferent forms of Satire. 46 Farces. Mimes. 47 References to works treating of the Greek poets generally. 48 Orpheus. C 49 M usee us. 50 Homer. 51 Hesiod. 52 Archilochus. 53 Tyrtaeus. 54 Sap- pho. 55 Solon. 56 Theognis. 57 Pho- cylides. 58 Pythagoras. 59 Anacre- on. 60 Pindar. 61 JEschylus. 62 Sophocles. 63 Euripides. 64 Empe- docles. 65 Aristophanes. 66 Menan- der. 67 Lycophron. 68 Theocritus. 69 Bion; Moschus. 70 Callimachus. 71 Aratus. 72 Cleanthes. 73 Apol- lonius Rhodius. 74 Nicander. 75 Op- pian. 76 Nonnus. 77 Coluthus. 78 Quint us Smijruaus or Calaber. 79 Try- phiodorus. 80 Theodoras Prodromus. 81 Tzetzes. II. Orators p. 204—213. §§ 82-107. 82 Oratory as an art not known in the heroic ages. 83 Elo- . quence much practiced after time of So- lon. 84 History of Grecian eloquence short. 85 Chiefly confined to Athens. 86 Three aspects in three different eras. 87, 88 Era of Themistocles. 89—91 Era of Pericles. 92—94 Era of De- mosthenes. 95 — 97 Subsequent decline. School of Rhodes. 98 Three branches ofancient orator}'. 99 References to works illustrating the Greekorators col- lectively. 100 Antiphon. 101 Ando- cides. "102 Lysias. 103 Isocrates. 104 Isaeus. 105 Lycurgus. 106 Demosthe- nes. 107 iEschines. III. Sophists and Rhetoricians. p. 213—222. §§ 108—128. 108 Description of the Sophists. Their performances. 110 Names of some of the more eminent in different periods. Ill Distinction be- tween Sophists and Rhetoricians. 112 Rhetoricians in different periods. 113 General references. 114 Gorgias. 115 Aristotle. 116 Demetrius Phalereus. 117 Dionysius Halicarnasseus. 118 Dion Chrysostoinus. 119 Herodes At- ticus. 120 ./Elius Arisiides. 121 Lu- cian. 122 Hermogenes. 123 Athe- nseus. 124 Longinus. 125 Themisti- U6. 126 Himerius. 127 Julian the Apostate. 128 Libanius. IV. Grammarians, p. 222 — 227. §§ 129—147. 129 Time when writ- ers of this class first flourished; place. 130 Their various performances. 131 Someof the most distinguished before the time of Constantine. 132 Gram- marians at Constantinople. 133 Gene- ral references. 134 Hephaestion. 135 Apollonius Dyscolus. 136 ./Elius He- xu CONTENTS. rodianus. 137 Julius Pollux. 138 JB li- tis Moris, 139 Harpocration. 110 He- j ii mis. Ill Ammonias.. 142 Photius. 1 13 Suidas. M4 Etymologicum Mag- num. 115 Eustaihius. 14G Gregorius Paid as, or Corjnthius, 147 Thomas Magister. V. Writers of Epistles and Roman- ces, p. 2-28—233. §§ 148— 1G5. 148 Extant letters as- cribed to ancients, in part spurious. 14!) Romances unknown in best periods of Greek literature; reason. 150 Ero- tic and Milesian tales. Imaginary voy- ages. 151 Some of the authors of Ro- mances. 152 References on the writers of this division. 153 Anacharsis. 154 Phalaris. 155 Themistocles. 156 So- crates. 157 Chion. 158 Aristaenetus. 159 Alciphron. 160 Heliodorus. 161 Achilles Tatius. 162 Longus. 163 Xenophon of Ephesus. 164 Chariton. 165 Eumathius, VI. Philosophers, p. 333—250. §§ 166—201. 166 The poets of Greece her first philosophers, 167 The next her priests and legislators. Subjects of speculation in the early religious philos- ophy. Political philosophy. Seven Sa- ges. 168 Origin of schools in philoso- phy. The earliest of celebrity. 169 The Ionic. 170 The Italic. 171 The Socratic. 172 Sects derived from the Socratic. Three Minor. Cyrenaic. Megaric. Eliac. 173 Four Major. Cynic. 174 Stoic. 175 Academic. 176 Peripatetic. • 177 Sects derived ' from the Italic. Elealic ; Heraclitean. 178 Epicurean. 179 Sceptic. 180 Pe- riods of Greek literature in which the several sects arose. Grecian philoso- phy after the Roman supremacy. 181 The New Platonists. Eclectics. 182 Christian philosophy. Peripatetic phi- losophy after time of Constantine. Its propagation in western Europe. 183 References to sources of information on the Greek philosophy, 184 iEsop. 185 Ocellus Lucanus. 186^ Xenophon the Athenian. 187 iEschines, the phi- losopher. 188 Cebes. 189 Plato. 190 Timaeus of Locri. 191 Aristotle. 192 Theophrastus. 193 Epictetus. 194Arri- an. 195 Plutarch. 196 Marcus Anto- ninus. 197 Sectus Empiricus. 198 Plotinus. 199 Porphyry. 200 Jam- blichus, 201 Stobaeus. VII. Mathematicians and Geogra- phers, p. 251—259. §§ 202-220. 202 Mathematics re- duced to scientific form by Greeks, but derived from other nations. 203 The foundation for philosophy. Views of Plato. 204, 205 State of Greek mathe- matics in different periods. 206,. 207 Degree of knowledge among the Greeks respecting Geography. 203 General references. 209 Euclid. 210 Archime- des. 211 Apollonius Pergaeus. 212 Pappus. 213Diophantus. 214 Hanno. 215 Eratosthenes. 216 Strabo. 217 Dionysius Periegetes. 218 Claudius Ptolemy. 219 Pausanias. 220 Stepha- nus of Byzantium. VIII. Mijlhographcrs. p. 252—261. §§ 221—231. 221 Principal sources whence the traditionary fables of the Greeks may be learned. 222 Palae- phatus. 223 Heraclitus. 224 Apollo- dorus. 225 Conon. 226 Parthenius. 227 Phurnutus or Cornutus. 228 He- phaestion. 229 Antoninus Liberalis. 230 Sallustius, the Platonis£ IX. Historians, p. 262—276. §§231—290. 231 Earliest history in a poetical form. Earliest writers of history in prose. 232 The composi- tions styled logographies. 233 The dis- tinguished historians in the brilliant pe- riod of Greek literature. 234 Writers on Attic history. 235, 236 Chief histo- rians between Alexander and the Ro- man supremacy. 237, 238 Principal writers during the next period until time of Constantine. 239 Historical authors after time of Constantine. The Byzantine Historians. 240 Herodo- tus. 241 Thuevdides. 242 Xenophon. 243 Ctesias. 244 Polybius. 245 Dio- dorus Siculus. 246 Dionysius Haly- carnasseus. 247 Flavius Josephus. 248 Plutarch. 249 Arrian. 250 Ap- pian. 252 JElian. 253 Herodian. 254 Philostratus. Eunapius. Grecian biography. 255 Zosimus. 356 Proco- pius. 257 Agathias. 258 Zonaras. 259 Dares Phrygius. Dictys Creten- sis. 250 Eichorn's collection from Greek Historians. X. Writers on Medicine and Natu- ral History, p. 276—292. §§ 261—277. 261 Greeks less emi- nent in these sciences. iEsculapius and his descendants. Hippocrates the first author. 262 The Dogmatic school. 263 Dissections. Empiric school. Me- dicine first practiced at Rome by Greek slaves. 264 The Methodic school. The Eclectic school. Character and influ- CONTENTS. xni enee of Galen. 265 State of medicine after time of Constantine. 206 Phys- ics included under studies of the philos- ophers. 2G7 Aristotle founder of Zo- ology; Theophrastus, of Mineralogy and Botany. Cabinets of the Ptolemies at Alexandria. Chief writers before the time of Constantine. 268 State of natural science under the emperors of Constantinople. 209 Collections of Greek writers on medicine and physics. 270 Hippocrates. 271 Dioscorides. 272 Aretams. 273 Galen. 274 Aristotle. 275 Theophrastus. 27G Antigonus of Carystus. 277 ./Elian. Apollonius Dyscolus. Notice of the Hebrew-Grecian and Christian writings, p. 282 — 289. §§ 278—292. 278 The Sepluagint. 279 The Apocrypha. 280 Works from Christian authors. 281, 282 Books of the New Testament. Their moral au- thority. Their literary influence. 283 Works of the Apostolical Fathers. 281 Spurious or Apocryphal writings. 285 Opinions of early Christians respecting human learning. Christian semina- ries. Philosophy adopted by the Fa- thers. 28G Biblical writings. Versions of Bible; Origen's Hexapla. Harmo- nies. Commentaries. 287 Controver- sial writings. Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Tatian, Athenagoras. 288 Historical writings. Eusebius. 289 Doctrinal. Origen. Athanasius. 290 Homileti- cal. Character of the ancient homily. Few remains of early Sacred oratory. 291 Homilies of Origen. 292 Distin- guished Christian orators just after the time of Constantine ; Basil, Gregory, and Chrysostom. References to works giving information respecting the Fa- thers, Roman Literature. (Translated by Rev. C. P. Crus6 ; ex- planation given p. 290.) Preliminary, p. 291— 29G. §§ 593—296. 293 Comparative rank of the Greeks and Romans. 291 Utility of an acquaintance with the Roman language and authors. Distinction be- tween Latin and Roman tongues. 295 The periods in the history of Roman literature : four ages. 296 Methods of study, and accompanying exercises. Pronunciation. Books serving as helps, of various classes. /. Poets, p. 296—304. §§ 297—337. 297 The most flourish- ing period of Roman poetry. 298 Li- vius Andronicus. 299 Nsevius. 300 Ennius. 301 Plautus. 302 Pacuvius. 303 Accius. or Attius. 304 Terence. 305 Lucilius. 306 Lucretius. 307 Ca- tullus. 308 Tibullus. 309 Propertius. 310 Cornelius Gall us. 311 Virgil. 312 Horace. 313 Ovid. 314 Cornelius Severus. 315 Pedo Albinovanus. 316 Gratius Faliscus. 317 Publius Syrus. 318 Manilius. 319 Germanicns. 320 Phaedrus. 321 Persius. 322 L. An- "naeus Seneca. 323 Lucan. 324 Va- lerius Flaccus. 325 Silius Italicus. 326 Statius. 327 Martial. 328 Juve- nal. 329 Avienus. 330 Dionysius Cato. 331 Nemesian. 332 Calpurnius. 333 Ausonius. 334 Claudian. 335 Pru- drntius. 336 Sedulius. 337 Rutilius Numantianus. II. Orators and, Epistolary writers. p. 305—303. §§ 338—347. 338 First teachers of eloquence at Rome. Distinguished or- ators. 339 Cicero. 340 Pliny the se- cond. 341 Gluintilian. 342' Of the Panegyrists. 343 Cicero's Epistles. 311 Pliny's Letters. 315 Seneca. 346 Symmachus. 317 Sidonius Apollina- ris. III. Grammarians and Rhetoricians. p. 303—311. §§318-363. 318,319 Their charac- ter and method of instruction. 350 Varro. 351 Cicero's rhetorical works. 352 Asconius Pedianus. 353 Seneca. 354 Quintilian. 355 Aulus Gellius. 356 Censorinus. 357 Nonius. Marcel- lus. 358 Festus. Verrius Flaccus. Paulus Diaconus. 359 Macrobius. 360 yElius Donatus. 361 Priscian. 362 Diomedes. 363 Charisius. IV. Philosophers, p. 311-313. §§ 3G1— 370. 364 Philosophy intro- duced into Rome from Athens. Old Ac- ademics and Epicureans the most flour- ishing sects. 365 Cicero, as a philoso- pher. 366 Seneca. 3G7 Pliny the el- der. 368 Lucius Apuleius. 369 T. Petronius Arbiter. 370 Marcianus Ca- pella. V. Mathematicians, Geographers and Economists, p. 314 — 316. §6 371—383. 371 Mathematics among XIV CONTENTS. the Romans chiefly applied to architec- ture and the military art. Attention to science'of agriculture. 370 Vitruvius. 373 Sexuis Julias Frontinus. 374 Ve- getius. 375 Julius Firmicus. 376 Pom- pouius Mela. 378 Vibius Sequester. 379 M: Porcius Cato. 380 Varro. 381 Columella. 382 Palladium 383 Cceli- us Apicius. VI. Mycologists, p. 316—317. §§ 384—388. 384 Correspondence be- tween the Greek and Roman mythology. 385 Hyginus. 386 Fulgentius. 387 Lactantius. 388 Albrieus. VII. Historians, p. 317—331. §§389—407. 389 Awnals the first his- torical works among the Romans. Lost writings. 390 Julius Caesar. 391 Sal- lust. 392 Cornelius Nepos. 393 Livy. 394 Velleius Paterculus. 395 Valeri- us Maximus. 390 Tacitus. 397 a. Curtius Rufus. 398 Floras. 399 Su- etonius. 400 Justin. 401 Sextus Au- relius Victor. 402 Flayius Eutropius. 403 AmmianusMarcellinus. 404 JEAi- us Spartianus. 405 Julius Capitolinus. 406 Trebellius Pollio. 407 Flavius Vopiscus. Writers of the imperial His- tory. VIII. Physicians, p. 321,322. §§ 408—412. 408 Medicine general- ly practiced by slaves. 409 Aulus Cor- nelius Celsus. 410 Sarbonius Largus. 411 Q,. Serenus Sammonicus. 412 Marcellus Empiricus, Note. p. 322—324. The principal editions of the classics in sets. PART III.— Mythology of the Greeks and Romans. Introduction, p. 327 — 335. §§ 1 — 12. 1 Circumstances calculat- ed to give a fabulous character to early traditions. 2 Mythology in the Greek, and in the modern sense of the term. 3 Different points of view in contem- plating mythological fables. 4 Chan- ges and additions in mythological sto- ries. 5 Different sources of mytholog- ical fabrications. 6 Advantages of an acquaintance with mythology. 7 East- ern origin of the Grecian deities. 8 The Roman gods borrowed from the Greeks. 9 The Greek and Roman sys- tem of classifying their gods. 10 The four classes, under which they are ar- ranged in this work. 11 The notions of deity entertained by the Greeks and Romans. 12 References to works treat- ing on the subject. I. Mythological history of the Supe- rior Gods. §§ 13—67. 13 Gods included in this class. 14-17 Saturn. 18 Janus. 19-21 Cybele or Rhea. 22-25 Jupiter. 26-28 Juno. 29-31 Neptune. 32-34 Pluto. 35-37 Apollo. 38-40 Diana. 41-43 Minerva. 44-46 Mars. 47-50 Venus. 51-53 Vulcan. 54-56 Mercury. 57-60 Bacchus. 61-64 Ceres. 65-67 Vesta. II. Mythological History of the Infe- rior Gods. §§ 68—96. 68 Gods included in this class. 69, 70 Coelus. 71, 72 Sol or Helius. 73 Luna. 74, 75 Aurora. 76 Nox. 77 Iris. 78 ,Eolus. 79, 80 Pan. 81, 82 Latona. 83 Themis. 84 jEscu- lapius. 85 Plutus. 86 Fortune. 87 Fame. 88 Terminus. Priapus. 89 Vertumnus. 90 Flora. 91 Feronia. 92 Pales. 93 Gods presiding oyer va- rious conditions or pursuits of men. 94 Deified Roman emperors. 95 Virtues and Vices. 96 Egyptian deities wor- shiped among the Romans. III. Mythical Beings, whose history is intimately connected with that of the gods. p. 370—379. 6§ 97—117. 97 Titans. 98 Giants. 99 Tritons. 100 Sirens. 101 Nymphs. 102, 103 Muses. 104 Graces. 105 Hours. 106 Fates. 107 Furies. 108 Harpies. 109 Daemons. 110 Manes. Ill Lares. 112 Penates. 113 Sleep, Dreams, and Death. 114 Satyrs and Fauns. 115 Gorgons. 116 Amazons. 117 Minotaur, Chimaera, and various other monsters. IV. Mythical History of Heroes, p. 379-386. F §§ 118—133. 118 Three periods of Grecian story. 119 General cause of the deification of heroes. 120 Two classes of venerated heroes. 121 Ina- chus, Ogyges, Cecrops, and several others, honored specially among their CONTENTS. XV own people. 122 Perseus. 123, 124 Hercules. 125, 126 Theseus. 127, 128 Jason and the Argonauts. 129 Castor and Pollux. 130 Heroes of the Theban war. 131 Pelops and his descendants. 132 Heroes of the Trojan war. 133 Deified Roman emperors. PART IV. — Greek and Roman Antiquities. Grecian Antiquities. Intro Auction, p. 389 — 394. §§ 1 — 14. 1 Origin of the name Graecia. 2 Countries included under it. 3 Most important Grecian cities. 4 Political changes. 5 First inhabi- tants. 6 Their early intercourse. 7 Ear- ly forms of government. 8 The Spar- tan system. 9 Athens. 10 Causes of Grecian improvement. 11 Utility of study of antiquities, and of Grecian iu particular. 12 Original sources of knowledge on the subject. 13 Referen- ces to authors. 14 Defects in the com- mon treatises on Greek antiquities. Early and later ages distinct. /. Of the Earlier and less cultivat- ed Ages, p. 395--414. § 15 The period included. Subject divided into four branches. (1) Religious Affairs. §§ 1C— 432. 16 First traces of the religion of the Greeks. 17 Form and mode of religious instruction. 18 In- fluence of the poets. 19 Number and character of the gods. 20 Temples and sacred places. 21 Images and statues. 22 Priests and Priestesses. 23 Rites; ablutions. 24 Prayers. 25 Sacrifices; the materials. 26 Altars. 27 Sacrifi- ces; the ceremonies. 28 Gifts and of- ferings. 29 Worship rendered to he- roes. 30 Funeral solemnities. 31 Burn- ing of corpse; monuments. 32 Ora- cles and divination. (2) Civil Affairs. §§33-41. 33 Early rudeness. 34 Power of the kings. 35 Their retinue and councillors. 36 Courts of justice. 37 Laws and punishments. 38 The Cretan laws. 39 Successive forms of government at Athens. 40 At Sparta. 41 Commerce and Navigation. (3) Military Affairs. §§42 — 51. 42 Early Greeks warlike. 43 Their armies, how composed. 44 Weapons ; Defensive. 45 Offensive. 46 The materials of which made. 17 War-galleys. 48 Camps. 49 Order of Battle. 50 Division of spoils. Barba- rous stripping of the slain. Combat of chiefs. 51 Treaties. (4) Domestic Affairs. §§ 52—63. 52 Common food. Daily meals. 53 Social repasts. 54 Dress. 55 Practice of bathing. Cultivation of the Hair. 56 Houses. 57 Hospital- ity. 58 Employments; agriculture; hunting. 59 Employments of women. 60 Amusements. 61 Marriage. 62 Ed- ucation of children. 63 Slaves. II. Of the Later and more flourishing Ages. p. 414—480. (1) Religious Affairs. §§ 64-90. 64 Number of gods in- creased. 65 Temples more splendid. 66 Sacred groves. Asyla. 67 Classes of priests. Purification. 68 Sacrifices and attendant ceremonies. 69 Oaths. 70 Oracles. Imposture at Argos. 71 Oracles of Jupiter; at Dodona; in Crete; African desert. 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi. 74 Of Trophonius ; and oth- ers. 75 Arts and methods of divina- tion. 76, 77 Festivals; notice of the principal. 78 Games. 79 The race. 80 Leaping. 81 Wrestling. 82 The discus. 83 Boxing. 84 Four sacred games. Olympic. 85 Pythian. 86 Ne- mean. 87 Isthmian. 88 System of athletics. 89 Theatres, and dramatic representations. 90 Chorus. Theoric money at Athens. (2) Civil Affairs. §§ 91-131. 91 Athens and Sparta distinguished by peculiarities. 92 Dra- co and Solon at Athens. 93 The tribes and classes at Athens. 91 Pisistratus, and his sons. 95 The thirty tyrants. Form of government after them until death of Alexander. 96 Buildings of Athens. 97 The free citizens of Athens. 98 The foreign residents. 99 The slaves. 100 The Archons. 102 The Eleven. Oiators. Ambassadors. Notaries. 103 Athenian revenues. 104 Officers of the revenue and treasury. 105 Amphictyonic council. 106 As- semblies of the people. 107 Athenian senate. 108 Areopagus. 109 Athenian XVI CONTENTS. courts of justice. TheEphette. 110 The Helia-a. HI The -10. The Diactetae. 113 Different kinds of actions. 113 Punishments. 1 1 1 The Ostracism. 115 Modes of inflicting death. 110 Public rewards ami honors. 117 Attic laws. 118 Natural situation of Sparta. 119 Spartan tribes. 120 Treatment of chil- dren at Sparta. 121 Spartan slaves. 1-2-3 The kings of Sparta. 123 The senate. Ephori. 121 Nomophulakes .mil other magistrates. 125 Assemblies of the people. 120 Public repasts. 127 Judicial affairs. 128 Punishments. 129 Laws of Sparta. 130 Cretan constitu- tion. 131 Cretan laws; public meals; slaves. 132 Constitution of Thebes. 133 Constitutions of Corinth and Syra- cuse. 134. Of Argos ; of iEtolia and Achaia. (3) Military Affairs. §§ 135-1G0. 135 The warlike char- acter retained; especially by the Spar- tans. 130 Persons liable to military duty. Their support. 137 Classes of troops. The infantry. 138 Cavalry, Use of elephants, 139 Armor. 140 Various officers. 141 The divisions of the army. 142 Forms of battle array. Manoeuvres. 143 Declaration of war. Treaties. 144 Camps. 145 Standards and ensigns. Signals for battle. 146 Art of besieging. 147 Military engines. 143 Defence of cities. 149 Treatment of captured places. 150 Division of spoils. 151 Military rewards and pun- ishments. 152 Means of conveying in- telligence. 153 Crossing of rivers. 154, 155 Ships, Names of their principal parts. Vessels of war. 156 Rowers, sailors and marines. 157 Instruments employed in naval battle. 158 Naval officers. 159 Manner of naval battle. 160 Naval victories and monuments. Naval punishments. (4) Affairs of Private Life. §§101—187. 161 Food. Use of wines. 162 The different meals. Manner of spending the day at Athens. 163 En- tertainments or feasts. 104 Customs at table. 165 Substances eaten at the prin- cipal meal. 100 Officers and attendants at an entertainment. 167 Customs in drinking. Amusements accompanying a feast. 163 Customs of hospitality. Officers called Proxeni. 169 Dress, for the body, head, and feet. Use of silk. 170 Bathing and anointing. 171 Houses. 172 Commerce. 173- 175 Grecian money and coins. 176 Ratio of gold and sil- ver. Greek systems of notation. 177 Grecian weights. 178, 179 Measures. 180 Social amusements. Music and musical instruments. 181 Condition of females. 182-184 Laws and customs respecting marriage. 185, 186 Funeral rites. 187 Monuments to the dead. Anniversaries held in their honor with orations and games. Roman Antiquities. Introduction, p. 481 — 486. §9 183-198. 188 Origin of Rome. 189 Principal events which affected the appearance of the city. Comparative splendor of ancient and modern Rome. 190 Population of Rome. 191 Extent of the Roman empire. 192 Proportion of soldiers and othercitizens. 193 The time of the regal government. 194 Most brilliant era of Roman history. 195 Condition under the emperors. 196 Utility of studying Roman antiquities. 197 Original sources of information on the subject. References to modern works and authors. 198 Division of the subject. (1) Religious Affairs, p. 487—508. §§ 199-240. 199 Use of the term re- ligio. 200 Origin of the religion of the Romans. 201 Its connection with poli- tics. 202 Design of Romulus and Nu- ma. Gods of the Romans. 203 Tem- ples. 204 Statues and offerings. Groves. 205 Altars." 206 Vessels employed in sacrifices. 207 Several orders of priests. 203 Pontifices. 209 Augurs. Various methods of augury. 210 Haruspices. 211 Epulones. 212 Feciales. 213 Rex sacrorum. 214 Flamines. 215 Salii. 216 Luperci. 217 Galli and others. 218 Vestal virgins. 219 Fratres Arva- les, Curiones and others. 220 Customs in offering prayers. 221, 222 Sacrifices and attendant rites. 223 Vows. 224 Dedication of sacred buildings. Expia- tions. The lustrum. Oaths. 226 Or- acles. 227 Lots. 228 Divisions of time. 229,230 Festivals. 231 Public games. 232 Ludi circenses. Nauma- chia. 234 Ludi sseculares. 235 Ludi gladialorii. 236 Ludi florales, 237 Ludi Megalenses, Cereales, and others. 238 Theatres and amphitheatres. 239 Dra- matic entertainments. Tragedy. Co- medy. 240 Atellanas and mimes. (2) Civil Affairs, p. 509—531. §§ 241—274. 241 Regal government. CONTENTS. XV11 249 Consuls. 243 Praetors. 24-4 JEdi- les. 245 Tribunes. 246 Gluaestors. 247 Censors. 248 Dictator. 249 Decem- viri. Prsefects. Interrex. 250 Procon- suls, and other provincial magistrates. 251 Tribes. 252 Six classes of citizens. Centuiies. 253 Patricians and plebei- ans. 254 The senate. 255 The equi- tes or knights. 256 The populace. Patrons and clients. 257 Roman no- bility. Right of images. 258, 259 The Comitia. 260 Right of citizenship. Gov- ernment of conquered cities and na- tions. 261 Judicial proceedings. Pub- lic actions and trials. 262 Private ac- tions. 263 Penal offences. 264 Pun- ishments. 265 System of laws. Body of Roman civil law. 266 Regulations respecting grain. 267 Revenue. 268 Commerce. Mechanic arts. 269 Agri- culture. 270 Money. Coins. 271 Sys- tem of reckoning and notation. 272 Modes of acquiring property. 273 Auctions. Confiscation. 274 Measures of extent and capacity. Modes of de- termining the Roman foot. (3) Affairs of War. p. 531—550. §§ 275-309. 275 Authorities on the subject. 276 Military establishment of the kings, 277 Persons liable to duly. Time of service. 278 Consular arfhv. Exempts. 279 System of levy. 280 Classes qf troops. 281 Subdivision into maniples &c. 282 Standards. Music. 283 Weapons. 284 Wages. Rewards. 285 Punishments. 286 Order of battle. 287 Modes of attack. 288 Light troops. 289, 290 Cavalry. 291 Cohorts. 292 Auxiliaries. 293 Attendants upon the army. 294 Order of march. 295 Forms of array. 296, 297 Camps. 298 Watches. Exercises of soldiers. 299 Sieges. Engines. 300 Mounds and towers. 301 Battering ram and other engines. 302 Modes of defence in a siege. 303 The fleets. 304 Method of naval battle. Construction and parts of Roman ships. 305 Rewards of generals. 306 Laws on the subject. 307 The triumph. 308 The ovation. 309 Mili- tary system under the emperors. (4) Affairs of Private Life. p. 550-570. §§ 310-343. 310 The free-bom and the free-made discriminated. 311 Sys- tem of applying proper names. 312 Regulations respecting marriage. 313 Marriage contracts. 315 Nupiial cere- monies. 316 Divorces. 317 The right and power of the father over his chil- dren. 318 Emancipation of sons. 319 Adoption. 320 Legitimation. 321 Edu- cation of youth. 322 Slaves. 323 Slave trade. 324 Emancipation of slaves. 325 Dwellings. Glass making. 326 Parts of a Roman house. Country seats. 327 Manner of life. Morals. 328 Daily routine of employment. 329 Food and meals. Furniture for eating. 330 Dif- ferent courses at supper. 331 Drinking and games at banquets. Dice. Wines. 332 Dress. The toga. 333 The tunic. Badges. 334 The stola and other gar- ments of women. 335 Various outer garments. Use of silk. 336 Coverings for the head and feet. 337, 338 Dress of the hair. Personal ornaments. 339 Funeral customs. Exposure of the corpse. 340 Funeral procession. 341 Burning. Places of burial. Tombs. 342 Mourning for the deceased. Games and sacrifices. 343 Consecration, or dei- fication of deceased emperors. PART V. — Classical Geogra- phy and Chronology. Epitome of Classical Geo- graphy. Introduction, p. 573, 571. §§ 1-5. 1-3 Portion of earth known to ancients. 4, 5 Ancient divisions. I. Of Europe, p. 574—614. §§ 6-148. 6, 7 Extent and boundaries. 8 General subdivisions. 9-15 Northern countries of Europe ; Scandinavia, Sar- matia, Germania, &c. 16-26 Middle countries of Europe; Gallia, Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyricum, Moesia, Dacia. 27-129 Southern countries of Europe. 27-31 Hispania. 32-50 Ita- lia. 51-71 Topography of Rome. 51,52 Gates and roads. 53 Bridges and hills. 54 Districts. References to writers on the topography of the city. 55 Campi. 56 Streets. 57 Fora. 58-60 Temples and groves. 61-63 Curiae, basilicae, circuses, theatres &c. 61 Baths. 65-67 Schools, porticos, columns, trophies &c. 68 Aqueducts, sewers. 09 Monuments to the dead. 70 Dwellings. 71 Villas. Suburbs. 72-75 Thracia. 76 Four natural divisions of Graecia. 77-81 Macedonia. 82-68 Thessalia. Epirus. 89-103 Hellas. 104-116 Topography of Athens. 104, 105 Its situation. 106 The Acropolis. 107 Parthenon and other buildings of the citadel. 108, 109 The lower city and its temples. Ill Porches. Odea. Ceramicus. 112, 113 Forums. Aqueducts. Stadium. 114 Areopagus. xvni CONTENTS. Pnvx. 115 Theatres. Ohoragic monu- raents. 116 Harbors. References to writers on the topography of Athens. 117-136 Peloponnesus. L26-129 Topo- graphy of Sparta. 126 Form and situa- lion. 107 Forum. 128 Columns and statues. 100 Hippodrome. Harbor. irences to writers. 130-118 Islands belonging to Europe. 130-136 Britannia and adjoining islands. 137 Balearicae. Corsica and Sardinia. 138-140 Sicilia. 141-142 Ionian islands. 148 Creta. II. Op Asia. p. 614-621. §§ 149-172. 149, 150 Extent and general division of Asia. 151-155 Coun- tries of the Eastern division. Scythia, Since, India, Persia, Media, Parthia. 156-171 Countries of the Western divi- sion. 156 Sarmatia, Colchis, Albania, Iberia. 157 Armenia. 158-165 A«a Minor. 166-169 Syria including Pa- lcestina. 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Assyria. 171, 172 Arabia. Asiatic islands. III. Of Africa, p. 621—625. §§ 173-183. 173 Extent and divisions of Africa. 174-176 Egypt. 177 An- cient ruins and remains of Egypt. Works on the subject. 178 ^Ethiopia. 179 Libya. 180 Africa Propria. 181 Numidia. 182 Mauritania. 183 Africa Interior. Atlantis. Introduction to Classical Chronology. Preliminary Remarks. §184. Importance of the subject. De- sign of the present sketch. Two parts. /. Of measuring time and adjusting its divisions, p. 626 — 631. §§ 185-196. 185 The three natural divisions of time ;day, month, and year. 186, 187 Ancient customs as to begin- ning and dividing the day. 188 Devices for marking and making known the parts of the day. Dial. Clepsydra. 189, 190 The month. The Grecian system. 191 Roman method of reckoning the months, and the days of the month. The week; names of the days. 192 The year. The Grecian ; Roman ; Julian. The Gregorian Calendar. Old and new style. 193 Cycles. 194 The lunar cycle. 195 The solar. 196 The cycle ofindiction. Julian period. //. Of fixing the dates of historical events and arranging them in order. p. 631—645. §§ 197—214. 197 Topics noticed in this part. 198-201 Methods of ascer- taining dates. 1. Successive genera- tions; and successive reigns of kings. 2. Celestial appearances. 3. Coins, in- scriptions &c. 4. Historical testimony. 202, 203 Epochs and eras. Era of Olympiads; of Rome; the Christian; the Mahometan. 204-207 Systems and tables. 204 Claims of the Egyptians and Babylonians. 205 The Hebrew and the Septuagint chronology. New- ton's. Usher's. 206, 207 Various plans for charts. The best. 208-214 Ac- tual dates of most prominent events. 208 Common complaint of students. Reme- dy. 209 Brief outline of general Chro- nology. 210 Systems of artificial me- mory. 211 Chronology of ancient states. Of the eight principal states of Asia. 212 Of the two principal in Africa. 213 Of Greece. 214 Of Rome. PART I. ARC H.iE O L O G Y OF LITERATURE AND ART INTRODUCTION. The origin of human knowledge, and its advancement into the form of sciences and arts. § 1. Man in his first state had the natural capacity for acquiring a great variety of knowledge, by reason of those superior faculties, which distinguished him from irrational animals. But he had then no actual store of innate knowledge and skill. Much Jess had he any comprehension of those rules and precepts, that guide us in the arts and sciences, which are the result of long observation and mature re- flection. All that is known respecting the first state of man is contained in the account given by Moses respecting Adam and Eve, the first human pair, and formed by- direct creation. This account gives but little information as to the degree or the nature of their actual knowledge. But one thing is certain, whatever glosses may be forced upon the Mosaic account of the creation in relation to other things ; Adam was created a man, and not a child, infant or embryo, left to advance to manhood by the gradual steps, which are requisite by what we call the laws of nature in the formation of every other man. It can be little else than a dispute about words to contend, whether he had or had not innate ideas and actual knowl- edge before the first exercises of mind, to which surrounding circumstances gave rise. For these exercises of his mental powers, if truly the exercises of a man, and not of a child, must have been such as, in all other cases but his own, could have arisen only after obtaining previous ideas or actual knowledge to some ex- tent. And the first exercises of his mind, as plainly exhibited in the account of Moses, were such as, in other cases, presuppose a maturity of intellect. It seems an evident conclusion therefore, that Adam either possessed by creation the requi- site knowledge and maturity, or was caused to put forth without it the same ex- ercises as if he had it. On either supposition (if any can adopt the latter) some degree of the knowledge, which is now acquired gradually in the progress from infancy to manhood, came at first directly from God. God implanted it in some way or other ; man did not acquire it by the gradual process, which we now term natural. This knowledge, skill, attainment, intellectual power, or whatever any may choose to call it, was the original stock or germ, from which every subse- quent acquisition sprang. Such a view of the original maturity of the first man by no means supposes Adam to have possessed the extensive knowledge imagined in the fabulous tales of the Jewish Rabbins, or in the descriptions of some theologians. It only repre- sents him as a man literally and truly, instead of a child, a moral and intellectual man, created so at once, not formed a sort of animal in human shape and left to grow into an intelligent being under accidental influences. — See G. C. Knapp, Tr. by L. Woods, N. York, 1831. B. I. P. ii. Art. 6. 4 ARCHEOLOGY OF I.ITKRATURK AND ART. ^ '2. There was a gradual developement of his faculties, through the impulse of his wants, favoured sometimes by accident, and aided by experience and repeated efforts. Thus he acquired a multitude of ideas about himself and the objects of nature around him, which were suc- cessively enriched, corrected, and engraved upon his memory. By degrees meditation led him from the visible to the invisible, and from observing actual operations and appearances he proceeded to conjecture and contemplate secret causes and powers. § 3. By means of language the communication of knowledge became more easy and rapid. Then this knowledge was no longer confined to the isolated observations and partial experience of each individual observer. The ideas of many were collected and combined. The amount of acquisition was increased more and more, as men united themselves in social bonds, and as, in the progress of population and civilization, there was a tendency to the same common aims, and modes of living, and mutual interests. (See remakes under § 12.) § 4. The knowledge of the arts was acquired sooner than that of the sciences, because the wants that gave them birth, were more urgent, and the difficulty of acquiring them was not so great, since they were chiefly the fruit of experience rather than of reflection. And among the arts themselves, the mechanical or those of common life, must, for the same reasons, have appeared first. It was only at a late period, when man began to think on the means of a nobler destiny, and to feel a desire and relish for higher pleasures, that the fine arts took their rise. Necessitatis inventa antiquiora suntquam voluptatis. (Cic.) § 5. We must not imagine the first notions concerning the arts to have constituted any thing like a system reduced to regular form and fixed principles. With regard to the theory, there were at first only discon- nected observations and isolated maxims, the imperfect results of limited experience. As to the practice, there was little but a mechan- ical routine, some process marked out by chance or imperious ne- cessity. The principal object was, the satisfying of wants, the preser- vation of life and the convenience of a social state, which men sought to obtain by reciprocal aid, and by communicating to each other their experience and acquirements. $ 6. Before the great catastrophe of the flood men had already ac- quired much practical knowledge ; such as the first elements of af Cadmus? Or if there was a previous alphabet in Greece, was it given up on the arrival of Cadmus, and the Phoenician adopted in its place 1 It is conjectured by some, that the Pe- lasgi had the Phoenician alphabet from the first, and that Cadmus only introduced anew material for writing. Before him stones and metals were the chief mate- rials. If he introduced the art of writing on the palm-leaf, which was used for the purpose by the Egyptians before the papyrus, it would very naturally be adopted instead of the more difficult and laborious use of metals. And the let- ters traced on the palm-leaf might with propriety be termed yqa^iara onty.tta, the epithet referring not to the form or nature, or origin of the letters (those of Cadmus being the same with those of the Pelasgi), but to the material on which they were written. See Schoell, Hist. Lit. Gr. L. iii. Ch. 3. — Weber, Geschichte der Schreibkunst, Respecting the origin of the Phoenician Alphabet, see Hug, Erfindung der Buchstabenschrift. ' This writer,' says Schoell, ' has shown that the Phoenician letters are hieroglyphic, and the hieroglyphics Egyptian. Aleph signifies ox, and its primitive form resembles the head of that animal. Beth signifies house, and its first form represents an Egyptian house or hut pointed at the top. Gamel (Gimmel) would signify a camel, and this letter was originally the head of the same.' The reader will not fail to perceive, that in each of these the principle of Champollion's system of interpreting the Egyptian hieroglyphics is exaetly ex- emplified. For a comparison of the Greek and Hebrew Alphabets, see Butlman's Gram, by Robinson, p. 459 ; — Stuart's Heb. Gram. p. 385 ;— of the Greek and Phoenician, Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist. B. IV. 82 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. § 40. The alphabet of Cadmus was incomplete, consisting, as is commonly thought, of only sixteen letters, A, B, r> 4, E, J, K, A, M, N, 0, n, P, 2, T, Y. Soon after were added Z, 0, H, and a, and subsequently dfi[iuia. They consisted chiefly in this, that sometimes, and principally in writing proper names, only the initials were employed, or the middle of a word was omitted, and either written over it, or the omission indicated by a small dash, or several letters were combined into a single figure. J. Nicolai, Tractatus de siglis Veterum. Lugd. Bat. 170G.— Corsini, Nota? Graecorum. Flor. 1749. — Placentinii, de siglis Vet. Grsec. Opus. Rom. 1757. — Erk- Jarung einer agyptischen Urkunde aut' Papyrus in griech. Oursivschril't, von A. Bceckk Berl. 1821. On the origin and form of the Greek letters, and the modes of writing, see also Hades, Introd. jn Ling. Gr. §1. — Gqguet, Or. Laws &e. P. ii. B. 2. Ch. 6. § 50. The breathings, as they are now called, were, in the most an- cient writing of the Greeks, characters occupying a place in the line along with the letters. Among the Ionians the character was H, and among the /Kalians it was F, or what is called the Digamma. The 5 84 AKCll.KOl.OOY OF GREEK LITERATURE. former was, joined to the smooth consonants to render them aspirates, as in KHPQ1V02 for A'^oj-o?. Subsequently, two smaller signs were formed out of H by dividing it, F and ^ , and these were used to indi- cate respectively the presence and absence of aspiration. Afterwards they were changed, by transcribers for the sake of convenience, into another form, L and J , and again after the ninth century into a form, ^ and J, still easier for writing. The ancient Greek grammarians sometimes introduced the breathing into the middle of a word, on the ground of its derivation or composition, as, for example, >£g, nlr\- aidloe. This practice Mazochi observed in the Herculanean inscrip- tions, and Villoison also in a valuable manuscript of Homer found in the library of St. Mark at Venice, belonging to the tenth century. See Lemgoisch. Auserles. Bibliothek. V. viii.p. 78.— Knight, Analyt. Ess. on Greek Alphabet. $51. The marks called accents were not commonly used by the Greeks, because the true intonation of the language was sufficiently known to them, and of course such helps were unnecessary. There is, at least, no mention of them in the ancient authors, nor any trace of them in the oldest monuments of Greek writing. But, when in the speech of common life many words received wrong tones, the Grammarians be- gan in such cases to use signs to indicate the correct utterance. About the year 200 B. C. the present accentual system was introduced by Aristophanes of Byzantium ; yet considerable time elapsed before it came into general use. Upon inscriptions belonging to the first cent- ury after Christ, the accents have been found, but rarely. Perhaps these marks were not wholly unknown to the more ancient Greeks, being designed not to point out tones for the reader, but to serve as mu- sical notes for the singer. The accented verse on a wall in Hercnlaneum, adduced by Winckelmann (Works II. p. 124. cf. Pitture ant. d'Ercol. II. p. 34), is not considered genuine. Harles, Int. in Ling. Gr. Supp. I. p. 9. The doctrine of the Greek accents is amply treated by Prof. K. F. Chr. Wag- ner (Helmst. 1807), who refers also to the principal works on the subject. — See Villvison's Anecd. Grac. II. 131.— Harles, Int. in Ling Gr. § 6.— also Index, at word Accents. § 52. Originally, likewise, sentences and their constituent members were not distinguished by any interpunction or intervening signs of separation. Not only were the sentences without punctuation, but the words themselves were often as near each other as the several letters of a single word. Sometimes however on inscriptions the words are separated by points placed between them. The invention of marks for punctuation is to be ascribed to Aristophanes, the Greek grammarian MATERIALS USED IN WRITING. 35 before mentioned. The whole system consisted in the different loca- tions of a point or dot ; which, placed after the last letter at the top or above it (tsUio. aziyfirj), indicated the close of a sentence, or a period; after the last letter of a word at the bottom or under it (tinoojiyftr)) was equivalent to a comma ; and after the last letter in the middle (ffTtyf/tj [tear)) corresponded to a colon or semicolon. The comma or hypodiastole, was by the grammarians often placed between words, which otherwise might be incorrectly divided, as, for example, tanv, agiog, with the sign between that they might not be read e'fftt vd&og ; and the hyphen, a curved stroke under the line, was sometimes used to indicate that two words constituted one compound word, as in %eiQiEioy). This was pointed at one end, and broad at the other for the purpose of erasing letters and smoothing the surface of the wax, if a mistake were made, or the writer for any reason wished an alteration. It was usually made of iron, sometimes of ivory. For drawing the let- ters with colors or some sort of ink, sometimes a pencil was employed, but more commonly a reed (xula/nog, 8al6g), which was ordinarily made of wood, or ivory and had at both ends projecting ornaments, knobs or the like, called dxgofupdha, or xigaja. The title (aiUa^og) was written on the back of the protocol visible after the winding of the roll, or on a small separate strip (nmdxiov) TORM OF BOOKS. COPYISTS. 37 attached to the edge of the roll. The book itself, or whole roll, was encompassed with bands, or enclosed in a case. Heeren and Gibbon allude to a singular manuscript, said to have existed in the library at Constantinople (§ 76); 'an ancient manuscript of Homer, on a roll .of parchment one hundred and twenty feet in length, the intestines, as it was fabled, of a prodigious serpent.'— Gibbon, Dec.aad Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. liii, (N. York, 1822, vol. v. p. 367). § 57. Although the roll was the most common form, yet the Greeks had books of a quadrangular form, with the writing on both sides of the leaves (oniodoyQayoi). Such were termed dslioi, a name first applied to tablets or pieces of writing, resembling in shape the letter Delta. The invention of the quadrangular form is generally ascribed to Attalus king of Pergamus, but came into general use first in the 5th •century after Christ. Several leaves or sheets, folded double, were placed in layers one upon another and joined by thread or strings; and these were said to be tergal dia, quaternary, nevrdSia, quinary, and so on, according to the number. The term rergddia, was also used sometimes to signify whole books of this form. The kind just described was different from the folded tablets, called di- nxvxa, which became specially remarkable in connection with affairs of state. § 58. There were among the Greeks copyists, who made it their business to transcribe books. Those, who had distinguished skill in writing, were called xalliyqdyoi. Those, who applied themselves to take down discourses or addresses, and so made use of notes and abbrevia- tions, were named orj/iEioyQayoi and xaxvyqdcpoi. Such as wrote in golden letters, or ornamented with golden initial letters manuscripts, in which places had been left for that purpose, were termed /ovcroyQu- q>oh Among the later Greeks, transcribers received the Roman ap- pellation of notaries (notarii). In the middle^ ages the w r ork of tran- scribing was especially the employment of ecclesiastics and monks in the convents and abbeys, in which there was usually an apartment expressly fitted for the object, called the scriptorium. Alexandria was the principal resort of the copyists in the later periods of Gre- cian literature. Here the Calligraphi were very numerous even until the irrup- tion of the Arabs. About thirty years before that event the circumstance is men- tioned by an eye-witness ( Theophyl. Simocatta, Hist- viii. 13). — See Hod> ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. by brought into greater intercourse with them. The influence of this intercourse upon the culture of the Romans was favorable, but was not very great until the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241. $ 1 14. The origin of the Latin language cannot be traced to any one primitive tongue, because Italy in the early periods was occupied by so many people, and it is so uncertain which of them were the most ancient. • Among the earliest occupants were no doubt the Celtae or the Pelasgi, who came from Thracia and Arcadia, and seem to have been of the same race as the Aborigines. Grecian colonists subsequent- ly planted themselves in the middle and lower part of Italy, where also as well as in Sicily, Phoenicians and Carthaginians afterwards settled, as likewise did the Gauls in the northern part of the country. The first foundation of the Roman tongue was probably the dialect, which has been termed Ausonian or Oscan (Lingua Osca). Romu- lus was perhaps educated among the Greeks, and seems on this ac- count to have introduced into his city particularly the Grecian lan- guage, while the native tongue, not having fixed rules and analogies of its own, must have been liable to arbitrary changes, and would borrow many peculiarities from other dialects. We find in fact in the deri- vation of many Latin words, and in the general structure of the lan- guage, frequent traces of the Greek, especially the Aeolic dialect. The resemblance between the Greek and Latin alphabets has already been mentioned. During the period preceding the close of the first Punic war, the Roman language was in no settled state. It was necessarily exposed to be a mixture of various idioms, from the diversity of foreigners who composed the early population of Rome. The influence of the Greek upon its formation and improvement, still visible as just suggest- ed, must have been much more manifest during, the earlier periods of the republic; when, for example, the laws of the Twelve Tables, and the hymns of the Salii, or Priests of Mars, were committed to writing ; the latter of which especially became unintelligible to the Romans in the golden age of their literature. Traces of the old forms of the language are found in fragments of the earliest poets, and also in the comedies of Plautus. It was not until the close of the period of which we have spoken, that any attention was paid to the regular settling of the principles and forms of the language, and not until a still later time that any approved author labored upon the cultivation of style. During all this time therefore, the language continued in a changing state. ORIGIN OF LATIN LANGUAGE. 73 ' The population of Italy being composed of various people, there were of course various languages and idioms in the country, as the Ombrian, Etruscan, Sicanian, Latin, and others. The Latin was the primitive language of the peo- ple of Latium, and gradually took the place of all the rest. The ancient inhab- itants of Latium constituted apart of the Aborigines, but this term indicates scarcely more than that their real origin was unknown. They are sometimes also called Ausonians. According to Dionysius Halicarnasseus, they were Ar- cadians. But it is more probable they were Illyrians, or Celtae, or rather a mix- ture of these two races with the Pelasgic colonists. In fact, we may see in the Latin language, two fundamental idioms, the Celtic, and the Greek of the Aeolic and Doric dialects, which nearly resembled the ancient Pelasgic. Every thing in the Latin which is not Greek is from the Celtae, and especially the Ombri. Dionysius therefore had reason for his remark that the ancient idiom of Rome was neither entirely Greek nor entirely barbarian. As Latium contained anci- ently several independent tribes, there were several dialects, among them those of the Osci, the Volsci, the Latini, and the Samnites. All these dialects gradu- ally disappeared, and were sunk in the Roman language, as the Romans became masters of Italy. The use of it was regarded as an acknowledgement of their su - premacy, and when the allies made an attempt to throw off the Roman yoke, they resumed their primitive languages on the money they stamped. The Julian law, passed shortly after, B. C. about 90, bestowing upon these states the rights of Ro- man citizenship, struck a mortal blow at all these idioms, as it forever banished them from public transactions. The Etruscan alone survived for any considera- ble time, being favored on account of the religious respect always affected by the Roman government towards the rites of the Tuscans.' Schoell. Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 37. There are still extant some monuments of the language during the period pre- ceding the first Punic war. The earliest specimen is supposed to be as ancient as the time of Romulus. It is the hymn chanted by the Fratres Arvales. It is given by Dunlop as follows, with an English stanza conveying ' a general notion of the import:' Enos Lases juvate Ye Lares, aid us! Mars thou God of Might ! Neveluerve Marmar sinis incurrer in pleoris, From murrain shield the flocks, the flowers from blight, Satur fufere Mars : limen sali sta berber : For thee, O Mars I a feast shall be prepared ; Semones alternei advocapit cunctos, Salt, and a wether fr >m the herd : Enos Marmor juvate, Invite by turn, each Demigod of Spring ; Triumpe, Triumpe. Great Mars, assist us I Triumph! Triumph sing! The interpretation is given in Latin by Hermann as follows; Nos, Lares, ju- vate, neve luem, Mamuri, {name of Mars) sinis incurrere in plures. Satur fue- ris, Mars : limen (postremum) sali, sta, vervex : Semones alterni, jam duo capit cunctus. Nos Mamuri juvato. Triumpe ! Triumpe !— Others interpret it some- what differently. See Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 41.— Schoell. Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 41.— Eustace, Class. Tour in Italy, vol. iii. p. 416.— Comp. Hermann, Elem. Doct. Metric. L.III. C. ix. 6. The next specimens belong to the time of Numa, and consist in the remains of the Carmen Saliare, and of the Laws of Numa. Of the former, which was the hymn sung by the Salic priests appointed under Numa to guard the Sacred Shields, there remain only a few words, cited by Varro (De Ling. Lat. L. vi. 1, 3). Of the latter, some fragments are preserved by Festus. The following is an example ; Sei cuips hemonem loebesom dolo sciens mortei duit pariceidad estod sei im imprudensse dolo malod oceisit pro capited oceisei et nateis eiius endo concioned arietem subicitod : interpreted thus; Si quis hominem liberum dolo sciens morti dederit, parricida esto: Si eum imprudens, sine dolo malo, Occide- nt, procapite occisiet natis ejus in cone ion em arietem subjicito. — Festus- has pre- served also a law ascribed to Servius Tullius, fifth King of Rome. After the fragments of the Regal Laws, we have no monument of the language until we come to the Laws of the twelve Tables, B. C. 450. It may be doubted whether the genuine original reading has been preserved invariably in the frag- ments, which are now extant. For specimens, see Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 45. The only additional monuments of the Language in the period now spoken of are the Duillian and Scipian Inscriptions, which will be mentioned on a subse- quent page (§ 133) On the origin and progress of the Latin language, see Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 42 —Schoell, 10 74 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. Hist Lilt. Horn. Int. p, (6, 8B.— Nicbiilir's Rom. Hist. Camb. trans. Vol. I.— Fimccjws, De Ovigine Lat. Ling. Tractatus. Gtessae, 1720.— De PuerltlaL. L. Tract. Marb. 17S0.— De Adolescentia L. L. Tract Hub. 1798. Thesa works are separate parts of a History of Latin Literature, by J. N. Funck,.of Rinteln, published between 1720 and 1750, In 8 vols. 4. The other parts are De Virili aetate L. L. Tract. Marb. 1727, 1730. 2 vols. De imminente L. L. Soneclute Tract. Marb. 1736. De vegeta L. L. Sencrtute, Marb. 1741. De Inert! acdecrepita L. L. Senectute Commentarlus, Lemgov. 1759. II. — Of the Alphabet, Writing and Books. § 115. Ancient Grammarians do not altogether agree concerning the nature and number of the original Latin or Roman letters. Marius Victorious mentions the following, A, B, C, D, E, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q., R, S, T, 16 in number. Of these, Q, is not found in the Greek alphabet, but corresponds to the Gieek xonna (§46) : C was sometimes equivalent to it. V, used both as a consonant and as a vowel, was sub- sequently added ; originally I or O was used instead of V as a vowel, and instead of B as a consonant the Aeolic Digamma F was employed. It was in this way that F obtained its place as a letter. H, G, X, Y, Z, were also added to the alphabet at a later period. Comp. Tac. Ann. xi. 14. —On the whole subject of the Roman alphabet, see Port Royal Latin Grammar, B. ix. § 116. The ancient orthography differed from that of later times, from the fact that the pronunciation was much changed. To see this clearly, it will only be necessary to compare with the modern ortho- graphy, the original of a passage in a decree of the senate respecting the Bacchanales, (§133) which is one of the most ancient monuments of Roman writing, about 186 B.C. The passage in the original form is as follows ; NEVE. POSTHAC. INTER. SED. CONIO VRASE. NEVE. COMVOVISE. NEVE. CONSPONDISE. NEVE. CON- PROMESISE. VELET. NEVE. aVISQVAM. FIDEM. INTER. SED. DEDISE. VELET. SACRA. IN. OQVOLTOD. NE. GIVIS- aVAM. FECISE. VELET. NEVE. IN. POPLICOD. NEVE. IN. PREIVATOD. NEVE. EXTRAD. VRBEM. SACRA. QVIS- QV AM. FECISE. VELET. In the later orthography, as follows ; Neve posthac inter se conjurasse, neve convovisse, neve conspondisse, neve compromisisse vellet, neve quisquam fidem inter se dedisse vellet sacra in occulto ne quisquam fecisse vellet, neve in publico, neve in privato, neve extra urbem sacra quisquam fecisse vellet. Respecting this decree, see Livy xxxix, 18.— Schoell. Hist. Lilt. Rom. Int. p. 52. Cf. §133. 3. — On the various changes in orthography, see Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. I. p. 48. — Port Royal Lat. Gram. B. ix. — Fwiccius de Pueritia Ling. Lat. c. 5. and de Adolescentia Ling. Lat. c. 7.- Terrascm, Hist, de la Jurisprudence Rom. p. I. METHOD OF WRITING. BOOKS. 75 $ 117. Not only in ancient times, but even in the later and most flourishing period of their literature, the Romans wrote only in capi- tal letters. The small Roman letters did not come into general use until the beginning of the middle ages. If small letters (literae mi- nutae) were employed earlier, it was only a smaller size of the cap- itals. Among the Romans when the writers wished to take down a spoken discourse, or to note something in the margin, they formed ab- breviations (notae) by using the initial letters, or some of the prin- cipal letters, of the words, or particular signs for the syllables of most frequent occurrence, or arbitrary characters standing for whole words. The most remarkable characters of this class, which we meet with in many Latin manuscripts, are those whose invention is attributed to Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, after whom they are called notae Tironianae ; and to Annaeus Seneca. Gruter and Carpentier have collected and at- tempted to explain them ; this has been more completely done by Kopp in treating of the Tachygraphy of the ancients. , Some have imagin- ed, that our small numerical figures derived their origin from these char- acters instead of being, as is commonly believed, an invention of the Arabians, but there is no ground for the supposition. See Carpentier Alphabetum Tironianum, Par. 1747. fol. — Kopp, Palaeograph- ia Critica, Manheim. 1817, 4. § 1 1 8. The books of the Romans, both the more ancient and those of later times, resembled in form and material, the books of the Greeks (See § 56, 57). The rolls among the Romans were called volumina ; the leaves composing them paginae from the word pangere (to put together) ; the sticks upon which they were rolled, cylindri, also ba- cilli, surculi ; the knobs or ornaments at the ends of the sticks, umbili- ci or comua ; and the edges of the rolls, frontes. In writing the first draft of any thing, whether in accounts or letters, the Romans common- ly made use of tablets covered with wax (tabulae ceratae, cerae). They also had books, made and folded in the same manner as ours, of square leaves of vellum or papyrus, which they called codices. Their instruments for writing were the style (stylus, graphium), and the reed (calamus, arundo). They used ink of several dyes or colors. And copyists introduced the same ornaments in writing manuscripts as among the Greeks. Comp. §§ 55, 58. See Ch. G. Schwarzii de ornamentis librorum et varia rei literariae veterum supellectile dissertt. antiquar. Lips. 1756. 4. The following are some of the Latin terms and phrases used in reference to the subject of books, paper, and writing. — Adversaria, note books, memorandums. — Autograp/ms, autography book or manuscript written by the author'sown hand; i. q. idiographus.—Biblus, i. q. Papyrus, the Egyptian plant ; whence our words Bible, andpaper. — Bibliotheca, a library, See §126.-Bibliopola,a.bookse\\er.-Capsa, 76 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. a place for keeping books, paper, or instruments for writing, an escritoir, a ease ; i. q. scrinium, arcula, loculus. — Capsarius, the slave carrying the capsa for boys of rank to school. — Cka rta, paper; this word received various epithets, modifying its signification ; as Ck. aentata, polished paper, smoothed by the tooth of a boar or some animal; Ck. Augusta rcgia, Ck. Claudiana, very superior or fine paper; Ck. emporctica, wrapping paper for merchants ; Ck, macrocolla, very large paper ; Ck. Pergamcna,i. q. membrana, parchment, made from the skins of sheep. — Ckir- ographus. written with one's own hand. — Ckirograpkum, one's own signature, or name written by himself. A document with the names of two contracting par- ties thus written is called syngrapka. — Commentarii, accounts written about one's self; also journals, or registers, i. q. Diaria, epkemerides. — Dipktkera (Sia) sometimes used for parchment ; Diphthera Jovis, register book of Jupiter. — Di- ploma (i. q. libellus duplicatus, consisting of two leaves, written on one side), a writing conferring some peculiar right or privilege, granted by a magistrate, or emperor. — Epistola, a letter to one absent. The Romaus divided their letters if long into pages, folded them in the form of a little book, tied them round with a thread (lino obligare), covered the knot with wax or a kind of chalk (creta) and sealed it (obsignare) ; hence cpistolas resignare, solvere to open a letter. The name of the writer was always put first, then that of the person addressed; the word salutem or letter S was annexed. The letter always closed with some form of a good wish or prayer, called subscriptio. The date was usually added, sometimes the hour of the day. Letters were usually sent by a slave, called ta- bellarlus, there being no established post until the time of the emperors ; when its use was chiefly confined to the imperial service (Gibbon, Rom. Emp. Ch. ii). The slave or freed man employed to write letters was termed u/rnarmensis (a manu). — Glutinatores (i. q. librorum compactores, ^UontjYoi), slaves who glued together the leaves or sheets (schedae) which formed a manuscript or roll. — Liber, inner bark used in early times as a material for writing; hence put for book. — LibeUi, generally signifying imperial messages, public orders, memorials, petitions or the like, as these were divided into pages and folded in a small book, somewhat in our form ; Codicilli used in the same sense, but generally applied to a person's last will. Libellus memorialis, a pocket book, Lib. rationalis, account book. — Librarii transcribers. — Libraria (tabema int), bookseller's shop. — Literae, usually epistles, but often any kind of writing; hence for learning. — Minium, the vermillion used in marking titles and heads ; purple (coccus, purpura) was used for the same purpose ; also a red (rubrica). — Opistograpkus, written on both sides. — PugiUares, small writing tables, of oblong form, made of citron, boxwood, or ivory and covered with wax. The Romans usually carried such tables with them ; a slave (nolarius) was often employed to note down what they wished. — Scopus, is used to signify collectively the number of sheets of papyrus joined to- gether in one roll or volwmen, which was never more than twenty. Plin. xiii. |11, 21. These sheets or leaves (plagulae, schedae), were formed by spreading two membranes of the papyrus (pkilyrae) one lengthwise, and another crosswise above it, moistening them with water of the Nile, pressing them together and then drying them in the sun. Sheets were made of different sizes and qualities. The sheets of the papyri, manuscripts lately found in Egypt, are thus prepared. Cf . §107. 4. — Sepia, the cuttle fish, put for ink, as the Romans sometimes used for writing the black matter emitted by it. — Vellum (Vitulinum) the skins of calves prepared as material for manuscripts. ///. — Of the most flourishing period of Roman Literature. § 1 19. The conquest of Magna Graecia, as has been mentioned, made the Romans more acquainted with the letters and arts of the Greek colonies in the south of Italy. After the first Punic war, and especially after the subjection of Sicily, B. C. 212, where also, particularly at Syracuse, Greek letters flourished, the influence of these IMITATION OF GREEK MODELS. 77 subject states upon their mistress was great in respect to intellectual culture. Poets, orators, and grammarians from the conquered coun- tries removed to Rome and inspired many of her citizens with a love of literature. § 120. From this period Roman literature made rapid and remark- able progress. They began more to admire poetry, especially dra- matic, and to study with more care the principles of their language. They also became acqainted with the Grecian philosophy. What contributed very much to this last, was the visit of three Greek phi- losophers, Carneades, Diogenes and Critolaus, who came to Rome on an embassy, B. C. 155. These men, notwithstanding the efforts made by Cato to shorten their stay and to prevent their teaching their doctrines, excited great interest in the Greek philosophy. The Ro- mans now also began to set more value upon the art of oratory ; to ap- ply themselves to historical researches, and to look upon the study of jurisprudence as a favorable means for improving their political welfare. After the taking of Carthage, and especially after the sub- jection of Greece, Rome enjoyed more of peace, together with the nu- merous advantages she had gained by her conquests; then followed the reign of the sciences and the fine arts, and that brilliant period, which is called the golden age of her literature. Considerations sur l'origine et les progres des belles lettres chez les Romains, et les causes de leur decadence, parl'Abbe Le Maine. Amst. 1750. 8. — /. H. Eber- hardt uber den Zustand der schtinen Wissenschaflen bei den Romern. Altona, 1801. 8. § 121. The most brilliant age of Roman literature commenced with the capture of Corinth and Carthage, 146. B. C. and continued to the death of Augustus, the first emperor , A. D. 1 4, comprising a period of 159 years. The progress of the Romans in the sciences and arts was now so great, that it has excited the admiration of pos- terity, and secured them a rank among the distinguished nations of an- tiquity second only to the Greeks. Among the causes of this remarka- ble advancement must be mentioned the comparative tranquillity of the period, the greatness of the empire, the custom of imitating the best Grecian models, and those changes in the Roman constitution and pol- icy with regard to the arts and sciences, by which they not only ob- tained tolerance, but enjoyed protection, respect and the most flatter- ing encouragement. § 122. It was thus that the productions of genius came to the greatest perfection, that the language was enriched, and poetry took a novel and more brilliant form, particularly in the reign of Augustus. 78 ARCHjEOLOCY OF ROMAN literature. The art of oratory presented a vast field for the intellect, and held a superior rank. History acquired more of dignity and interest. Philosophy in all its sects adopted the Grecian method of instruction, and received the most encouraging attention. The Mathematics, which hitherto had been limited to arithmetic and the elements of ge- ometry, obtained far greater extent and perfection. To medicine and jurisprudence were imparted more solidity and exactness in their ap- plication. This progress became still more rapid and universal, as these acquirements extended through every condition, and Romans of the highest rank, and even the rulers themselves engaged in literary pursuits, or at least considered it their glory to favor and encourage them. § 123. The progress of improvement was specially manifest in the system of education. It was no longer limited to the bodily pow- ers and the art of war. Every faculty of the mind was developed among the Romans as among the Greeks, who were in this as in oth- er things their masters and models. The first instruction of the Ro- mans was received from Greeks, and Grecian letters and arts constitut- ed the principal study. Hence that evident imitation of the Greeks, whom however they did not servilely copy, but infused into their imita- tions their own spirit and genius. In the same manner as the Greeks, the Romans also had their contests or trials of skill in oratory, poetry and music, their public recitals, their professed readers, and their liter- ary feasts ; and the sciences were not limited to particular classes or professions, any more than among the Greeks. The knowledge which they considered suitable to every condition, and worthy of a man of noble birth, and of good capacity, education and manners, they call- ed by way of eminence artes liberates, studia humanitatis. See Cellarii Diss, de studiis Romanorum literariis. Hal. 1698. 4. § 124. In these studies we must include the instruction given by the Grammarians, and Rhetoricians, who were also styled professores, literati, and literatores. These latter instructed not only in the ele- ments of the Latin and Greek language, but also in the principles of poetry and oratory, the principal works of which they analysed and explained. Of declamation, or public oratorical rehearsals, there was a frequent practice. Not only children and youth, but even men of parts and education assisted in these exercises. Besides this encour- agement the instructors received recompences and favors, and some- times even shared in the highest dignities of state. The first Gram- marian, who taught in Rome with success, was the Grecian Crates from Mallos. After him L. Plotius became one of the most celebra- EDUCATION. SCHOOLS. 79 ted in that profession ; and he was the first who taught the art of ora- tory in the Latin language. § 125. Many public schools (scholar, ludi, pergulae magistrales) were established in consequence of the great number of these gram- marians, which at length increased so that many were obliged to leave Rome, and spread themselves in upper Italy. One of the most cele- brated of the schools was that instituted at a later period by the empe- ror Adrian. It was held in a large edifice, called the Athenaeum, partly devoted also to public recitals and declamations, and was continu- ed under the name of Schola Romana, until the time of the first chris- tian emperors. There was also an establishment of the kind on the Capitolium. In addition to these, some temples, as that of Apollo for example, formed halls of assembly, for the purposes of rehearsal. And in the Gymnasia, there were various intellectual as well as bodily exercises. The methods of instruction, particularly in the study of philosophy, were similar to those of the Greeks. (Cf. §§ 71 — 73) In the temple of Apollo, built by Augustus on the Palatine hill, authors, particu- larly poets, used to recite their compositions, sometimes before select judges. They were there said to be matched or contrasted, commilti, or to contrast their works, opera commitlere. Hence commissiones was used to signify shewv declama- tions. — Tuv. vi. 435.— Suet. Aug. 45, 89. CI. 4, 53. The following extract from Kennett's Antiquities will give further particu- lars respecting the education of the Romans. 1 For masters, in the first place, they had the Literatures, or rQafiftangal, who taught the children to read and write : to these they were committed about the age of six or seven years. Being come from under their care, they were sent to the grammar schools, to learn the art of speaking well, and the understanding of authors: or more frequently in the houses of great men, some eminent gramma- rian was entertained for that employment. It is pleasant to consider, what prudence was used in these early years to in- stil into the children's minds a love and inclination to the Forum, whence they were to expect the greatest share of their honors and preferments. For Cicero tells Atticus, in his second book de Legibus, that when they were boys, they used to learn the famous laws of the Twelve Tables by heart, in the same manner as they did an excellent poem. And Plutarch relates in his life of the younger Cato, that the very children had a play, in which they acted pleading of causes before the judges : accusing one another, and carrying the condemned party to prison. The masters already mentioned, together with the instructors in the several sorts of manly exercises, for the improving of their natural strength and force, do not properly deserve that name, if set in view with the rhetoricians and philos- ophers ; who, after that reason had displayed her faculties, and established her command, were employed to cultivate and adorn the advantages of nature, and to give the last hand towards the forming of a Roman citizen. Few persons made any great figure on the scene of action in their own time, or in history after- wards, who, besides the constant frequenting of public lectures, did not keep with them in the house some eminent professor of oratory or wisdom. At the age of seventeen years the young gentlemen, when they put on the man- ly gown, were brought in a solemn manner to the forum, and entered in the study of pleading ; not only if they designed to make this their chief profession, but although their inclinations lay rather to the camp. For we scarce meet with any famous captain who was not a good speaker, or any eminent orator, who had not served some time in the army. Thus it was requisite for all persons, who had HI ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. any thoughts of rising in the world, to make a good appearance, both at the bar, anil in the field ; because, if the success of their valor and conduct should ad- vance them to any considerable post, it would have proved almost impossible, without the advantage of eloquence, to maintain their authority with the senate and people ; or, if the force of their oratory should in time procure them the honorable office of praetor or consul, they would not have been in a capacity to undertake the government of the provinces (which fell to their share at the expi- ration of those employments) without some experience in military command. In the dialogue dc Orator ibus, we have a very good account of this admission of young gentlemen into the forum, and of the necessity of such a course in the commonwealth. ' Among our ancestors,' says the author, ' the youth who was designed for the forum, and the practice of eloquence, being now furnished with the liberal arts, and the advantage of a domestic institution, was brought by his father or near relations, to the most celebrated orator in the city. Him he used constantly to attend, and to be always present at his performance of any kind, either in judi- cial matters, or in the ordinary assemblies of the people ; so that by this means be learned to engage in the laurels and contentions of the bar, and to approve him- eslf a man at arms in the wars of the pleaders.' To confirm the opinion of their extreme industry and perpetual study and la- bor, it may not seem impertinent to instance in the three common exercises of translating, declaiming, and reciting. Translation, the ancient orators of Rome looked on as a most useful, though a most laborious employment. All persons that applied themselves to the bar, proposed commonly some one orator of Greece for their constant pattern ; either Lysias, Hyperides, Demosthenes, or jEschines, as their genius was inclined. Him they continually studied, and, to render themselves absolute masters of his excellencies, weie always making him speak their own tongue. This Cicero, duintilian, and Pliny Junior, enjoin as an indispensable duly, in order to the ac- quiring any talent in eloquence. And the first of these great men, besides his many versions of the orators for his private use, obliged the public with the tran- lation of several parts of Plato and Xenophon in prose, and of Homer and Ara- tus in verse. As to declaiming, this was not only the main thing, at which they labored under the masters of rhetoric, but what they practised long after they undertook real causes, and had gained a considerable name in the forum. Suetonius, in his book of famous rhetoricians, tells us that Cicero declaimed in Greek till he was elected Praetor, and in Latm till near his death ; that Pompey the Great, just at the breaking out of the civil war, resumed his old exercise of declaiming, that he might the more easily be able to deal with Curio, who undertook the defence of Caesar's cause, in his public harangues: that Mark Antony and Augustus did not lay aside this custom, even when they were engaged in the siege of Mu- tina ; and that Nero was not only constant at his declamations, while in a pri- vate station, but for the first year after his advancement to the empire. It is worth remarking, that the subject of these old declamations was not a mere fanciful thesis, but a case which might be brought into the courts of judicature. When I speak of recitation, I intend not to insist on the public performances of the poets in that kind, for which purpose they commonly borrowed the house of some of their noblest patrons, and carried on the whole matter before a vast concourse of people, and with abundance of ceremony. For, considering the or- dinary circumstances of men of that profession, this may be thought not so much the effect of an industrious temper, as the necessary way of raising a name a- mong the wits, and getting a tolerable livelihood. I would mean, therefore, the rehearsal of all manner of compositions in prose or verse, performed by men of some rank and quality, before they obliged the world with their publication. This was ordinarily done in the meeting of friends and acquaintances, and now and then with the admission of a more numerous audience. The design they chiefly aimed at was the correction and improve- ment of the piece ; for the author, having a greater awe and concern upon him on these occasions than at other times, must needs take more notice of even- word and sentence, while he spoke them before the company, than he did in the composure, or in the common supervisal. Besides, he had the advantage of all his friends' judgments, whether intimated to him afterwards in private confe- rence, or tacitly declared at the recital by their looks and nods, with many other tokens of dislike and approbation. LIBRARIES. TRAVELS., 81 The example of the younger Pliny, in this practice, is very observable, and the account which we have of it is given us by himself. ' I omit (says he I. 7. ep. 17.) no way or method that may seem proper for correction. And first I take a strict view of what I have written, and consider thoroughly of the whole piece ; in the next place, I read it over to two or three friends, and soon after send it to others for the benefit of their observation. If I am in any doubt concerning their criticisms, I take in the assistance of one or two besides myself, to judge and debate the matter. Last of all, I recite before a greater number : and this is the time that I furnish myself with the severest emendations.' ' § 126. Collections of books were considerably numerous at Rome. The first private library is said to have been that which P. Emilius founded B. C. 167, immediately after the Macedonian war; which, however, could not have been very large. More extensive was the li- brary which Sylla brought with him from the capture of Athens, which included the rich collection of Apellicon. But this did not equal the magnificence of the famous library of Lucullus, obtained in the Mithridatic war. Besides these there were several other distin- guished private libraries, many citizens having them at their country villas. The first public library was founded by Asinius Pollio, in the hall of the temple of Liberty, on Mount Aventine. One of the most celebrated was that founded by Augustus in the temple of Apollo on Mount Palatine. Another particularly celebrated was the Ulpine library founded by Trajan, and afterwards located in the Baths of Diocletian. There were also other public libraries, as for example, in the capitol, in the temple of Peace, and in a building adjoining the theatre of Marcellus. Generally libraries occupied one of the principal apartments in the edifices and palaces of the Romans, usually in the eastern side of the building. They were ornamented with paintings and with statues and busts of distinguished writers. The books were ranged along the walls in cases (armaria, capsas), which were numbered and had subdivisions (foruli, loculamenta, nidi). Grammarians, and Greek slaves or freed men were appointed for the librarians (bibliothecae, bib- liothecarii). See Heeren's Gesch, Klass. Lit. B.I. § 10. — Sllv. Lursen, de templo et biblio- theca Apollinis Palatini. Franequ. 1719. 8—Schoell, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. V. ch. 50. § 127. To these various means of improvement we must add tra- vels, by which not only professed men of letters, but also persons of distinguished rank, extended their information and perfected their taste. At this time education and knowledge were no longer restricted so much as formerly by national prejudice. The Romans began more and more to appreciate the merits of foreigners, and to reap advanta- ges from their intercourse with them. For this reason they resorted to Athens, the seat of Grecian refinement. They went also to Lace- 11 82 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. demon, Rhodes, Eleusis, Alexandria, Mytilene, and other places. Cicero, Sallust, Vitruvius, Virgil, Propertius, and others thus went abroad for improvement. See G. N. Kriegk Diatribe de Veterum Romanoram peregrinationibus acade- raicis. Jen. 1704. 4 - IV. — Of the decline of Roman Literature. § 128. Roman literature, from the latter part of the first century- after Christ, began to decline very sensibly from its height of glory and perfection. Its decline became, from the concurrence of many causes, more rapid than had been its former progress and improvement. We must place among these causes the loss of liberty and the triumph of despotism ; the little encouragement given to literature by most of the emperors succeeding Augustus ; the great increase of luxury and the consequent universal degeneracy of manners. The changes in the moral and political condition of Rome paralyzed the nobler motives, which had stimulated the citzens. Pure taste and delicate sensibility were gradually lost. Gaudy ornament was admired rather than real beauty. Affectation was substituted for nature and the subtleties of sophistry for true philosophy. Finally the invasions of the barbarians, the frequent internal commotions, the conflict of Christianity with pa- gan superstition (§83), the transfer of the imperial throne to Constan- tinople and the division of the empire consummated that fall of Roman literature, for Avhich so many united causes had prepared the way. See Meiners, Geschichte des Verfalls der Sitten und der Staatsverfassung der Romer, Leipz. 1782. 8. 1. Tne decline ot Roman literature may be dated from the end of the reign of Augustus A. D. 14; and its history is considered as terminated with the over- throw of the western empire, A. D. 476. The whole time intervening is commonly divided into two periods, the beginning of the reign of the Antonines, A. D. 138, being the epoch of separation. It is by some divided into three, the first from Augustus to Antonines A. D. 14 — 138, the second from Antoninus to Constantine A. t>. 138—313, the third from Constantine to the fall of the empire A. D. 313— 476. On the periods in the history of Roman literature, see P . II. 2. Some of the Emperors after Augustus patronized letters ; and during a portion of the time the declension of literature was not owing to the want of imperial encouragement. Under Hadrian the empire flourished in peace and prosperity, and men of letters were honored. The reign of the Antonines was also favorable to literature and the arts. After the death of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus A. D. 180, the imperial influence was much less propitious to learning. From this event to the reign of Constantine conspiracies, and seditions, bloodshed and de- vastation mark the history. Constantine is said by his biographer Eusebius to have been a warm patron of letters, but his reign perhaps accelerated rather CORRUPTION OF TASTE. 83 than retarded the declension of Roman literature. The establishment of Christi- anity by him necessarily tended to encourage a new system of education, and a new form and spirit of literature. Julian the apostate, who received the impe- rial throne A. D. 361, less than 30 years after the death of Constantine, made violent but ineffectual efforts to restore the intellectual influence wholly to the pagans, absolutely prohibiting christians to teach in the public schools of Gram- mar and rhetoric. See Berington, Lit, History of the Middle Ages. B. I.— Gibbon Hist. Rom. Emp. Ch. iii. xiii. xxiii.— Hallam's Middle Ages B. IV. P. 1.— Corap. §81. 3. Among the circumstances contributing to the decline of letters, especially to the depravation of taste, among the Romans, some have mentioned the custom of authors in publicly rehearsing or reciting their own productions. The desire of success naturally led the writer to sacrifice too much to the judgments or caprice of the auditors in order to secure their plaudits of approbation. See Schoell Hist. Litt. Rom. Voll. II. p. 251.— Gierig, Excursus de recitationibus Romanorum, in his edition of Pliny's Letters, Lelpz. 1802. 2 Vols. 8. 4. The Roman language suffered from the vitiating influence of intercoursewith provincial strangers, who flocked to Rome. Many of these were admitted to the rights of citizenship and even received intooffices of honor. It was impossible, that the peculiarities of their respective dialects should not modify in some de- gree the spoken language, and the consequences might ere long appear even in the style of writing. The purity of the language was much impaired before the time of Constantine. The removal of the government from Rome to Constanti- nople occasioned still greater changes in it. particularly by the introduction of Greek and Oriental words with Latin terminations. The invasions and con- quests of the barbarians completed the depravation of the Roman tongue and laid the foundation for the new languages which took its place. See Schoell Vol. II. p. 255, III. 10. Gibbon Rom. Emp. ch. II.— On the transition of the Latin to the modern French, Italian &c. see Hallam'a Middle Ages, ch, IX. P,l.— M. Bonamy, Essay In Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. T. XXIV.— Fimck, De imminente L. L. senectute &c. as cited § 114. 5. There were schools of learning in different parts of the Empire during the decline of letters. In these professors, supported at public expense, taught the principles of philosophy, rhetoric, and law or right. Such schools existed at Byzantium, Alexandria, Berytus and Milan, and at several places in Gaul, where letters were cultivated with much zeal, as at Augustodunum (Autun), Burde- gala (Bourdeaux), and Massilia (Marseilles). These schools, however, are said to have contributed to the corruption of taste, as the teachers were less solicitous to advance their pupils in real knowledge than to acquire glory from pompous display. At Berytus was the most famous school for the study of Roman juris- prudence. See Schoell, Hist. Litt, Rom. Vol. iii. p. 8.— Gibbon's account of the school at Berytus, Hist. Rom. Emp. Ch. xvii. Compare § 80. V. — Remains and Monuments of Roman Literature. § 129. The existing monuments of Roman literature are more numerous than those of Grecian, and scarcely inferior in point of util- ity and importance. Great advantage may be derived from Roman inscriptions and coins, in the illustration of history, antiquities, geog- raphy and chronology ; and the manuscripts present much that is sub- servient to philology and criticism, and taste. Tbe same general re- marks which were made upon the written monuments of the Greeks (§86) may be applied to those of the Romans. 84 ARCHEOLOGY or HUMAN literature. /. — Inscriptions. ^ 130. The Grecian custom of commemorating remarkable events, by short inscriptions upon marble or brass, and of ornamenting their temples, tombs, statues and altars with them, also existed among the Romans. There now remains a large number of these ancient inscriptions, which have been collected and explained by several learned men. The most complete work of this kind is, Jani Gruteri Inscriptiones antiquae to- tius orbis Romani, notis Marqu. Gudii emendate, cura J. G. Graevii. Amst. 1707. 2 torn. fol. Next to this the following are the most valuable ; /. JB. Donii, Insrip- tiones Antiquae, nunc primum editae, notisque illustratae etc. ab A. F. Gorio. Flor. 1731. fol. — Inscriptiones Antiquae, in urbibus Hetruriae, c. obs. Salvinii et Gorii. Flor. 1743. 3 vol. fol. — L. A. Muratorii Novus Thesaurus veterum inserip- tionum,in praecipuis earundemcollectionibushactenuspraetermissarum. Mediol. 1739. 4 vol. fol. Ad Novum Thesaurum Vet. Inscrip. cl. viri L. A. Muratorii supplementa a Seb. Donato. Lucae, 1764. 1775. fol. — /. C. Hagerdrwchii Epistolae Epigraphicae. Tiguri 1747. 4. There are smaller collections of the more important inscriptions, as Gut. Fteetwood Inscriptionum antiquarum sylloge. Lond. 1691. 8. — Rotnanarum Insc. Fasciculus, cum explicatione notarum, in usum juventutis (auct. Comite Polcastro). Patav. 1774. 8. § 131. Some of the Roman inscriptions are among the most an- cient monuments of the Roman language and manner of writing. In order to decide upon their genuine character and estimate aright their contents, much previous knowledge is requisite. It is especially necessary to understand the abbreviations, which are frequently used. These consisted sometimes of detached letters, which expressed a praenomen, or some known formula ; sometimes of the principal let- ters of a word, the others being omitted ; sometimes of monograms, by the contraction of different letters into one character ; sometimes by putting a single vowel enlarged for two similar ones ; and sometimes by the omission of some letters in the middle of a word. The following works- treat upon this subject ; Sertorii Ursati de notis Romano- rum Commentarius. Patav. 1672. fol.— J, D. Coteti Notae et Siglae Rom. Venet. 1785. 4.— J. Cerrard Siglarium Romanum, Lond. 1792. 4.— Explicatio lit. et not. in antiq. Rom. monimentis occurrentium. Florentiae. 1822. It may proper to introduce and explain some of the more common abbreviations, that occur in Roman inscriptions. A. aedilis, annus, Aulus. — A. L. F. animo lubens fecit. — A. P. aedilitia potestate.— A. S. S. a sacris scriniis.— AN. V. P. M. annos vixit plus minus.— AVSP. S. auspicante sacrum.— (B\— B. DD. bonis deabus.— B. B. bene bene, i. e. optime, — B.D. S. M. bene de' semerenti. — B, G. POS. biga gratis posita.— (C).---C. Caius, civis, cohors, conjux.— C. C. S. curaverunt communi sumtu.— C. F. Caii Alius, carissima femina.— C. R. curavit refici, civis Romanus— C. V. P. V. D. D. communi voluntate publice votum dede- runt. CVNC. conjux.— (£>).— D. decuria, domo.— D. D. dono dedit, dedicavit.— D. L. dedit libens.— D. M. V. diis manibus votum.— D. S. P. F. C. de sua pecu- nia faciendum curavit. — DP. depositus.-(B).-E. erexit,ergo, expressum. — E. C. erigendum curavit.--E. F. egregia femina.— E. M. V. egregiae memoriae vir. — E. S. esuo.— EX. PR. ex praecepto.— EX. TT. SS. HH. ex testamentis supra- scriptorum heredum— (F).— F. fecit, nlia, Alius, flamen.— F. C. faciendum cura- vit.— F. F. fieri fecit, rilius familias.—F. F. fecerunt, filii, fratres.— F. H. F. fieri heredes fecerunt.— F. I. fieri jussit.— FR. D. frumenti dandi.~F. V. S. fecit voto INSCRIPTIONS. 85 suscepto.— (i/).— H. habet, heres, honorem.— H. A. F. C. hanc aram faciendam curavit.— H. Q.. hie quiescit. — H. 1. 1, heredes jussu illorum. — H. S. E. hie situ? est. — (/).-- 1. Imperator.--I. L. F. illius liberta fecit. — I. L. H. jus liberorum ha- bens.— L O. M. D. Jovi optimo maximo dedicatum. — (K). — K. Caius, calendae, candidatus, casa, — (L).— L. legio, lustrum,— L. A. lex alia, libens animo.— L. C. locus concessus.— L. H. L. D. locus hie liber datus. — L. P. locus publicus. — L. S. M. C. locum sibi monumento eepit.— LEG. legatus. — (M). — M. magister, mater, monumentum.--M. A. G. S. memor animo grato solvit.— MM. memoriae.— MIL. IN. COH. militavit in cohorte. — (N). — N. natione, natus, nepos, numerus. — N. P. C. nomine proprio curavit.— (O).— O. D. S. M. optime de se merito. — O. H. S. S. ossa hicsitasunt.--OB. AN. obiitanno.— (P). — P. pater, patria, pontifex, posuit, puer. — P. C. patres conscripti, patronus coloniae s. corporis, ponendum curavit. — P. E. publiceerexerunt.— P. I. S.publicaimpensa sepultus. — P. P. pub- lice posuit, pater patriae, praefectus praetorio.— P. S. P. Q,. P. pro se proque pat- ria. --PR. SEN. pro sen tentia — P. V. praefectus urbi. — (Q). — Q,. quaestor, qui, Quintus. — Q.. A. quaestor aedilis. — Q.. D. S. S, qui dederuut supra scripta. — d, F. quod factum.— (J?). — R. recte, retro.— R. G. C. rei gerundae caussa. — (S). S. se- pulcrum, solvit, stipendium.— S. C.senatus consultum. — S. C. D. S. sibi curavit desuo.— S. E. T. L. sit ei terra levis.— S. L. M. solvit libens merito.— S. P. Q,. S. sibiposterisquesuis.— SVB. A. D. subascia dedicavit.— (T).— T. Titus, tribunus, tunc. — T. C. testamenti causa. — T. F. testamento fecit, Titi Alius, titulum fecit. — T. P. titulum posuit.— TR. PL. DESS. tribuni plebis designati — (V).— Veter- anus, vixit. — V. A. F. vivus aram fecit.— V. C. vir consularis, vivus curavit. — V. D. D. votum dedicatum. — V.F. F. vivus fieri fecit.— V. M. S. voto merito suscepto.— V. E. vir egregius — (X).— X. ER. decimae erogator— XV. VIR. SAC. FAC. quindecimvir sacris faciundis. — Cf. Port Roy. Lat. Gr. B. xi. § 132. Besides the numerous advantages already mentioned, as derived from Roman inscriptions, this study is of service in devising and preparing inscriptions designed to be placed upon modern monu- ments. It renders one acquainted with what is called the lapidary style, distinguished by its brevity and simplicity. For compositions of this sort the Latin is usually preferred to any modern language, on account both of its comprehensive brevity, and also of its suitableness to the form and character of the monuments, which are generally constructed after ancient models. It is scarcely necessary to observe that in such cases the capital letters are used. A treatise very useful in the study of Roman inscriptions is, F. A. Zaccaria, Isti- tuzione Antiquario-lapidariaosialntroduzione alio studio delle antiche latine Is- crizioni. Rom. 1770. 4. Ver. 1793. 8. Cf. Heineccii Fundamentastili cultioris. p. 2, c. 5. § 133 1 . A vast number of Roman inscriptions have been gathered; from the mass of ancient ruins. They differ very much from each other in point of utility and importance. Those of a public character are obviously far more valuable than such as are mere private records and epitaphs. With regard to their philolological worth we should particularly consider their antiquity. The following are among the most important. 1 . The inscription upon the pedestal of the CoLumna rosbrata, a column so called because ornamented with beaks of ships. It was erected in honor of the Consul Duillius after the naval victory, which he obtained over the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. Cf. Flor. Hist. Rom, 112. Tacitus Annal. II. 49 Plin. Nat. Hist. 34. 5. During the time of the second Punic war this column was struck down by lightning, Liv. 86 ARCHEOLOGY OV ROMAN LITERATURE. xlii. 20, and its ruins remained for a long time concealed until in 1560 they were discovered, together with the pedestal, upon which is found the inscription. This inscription has been published and explained by several learned men. It is much mutilated ; Lipsius has attempted in part to fill up the blank places ; and Ciacco- ni entirely. It may not be the original inscription, but one placed upon the mon- ument on its being restored at some subsequent time. A new column is supposed to have been erected by the Emperor Claudius. See Ciacconii In Columns. Rostratae inscriptionem a se conjectura suppletam Expllcatio. Rom. 1608. S.— Graevil Thes. Ant. Rom. T. IV.— Gruteri Corp. Inscrlpt. CCCCIV. 1. It may be found in the editions of Florus by Graevius and Ducker, See also Anthon's Lemur, under C. Duillius.— Dunlop's Hist. Rom Lit.— Schoell Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 17. 2. The inscriptions on the tombstones of the Scipios. The epitaph of the Father, C. L. Scipio Barbatus, Consul B. C. 298, is probably as old as the column of Duillius. It was discovered in 1780 in the vault of the Scipian family, be- tween the Via Appia and Via Latina. It is on a handsome but plain Sarcopha- gus. — The epitaph of the son, Lucius Scipio, was discovered much earlier, on a slab which was found lying near the Porta Capena, having been detached from the family vault. Though later as to the date of its composition, the epitaph on the son bears marks of higher antiquity than that on the father. See Dunlop's Hist. Rom. Lit. Vol. I. p 46.— Grcevii Thesau. Ant. Rom. T. IV.— Monumenti degli Sci- pioni pubblicati dal Cav. F. Pimnesi. Rom., 1785. tol.—Hol/house's Illustrations of Childe Harold. Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p 46. 3. The Inscription termed the Decree respecting the Bacchanalia, Senatus con- sultum de Bacchanalibus. This decree was enacted B. C. 186. Livy gives us the occasion and contents of it (L. xxxix. 8 — 18). By certain passages in that author concerning this edict, the authenticity of this monument is confirmed. It is engraved upon a table of bronze, which was discovered at Tirioli in 1640 in the province of Abruzzo in digging the foundations of a manor house. It con- tains the prohibition of the nocturnal celebration of the Baccanalian rites, throughout the Roman dominion. The tablet upon which are some fractures and gaps, is about a foot square, and is now in the imperial collection at Vienna. See Senatusconsulti de Bacchanalibus explicatio, auctore Mattheo Aegyptio (Egizio), Neap. 1729. fol. This dissertation is reprinted in the 7 th Vol. of Drachenborch's edition of Livy. The edict itself is found in Gessner's and Ernesti's edition of Livy.— See also Schoell Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 52. 4. The Monumentum Ancijranum. This consists of several inscriptions on mar- ble, upon the propylaeum of a temple of Augustus at Ancyra (modern Angora) in Galatia. They record the achievements of that Emperor. The monument was discovered by Busbequius in 1553. It has been much disfigured by time, or barbarian violence. See Gruteri Thes. Inscr. ccxxx.—Chishull Antiq. Asiat.— I. G. Baieri Marmoris Ancyrani historla. Jen. 1703. 4.— Remarques sur le monument d'Ancyre, Biblioth Choisie. T. vm.—Jac. Gronovii Memo- riaCossoniana, cui annexa est nov. ed. Mon. Ancyr. Ludg. B. 1695. 4. 5 The Fasti Capitolini. These are portions of the tablets anciently placed in the Capitol, on which were inscribed in succession the names of the consuls and other magistrates, and by means of which Roman chronology is much elucidated. They are tablets of marble discovered in the Forum at Rome, 1547, and contain a list of the Consuls from the year 270 to to the year 765 after the building of Rome. They were in a broken state. The fragments were united by the care of Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and placed in the palace of the Capitol, where they still remain. See Grcevii Thes. Ant. Rom. T. xi.— J. B, Pirancsi Lapides Capitolini. Rom. 1762. fol.— Nuovi fra- menti dei fasti cons. Capitol, illustrati da Bartol. Borghesi. Milan 1818—1820. 4.— Verrius Flaccus has been supposed to be the author of the Fasti Capitolini, and they were published by Onvfrius Panvi- nius 1.553, underthe name of that grammarian. This mistake was occasioned by a passage in Suetonius, in which he mentions that Flaccus attached to a structure erected at Preneste twelve tablets of marble containing a Roman Calendar, Fasti kalendares. Four of these latter tables, or rather fragments of them, were discovered in 1770, and published by Foggini in 1779. They contain the months of January, March, April, and December, and cast much light on the Fasti of Ovid.— Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. II. p. 60. 65. EXISTING MONUMENTS. 87 II. Coins. § 134. Without entering into any minute history of Roman coin- age, we only remark that the first coins at Rome were probably struck under the reign of Servius Tullius, that the more ancient coins were for the most part of brass, and that silver coin was not introduced until B. C. 269, and gold not until B. C. 207. Besides the coins used as the current money, there were also a great many medals and his- torical pieces, or medallions (missilia, numismata maximi moduli), distinguished from the others by the absence of the letters S. C. com- monly found upon the Roman coin, especially the brazen. On the gold and silver coins these letters are less frequently seen, and seem not to indicate the authority granted by the senate for the striking of the coin so much as for the erecting of the statues, triumphal arch- es and the like, which are represented on the reverses. The two prin- cipal divisions of the Roman coins are the Consular, struck in the time of the republic, called also coins of the Roman Families, and the Imperial, the series of which extends from Julius Caesar to Heraclius. The remarks in § 83, respecting the utility and entertainment connected with the study of coins, are applicable here. The Roman coins particularly are inter- esting on account of the striking personifications and symbols found on their re- verses. Many descriptions and allusions in the classical poets are beautifully il- lustrated from the figures and devices on the Roman coins. On the connection between poetry and medals, see Addison's treatise on Medals. The Consular coins include the following. 1. Brass Coins. — These consist chiefly of large pieces of rude workmanship without any interesting imagery. In all these pieces the prow of a ship is constantly the figure on the reverse, with very few exceptions. Sometimes, indeed, they have a shell, two heads of barley, a frog, an anchor, or a dog, on the reverse. 2. Silver. — Of this the denarius was the first and principal coin. It was stamped originally with X, denoting that the value was ten asses. On the reverse was Castor and Pollux, or a chariot of vic- tory. Afterwards the busts of various deities make their appeal ance; and in the seventh century of Rome the portraits of illustrious persons deceased are met with. 3. Gold. — Most of these are of great value. The number of these exceeds not 100. The aureus is the general gold coin ; but two or three gold semisses of families likewise occur. The Imperial coins include 1. Brass. — This is of three sizes, large, middle, and small. The first forms a most beautiful series, but very expensive. It is the most important of all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in value. — The middle brass is next in value to the former; and in it are many rare and curious coins, particularly interesting to Britons, as elucidating the history of the island. — The small brass series abounds also with curious coins. They are scarce till the time of Valerian and Gallienus, but very common afterwards. 2. Silver. — This series is very complete, and the cheapest of any ; especially as the small brass becomes a fine supplement to it ; the latter being had in plenty when the silver becomes scarce, and the silver being plentiful when the brass was scarce. 3. Gold. — The Roman imperial gold coins form a series of great beauty and perfection ; but on account of their great price are beyond the pur- chase of private persons. 4. The colonial coins. — They occur only in brass. On many of the coins we meet with fine representations of temples, triumphal arches, gods, goddesses, and illustrious persons. But coins with those represen- tations are by no means common ; the colonial coins till the time of Trajan bear- ing only a plough, or some other simple badge of a colony. Camelodunum is the only colony in Britain of which we have any coins. 5. The minimi. — This includes the smallest coins of all denominations most of which do not exceed 88 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. the size of a silver penny. They are the most curious of all. The reason of the scarcity of these small coins is probably their diminutive size ; by reason of which they are mostly lost. § 1 35. The writing upon the Roman coin is usually the Legend, as is it called, on the head of the coin, or on both sides ; but there is sometimes an inscription more at length placed upon the reverse. The contents of the legend commonly point out the person whose im- age is impressed upon the principal side and indicate his rank ; some- times also a short notice of his exploits forming the inscription, is upon the reverse. The date of the coin is often stamped upon it either in whole words, or by certain letters or figures ; and likewise the names of the cities where it was struck ; sometimes even that of the artist, together with the value, particularly upon the Consular coins. In or- der to read and to understand all these kinds of writing, it is necessary to be acquainted with the peculiar abbreviations, which are employed. See I. C. Rasche Lexicon Abruptionum, quae in numismatibus Romanorum occurrunt. Noiimb. 1777, 8. $ 136. Much attention and caution must be exercised with regard to Roman as well as Grecian coins, in order to distinguish genuine from false, which are very numerous and of different kinds. Many of those offered as ancient, are struck in modern times with the ancient costume ; others have been stamped in express imitation of really an- cient coins, among which we may particularly notice those called Padu- ane, so celebrated on account of their good impression ; others are cast similar to the old coins, by means of moulds, and maybe distinguished by traces of the casting : others are formed by putting together two« ancient coins in order to obtain rare and unique pieces, which may be detected by a careful examination of the edges ; others are really an- tique, but falsified by some change in their impression, or inscription. See Maniere de discerner les medailles antiques de celles qui sont contrefaites par G. Beauvois. Paris. 1739. 4. Same, Germ. tr. by Lipsius. Dresden. 1791. 4. § 137. The coins of the Romans being among the most ancient monuments of their manner of writing, it is proper here again (§116) to refer to their orthography. It is not from mistake, but from ancient usage, that the orthography on the old coins differs from the modern. We find, for example, V in place of B in the word DANWIVS ; O instead of V in VOLKANVS, andDIVOS ; EE for E in FEELIX ; II for I in VIIRTVS ; S and M suppressed at the end of words, as in ALBINV, CAPTV ; XS for X, in MAXSVMVS ; F instead of PH, as in TRIVMFVS. coins. 89 It may be added that of the Consular coins, the most rare are the gol- den, and of the Imperial the brazen coins of Otho. § 138. Besides the works already mentioned (§99) as illustrating the subject of ancient coins, we will cite the following which relate principally to Roman coins. Introduction al'Histoire parlaconnoissance des medailles, par Charles Patin. Par 1665. 12. — Histoire des Medailles, ou Introduction a la Connoissance de cette Science, par Charles Patin. Par. 1695. 12. — Fulv. Vrsini Familiae Ro- manae in antiquis numismatibusab urbe condita ad tempora D. Augusti; ed. Carol. Patin. Paris. 1663. fol. — I.Foy Vaillant'Nami antiqui Familiarum Ro- manarum. Amst. 1703. 2 Vol. fol. — Ejiisd. Numismata Imperator. Romanor. praestantiora, Cura T. F. Baldini. Rom. 1743. 3 "Vol. 4. Supplementum, op. Joh. Khell. Vindob. 1767. 4. — Ejusd. Numismata aerea Imperatorum Roman, in coloniis, municipiis p. Par. 1688. fol. — Adolphini Occonis Numismata Impera- torum Romanorum praestantiora. Mediol. 1730. fol. — Thesaurus Morellia- nuss. Familiarum Romanar. Numismata Omnia. Comm. illust. Sigeb . Ha- vercampus, Amst. 1734. 2 Vol. fol. — Ans. Bandurii Numismata Imperatorum Romanor. a Trajano Decio ad Palaeologos Augustos. Paris, 1718. 2 Vol. fol. — Supplement, ed. H. Taninius, Rom. 1791. fol. — Car. Patini Imperator. Roma- nor. Numismata. Argent. 1671. fol. Amst. 1696. fol. — Io. lac Gesneri Numis- mata Antiqua Imperatorum Romanorum latina et graeca. Tiguri 1748. fol. — Numismata Antiqua Familiarum Romanarum. Tiguri 1749. fol. § 1 39. The most valuable collections of ancient coins are, at Pa- ris, in the Royal library, and the Library of St. Genevieve ; at Rome, in the Vatican, and the collection once belonging to Christina, queen of Sweden, now to the duke of Bracciano; in the British museum at London ; the Imperial collection at Vienna ; the Royal collection at Berlin ; the Duke's collection at Gotha ; the Royal collection at Stutt- gart ; and at Copenhagen. There are valuable catalogues of most of these public collections of coins. See KOhler Anweisung zur Reiseklugheit. Ed. Kinderling. Magdeb. 1788.8. — Eckhel (§ 99) Proleg. cap. XXIII. — Dictionaire des Artistes, par MeiistL—Sulzer All. Theor. &c. Article Anlik. V. Few genuine antiques have ever been brought to this country. Of ancient coins the Boston Athenaeum probably possesses the largest number, having about 1400 Greek and Roman ; of which less than 200 are silver, and the rest copper or brazen. (Ms. Lett, of Dr. Bass, Lib. to Bost. Ath.) ///. — Manuscripts. § 140. What has been said (§§100 — 106) concerning the intrin- sic value, the antiquity, the preservation, and the study of Greek manu- scripts, is in general applicable to the Roman, and we need not here repeat it. The works of very many Latin writers, as well of the most flourishing period of Roman literature, as of later times, have been preserved and handed down to us by means of written copies. These manuscripts, however, belong not to the classical ages. Latin manuscripts, like most of the Greek, are not of earlier date than the 6th century after Christ. We must generally consider those the most 12 90 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. ancient, whose writing bears most resemblance to the characters found upon coins and inscriptions. But this criterion is not a certain one, as in after ages the ancient manuscripts were sometimes copied with a perfect imitation of their manner of writing. Se GaUerer, on the method of determining the age of Mss., in the Comment. Societ. Gcett. 8th B. — Also Schasnemann, Versuch eines vollst. Systems der Di- plomatik. — Pfeiffer cited § 53. § 141. We must refer to a later origin the small Roman charac- ters, punctuation, and the contracted form of the diphthongs se and ce, which were originally written in full ae and oe. The letter y, from the seventh century, was often marked with a point, y ; on the con- trary, the i was written without a point until the end of the tenth cen- tury; afterwards it took an accent over it (thus i), which in the four- teenth century was changed into a point. From the small Roman let- ters arose, by some alterations, the Gothic and Lombard characters, and those of the Francs and Anglo Saxons ; as these people derived the art of writing chiefly from Italy. The larger portion of the an- cient Latin manuscripts, now in existence, belong to this age. During the 9th and 10th centuries more attention was paid to the beauty and elegance of the characters. In the 11th century enlarged letters were introduced, and more abbreviations, the multiplication of which in after timejs, and the overburdening of the letters with useless appenda- ges, disfigured the writing and rendered it more difficult to read. Fac-similes and specimens, to illustrate the different modes of writing found in Latin manuscripts, are given in Mabillon de Re Diplomatica. — See also WaU theri Lexicon Diplomaticum cum speciminibus Alphabetorum et Scripturarum. Goett. 1745. 3 vols, fol.— Nouveau Traite de Diplom. T. II and III. § 142. Since the revival of letters, which was hastened and facili- tated by the discovery and study of the classical manuscripts, they have been carefully collected, compared, copied and published. Petrarch searched more than two hundred libraries, and greatly aided an early cultivation of Roman literature, first in Italy, and afterwards in other countries. We are under similar obligations to Gasparini, Poggius, Beatus Rhenanus, Aloysius Mocoenicus, Grynaeus, Sichard and others. Without doubt there still exist some treasures of this sort, particularly manuscripts of the middle ages, which, if not valuable on account of their style, may be of much importance to history, criti- cism and literature generally. The libraries which have been men- tioned (§ 108) as the principal depositories of Greek manuscripts, contain also a still more considerable collection of Latin manuscripts. The printed catalogues of some of them give notices of the manu- scripts. MANUSCRIPTS. 91 Respecting the labors of Petrarch and others, see Heeren's Einl. zu Gesch. der Klass. Litteratur. — On the zeal for the discovery and study of manuscripts after the revival of letters, see Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici, and of Leo X. — For an account of the general circumstances pertaining to the formation, loss and recovery of the 'classical Mss. of Rome,' see Dunlop's His. Rom. Litera- ture, Appendix. § 143. The following are among the most ancient manuscripts in the Latin language: (a) the Gospel of Mark, in the Library of St. Mark at Venice, of very ancient date; (b) the Virgil of Florence, or the Codex Medicaeus ; (c) the Virgil of the Vatican, which seems to belong to thefifth century ; (d) the Terence of the Vatican, written in square letters, and ornamented with a large number of ancient masks ; and (e) the Florentine manuscript of the Pandects. (a) It has been asserted that the Latin Manuscript of St. Mark was written by that Apostle himself. ' But this is now proved to be a mere fable ; for the Venetian Ms. formerly made part of the Latin manuscript preserved at Friuli, most of which was printed by Blanchini, in his Evangeliacum Quadruplez. The Venice Ms. contained the first forty pages, or five quarternions of St. Mark's gospel ; the two last quarternions or twenty pages are preserved at Prague, where they were printed by M. Dobrowsky, under the title of Fragmentwm Pra- gense Evangelii S. Marci vulgo autographi, 1778. 4.' — See Home's Introduction &c. Vol. IV. P. II. ch. II. § III.— Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. xlvi.— (b) Publish- ed by Foggini exactly after the manuscript, Rome, 1741. 4to. — fe) Published by Bartoli. 1741. fol. in engraving. — {d) Printed at Urbino 1736. fol. at Rome 1767. fol. — (e) Of this Brenkman has given a description in his Historia Pandec- tarum. Traj. ad Rhen. 1722. 4. In regard to manuscripts much information may be found in I. G. Schelhom's Anleitung far Bibliothekare und Archivare. Ulm. 1791. 8. ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. Preliminary remarks. § 144. By the word art, taken subjectively, is understood a prac- tical skill in producing something in agreement with certain purposes and rules. Taken objectively, it signifies the abstract union of those rules and practical principles, which are essentially useful to guide in the production of any designed object or work. When Nature and Art are placed in contradistinction, the former designates the original powers in the material and spiritual world and their immediate opera- tions, the latter the efficiency of reason by means of choice and inten- tion ; nature therefore is understood to operate by necessary, art by voluntary or arbitrary laws. A distinction is also made between Art and Science, the one being the theory of that, of which the other is the practice ; science implies the accurate knowledge of principles ; art is their successful application. § 145. The arts are generally divided into the mechanical and the liberal or fine. The former have reference chiefly to the bodily, the latter to the intellectual powers of man. The mechanical are those, which are employed in producing and improving whatever is imprortant to the necessities or comforts and conveniences of life. The fine arts are such as have chiefly pleasure for their object, although utility is connected therewith as a secondary point ; they aim at the representation or imitation of moral beauty or excellence, and are ad- dressed to the imagination and the feelings. It is on account of this representation of beauty and this immediate reference to the emotions of the mind, that they are termed the fine or the beautiful arts. They are Poetry, Oratory, Music, Dancing, Drama, Painting, Engraving, Lithoglyphy, Sculpture, and Architecture, which last may include Gar- dening usually treated as a separate art. § 146. These are all addressed to feeling and imagination, but do not all exert their influence in the same way and by the same means. Such of them as effect their object by means of visible images or re- semblances are called often the plastic arts; from this class are ex- eluded poetry, oratory, music, and for the most part dancing and dra- AKTS OF DESIGN. 93 ma. The modes of forming these images or representations of visi- ble objects are various ; the image may be formed entire, or in demi- relief or bas-relief, or in depression, or on a plane surface. The art of designing may be considered as a common foundation for this whole class, since they are employed wholly in representing the forms or ac- tions of material bodies, which are distinguished for regularity, or peculiar fitness, or moral beauty or force, and which are therefore worthy of the artist's skill. On this account they are termed by some the arts of design. § 147. The forms, which are represented, are not merely such as actually exist in nature, but also such as are wholly ideal, or of a mix- ed character, partly imaginary and partly real. Art likewise often employs this imitation of material forms to express purely intellectual and spiritual conceptions. This object is effected in part by exhibit- ing emotions of the soul through bodily gestures, attitudes, and ac- tions. It is effected also by symbolical or allegorical images and com- binations, which have in no small degree ennobled the plastic arts, and elevated them above their original limits. Perspicuity, appropriate- ness, liveliness, judicious discrimination and accuracy are the essen- tial traits in such allegorical pieces. For moie full remarks respecting allegory In the arts of design, and references 10 authors, see Sulzer's Allgemeine Theorieder schcenen Kflnste. Article, Alle- goric. § 148. A sensibility and taste for art is necessary not only to the artist in order to practice successfully, but also to the observer or cri- tic in order to judge properly. There must be a capacity or adapted- ness easily to perceive the beautiful, and to experience peculiar pleasure therein. Some elementary and correct natural feeling is therefore pre- supposed ; but by a frequent exercise of this feeling, a careful observa- tion of works of art, and the study and application of rules, the capaci- ty is easily enlarged and improved. Sensibility to the beautiful, deli- cacy of feeling, and correctness of judgment are the most prominent characteristics of that taste for art, which the artist must unite, and carefully cultivate in common with his genius and skill in execution. § 149. The name of connoisseur belongs only to him, who is qualified to examine and criticise works of art according to their whole actual merits, and to estimate and explain on true principles their com- parative value. For this a superficial knowledge is not sufficient ; it requires an intimate acquaintance with the nature and essence of the arts, with all their principles both mechanical and aesthelical, with 94 AKUHJUULotiY 01'' AKi'. their history, and with their chief productions. Good taste, familiarity with the best performances, and studious reflection, therefore, are in- dispensable to a connoisseur in art. The mere amateur needs only an unperverted lively susceptibility to the impression made by works of art, and a prevailing attachment for them, which traits, however, if properly cultivated may form him into a connoisseur. Docti ratio- nem artis intelligunt, indocti voluptatem. Quint § 150. The history of art is obviously useful to the artist and to the critic. By it we learn the first origin of art among the people of early antiquity, its subsequent advancement, among the Greeks, Etru- rians, and Romans, its decline with the wane of those nations, its com- plete prostration in the middle ages, its restoration and in some respects far greater advancement in modern times. The very perfection of modern art makes the study of the fine arts and their history advan- tageous and even necessary to every one, who engages in literature and the studies required by common utility. Abundant occasion will be found by every man, for the application of this knowledge, so that he may turn to good account all the instruction and pleasure derived by him from it. § 151. The monuments of the plastic arts remaining to us from an- cient times, are called in general antiques, although by that term, es- pecially when the kindred idea of classical excellence is associated with it, we understand chiefly the performances of the most flourish- ing periods of ancient art. These pieces are admired particularly for the beauty of their forms ; for the just and happy representation of the human figure, especially the head ; and for the dignity and emotion which is thrown into their expression, and at the same time united with a most attractive grace. In general it may be said, that the ar- tists of antiquity guided themselves by an ideal based and formed upon real nature, rather than by any actual models ever presented in life. Hence the careful study of antiques is of great service to the artist and the general critic and scholar, especially if it be connected with suit- uble attention to language, history, mythology, and antiquities in gen- eral. See Sulzer, Allg. Theor. &c. Article Antik. § 152. Most of the now remaining works of the plastic art of antiquity are such as either were actually designed to commemorate particular remarkable persons, objects, actions and occasions, or may serve that purpose as to us. Of course to obtain a full understanding of them, to look at these monuments in a right point of view, to dis- cover their meaning and perceive their whole beauty, we need the ac- SCULPTURE. 95 cessary knowledge just mentioned above. In this view, also, an ac- quaintance with the history of art, in its different periods and changes, and with the modes of conception and execution of the old artists, will appear very important. And every thing of this sort will be more useful and instructive, if attention be paid at the same time to the es- thetic character of the works, that is, to their comparative excellence considered as happy imitations, and as operating on the taste and feelings. The term aesthetic is not familiar in our language. It is formed from the Greek dii&tittxog, from which also the corresponding German term aestketisch, is deriv- ed. The latter is thus defined by Sulzer (Allg. Theor. der Schcenen Kunste*, ' that peculiarity or property of a thing by which it is an object of feeling [ai'oij- oig] and therefore suited to be introduced in a work of the fine arts.' The Ger- man noun Aesthetik (aesthetics) is defined in the same work as ' the philosophy of the fine arts, or the science which deduces the general theory and the rules of the fine arts from the nature of taste.' The words are certainly very convenient in English, and have an obvious meaning which is expressed by no other terms. There are many works on the topics and principles belonging to the science of Aesthetics. — Aesthetica, seu doctrina boni gustus, ex Philosophia pulchri deducta in scientias et artes amceniores, auct. Georg. Szerdahaley, Bud. 1779. 2 vol. 8.— Saggio sulbuon gusto nelle belle arti, ove si spiegano gl'elementi della Estetica, di G. Jagemann. Fir. 1771. 8. — Reflexions critiques sur la Poesie et la Peinture, par VAbbe Dvbos (Cf. § 26). — Les beaux arts reduitsaune meme principe, par Ch. Batteaux. Par. 1753. 12. In Germ, with additions by J. Ad. ScMegel. Leipz. 1770. 2 vol. 8. — The Polite Arts, or a Dissertation on Poetry, Painting, Musick, Architecture and Eloquence. Lond. 1749. 12.— Elements of Criticism (by H. Home, Lord Kaimes) Lond. 1785. 2 vol. 8.— Essay on Taste by Alex. Gerard. Edinb. 1780. 8. — Essays on the Nature und Principles of Taste, by Archibald Ali- son. Ediab. 1811. 8. Boston, 1812.— Joh. Christ. Konlg, Philosophie der schonen Kunste. Nurnb. 1784. 8.— Aesthetic, oder allgemeine Theorie der schonen Kunste und Wissenschaften, von Ph. Gang, Salzb. 1785. 8.— Critik der Urtheils- kraft. von Imm. Kant. Berl. 1790. 8. § 153. To give something of this knowledge, although only in general and elementary principles, is the object of what follows under the title of Archaeology of Art. It will be limited to the plastic arts, and will excluse Engraving and Gardening, as the former was unknown to the ancients, and the latter was not ranked by them either in prac- tice or theory among the fine arts. Sculpture, Lithoglyphy, Painting, and Architecture will be noticed. Their history, especially among the Greeks and Romans will be presented, the most celebrated artists in each period named and characterised, and the chief monuments point- ed out, with such remarks on their character as may aid a right un- derstanding of their worth. The notices must necessarily be brief. /. — Sculpture. $ 154. This term is used in a sense more comprehensive than its etymological meaning. We include under it, the formation of images 96 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. of visible objects, not only out of hard substances by means of the chisel and graver, but also out of soft substances, and out of melted metals. In precise discrimination the first of these arts is properly sculpture, yi.vq>i\, scviptura ; the second is more exactly the art of moulding, nXaaTixii, figlina ; and the third, the art of casting, toqsv- «*iji statuaria. The German word Bildnerkunst includes the whole, and is employed by Luther in translating the Hebrew phrase (2 Chron. 3. 10), which is rendered in the English version image-work. The figures are either formed entire so as to be seen on all sides (neoHpaprj, ins Runde), or only prominent from a plane surface (tiqoo- rvna, dvdylvcpay Those of the former kind are termed Statues ; the others are called in general Bas-reliefs, although they are distin- guished in minute description, by terms indicating the degree of their prominence from the plane. Figures formed by depression, or hol- lowing below the level, were termed by the Greeks Sidylvcpa. Respecting the ars toreulice, see Excurs. ad Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 34, in Biblioth. Classic. Lat. Par. 1830. § 155. In the introduction to this Archaeology (§§8 — 1 1) we spoke in general, of the origin of the arts. Here it is sufficient to remark, that the art of forming images belongs to the highest antiquity, and prob- ably was the earliest of the arts which we call plastic, if we except archi- tecture, which at first was merely mechanical. Although the principles of the art of drawing are of the greatest service in image- work, and in reality lie at its foundation, yet the art of drawing was probably of later origin; for it requires a higher effort of abstraction and reflection to give a representation by sketching mere outlines on a fixed plane, than by forming an entire image. Accident, and perhaps the caprice of nature, which not unfrequently presents the appearance of artificial figures in trees, stones, and the like, might lead men to this art. The first at- tempts, it is probable, were to form likenesses of the human body. $ 156. The particular circumstances of the origin of this art are not made known to us by any historical account. Neither the invent- or, the people among whom it arose, nor the first mode of its exercise, can with certainty be determined. We may, however, reasonably conjecture, from the usual progress of the human mind, and the histo- ry of other arts, that in this also there was a gradual advancement from the more easy and simple performances to the more difficult. It is therefore probable that the softer materials, as earths, clays, and the like, were employed before the harder, as wood, stone, and metals. Of the early existence of some branches of the art we have evidence in the writings of Moses. See Exodus xxxvi, 36, 38. Deut. xxix, 16, 17. Gen. xxxi, 19, 30. MATERIALS USED IN SCULPTURE. 97 § 157. The first works must have been quite rude, as the artists were deficient both in the theory of designing and in mechanical skill, and were also destitute of the necessary instruments. Accordingly we find that the most ancient figures of men and gods were scarcely any thing more than pillars or blocks, with the upper extremity formed into a sort of knob, or rounded, to represent the head. Such was the very ancient image of the goddess Cybele brought to Rome, from Pes- inus in Phrygia. Gradually the other principal parts of the body were more distinctly formed, at first however only indicated by lines afterwards made more full and complete, yet not marked by significant action and attitude, but stiff, angular and forced. This improvement was ascribed among the Greeks to Dasdalus, who was on that account said to have formed living statues, whose name was applied by the early Greeks to distinguished productions of art. ' In the primitive ages, objects rude and unfashioned, as we learn from history, were adored as representing the divinities of Greece. Even to the time of Pausanias, stones and trunks of trees, rough and unformed by art, were preserved in the temples ; and though replaced by forms almost divine, still regarded with peculiar veneration, as the ancient images of the deities. As skill improved, these signs began to assume more determinate similitude; and from a square column, the first stage, by slow gradations something approaching to a resem- blance of the human figure was fashioned. These efforts at sculpture long continu- ed extremely imperfect. The extremities seem not to have been even attempted ; the arms were not separated from the body, nor the limbs from each other, but, like the folds of the drapery, stiffly indicated by deep lines drawn on the surface. Such appears to have been the general state of the art immediately prior to the . period when it can first be traced, as cultivated with some degree of success in any particular place. This occurs about twelve centuries before Christ.' § 158. Before noticing further the progress of the art of sculpture, it will be useful to mention some things respecting the materials em- ployed, and the different methods practised among the ancients. The substances used were evidently very various. Originally, as has been suggested, soft and pliant substances seem to have been chosen, and the images made by moulding or embossing. This perhaps might originate in the common art of pottery, which itself may have been suggested by covering culinary vessels with earth or lime, and observ- ing the hardness imparted by the fire. Clay, gypsum, and wax were the principal soft materials employed, not only in the earliest, but in the most flourishing periods, by the Greeks, Tuscans, and Romans ; and for forming entire statues as well as busts, bas-reliefs, and models. Models thus prepared [nqonlaa^ma, ngoTVTra) were used by the ar- tists for patterns to guide them in working upon harder materials. § 159. Of the hard substances used in the art, wood, ivory, mar- ble and bronze were the chief. At first, wood was commonly prefer- red on account of its being easily wrought, especially for the sculpture 13 98 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. of larg-c figures, utensils, and ornaments of various kinds. In the choice of wood for the purpose, regard was paid to its solidity, dura- bility and color. Ebony, cypress and cedar had the preference ; yet citron-wood, acanthus, maple, box, poplar and oak, and even more common sorts of wood were sometimes employed. Not unfrequently in the choice of the wood there was a reference to the supposed char- acter of the divinity to be represented, as was the case also in the use of other materials. In the island of Naxus, for example, there was a statue of Bacchus formed out of the vine. Pluto was commonly imaged in ebony or black marble. § 160. The most celehrated ancient sculptors often made use of ivory, on account of its whiteness and smooth surface, not merely for small figures, but also for large ones, and even for colossal statues, which were sometimes formed of ivory and gold united. Of this sort were the two most famous statues of antiquity, the Jupiter Olympus, and the Minerva, of Phidias. Bas-reliefs and various utensils were also formed of ivory either alone, or with other substances connected with it for ornament. The artists appear to have used no instrument for turning, but merely a chisel with a free hand. In the large stat- ues formed of this substance, the inner part consisted of dry solid wood, to which the ivory was attached and fastened in regular portions, and probably after the requisite chiseling had in part been performed. Very few monuments of this kind are preserved, because ivory so readily calcines in the earth and decays. See Heyne, on the ivory of the ancients, and images made of it, in N. Bihlioth. der schon. Wiss. Bd. xv.—Hirt, in Bottiger's Amalthea. Bd. 1. — Quatremere de Qnincy Le Jupiter Olympien. Paris. 1815. fol. § 161. Marble was the noblest and most valued material for sculp- ture. There were several species, differing in color, solidity, and lus- tre. Among the most celebrated kinds, were the Pentelican, the Pari- an, the Lydian, the Alabandian. Porphyry, basalt, and granite were also often used in works of art, especially among the Egyptians. The marble was not always polished. The larger statues were often composed of several pieces, sometimes of different marble. There were works too, of which only certain parts were marble, as for example, the celebrated Minerva of Phidias, of which, particularly, the pupils of the eyes were marble (Xidivoi) according to a passage in Pluto ('Innlaa fielt,wv). Sometimes the marble statues, after comple- tion, were washed over with a thin transparent varnish, partly in order to give them a softer appearance and a milder lustre. The cement, by KINDS OF STATUES. 99 which the different pieces of marble were united, the Greeks called l.uQoY.6Vka. See Blasii Cdryophili (Biagio Garofalo) de antiquis marmoribus opusculum. Traj. ad Rh. 1743. 4. — Respecting the modern names of ancient varieties of marble and other circumstances pertaining to them, see Ferber's Briefe aus Walschland (Letters from Italy). Prag 1773. 8. — Mineralogie des Anciens, par Louis de Launay. Bruxell.— 1803. 2 vol 12. s. § 162. The bronze employed in the statues of the ancients con- sisted of a mixture of several metals, in definite proportions, although not always the same. The principal ingredient was copper, of which there was usually for statuary one hundred pounds united with an eighth part of lead or tin. In forming the mixture there was very often a regard to the color arising from it, and its suitableness for the image to be made. The best kinds of brass or bronze were that of Delos, and that of iEgina. The most valued was the orichalcum ('oQsixuXxog,) not the modern brass, but a natural product of that name, unknown to us. The precise manner in which the metals were wrought into images is not well understood ; works of this kind were formed not only by casting, in which case the chisel was afterwards applied to give perfection, but likewise by driving or pressing under the hammer. Many brazen statues, although the accounts are often exaggerated, were of extraordinary size and truly colossal ; as for ex- ample, the celebrated statue of the god of the sun, placed at the en- trance of the harbor of Rhodes, 105 feet in height. Sometimes stat- ues of brass were gilded in whole or in part, and usually they were varnished to protect them from the atmosphere and moisture. Even of the precious metals, silver and gold, the ancients sometimes formed entire statues ; they were, however, hollow, like those in brass. See Hiri, in Bottiger's Amalthea (Musee de l'antiquite figurde), Dresd. 1824. Plin. Nat. Hist. 1. xxxiv. 4. 5. 18.— Launay, cited § 161. § 1 63. Statues were classified and named variously according to size, costume and attitude. The largest were termed colossal (xoloacreii) surpassing always the human dimensions ; next to these were the stat- ues of gods and heroes, of a size between six and eight feet ; then those corresponding to actual life (aydX/iona e'wovixd, lao/zsTQTjru, statuae iconic®) ; and finally those smaller than life, of which such as were very small went by the name of sigilla. In reference to costume, the Romans called such as had a Grecian dress palliatce, those in the Roman to gala, those with the military garb faludatce, chlamydatce, loricatce, and such as were veiled velatce. In attitude there was still greater variety, as the figures might be either standing, sitting, reclining, or lying at rest, or in action, &c. There was also a distinction between simple statues, and composites 100 ARCHJEOLOGV OF ART. or groups, consisting of several figures. Groups, where the parts were entwined or interwoven with each other, were called sympleg- mata (ovprWy/uato). See Essai bistorique de l'usage de statues chez anciens, par le Comte de Omsco. BruxelK-s 170S. 1. § 164. Busts likewise, almost as frequently as entire figures, were formed by the ancient artists. They were called by the Greeks ngo- xo/uit, by the Romans imagines, sometimes thoraces. They were lo- cated, in honor of gods, heroes, philosophers, and other distinguished men, in public places, such as theatres, prytanea, gymnasia, galleries, libraries and the like. The bust was chiefly used to represent de- ceased persons. At Rome the Patricians used to place in their halls the busts of their ancestors (Polyb. vi. 51. Plin. xxxv. 2). Like stat- ues, busts were of various sizes. They differed also in respect to the portion of the frame included, taking in sometimes the whole breast, sometimes just the shoulders, and sometimes merely the head. On their supports or pedestals the character or exploits of the person represented were often inscribed. When busts were formed in relief on shields, they were termed imagines clypeatce. See Gurlill's Versuch ttber die Bastenkunde. Magdeb. 1800. 4. § 165. There was a peculiar kind of statue or bust to which was given the name of Hermes, 'Egfirjg. It consisted of a mere head, or head and breast, or at most head and chest, and a quadrangular pillar or one terminating in a point, which served as a support. It derived its name either from the god Hermes, Mercury, whose image general- ly appeared on this kind of erection, yet not always, or perhaps, as probably, from the word 'Egfia designating the quadrangular pillar sus- taining the image ; Suidas explains the phrase 'egfiaiog lidog by the word TETqdywvog. These representations were placed by the high- ways and streets, in gardens, and among the Greeks in front of tem- ples and dwelling houses. Human likenesses were formed sometimes in this manner ; generally however the images represented some deity presiding over gardens and fields. The Romans employed them to point out the boundaries of lands, and on that account called them termini. Sometimes the attributes of the god were indicated on the work ; some- times there were inscriptions, of which, however, such as may have been preserved are not all genuine. They very seldom had any representa- tion of costume. The head and pedestal were not always of the same material. Two heads were occasionally united on one pillar ; as for instance, in the 'EQ[io.di\vr h Mercury and Minerva united, the BAS-RELIEF. MOSAIC. 101 ' EQfiijQccxlrjg, Mercury and Hercules, and 'Eq/uotiuv, Mercury and Pan. § 166. The ancient artists made a vast number of has reliefs ^sxTvna, tiqootvttcc, ' avdylvya). These works may he said to hold an intermediate place between sculpture and painting, in as much as they present a plane for their ground, and have their figures formed, more or less prominent, by the chisel or by embossing. The most common material was marble or brass. The Etrurians made use also of clay hardened by fire. The subjects represented by such pieces were drawn from mythology, history, allegory and other sources, according to the imagination of the artist. The purposes for which they were devised were'exceedingly numerous ; they often were separate tablets, constitut- ing independent works ; and very often they were formed upon shields, helmets, tripods, altars, drinking cups, and other vessels and utensils, tombs, urns and funeral lamps, arches, and generally upon large struc- tures, particularly the fronts of buildings. In explaining the meaning of these devices there is need of much caution and much knowledge of literature and art ; it is the more difficult, because in many instan- ces the works are in a mutilated, or altered state. § 167. Among the varieties of image-work practiced by the an- cients must be mentioned that which is called Mosaic (/uovoeiov, opus musivum, tesselatum, vermiculatum), which was very common, and carried to great perfection. It has its name from its elegance and grace (fiovoa). It consists of figures curiously formed by pieces, in different colors, of clay, glass, marble, or precious stones and pearls, with which they used to ornament their floors and walls. Separate tablets or ornamental pieces were also formed in the same way. The pieces of which this kind of work is composed are so small, that sometimes one hundred and fifty are found in the space of a square inch. The art was most in vogue in the time of the Emperor Clau- dius, and one of most distinguished artists in it was Sosus. See Jo. Ciampini Vetera monumenta, in quibus praieipue opera musiva ill us- trantur. Rom. 1690. 99. 2 vol. fol. — Fnrietti Liber de musivis (with plates). Rom. 1752. i.—Gurlitl, uber die Mosaik. Magd. 1798. 4. § 168. Some of the works of the ancient sculptors have inscrip- tions upon them, presenting the name of the artist or explaining the work itself. On the statue of Hercules Farnese, for instance, are the words, rAYKwN ABHNAIOC EnOIEI- on the Gladiator Borghese ATACIAC J0CI6E0Y E&ECIOC ETIOIEI ; on a Roman statue of the goddess Hope, a AQVILIVS DIONYSIVS. ET NONIA 102 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. JVW'STINA SPEM RESTITVERVNT. Such inscriptions are placed sometimes on the pedestal, and sometimes on the drapery or other parts ol the statue. Butthty are not always genuine, being frequent- ly of recent origin, as is thought to be the case with the first of the above mentioned. In judging of them there is need therefore of much antiquarian skill and research and a careful application of historical and mythological learning. A tine specimen of this critital scrutiny is found in Lcssing's Laokoon, a work of great value to those who study the arts. There is a French translation by Vanderbourg. $ 169. Although we have no historical account of the origin of the art of sculpture, as has been suggested, yet it is certain that the Egyptians were in possession of it at a very early period. On this account its invention is ascribed to them by some ancient writers. The Egyptians were not deficient in the mechanical part of sculpture.* Yet their general mode of thinking, their prevalent taste, the peculiar character of their civilization, and especially the nature of their re- ligion were unfavorable to the advancement of this art, and hindered its attaining among them any true and beautiful perfection. We find in their design, as well as in their whole execution, a barrenness and uniformity that appears very unnatural. Owing to the prevalence of animal worship in Egypt, figures of animals were the most frequent and most successful performances of their artists, among whom Mem- non is perhaps most celebrated. See Ricerche sopria la scultura presso gli Egiziani, di Giamb. Brocchi, Venez. 1792— Bottiger's Andeutungen &c. uber Archajologie. Dresden loOb.— Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte par Dentm. Par. 1802. 2 vol. f ol. (with plates) . Description de l'Egypte. Par. 1809—1818. 9 vol. fol. (with plates) Of this work there is also a more recent edition.— In Beck's Grundriss der Archa- ologie Leipz. 1816. is an account of the artists among ancient nations, and of the remaining monuments, and mention ot the works pertaining to the subject — Res- pecting Memnon, consult Anthon's Lempriere. § 170. In the history of Egyptian art a distinction must be made between the old and the later style. The former appears in the earli- est monuments down to the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, 525 B. C. The latter*belongs to a subsequent period, in which the Persians and Greeks held supremacy in the land. Accordingly there is a differ- ence between these works, whichmay be designated respectively the Old Egyptian, the Persian-Egyptian, the Grecian-Egyptian, and the Ro- man imitations of the Egyptian manner. The uniformity and stiffness are much greater in the old style ; yet the later performances are defi- cient in beauty of design and execution, in cases where there is no drapery as well as in others. There are also works, discovered in Italy, ORIENTAL SCULPTURE. 103 in Egyptian taste and manner, which are not really of Egyptian ori- gin, but were made by later Greeks, in Rome, especially under the reign of Hadrian. See History of Sculpture, Painting and Architecture by J. S. Memes, L. L. D. (p. 18, Am. Ed. Bost. 1834). — The period preceding the time of Cambyses is consid- ered by Memes as the only period of real Egyptian sculpture. Of its character there are left two sources of judging, viz. vestiges of ancient grandeur yet exist- ing on their native site, and numerous specimens in European cabinets. These remains may be classed under three divisions ; 1. Colossal figures. 2. Figures about the natural size single or in groups. 3. Hieroglyphical and Historical relievos. The colossal remains are very numerous. Some are figures of men ; others of animals, chiefly the sphinx. The dimensions extend from twelve to seventy cubits in height. The largest now known are two in the Memnonium at Thebes, one of which, from inscriptions still legible, would appear to be the famous sounding statue of Memnon. Of figures about the natural size there are also many remains. Many are found in the excavations of Philoe, Elephantis, Silsilis, and at El Malook in the tombs of the Theban Kings. These excavations are often suites of magnificent chambers hewn from the hard and white calcareous rock. A singular peculiarity marks these statues ; a pilaster runs up behind each the whole height, not only when the statue is connected with the surface of a wall, but also when it is wholly detached. Relievos are found in great abundance, oc- cupyingoflenthe entire walls of the temples. In these there is much skill in the me- chanical workmanship, but they are very deficient in merit as performances of art; proportion and perspective seem to have been utterly unknown. In the formation of these works four kinds of materials are employed ; one soft, a species of sandstone ; and three very hard, viz. a calcareous rock, out of which the tombs, with their sculptures, are hewn, basalt or trap, of various shades from black to dark grey, the constituent generally of the smaller statues, and granite, more commonly of the species named rubescens. Colossal figures are uniformly of granite, in which also is a large portion of the relievos. Statues of wood have been discovered by modern travellers. Metal appears to have been sparingly used ; at least only very small figures have been found, of a composi- tion similar to the bronze of modern times. In the tombs small images of por- celain and terracotta are frequent. § 171. Among the other ancient nations of southern and eastern countries sculpture did not receive so much attention, and our knowl- edge of their use of the art is derived from historical testimony rather than from any existing monuments. The art was evidently esteemed by the Hebrews, but chiefly as an auxiliary and ornament to architecture ; of this we have evidence in the temple of Solomon, in the construction of which, however, Phoenician artists were chiefly employed. The commerce and wealth of the Phoenicians were favorable to the arts, but there exists no genuine and proper statue as a specimen of their sculp- ture ; the same is true respecting the Persians and Parthians, who were advanced to a considerable degree of civilization, and whose views of propriety required that the figures should be clothed in some sort of drapery ; such monuments as we have, however, in the sculp- tured architectural ornaments which have been preserved, give us no occasion to mourn our loss. On the general character of the sculptured monuments of the eastern nations, see Heeren's Ideen itber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vor- nehmsten Volker der alten Welt.— Hock's Veteris Mediae et Persiae Monu- menta. Gott. 1818. 4.— Cf. Memes Hist. &c. p. 32. 104 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. & I7'2. The Etrurians or Etruscans are more worthy of notice in the history of thisart. In a very early period they occupied the up- per part of Italy, and attended much to sculpture. With them the art seems to have been of native origin, not introduced or acquired from Egypt, although their intercourse with Egypt and with Greece no doubt contributed to the improvement of their arts. Five periods may be pointed out in the history of Etruscan art, the first character- ised by a rude and uncultivated state, the second by works in the Gre- cian and Pelasgic style, the third by works bearing an Egyptian and mythological stamp, the fourth by a higher degree of excellence yet confined within the limits of the older Grecian fictions, the fifth by a still fuller perfection according to the more refined models of the Greeks. See Hey tie's Versuch einernahem Bestimmung der Klassen und Zeiten fiir die Etr. KunstwerkeinN. Bibli. d. sch. Wiss. B. XIX. XX— Saggio di Lingua Etrusca e di altre anliche d'ltalia, &e. (da L. Lanzi) Rom. 1789. 3 vol. 8. — Mon- uroeati Etruschi, illustraii epubblicati dal Cav. F. Inghirami. Fiesole. 1820. § 173. There are many remains of Etruscan art, although their resemblance to Grecian performances often makes it difficult to decide their true origin. That Grecian artists had a great share of agency in Tuscan works is evident from inscriptions and other monuments. Independent of a large number of statues in hronze and marble, there are many works in half relief, which are, not without grounds, consid- ered Etruscan remains. There is also a great variety of vases, re- markable both for the beauty of their form and for the paintings on them, which have been called Tuscan and Campanian, but may be with more probability considered as old Grecian, and as monuments of Greek colonies, which were in the vicinity of Cuma, Naples and Nola. Learned men and amateurs have taken much pains in collect- ing, portraying, and describing these remains. The most beautiful collection of the kind is that made by Wm. Hamilton ; it is now in the British Museum, London. An account of this collection was published by Chevalier d'Hancarville, with the title, A collection of Etruscan, Greek and Roman Antiquities &c. Naples 1766—76. 4 vol. fol. — A later work is, Recueil des Gravures des Vases antiques, tirees du Cabinet de M. le Chev. d'Hamilton, gravees par Tischbein. Naples 1793. 3 vol. fol.— See also A. F. Gorii Museum Etruscum. Flor. 1737. 2 vol. fol.— J. B. Passerii Picturae Etruscorum in vasculis &c. Rom. 1767—75. 3 vols, fol.— Peintures des Vases antiques, vulgairement appellees Etrusques, gravees par Clener, accompagnees d'explications par Millin. Paris 1808. 2 vol. Fol.-Peintures antiques de vases grecs de la collection de Sir J. Coghill, publiees par J. Mil- hngen. Rom. 1817. Fol. — Lanzi, De Vasi antichi dipinte vulgarmente chiamata Etruschi. 1801. 8. with Plates.— Wedgewood and Bentley have made imitations of several of these vases, in terra cotta, among which the vase of Barberini, or the Portland Vase, as it is also called, is the most memorable. See VVedgewood's Description of the Portland Vase. Lond. 1790. 4— Des Graf. Von VeUheim Abhandlung iiberdie Barberim-jetzt Portland-Vase. Helmst. 1791. 8. ETRUSCAN REMAINS. 105 Many of the remains of Etruscan art have been found in repositories for the dead, in which the people were accustomed to inter with the body various articles of metal and clay. At Volaterrae (Volterra) were vast sepulchral chambers. Similar structures have been discov ered in the vicinity of Viterbo. In these sepulchres are found urns of stone or of baked clay, about two feet in height, which contained the ashes of bodies after burning. Painted Vases also are found in the same repositories ; likewise the engraved paterae. The latter are numer- ous and curious. They are shallow dishes of brass or bronze, with a rim slight- ly raised, and a handle. On the bottom inside there is usually engraved some mythological subject, of simple design, expressed in a few bold lines. The use of these vessels is not known. Some have considered them as employed in sa- crificing, others as designed for mirrors. — Meme's History of Sculpture &c. p. 71. — Anthon's Lemp. under Hetruria. — Inghirami cited § 172. ' The Portland Vase was discovered in the tomb of Alexander Severus and is believed to be the work of Grecian genius. It is a semi-transparent urn, of a deep blue color, with brilliant opaque white ornaments upon it in bas-relief, cut by the lapidary in the same manner as the antique cameos on colored grounds. Mr. Parks states ' that several of the nobility and gentry, being desirous to pos- sess a copy of this beautiful specimen of ancient art, engaged Mr. Wedgewood to attempt an imitation of it ; and he actually produced a vase of porcelain which for elegance was considered fully equal to the original.' The height of the vase is ten inches, its diameter at the broadest part only six inches. It has two curi- ously wrought handles one on each side. The sculpture is in the greatest perfec- tion ; the figures full of grace and expression; every stroke as fine, sharp and perfect, as any drawn by a pencil.' The Warwick Vase also may properly be mentioned in this place. ' It is a monument of Grecian art ; the production of Lysippus, statuary to Alexander the Great. It was dug up in Adrian's Villa, at Tivoli, and was sent to England by Sir Wm. Hamilton, in 1774. It is of sculptured marble, adorned with ele- gant figures in high relief; vine leaves, tendrils, fruit and stems forming the rim and handles.' — See Article on Porcelain and Earthenware in Amer. Journal of Science and Arts. Vol. xxvi. p. 243. with drawings of the two vases. § 173. The highest rank in the history of ancient art unquestion- ably belongs to the Greeks. The first idea of image-work among them was without doubt derived from abroad, from the Egyptians more probably than from the Phoenicians', perhaps in some degree from both. The opinion, that their earliest notions came from the Egyp- tians, agrees well with the whole character of their mythology, the fountain and source of their arts, and with the style of their more an- cient performances. But at length they surpassed all other nations. Many favorable circumstances combined to promote the advancement of sculpture in Greece ; the influence of a delightful climate upon physical and moral education, the constant views of beauty not only in the various natural scenery, but especially in the human form as produced among the Greeks, their peculiar religion involving so much of poetry and imagination and yet so addressed to the senses, the high honor and rewards bestowed upon artists, the various uses and appli- cations of sculpture, and the flourishing condition of the other imita- tive arts and of letters in general. See Gurlitt's Einleitung in das Studium der Antike.— -An Enquiry into the causes of the extraordinary excellency of ancient Greece in the Arts. Lond. 1767. 8.— Wi7icke'.mann, Hist, de l'Art &c. Liv. iv. ch. 1. 14 10G ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. $ 1 74. The exact time of the rise of this art in Greece cannot be decided, nor so much as the name of the first artist. Some mention Dibutades, others Rhcecus and Theodoras, as inventers of the art of moulding, or of working in soft wax, and in brass. Daedalus, who lived three generations before the Trojan war, was celebrated as the first improver of the plastic art among the Greeks. It was undoubt- edly practised at a very early period, and even in the time of the Tro- jan war, or at least the age of Homer, had gained a remarkable de- gree of cultivation. Here, as among other nations, the first attempts in the art were rude and imperfect (§ 157). It is however too hasty a conclusion, if one assigns to the earliest times any piece of rude and unfinished workmanship, with no other proof or evidence, since such works might come from the hands of poor artists of a later period, or receive their rude appearance from design. ' Concerning Daedalus, the first of the Athenian sculptors, doubtful or fabulous accounts have reached us ; but a careful investigation of circumstances proves, that of whatsoever country a native, he had rendered himself renowned by the exercise of his skill at the court of Minos before settling in Attica. The facts attending his arrival there, and the history of his previous labors, enable us to fix dates, and to trace the true source of improvement in Grecian art at this par- ticular era. Of the early establishments of the Greeks planted in the isles of the iEgean, which even preceded the mother country in the acquisition of wealth and intelligence, the Doric colony of Crete enjoyed, from a very early period, the happiness and consequent power of settled government. External advantag- es of situation first invited the access, while domestic institutions secured the benefits, of ancient and uninterrupted intercourse with Egypt. Hence the laws and the arts of the Cretans. With the former, the Athenian hero, Theseus, wished to transplant the latter also; and while he gave to his countrymen a sim- ilar system of policy, he did not fail to secure the co-operation of one whose knowledge might yield powerful aid in humanizing a rude people by adding new dignity to the objects of national veneration. Accordingly Daedalus, accompa- nying the conqueror of the Minotaur to Athens, fixes there the commencement of an improved style, 1234 years before the Christian era. The performances of Daedalus were chiefly in wood, of which no fewer than nine, of large dimensions, are described as existinginthe second century, which, notwithstanding the injuries of fourteen hundred years, and the imperfections of early taste, seemed, in the words of Pausanias, to possess something of divine expression. Their author, as reported by Diodorus, improved upon ancient art, so as to give vivacity to the attitude, and more animated expression to the counte- nance. Hence we are not to understand, with some, that Daedalus introduced sculpture into Greece, nor even into Attica ; but simply that he was the first to form something like a school of art, and whose works first excited the admiration of his own rude age, while they were deemed worthy of notice even in more en- lightened times. Indeed the details preserved in the classic writers, that he raised the arms in varied position from the flanks, and opened the eyes, before narrow and blinking, sufficiently prove the extent of preceding art.' (Memes.) It has however been doubted whether Daedalus ever had an actual existence, some supposing a mere mythic personage meant, whose name was intended for any .eminent artificer.— Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst.— Heyne, ad Horn. II. 18. $ 175. In presenting a historical view of the progress and char- acter of the art in Greece, and of the age of the principal produc- tions and their authors, four periods have been pointed out. The first includes the duration of the ancient style of execution, extending to GRECIAN SCULPTURE. 107 Phidias, who lived about 450 B. C. The second reaches from this artist to the time of Alexander the Great about 340 B. C. and may be characterised as the period of the grand style. The third, that of the beautiful style, and the most flourishing period, commencing with Praxiteles extends to the rise of the Imperial Power of Rome. The fourth includes the efforts of Grecian art under the Emperors, and is the period of its fall. But this whole division is too arbitrary and in- definite, and the source whence it was derived, the sketch of Pliny, is not sufficiently exact and distinct. See Plin. Hist. Nat. L. xxxiv, xxxvi.— Heyne^s Abh. ueber die Kunsterpocnen bei Plinius, in Sammlung antiquar. Aufs. St. I. — also by same., Artium inter Graecos tempora, in Opusc. Acad. V. 5. — Thiersch ueber die Epochen der bild. Kunst unter den Griechen. Munchen 1816. 1819. 4. — Winkelmann. Hist, de 1' Art &c. Liv. vi. ch. 6. — Essai sur le classement chronologique des seulpteurs Grecs les plus celebres, par T. B. Emeric-David Par. 1806. republished in ap- pend, to the Nat. Hist, of Pliny, in Biblioth. Class. Lat. Par. 1830. This essay names in chronological order the principal Greek sculptors and the works wrought by them. § 176. The character of the Grecian sculpture in the first age was originally that incompleteness and want of fitness and agreeableness in design and performance, which has already been mentioned. Sub- sequently there appeared more of truth and accuracy in the sketch and outline, while there was still a severity or stiffness, which was much deficient in expression as well as beauty. There are many re- mains of Grecian art, which are commonly assigned to this period, some of them correctly ; yet, as has been suggested, it is difficult to distinguish performances of some inferior artists of later times, from works belonging really to the earliest age. Endceus, Smilis, Dipce- nus, Scyllis, Agelladas, Dionysius of Argos, and Mys, were the prin- cipal sculptors of this period. § 177. With the growing prosperity of the Grecian States, the arts, and especially sculpture, steadily advanced. Among the means of improvement were the schools of art, for the instruction of young artists both in painting and sculpture, which were established at Sicy- on, Corinth, and iEgina. The first of these was the most eminent, founded by Dipoenus and Scyllis, and numbering among its pupils Aristocles, and subsequently other celebrated painters and sculptors. Corinth on account of its favorable situation became early one of the most powerful of the Grecian cities ; Cleanthes was one of the most ancient artists there. The school of JEgina., also, seems to have been early established, and the island gained much celebrity from its arts ; Callo, Glaucias, Simon, and Anaxagoras were distinguished in this school. The flourishing condition of these cities, in consequence of 108 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. commerce and navigation, made them eligible places for the establish- ment of such schools of art. § 178. The occasions for the execution and use of statues in Greece were very frequent and various. Not only were the temples of the gods ornamented with their statues and with sculptured representa- tions of their mythological history, but works of this kind were re- quired in great number for public squares and places, for private dwel- lings, gardens, country seats, walks, and for architectural ornament in general. The portico at Athens, receiving its name Poecile from its variety of ornaments, was crowded with statues. To heroes, wise men, poets and victors, statues were erected out of gratitude and re- spect, to princes often out of flattery. Thus did the statuary always find encouragement and reward for the exercise of his art, and for the application of all his talents, which were quickened and stimulated the more by emulation. See De l'Usage des statues, chez les Anciens ; Essai Historique, Brux. 1768. 4. § 179. Hence in the second period, reaching from Phidias to Prax- iteles or the time of Alexander, the art of sculpture obtained much higher excellence in Greece than among other nations. Its character- istic at this period was loftiness and grandeur in style ; yet this was accompanied with more or less of that want of softness and ease, that marked the works of preceding artists. There was a very rigid obser- vance of outward proportion. The expression in gesture and attitude was bold and significant rather than captivating and pleasing. Phidias was the first and the most distinguished artist. His statues of Minerva and Jupiter Olympus were among the most celebrated works of anti- quity, although known to us only by the unanimous praise of so many writers. Besides Phidias, among the celebrated were Alcamenes, Agoracritus, Polycletes, Myron and Scopas ; the latter however, more properly belongs to the next period. & L. Vcdkel ueber d. grossen Tempel und die statue des Jupiters zuOlympia. Leipz. 1794. 8.— T. Ph. Siebenkees ueber den Tempel und die Bildsaule d. Jup. zu Ol. Nuernb. 1795. 8. — E. H. Tcslken, de Phidiae Jove Olympic- observationes. Gott. 1812. 8.— E. Falconet, Sur deux Oeuvrages de Phidias, in his works, Lau- sanne, 1781. 6 vols. 8. § 180. Sculpture, together with the rest of the fine arts, attained the highest excellence, not far from the time of Alexander. In the period marked by the beautiful or elegant style, a peculiar grace was united with the accuracy and noble expression already acquired. This grace appeared both in a higher refinement in the design or SCULPTURE AMONG THE ROMANS. 109 conception, and greater ease in gesture, attitude and action. A dis- tinction may be made between the majestic grace which is conspicu- ous in the statues of the gods, belonging to this period, and that which is merely beautiful ; the latter again may be distinguished from an in- ferior and lighter sort exhibited in comparatively trifling performan- ces. Praxiteles, Lysippus, Chares and Laches were the most emi- nent sculptors of this period. § 181. Gradually Grecian art declined from its high excellence, and finally ceased. The causes are obvious ; the prevalence of luxu- ry and consequent corruption of taste and morals ; the internal chang- es and commotions and the infringements upon civil liberty from the time of Alexander, and its final loss after the subjection of Greece to the Romans. There were however in this period some skillful artists, as Arcesilaus, Pasiteles and Cleomenes ; and the plastic arts remained in credit in some of the cities of Asia and Sicily. See F. Jacobs nber den Reichthum der Griechen in plastischen Kunstwerken. Mtlnchen 1808. 4. § 182. On the subjection of the Greeks their arts passed, as it were, into the hands of the Romans, by whom however the arts were hon- ored and furnished with opportunities for their employment, rather than actually acquired and practised. Inearly periods of the republic, distinguished merit was rewarded Avith statues. After the second Punic war, a great number of splendid works of sculpture were brought to Rome from captured cities, Syracuse, Capua, Corinth, Car- thage, also from Etruria and Egypt. Likewise Grecian artists flocked to Rome, and there produced new works. With the advance- ment of wealth the Romans devoted greater and greater expense to the ornamenting of their temples, their public and private buildings, their gardens and manors, until at length there was a most extravagant and luxurious indulgence. Edm. Figrelii de statuis illustrium Romanorum liber singularis. Holmiae 1756. 8. — Lipsii Admiranda s. de magnitudine Romana libri iv. Antw. 1637. fol. — Rycquii de Capitolio Rom. commentarius. L. B. 1696. 8. — Sillig, Catalogus artificum Graecorum et Romanorum. Dresd. 1827. § 183. The Capitolium, particularly thetemple of Jupiter included in it, the Comitium and the Rostra, were in a special manner adorned with statues. Inspectors were appointed (tutelarii, aeditui), whose business was to guard the edifices thus ornamented from injury and plunder, a duty afterwards assigned to a particular magistrate. The senate alone could authorize the erection of statues, and the censors 110 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. corrected abases. Hence is found sometimes on Roman statues the inscription, Ex Senatus Dccrelo, E Decurionum Decreto. Statues were erected in the colonies and free cities. The buildings and public places of Rome were adorned by the first emperors with a great num- ber of works of sculpture, most of which however were prepared by- Grecian artists. § 184. In the last half of the second century after Christ there was an obvious decline of good taste in sculpture, and soon after the middle of the third, the art was wholly prostrated, through political disasters and other conspiring influences. Esteem for the art and its productions was lost, and many unfavorable circumstances happened, so that a number of the most valuable works of sculpture were muti- lated, buried in ruins, or entirely destroyed. This resulted partly from the warlike character of the tribes that invaded Italy, partly from the avarice and rapacity of some of the later Roman emperors, from frequent earthquakes or conflagrations, from the repeated capture and sacking of Rome and Constantinople, and from a mistaken zeal of many christians against the preservation of heathen idols and mon- uments. See-FioriZfo'sGeschichteder Malerei. B. I. p. 11. § 185. Notwithstanding all this ruin, many monuments of sculp- ture, and some of them of high excellence, have been preserved. Since the revival of the fine arts, which commenced in Italy, the last seat of ancient sculpture, these monuments have been diligently sought out, collected and described. Yet most of them have suffered from time or accident, and very few are wholly free from mutilations. There have been attempts to remedy these injuries by rejoining and repairing, but without sufficient judgement or skill. For such at- tempts require not only mechanical dexterity, but a very correct ap- prehension of the exact design of the original artist, and especially a capacity to adopt perfectly his manner and style. No modern has been more successful in labors of this sort, than Cavaceppi. See Raccolta d'aatiche statue etc. resta urate da B. Cavaceppi. Rom. 1768-72. rfvol. b ol.— Abh. xiber Restaur, von Kunstwerken, in Propylaen, II. 1. p. 92.— v^iqaq "i 1 f ntatl0Iles de statuis acquis mutilatis, recenuori manu refectis. V it. loUo. sqq. 4. k 186. Of the great number of valuable monuments of ancient sculpture we shall mention here only some of the most celebrated, such among them as deserve the first rank. 1. The splendid Group of Laocoon in the Belvedere .of the Vatican MONUMENTS OF SCULPTURE. Ill at Rome. It is larger than life, wrought of white marhle, not wholly- finished on the hack. (S. Virg . Aen. II. 201— 225.— Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 4). It consists of three principal figures, the Father and his two sons, writhing in the coil of two huge serpents. This was found in the year 1506 among the ruins of the Baths of Titus, and probably belongs to the times of the first emperors. The expression of ex- treme agony in the features, and muscles of the whole body, especial- ly of Laocoon, the struggle to break the dreadful grasp, the cry of distress indicated by the mouth, the anxious, entreating look of the sons fixed on their father, are among the striking excellencies which mark this extraordinary performance. Critics however differ in opinion respecting the real design of the artist as to the expression and degree of the anguish of the Father. Heyne's antiquar. Aufs. St. 2.— Propylaen I. — Hirt in d. Horen v. 1797, — Win- kelmann'sWeike. vi. 1. — Lessing's Laocoon, §5. — T. B. Emeric- David Essai cited § 175. 2. The Group of Niobe and her children. Her children being slain by Apollo and Diana, the mother through grief was changed into stone (Ovid. Met. VI. 148—312. Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 4). This work has marks of the lofty style, and is perhaps from the hands of Scopas. It consists of five figures. It was discovered in 1583, and is still in the Duke's collection at Florence, where the figures are mere- ly placed by the side of each other, as their proper arrangement in a group is difficult to discover, and even their original connection is not fully proved. There is an uncommonly elevated and tragic expres- sion in all the figures and great variety in the combination. Angelo Fabroni Diss, sulle Stat, appartenenti alia favola di Niobe. Firenze. 1779 Fol. — Meyer in Propylaen. II. and Bottiger's Amalthea (Musee de l'antiqui- le figuree) Dresden 1824. 1. — Winckelmann, VI. 1. — On the moral of -the Lao- coon and Niobe, see remarks in The Philosophy of Travelling by T. Johnson, M. D. (p. 118 Am. ed. N. York 1831). 3. The Farnese Bull, the largest of all ancient groups. It consists of a bull, two youth larger than life, Zethus and Amphion, and three smaller figures, two of which are taken for Dirce and Antiope, repre- sented upon a rock. The rock and figures are 12 Parisian feet in height, and 9 1 -2 in width. This group was found about the middle of the sixteenth century, and lodged in the palace Farnese at Rome, and afterwards placed in public at Naples. Many parts of it are mod- ern ; of course the expression is defective. Pliny speaks of a simi- lar work of art, perhaps it is the very same. Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. i— Heyne's Antiquar. Aufs. St 2.—]Rehfues, Neapel. Th. 3. — Winckelmann. VI. 1. 11>2 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 4. The Apollo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of ancient sta- uos, on account of the perfection of art diplayed in it. It is an ideal of youthful beauty and vigor. It seems to represent Apollo just af- ter discharging his arrow at the serpent Python, and indicates in its expression a noble satisfaction and assurance of victory. It was found at Antium in 1503. It was purchased by Pope Julius II. then a cardinal, and placed in the part of the Vatican called Belvedere. The legs and hands have received modern repairs. Hirt's Bilderbuch, I. p. 32.— Winckelmann's Werke VI. 1. 5. The Venus de Medici. It is in the grand duke's gallery at Flor- ence. It is of pure white marble, and the height of the statue but lit- tle over five feet. On the pedestal appears the name of Cleomenes as the sculptor, but the inscription is modern. The design of the artist was to represent Venus either as just coming from the bath, on the point of dressing herself, taken by surprize, and full of virgin mod- esty, or as appearing before Paris for his judgment in the contest with Juno and Minerva for the prize of beauty. This statue must be distinguished from the Cnidian Venus of Praxiteles, of which we possess only copies. R. Levezow ueber die Frage, ob die mediceische Venus ein Bild der knidishen von Praxiteles sei. Berlin 1808.— Winckelmann. VI. 2.—Heyne's Antiq. Aufs. St. 1. — Johnson's Philosophy of Travelling, p 121. t 6. The Hercules Famese, formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome, now at Naples. It is a colossal statue, almost three times as large as nature, of beautiful Parian marble. The feet were at first missing, and others were substituted by della Porta with such art, that the or- iginal ones, being subsequently found, were only placed by the side of the statue. The inscription names Glycon as the artist, whom, how- ever, no antient writer mentions. One admires in this work, the firm, vigorous, powerful body, although in repose, resting against the club. Winckelm. VI. l.—Dupaty, Voyages d'ltalie. 7. The antique work called the Torso, in the Belvedere at Rome. It consists merely of the body or trunk, of white marble, executed in a very superior manner. On account of its size and appearance of muscular strength it is commonly taken for the body of a statue of Her- cules. It has been called the Torso of Michad Angelo, because he particularly admired and studied it. See Winckelmanris "Werke, VI. 1. 8. The Gladiator Borghese, formerly in the villa Borghese at Rome, MONUMENTS OF SCULPTURE. 113 now in the Royal Museum of Paris. This is the representation of a hero or warrior, who seems to be defending himself against a cavalier. In the opinion of Heyne it belonged to a group. Connoiseurs in art do not agree respecting its design. It is a beautiful and noble figure, of manly age, athletic, with the muscles in strong tension, yet not over-straine'd or unnatural. The inscription on it ascribes the work to Agasias of Ephesus, who is nqt mentioned by any ancient writer, but certainly must have belonged to the period of the highest perfection of Grecian art. See Heyne's Antiq. Aufs. St. 2. — Winckelm. VI. 1. — Anthon's Lemp. Agasias. — Comp."§168. 9. The Dying Gladiator (Gladiator deficiens) in the Campidoglio at Rome. He lies upon a shield, supported by his right hand, with a collar upon his neck, and seems to be exerting his utmost strength to rise. Some parts of the figure are modern, but admirably wrought, and ascribed to Michasl Angelo. See Heyne's Aufs. St. 2. — Winckelmann's "Werke, VI. 10. Antinous, a very beautiful statue in the Belvedere at Rome. It has been considered, although without grounds, as a representation of Antinous, the favorite of Hadrian. Winckelmann took it for a statute of Meleager, or some other young hero, and admired very much its head. It is now quite commonly viewed as a Mercury. Levezow ueber den Antinous, dargestellt in den Kunstdenkmalern des Alter- thums, Berlin. 1808. 4. — Winckelmann, VI. 1. — Bottiger's Andeutungen. , 11. A Flora, formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome (thence called the Flora Farnese), now at Naples. The body only is ancient; the rest is modern by della Porta ; whence it is not certain that this statue originally represented Flora. Winckelmann considered it as intended for a Muse. Its principal merit is in its drapery, which is re- garded as the best of all ancient statues. It is nearly as large as the Hercules Farnese, yet its whole expression is feminine. See Winckelmamm 's Werke, IV. 12. Marcus Aurelius, an equestrian statue, of gilded metal, in the square of the modern capitol at Rome. It is much larger than life. It retains now but few traces of the gilding, but is otherwise in good preservation. Its effect is increased by the pedestal on which it was elevated by Michael Angelo. The horse particularly is admired, 15 t lit ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. seeming actually to move forward, and exhibiting, generally, fine proportions. , Observations sur la Statue de Marc-Aurele, par Falconet. Amst. 1771. Winckelmaim, VI. 13. The statue of Pallas, found in 1797 in the vicinity of Velletri and brought to Paris, where it is lodged in the Royal Museum. The Description of the Museum of Napoleon contains a representation of it. An account of it is given by Fernow, in N. D. Mercur, v. J. 1798, § 187. Among the valuable remains of antiquity are many busts, which, aside from the skill and beauty in their execution, afford much pleasure and utility by preserving the features of celebrated persons. The correctness of these likenesses is not certain, especially as in many cases they have undergone the process of restoration by modern hands. Many also exhibit no distinct characteristics, to enable us to decide any thing as to the persons they represent. The uncertain character of the inscriptions has already been mentioned ; and some- times the head and pedestal do not belong together. It may be too that the portrait is the mere fancy of the artist. Among the most distinguished and authentic are those of Homer, Socrates, Plato, Alexander the Great, Scipio, Julius Caesar, and others found in the collections of statuary about to be mentioned. There is the largest number in the Capitol at Rome ; engravings of these may be found in the work styled Museo Capitolino (§ 191). See GwliU's Versuch ueber Buestenkunde. Magdeb 1800. 4. § 188. There likewise remains a multitude of works in relief, ei- ther in whole pieces, or fragments, on edifices, columns, shields, hel- mets, tripods, tombs, altars &c. Vases and drinking utensils, urns and funereal lamps, are often found in antiquarian collections, many of distinguished excellence as works of art. It would be too long to enumerate the monuments adorned with relief, even the most celebrated; and we only mention the triumphal arches still existing at Rome, erected by the emperors Titus, Septimius Severus, Constantine, and the col- umns of Trajan and Antoninus Marcus. See Li Bassirilievi antichi di Roma, incisi da Tom. Piroli, colle illustrazioni di Giorgio Zoega. Rom. 1808. 2 Vol. Fol. (Translated into German by welcker Giessen, 1811.— References in SuUer's Allg. Theorie, article, Flaches Sckaitz- werk. § 189. Of the remains of mosaic work, the most beautiful is that found at Tivoli, representing four doves around the rim of a vase. The COLLECTIONS OF SCULPTURE. 115 largest is that called the Mosaic ofPraeneste having once been the floor of the temple of Fortune in that place. It represents an Egyptian festival. It is now in the Palace Barberini, built upon the ruins of the temple just named, in the village now bearing the name Palestrina. Other works of this kind have heen discovered in modern times. See Visconti, Osservazioni su due Musaici Antichi Istoriati (Plates). Parm. 1787. 4. Giwfttttiber die Mosaik. Magdeb. 1798. 4. —Explication de la Mosatque de Palestrine, par M. VAbbb Barthelemy, Paris. 1760. 4.— Cf. § 167.— Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Article Mosaische. § 190. Many collections have been made of remains of ancient Sculpture. The following are the most celebrated public collections. In Italy we find the greatest number and the most valuable remains, particularly at Rome, in the Vatican ; in the Museum of the Capitol ; in the palaces, Barberini, Mattei, Massimi ; in the Villas, Albani, Ludovisi, Pamfili, and Medici : at Florence in the Gallery of the Grand Duke and the palace Pitti : at Naples in the Royal Museum : at Portici, in the Museum of Antiquities, where are collected the re- mains discovered at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae : at Venice in the fore-hall of St Mark's Library. In France the most important collection of the kind is in the Royal Museum, at Paris. This collection was greatly augmented after the French war in Italy , 1796, by master pieces of art brought from Rome and other cities of Italy, and from Netherlands and Germany. But on the victory of the allied powers over Buonaparte in 1815, these plundered treasures were restored to the places, whence they had been taken. Nevertheless the collection in the Royal Museum is still one of the richest in Europe. In England the chief is in the British Museum, London, where are the valuable monuments brought from Greece by Lord Elgin in 1814 and purchased by Parliament for the Museum. — Interesting remains of bas-reliefs are seen in the Arundelian collection, at Ox- ford. — Valuable works of ancient art are in possession of rich indi- viduals ; among the most distinguished are those belonging to the Duke of Pembroke's Collection. In Germany, there is a collection at Vienna,, in the Imperial Mu- seum, particularly rich in Vases ; at Munich in the saloon of the Pal- ace, and the Glyptothek, where are particularly noticeable the Aegi- netan sculptures, discovered in 1811; at Dresden in what is called the Japanese Palace (a beautiful collection) ; at Charlottenburgh in the Royal Mansion, near Berlin ; at Sans-Souci, in the edifice erected by Frederic If of Prusssia by the name of Temple of Antiques. ll() ARCHJKOLOGY OF ART. Farther particulars respecting these collections may be drawn from works of Topography and Travels. See, e. g. in reference to Italy, Keyssler, Volkmann willi I he additions of Bernmtilli, Count Stolberg, the voyage picturesque by Co- chin, letters of Dupaty, &c. A very instructive work, both in relation to this point, and in the formation of taste in general, is that of Ramdohr, entitled, Ueber Malerei and Bildhauerei in Rom. Leipz. 1799. 3 Vol. 8.— See also, John- son's Philosophy of Travelling. N. York. 1831. 8. — Eustace's Classical Tour in Italy. — Some account of the collections in Rome, and the places where they are lodged, may be found in Descrizione di Roma Moderna formata nuovamente con le Autorita del Cardinal Bar onio, &c. Rom. 1697. — For other references see Suiter's Allg. Theorie &c. Vol. 1. p. 188. Scarcely ariy of the genuine remains of ancient art have been brought to this country. In the Boston- Alheneum, are two or three antique bas-reliefs, But copies and casts in plaster may serve as substitutes. The Institution just named besides a number of busts and other antiques, has also in plaster casts, some of the most valued monuments of ancient sculpture, as the Laocoon, Apollo Belve- dere, Venus de Medici, The Torso, Anlinous, Gladiator Borghese, &c. (Ms. Lett, of Dr. Bass). — The Academy of Fine Arts, at Philadelphia, has also some an- tiques, and a number of copies and casts of celebrated pieces. § 191. In order to give those, who cannot visit in person these remains of ancient art, some visible representation of them, drawings and plates have been published, which are usually accompanied with descriptions and critical remarks. Some of the principal of these works may be mentioned. Raccoltadi Statue antiche e modern e da Domen. de Rossi, colle sposizioni di Paolo Alessandro Maffci. Roma 1704. fol. m. — II Museo Capitolino — Museum Capitolinum (ed. Boltari, Foggini. et Guerci). Roma 1750—83. 4 Vols. fol. — Museum Florentinum, c. obss. H. F. Gorii. Flor. 1731—42. 6 Vols, fol.— Gorii Museum Etruscum. Flor. 1737. 3 Vols, fol.— Raccolta delle antiche statue nell' Antisala della libreria di S. Marco, illustr. da A. M. Zanetti. Venez. 1740—43. 2 Vols. fol. — L. Begeri Thesaurus Brandeburgicus selectus. Colon. March. 1696—1701. 3 Vols. fol. — Veterum illustrium Philosophorum, Poetarum, Rheto- rum et Oratorum Imagines, a L. P. Bellorio illustratee, Rom. 1685. fol.— Admi- randa Romanarum Antiquitatum ac veteris Sculptures Vestigia, a Petro Sancto Bartolo delineata c. n. /. P. Bellorii. Rom. 1699. fol.— Recueil des Antiquites Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques et Romaines, par Mr. le Comte de Caylus. Paris. 1752—67. 7 Vols. 4.— Monumenti antichi inediti, spiegati ed illustrati da Giov. Winckelmann. Roma 1767. 2 Vols. fol. m— II Museo Pio-Clementino, descrittoda Giamb. (ed. Ennio Gluirino) Visconti. Roma 1782—1807. 7 Vols, fol.— Les plus beaux Monuments de Roma anc. dess. et gr. (par Barbault) Paris, 1762. fol.— Gallerie du Musee Napoleon, publiee par Filhol et redigee par LavalUe. Paris. 1802— 1815. 10 Vols. 8. -Landon Gallerie completejdu Musee Napoleon. Paris. 64 livraisons. 4. — Description historique et critique des statues, bas-reliefs, etc. du Musee Royal, avec des dissertations sur les arts et les antiquites, par A. Lenoir. Par. 1820. 8. An English Translation by J. Griffiths.— Musee des Antiques, dessine et grave, par P. Bouillon. Paris. 1826. 3 Vols, fol.— Augusteum, Dresden's antike Denkma- ler enthaltend, von W. G. Becker. Leipz. 1804—11. 3 Vol. fol— A Description of the Antiquities and Curiosities in Wilton house illustrated with xxv Engrav- ings of the Capital Statues, Bustos and Relievos, by J. Kennedy. Salisb. 1769. 4.— Aecles Pcmbrochianse, or a Critical Account of the Statues &c. at Wilton house, by Richardson. Lond. 1774. 8.— One of the best works of its kind is J. J. f-Toi <•? Staluae antiqusc Eeri incisse, delineata? ab Edm. Bouchardon. Norimb. a ii rru ~ ^Krcte, Handbuch d. philol. Bilcherkunde, Vol. 2. p. 331.— Sulzer AUg. ineor. Vol 1. p. 188.— The following maybe added, Dallaway's Statuary and bculpture of the Ancients. Svo.—Flaxman's Lectures on Sculpture with Plates. 8vo.— Specimens of Ancient Sculpture. (Lond.) Imp. fol.— Visconti and Mongcz Iconographie Ancienne. This splendid work owes its existence to JMapoleon, and was executed at the puplic expense. It contains portraits of cele- ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 117 brated personages of Greece and Rome, drawn from ancient statues, busts, med- als &c. See a notice in the Rcvu .E?icy. Vol. xxvi. p. 427. II. — Lilhoglyphy, or Engraving on Gems. $ 192. Engraving upon such materials as metals, ivory, shells, crystals and gems is a particular application of the general art of image-work. It is done either by elevating the figures above the sur- face of the material used, or depressing them below. Gems, or pre- cious stones (lidov, gemmae), are most commonly employed for this purpose, and the art has thence been called Lithoglypby (Xidoylvyia). As the stones engraved were very frequently inserted in rings for the fingers, the art was also termed by the Greeks daxrvli,oykvati, Oanipeiqog, I'aanig, Xiyvqiov, hxax^g, hfisdvoTog, xQvooldog, finqvlXiov, Mx<-ov. The list in Rev. xxi contains also ^aixjjiwr, aaqSow'g, xQvaonQaoog , vaxirdog. See Epiphanius de xii Gemmis &c. on the xii gems in the breast-plate of Aaron. — Gessner, Corollarium to the treatise of Epiphanius. Some have included among the gems the Murra, or mwrhinum, mentioned by Pliny, of which were made the vessels (vasa murrina) so much valued by the Romans. But as to the nature of this substance there have been many conjec- tures, of which the most probable seems to be, that it was a kind of porcelain. ' The vases were in such esteem at Rome, in the first ages of the christian era, that two of them were bought by one of the emperors at the price of 300 sestertium, more than £2000 sterling each. A cup capable of holding three sextarii f4 1-2 120 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. pints) was sold for seventy talents ; and a dish for three hundred, a talent being equal to £180 English.' (Amer. Journ. of Science and Art. Vol xxvi. p. 236). — See Graf von Veltheim, Abhandlung fiber die Vasa murrina. Hehnst. 1791.8. — Gwlitt, fiber die Gemmenkunde. Magdeb. 1798. i.—Roloff, Uber die Murrinisch- enQefaesse der Alten, in Museum der Alterthumswissenschaft herausg. von Wolf and liullmawn (Bd. ii).—Launaij, Mineral, des Anciens. I. p. 85. § 196. On these gems the figures were formed either in depres- sion below the surface, or in relief above. Those of the first kind were called by the ancients, gemma diaglyphicce, insculptce ; by the Italians intagli, by the French gravures en creux. Those of the oth- er kind were called gemma ectypce, anaglyphies, exsculptce ; the modern term is cameo. This word was formed, it may be, from the union of two, viz. gemma, onychia, as it originally was applied only to gems of onyx having two colors, the figure in relief being formed of the upper color and the other appearing in the ground. Or it may have come from the name of a shell, Came, which is found on the coast of Trapani in Sicily, and which has various figures on it in a sort of relief. Where the figure is formed below the surface of the gem, the depression is "of different degrees, according to the perspec- tive. Sometimes the surface of the gem receives a swelling form like that of a shield, to enable the artist to express the prominent parts more naturally and without curtailment and preserve a more accurate perspective. § 197. The ohjects represented upon engraved and sculptured gems are very various. Often the figures transmit and preserve the memory of particular persons, remarkable events, civil and religious rites and customs, or other matters worthy of notice. Sometimes the whole is an arbitrary device of the artist, combining and exhibiting mythical, allegorical, and imaginary objects. Frequently we find merely heads, of gods, heroes or distinguished personages, either singly, or one after another (capita jugata), or facing each other (adversa) or turned the opposite way (aversa). The heads usually appear in profile. In discovering and explaining the design, it is use- ful to compare the pieces with coins and other gems. § 198. Upon many gems are found figures in full length, either single or grouped. There, are for example, full figures of gods with various costumes, and appendages. Frequently mythical and alle- gorical representations are united. Many times the engravings illus- trate points of history and antiquities. Festivals, sacrifices, bacchanals, feats in hunting and the like are often presented. There are gems also with inscriptions, which usually give the name of the artist, but not with certainty, because the inscription is so often made subse- gem-engraving; Egyptian. 121 quently to the time of the engraving. Some gems also bear in large letters the names of the persons who caused them to be engraved. Occasionally the inscription contains the words of some sacred, or ■votive formula; scarcely ever an explanation of the subject represented. See Fr.de Ficoroni Gemmae antiquse literatae. Rom. 1757. 4. § 199. The history of this art has its different periods, and prin- cipal changes and characteristics in reference to origin, progress and decline, in common with sculpture or image work in general. Like the whole plastic art, it depends much on design, and its advancement and fall are connected with the same causes. Its progress presents the same varieties of style, the rude, the more cultivated, and the ele- gant. It is probable, that soon after the discovery of precious stones men began to etch upon them, at first, perhaps mere characters or sim- ple signs. The Bible gives the earliest notices of the art, in the pre- cious stones of the Ephod and the Breast-plate of Aaron (Exod. xxviii. 17-22), on which were inscribed the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. Gems and precious stones are spoken of at a still earlier pe- riod (Gen. ii. 12. Job. xxviii. 6. 16-19. Comp. Lev. xxvi. 1). § 200. The Israelites without doubt derived the art from the Egyptians, among whom it had been long known, and had been pro- moted by their superstitious ideas respecting the wonderful efficacy of such stones in the preservation of health, In this view they were marked with hieroglyphic characters, and used as talismans, or amu- lets. Many of these stones yet exist, especially of a convex form like that of the beetle, termed Scarabai (xagafiog) ; however, many of them were wrought at a later period, after the time of Christ, to which more recent class belong also those called by the name of Abraxas. See J. J. Bellermann's drei Progr. tlber die Gemmen mit dem Abraxas- Bilde, und zwei Progr. iiber den Scarabaeen-Gemmen. Berl. 1817. The word Abraxas, being interpreted according to the numerical force of its corresponding Greek letters, o (9 q a £ a g, signifies 365, the number of days in the year. It is said to have been fabricated by Basilides, who maintained that there were so many heavens, or by some one of the sect called Gnostics. The engraved stones designated by this name are supposed to have proceeded from the followers of this sect and to have been designed as a sort of amulets or talis- mans. Great numbers of them are preserved in the cabinets of Europe. Mont- faucon divides them into 7 classes ; 1. those with the head of a cock usually joined with a human trunk with the legs ending in two serpents ; 2. those with the head or body of a lion, having often the inscription Mithras ; 3. those having the inscription or the figure Serapls ■ 4. those having Anubus, or scarabasi, serpents or sphinxes; 5. those having human figures with or without wings ; 6. those having inscriptions without figures ; 7. those having unusual or monstrous figures. The term Abraxas, sometimes written Abrasax, is found only on a few. — The mystic word ABPACAJAVPA is supposed to have come from the same sect. An amulet was formed by writing these letters in such a way that they should make an inverted cone or triangle with the whole word at the base and the letter A at 16 122 ARGH7E0L0GY OF ART. thenpex; which was done by beginning the word one place farther to the right m each successive line and also cutting off at each time one letter from the end. This was employed as a charm for the cure of a fever. — See Mowtfaiicon, L'Autiquile expliquee. Tom. ii. p 353 (Part. 2. Liv. 3) — Joa. Macarii Abraxas s. Apistopistus ; antiquaria disquisitio de Gemmis Basilidianis. Antv. 1657. 4.— P. C Jablonsky, De Nominis Abraxas vera significatione, in the Miscell. Lips. ?iov. (Bd. 7. Th. 1). We may mention here a class of engraved stones, sometimes called Socratic, having heads of various animals connected with the form or feet of a cock, or other devices, among which is found a head resembling Socrat.es. — See Sulzer, Allg. Theorie &e. vol. ii. p. 399. — Joa. Chifletii Socrates, s. de Gemmis ejus im- agine caslatis Judicium. Antv. 16G2. 4. — Middleton's Antiq. Tab. xxi. sect. 10. cf. Doddridge, Family Expositor. Note on Rev. iv. 7. (p. 913. Am. Ed. Amherst 1833). § 20 1 . Still among the Egyptians, lithoglyphy, like the other plas- tic arts, and on account of the same hindrances (§ 169), never reached any distinguished excellence or perfection. Stones and gems, adorn- ed with figures in relief, were much less common among them than among the Greeks and Romans, with whom a greater degree of luxury in general favored the exercise of this art in particular. § 202. Among the Ethiopians, Persians, and other nations of Asia and Africa, this art must have heen known in very ancient times, because their sculptured stones are mentioned by the ancient Greek and Roman writers. Persian gems are still in existence of various kinds. But the Etrurians were more remarkable. They either borrowed the art from the Egyptians.or very soon became imitators of the Egyp- tian manner and like them wrought gems in the form of the scara- basus or beetle. They carried their skill in execution much further, but not to the point of Grecian excellence. We probably have re- maining but few sculptured gems, really Etruscan ; most of those so called are probably of Grecian origin ; at least the evidence that they are Tuscan is very unsatisfactory. § 203. Whether the Greeks borrowed this art from Egypt can- not be decided any more certainly than the exact time when they be- came acquainted with it That it existed in Egypt at an earlier period is unquestionable ; but that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed it from that country by no means follows. Probably it arose among them as did sculpture. It seems to have been known in the time of the Trojan war, although Pliny expresses doubt on the point. This writer and others mention, as the most ancient remarkable gem among the Greeks, that belonging to the signet of Polycrates, king of Samos. It was an emerald or sardonyx on which was carved a lyre. Accor- ding to tradition, this jewel, having been thrown by the king into the sea to avoid an accident that threatened him, was brought back by a fish that was served at his table. The artist who wrought it, was GEM-ENGRAVING J GREEK AND ROMAN. 123 Theodoras of Samos, who flourished about 530 years before Christ. The art was at that time quite imperfect, but afterwards advanced rap- idly, and reached its highest perfection about the time of Alexander. § 204. In this flourishing time, no graver of gems equaled Pyr- goteles in celebrity. While Apelles alone was allowed by Alexander to paint his likeness, and Lysippus alone to carve his statue, Pyrgo- teles was the only one permitted to sketch his miniature on the pre- cious stone. In the same period lived also Sostratus, whose name is inscribed on some of the most beautiful gems still existing. Some- what later, although it is not certain precisely of Avhat time, were Apollonides and Cronius, artists of nearly equal celebrity. Many other names of Grecian lithoglyphists occur both on existing ancient gems and in ancients writers. Not much reliance however is to be placed on the inscriptions (§ 198). Some of these names are, Aga- thangelus, Agathopus, Aulus, Alpheus, Arethon, Epitynchanus, Albi- us, Evodus, Mycon, Admon, Aetion, Anteros, Goeus, Pamphylus, Philemon, Sosocles, Tryphon, &c. See Bibliotheque glyptographique par Chr. Theoph.de Murr. Dres. 1804. F— - Dissertatio glyptographica &c. auet. Fr. Vettori. R. 1739. 4. — Memorie degli an- tichi incisori, chi scolpirono i loro nome in Gemme e Camei. Opera di D. A. Bracci. Fir. 1784. fol. § 205. The Romans possessed this art only as the conquerors and lords of Greece. Engraved gems were highly valued among them, and were bought at exorbitant prices. Yet they can claim no proper merit for the advancement of this art, because all, who were most distinguished in it among them, were Greeks by birth. Of these Dioscorides and Solon, in the time of Augustus, were the best. Gems which are engraved in the proper Roman manner, and such are rec- ognised by the costume, are not valued so highly as the Grecian. It is to be remarked that this art fell at the same time and from the same causes, with the other arts. In the middle ages, however, li- thoglyphy was not wholly neglected, since to this period belong the stones already mentioned (§ 199) as passing under the name Abraxas, and designed for magical purposes. § 206. The use of sculptured stones with the ancients was two- fold, for seals, and for ornaments ; in both cases it was common to make of them rings. The early use of gems for such purposes is evident from the passages of scripture already referred to (^ 199). For seals the figure was generally cut below the surface of the stone, but formed in relief when the stone was designed merely for ornament. The ancients made collections of gems, which they termed dactylio- 124 ARCHJEOLOGV OF ART. //n<(r(8axTvlio6^xai^ from daxTiifoog a ring ; artists who wrought these gems were from the same circumstance called damvlioyUcpoi. Pliny (37. 5) mentions several such collections, and among them that of Mithridates, which was brought to Rome to the Capitol by Pompey. Julius Ca;sar placed six different collections in the temple of Venus Genitrix, and Marcel] us, son of Octavia, one in the temple of Apollo. It is however probable that these collections were composed, at least in considerable part, of gems not engraved or sculptured. On the use of engraved gems for seals and rings, see references in Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, vol. ii. p. 394. — Traite des pierres gravees &c. par P. Jean Ma- riette. Paris, 1750. 2 Vols. fol. § 207, Respecting the mechanical operations in this art among the ancients we are not well informed. They seem to have been sim- ilar to the methods of modern artists, except that the ancients perhaps had some unknown way of giving to their works their high degree of delicacy, completeness and finish. For the ancient gems are certainly marked by these excellencies, united with singular beauty of design, taste in arrangement, variety in subject and illustration, and truth in expression. They are also characterised by a peculiar purity and pol- ish, and great fullness and freedom in the sculpture. Traite de la methode antique de graver en pierres fines, comparee avec la methode moderne, par Laur. Natter. — Engl. Trans. Lond. 1754. fol. with plates. \ 208. Yet fixed and infallible criteria cannot be given for dis- tinguishing ancient from modern gems or spurious from genuine antiques, since modern artists have approached very near the perfec- tion of the ancient, and have surpassed those of a secondary rank. The discriminating eye and judgment of the connoisseur are formed perhaps more by practice, than by any general rules ; attention how- ever must be paid to notice the material of the gem, the manner and air of the etching, the nature of the polish, and frequently to consider and compare various circumstances in history and antiquities. See Von Vettheim, Sammlung einiger Aufsatze. Helmst. 1800. 2 Th. 8.— On the modes of producing fictitious gems, see Encyclopedia, Edinburgh, or Bri- tannica, under Gems. $ 209. The study of ancient gems is recommended by its mani- fold utility. Aside from the aids to literature and taste which, it af- fords in common with the study of antiquities in general, it has an advantage from the greater number and variety and the better preser- vation of gems, than of monuments of the plastic arts. This gives them a preference even before coins, whose impressions, notwithstand- PASTES AND CASTS OF ENGRAVED GEMS. 125 ing any beauty in them, by no means equal the engravings of the bet- ter Greek gems. A frequent examination of them may form the mind to a quick sense and correct judgment of the beautiful, enrich the fancy of the poet and artist, and familiarise the student with the conceptions and the spirit of ancient genius. See Klotz, ueber den Nutzen und Gebrauch der geschnittenen Steine und ihrer Abdrucke. Altenb. 1768. 8. § 210. These remains of ancient art have been rendered much more extensively useful from the ease, with which they are multiplied by means of imitations. Imitations in glass are the most valuable, because in color, lustre, and translucency they can be made so nearly like the originals, that it is at first even difficult to distinguish them. Something similar was the Vitrum Obsidianum of the ancients. Much less valuable are impressions in sulphur and in wax although the latter have an advantage in the facility of execution. Very useful for taking casts and impressions of this sort is the material invented by Prof. Lippert at Dresden, of a fine white substance. Another useful material for the purpose was invented by Wedgewood and Bent- ley in England, a dark composition formed partly of a sort of por- celain earth. The impressions of Lippert amounted to 3000 in number, of which each thousand was sold separately. The pastes of Tassie of Lon- don have acquired great celebrity. His collection of impressions of ancient and modern gems amounted to 15,000. Respecting the substance termed Obsidianum., see Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 67. — Laimay, Mineralogie des Anciens, Vol. I. p. 361. — Comte de Caylus, Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript. Tom. xxx. p. 457. ■■ The art of multiplying copies of gems by means of impressions on colored glass, or the vitrified substance called paste, is interesting not only to artists and antiquaries but also to men of taste. It is of considerable antiquity, perhaps practised by the Greeks ; it is mentioned in a work by Heraclius, in the 9th cen- tury, De coloribus et artibus Romanorum, and is supposed to be alluded to by Pliny, Nat. Hist. 1. xxxvi. c. 26. See Encycl. Brit, under Gems, and Mariette, cited § 205, Vol, l.p. 93. — The casts of Lippert show the work perhaps to better advantage than sulphurs, but are liable to be injured by rubbing. The first thousand of [his series were arranged and described by Prof. Christ of Leipsic, and the second and third thousand by Prof. Heyne at Goettingen, in a Latin Catalogue (Leipsic, 1755 — 63. 4.) ; a more particular account is given by Lippert himself, in German, in his Dactyliothek, Leipz, 1767. 2 Vols. 4. and the Supplement. — Wedgewood's impressions are much valued. ' His imita- tions of Jasper, by which cameos, and white figures in relief, are raised on a colored ground are exquisitely beautiful.' (Silliman's Journal. Vol. xxvi. p. 244). A Catalogue of the casts of Wedgewood and Bentley was published at London, 1790. 8. — James Tassie was a native of Glasgow, resident at London. His glass pastes were brought into greater notoriety by the jewellers, who in- serted them in seals, rings and other ornaments. An account of his numerous impressions was published under the title, A descriptive Catalogue of a general collection of ancient and modem Gems, — cast in colored pastes, white enamel and sulphur by J. Tassie, — arranged and described by R. F. Raspe,— and illus- IJJ6 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. trated with Copperplates, to which is prefixed an introduction on the various uses of this collection, the origin of the art of engraving on stones, and the pro- gress of pastes. Lond. 1791. 2 Vols. 4. Copies of coins and medals are also multiplied by means of casts in sulphur and other substances. Such e. g. are the copies of the medals struck in com- memoration of events in the life of Buonaparte, a series of 160 pieces; the casts form a suite of 185 pieces including several reverses. Comp. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, articles, Abdrucke, Abgusse, Paste. §211. CSf the great number of existing ancient gems only a few will be named, of such as are the most celebrated. Of this class are the following ; the signet of Michael Angelo (cachet de Michel Ange) as it is called, in the Royal Museum at Paris, a carnelian, on which is represented with masterly skill an Athenian festival, or as some think, the training of Bacchus : — a very beautiful Medusa's head upon a chalcedony, formerly in the Strozzi collection at Rome, now in possession of the Baron von Schellersheim : — the head of Socra- tes on a carnelian in the collection Von Mark at Harlem : — Bacchus and Ariadne upon a red Jasper in the collection of the Grand Duke at Florence : — the heads of Augustus, Maecenas, Diomedes, and Hercu- les, inscribed with the name Dioscorides: — a'head of Alexander a cameo in Sardonyx, with an inscription scarcely genuine of the name Pyrgoteles. Among the largest gems remaining are, an onyx in the Imperial collection at Vienna, on which is exhibited the Apotheosis of Augus- tus and Livia ; the so called Mantuan Vessel, formed of onyx, in possession of the family of the Duke of Brunswick ; the Barberini or Portland vase already mentioned (§ 1 73). See Gwrlitt, tlber die Gemmenkunde, cited (§ 195) p. 23. Winckelmann, His- toire &c. L. iv. c. vii. sect. 67. — K. A. Bottiger tlber die Aechtheit und das Vater- land der antiken Onyx-Kameen von ausserordentlicher Grosse. Leipz. 1796. 8. — Bees Cyclopaedia, Gems engraved. It has been remarked that the seal of Michael Angelo affords a notable in- stance of the errors and controversies of antiquarians. ' By one the subject is supposed to be Alexander the Great represented as Bacchus ; by another, it is thought a religious procession of the Athenians, and there are others, who sup- pose it simply a vintage, or sacrificial rites relative to the conquest of India. But it is said to be proved, that instead of being an antique, this gem was en- graved by an intimate friend of Angelo himself. It was bought by the keeper of the cabinet of Henry IV of France for 800 crowns, ' and Louis XIV having afterwards acquired it frequently wore it as a ring.' (New Edinb. Encyc.) § 212. The most celebrated collections of ancient gems are, the Grand Duke's at Florence, which contains 3000 ;— those of the fami- lies of Barberini and Odeschalchi at Rome, the latter of which form- erly belonged to Christina queen of Sweden ; — the royal Cabinet or Museum at Paris; — the collection formerly belonging to the Duke of Orleans now at Petersburg : — some private collections in London, particularly those of the Duke of Devonshire and Count Carlisle;— the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna ;— the collection of the King of Pru- PAINTING. 127 sia, of which the gems formerly belonging to Baron de Stosch forms the most valuable part. See Gurlitt, as before cited.— On the Cabinet of the Grand Duke see Johnson's Philos. of Travelling, p. 118. Casts of ancient gems or medals are found in the Libraries or Museums of most public Institutions. The Boston Atheneum has several cases. § 213. Engravings and Plates are a useful help in attaining a knowledge of sculptured gems. Various works containing plates and descriptions of the most remarkable specimens, with historical and critical observations have been published. The following are some of the principal. Gemme antiche figurate, date in luce da Domen. de' Rossi, colle sposizioni del P. A. Maffei. Roma 1707-1709. 4 Vols. 4.— A. F. Gorii Museum Florentinum. Flor. 1731. 32, fol. T. I. II. — Abr. Gorlai Dactyliotheca, c n. lac. Gronovii. Lngd. B. 1695. 1707. 2 Vols. 4. — Gemmae antiques cselatae, scalptorum nomini- bus insignitae — delineata? et aeri incisa? per Bern. Picart. Selegit et commentario illustravii Phil, ale Stosch. Amst. 1724. fol. — Recueil dej pierres antiques (de la collection de Mr. de Gravella) par Mr. Mariette. Par. 1735 37. 2 Vols. 4.— Recueil de pierres grav6es (en creux) du Cabinet du Roi, publie par Mr. Mariette. Par 1750. 2 Vols. fol. —Descriptions de pierres gravees du feu Mr. le Baron de Stosch- par Mr. l'Abbe Winckelmann. Flor. 1760. 4. — Description de principa- ls pierres gravees du Cabinet du Due d' Orleans (par de la Chaud et le Blond). Par. 1780.84. 2 Vols, fol.— In Germ. Trans, by J. G. Jacobi. Zurich. 1796. 4.— Amadutii Novus Thesaurus Gemmarum Veterum, 2 Vols. Rom. 1783. fol. — Choix des Pierres gravees du Cabinet Imperial des Antiques, representees en 40 Planches, decrites et expliquees par J. Eckhel. Vienne 1788. 4.^-Pierres gravees inedites, tirees des plus celebres Cabinets de l'Europe, publiees et expliquees par A. L. Millin Par. 1817. 2 Vols. 8. — Antiquities explained, being a collection of figured Gems, illustrated by descriptions from the Classics, by George Ogle. London. 1737. 4.— Of works on the theory of this art, its history, and progress, the following may be mentioned. — Theophrasti Eresii neql Xi&viv (lip.iov, in his Opp. ex ed. Dan. Heinsii. L. B. 1613. fol. ; also in I. de Laet, de Gemmis et Lap- idibus libri II. Lug. Bat. 1647. 8. ; in English, with remarks by I. Hill. Lond. 1748. ; and in German, with the remarks of Hill and a treatise on the ancient art of Engraving on gems, by A. H. Baumgartner. Nornb. 177. 8. — Discorides ttiqi v'Zys laTQtxijg, 5th Book. — Pliny, Natural History, 37th Book. — Jo. Kirch- manni de Annulis liber singularis. L. B. 1672. 12. — Anselmi Boetii (de Boot) Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia. aucta ab Adr. Tollio. L. B. 1647. 8. — P. I. Ma- riette cited §206. — L. Natter cited §207. — Introduction a FEtude des Pierres gravees, par A. L. Millin, 1796. 8. — Gurlitt, Uber die Gemmenkunde. Magdeb. 1798. 4. — See also Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, article, Geschittene Sleine. Ill: — Painting. § 214. Painting, as a fine art (yQaquxij, ^wy^aqptxTj), is the repre- sentation of visible objects upon a plane surface by means of figure and color. It is not confined however to the mere exhibition of ma- terial bodies and forms; but expresses also their invisible powers and 128 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. immaterial and spiritual nature and affections, by gestures, attitudes, and the like. It also employs the form of sensible objects allegorical- ly to signify things very different from what actually meets the eye ($ 147). The real foundation of painting is laid in the art of designing, that is, representing objects on a plane by lines and strokes, by the ad- vancement of which in correctness and beauty the progress of paint- ing must be forwarded, almost as a matter of course. § 215. It has been already remarked ($ 155) that the art of de- signing, or sketching, although itis of so great importance as a foun- dation and help to all the plastic arts, is yet probably of later origin. So the art of coloring merely was doubtless of earlier origin than painting, properly speaking, that is, the filling up of an outline sketched designedly, with colors suitably chosen and applied. Yet the art of designing and painting existed, beyond all question in a very early period, although we cannot determine exactly when, or in what nation, it originated. It is still a controverted question whether it existed in Greece at the time of the Trojan war ; and the negative is certainly quite probable. This however would not imply that it did not then exist in other countries. § 216. The Egyptians were acquainted with this art earlier than the Greeks, although not so much earlier as according to Pliny (Nat. Hist. 35. 5) they claimed. Sketching or design seems to have become common among them quite early. Originally the art was chiefly temple-painting, and we must distinguish between that which is found upon the walls of edifices, and that upon mummies and papyrus rolls. Painting remained very imperfect in Egypt, as did the plastic arts in general. The artists applied their colors in uniform tints, without shading or contrast. Some paintings found in Egypt seem to be an exception to this remark, but they were probably executed in the time of the Ptolemies by Grecian artists. That painting, or at least the art of coloring, existed early among the Chaldeans and Israelites is indicated by passages in the Bible. Ezek. xxiii. 14. viii. 10. Comp. Numb, xxxiii. 52. ' Egyptian painting seldom, if ever, attempts more than an outline of the object, as seen m profile, such as would be obtained by its shadow. To this rude but al- ways well-proportioned draught, colors are applied, simply and without mixture ° r P 160 "^' or the slightest indication of light and shade. The process appears to have been, first, the preparation of the ground in white ; next, the outline was nrmly traced in black; and, lastly, the flat colors were applied. The Egyptian artists employed six pigments, mixed up with a gummy liquid, namely, white, DiacKrect, blue, yellow, and green : the three first always earthy, the remaining PAINTING AMONG THE EGYPTIANS. 129 vegetable, or at least frequently transparent. The specimens from which we derive these facts, are the painted shrouds and cases of mummies, and the still more perfect examples on the walls of the tombs. It can furnish no evidence of extraordinary experience or practice, that these paintings still retain their color clear and fresh. The circumstance merely shows the aridity of the cli- mate, and that the coloring matters were prepared and applied pure and without admixture.' § 217. According to the common tradition of antiquity, which agrees well with the natural probability of the case, painting or rath- er designing took its rise originally from the tracing of the shadows of objects upon a wall and marking the outline with carbon or chalk. Ardices of Corinth, and Telephon of Sicyon are said to have been the first who, by drawing the inner parts, presented something more than the outline, and indicated light and shade. The earliest Greek pictures were drawn with a single color, and are thence termed f*ov- oxQ(i>fiona ; a red color was chiefly used, perhaps because it resembled that of flesh in the human body. The first that employed various colors appears to have been Bularchus, who lived in the time of Can- daules, King of Lydia, about 720 B. C. See Caylus, Dissertations rel. a l'histoire et a l'art. — Ramdohr, uber Malerei und Bildhauerei in Rom. B. 2. p. 17C. 1 The first painting on record is the battle of Magnete by Bularchus, and pur- chased by Candaules, King of Lydia, for its weight in gold, or as some say, a quantity of gold coins equal to the extent of its surface. This establishes the first era of the art in Greece.' (Memes, History of Sculpture, Painting &c. p. 120). § 218. The succeeding Greek painters used only four principal colors, white, yellow, red and black, which are called by Pliny (35. 32) Melinum, Atticum, Sinopis Pontica and Atramentum. Of the real nature of these pigments, and of the modes of mixing and preserving them we know but little. Oil colors appear not to have been known to the ancients ; they always used water colors, to which, especially to black, they sometimes added vinegar. They also, espe- cially in paintings upon plaster or in fresco, made use of a sort of var- nish of wax to increase the brightness and durability of the colors. Both these objects Apelles effected by means of a fine black varnish which none could imitate. See Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxv. 5— 42.— .F. W. Doering Progr. de coloribus Vete- rum. Goth. 1788. 4. — Stieglitz uber d. Malerfarben der Griech. und Rom. Lpz. 1817. 8. — Winckelmann Histoire &c. L. iv. Ch. 8. sect. 31. ' In the pictures at Naples and Rome, is greater variety of coloring than, from some passages in their writings, has been allowed to the ancients. And, indeed, unless Pliny be supposed to point out a distinction in this respect between the practice of the earlier and later painters, he contradicts himself; for in all, he enumerates no less than five different whites, three yellows, nine reds or purples, two blues, one of which is indigo, two greens, and one black, which also appears to be a generic expression, including bitumen, charcoal, ivory, or lamp-black, mentioned with probably others.' (Memes, p. 128.) 17 130 AKCH/EOLOC.Y OF ART. $ 219. Single pieces of painting were usually executed upon wood, and therefore called nivaxsg, tabula. The wood of the larch tree (larix) was preferred on account of its durability and its not be- ing liable to warp out of shape. They painted more rarely upon lin- en cloth; as in the colossal picture of Nero mentioned by Pliny. The most common kind of painting was that upon plaster ; which is now called fresco-painting; this was executed upon a moist as well as upon a dry ground. In this last mode of painting the colors were probably laid on with a peculiar sort of glue or size, since in many pieces of this kind that have been found, they are so well fixed and preserved, that a wet sponge or cloth may be drawn over them with- out injury. Previous to the paintings the walls received a double coating, and the surface was carefully polished. Drawing on marble and ivory was more rare. See Rode et Rcirn, de la Peinture chez les Anciens (in Winckelmann's His- toire &c. Paris. 1803. vol. iii. p. 59, 137.) The terms nival; and mvaxtov seem to have been, applied to any material on which a picture was drawn. The easel, or frame to which the material was fixed, while the artistwas painting, was called by the Greeks oxoi^ag ; yoayig and imoyoaiptg signified the style and pencil; xQwfiara and (p&Qpaxa the colors; lilxvBog the box in which they are kept. Eixwv signified a, portrait or likeness as well as statue; a mere sketch was termed vxcoyQmp/i ; the art of sketching or de- signing, axiayqaifia. § 220. There was a kind of painting peculiar to ancient times, called encaustic, which we know only by the imperfect description of Pliny (35. 41), who speaks of three methods of it. The first consist- ed, it seems, in mingling wax with the colors, and laying them on by means of fire and certain instruments called cauteria (xavTrfQia). The second was employed upon ivory, and called usatqwgig, because the outline was cut in the ivory by a pointed graver (xegrgov, verucu- lum), and the colors afterwards applied. The third seems to have been a process of laying on melted wax by means of a brush. A fourth kind, used in painting upon walls, is mentioned by Vitruvius (B. 7. C. 9). Men of science and artists have attempted to discover an.d restore this art. See Saggi sul ristabilimento dell' antica arte de'Greci e de'Romani pittori, da Don Vincenzo Requeno. Parma 1787. 2 Vols. 8. In French, Rome 1786.— Botti- ger's Geschichte der Enkaustik der Alten, in Journal des Luxus und der Moden. V ' a' l ™-—? ulzer ' s Allg. Theorie, Vol. II. p. 59.— Respecting the peculiar mode of painting on glass which was common among the ancients, we know little.— See Le VieU,Vz.n de la peinture sur verre, Paris 1774, fol. (Trans, into Germ. Nurnb. 1780. — For a historical account of the attempts to restore this paintmg, see Fiorillo's Klein. Schrift. artistisch. Inhalts.— Cf. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Article Glasmahlerey. The peculiar mode of representing visible objects termed Mosaic-work, is s° me t™es included under th e head of paintmg. It has already been spoken of (§107). bee also M. de Vielle Essai sur la Peinture en Mosalque.— Some copies PAINTING AMONG THE GREEKS. 131 of Mosaic ornaments are found in Montfaucon L' Antiquite expliquce, and R. Stuart, Dictionary of Architecture. — On the origin of Mosaic, Cf. E. D. Clarke's Travels, p. ii. sect. ii. ch. 3 (p. 58. vol. iii. N. Y. 1815). § 221. Our judgment respecting the merit of the ancients in painting we derive in a great degree from the unanimous encomiums of their writers. We infer it also from their known excellence in other arts, which are kindred to it, and, like it, essentially connected with the art of designing. From the few imperfect and badly pre- served specimens of ancient painting ever seen by the moderns no valid arguments can be drawn. Many questions therefore respecting the subject of ancient painting remain unsettled, as for example, whether the artists understood perspective. Their greatest attention seems to have been given to coloring. See Caylus, cited § 2ll.—Fiorillo, on the Perspective of the Ancients (in kl. Sch. cited § 220).— Memes, History of Sculpture &c. p 127.— Cf. Swlzer's. Allg. Theorie. Vol. III. p. 686. § 222. Among the Greeks there were schools of painting as well as of sculpture. The four most celebrated were at Sicyon, Corinth, Rhodes, and Athens. Hence there were different styles and tastes in the art, the Asiatic and the Helladic, the Ionian, Sicyonian and Attic ; the three last being, however, modifications of the second. Sicyon especially was looked upon as the native land and nursery of the best painters. But paintings were not by any means so numerous in Greece as were works of sculpture. The most flourishing period of the art was about the time of Alex- ander. Some of the most celebrated masters were Polygnotus, Apol- lodorus, Zeuxis, Parrhasius, Timanthes, Eupompus, Pamphylus, Apelles, and Protogenes. See, respecting these artists, BOttiger's Ideen zur Archaologie der Malerei. Dresd. 1811.8. The history of painting among the Greeks is divided by Memes into four periods. The first terminated with Bularchus, B. C. 720, whose battle-piece has been men- tioned (§ 217). The second period extends from Bularchus to Zeuxis, about 400 B. C. Polygnotus was one of the most eminent in this period ; his pictures were admired by Pliny at the distance of six hundred years. Towards the close of this period the pencil is said to have been first used by Apollodorus of Athens the instructer of Zeuxis. The third commences with Zeuxis and ends with Apelles, who flourished about 330 B. C. In this period great improvement was made, in which the genius of Zeuxis opened and led the way. Parrhasius, Ti- manthes, Eupompus, and Pamphylus the master of Apelles are named among the distinguished painters of this era. The fourth period is dated from the time of Apelles. This age witnessed the full glory and decline of the art. Apelles is said to have united the excellences which had been separately exhibited in his predecessors. His Venus Anadyomene , which was ' long afterwards purchased by Augustus for one hundred talents, or £20,000 sterling, was esteemed the most faultless creation of the Grecian pencil, the most perfect example of that simple yet unapproachable grace of expression, of symmetry of form, and exquisite finish, in which may be summed up the the distinctive beauties of his genius.' 132 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. Protogenes Of Rhodes, a contemporary of Apelles, was next to him in merit. Nicias of Athens was a reputable painter. Later were Nicomachus, jPasius ami others with whom the art began to decline. Respecting the comparative numbers of paintings and statues in Greece the following statement is in point. ' Pausanias mentions the names of one hun- dred and sixty nine sculptors, and only fifteen painters; while after three cent- uries of spoliation he found in Greece three thousand statues, not one of them a copy, he describes only one hundred and thirty one paintings.' It may be also worthy of remark that the Greeks preferred busts to portraits, and this branch of painting does not seem to have been so much cultivated as others. ' While Pausanias enumerates eighty eight masterpieces of history, he mentions only half the number of portraits, which he had seen in his travels through Greece, in the second century.' — See Memes, p. 120, ss. Cf. M. Heyne, Sur les causes de la perfection & laquelle l'art parvint chez les Grees, et sur les epoques qu'il paroit avoir eu chez ce peuple (in Winckelmarm's Histoire &c). § 223. In Italy painting was early cultivated. Evidence of its advancement is given by those rich vases, which have already been mentioned (§ 173), which are generally termed Etruscan, but are probably the work chiefly of Grecian artists. It may be remarked, that the color which fills up the figures, mostly red, or black, was the proper ground color of these vessels, and that the color of the sur- rounding space was laid on afterwards. It is possible that these paintings are copied from larger pictures of the best Greek masters, and so may furnish us some means of judging of the conceptions and devices of those artists. See BOttiger's griech. Vasengemalde. — J. Christie's Disquisitions on the Paint- ed Greek Vases. $ 224. At Rome also, in early times, there were various paintings. But after the subjugation of the Grecian territories they were more numerous and more valuable. The Romans however did not labor to signalize themselves in this art, but were contented with possess- ing the best pieces of Grecian painters, some of whom resided at Rome, particularly under the first Emperors. Yet Pliny has record- ed the names of several native artists, as Pacuvius, Fabius, Turpilius and Quintus Pedius. § 225. But painting, like the sister arts, ere long declined and finally became almost extinct, from various causes ; the irruptions of the northern tribes, the dominions of the Goths and Lombards, the controversy of the iconoclasts in the eighth century, the general cor- ruption of taste, and the general want of knowledge and refinement. The art was not wholly lost, but the uses made of it, and the perform- ances actually produced by it were such as tended only to bring it into greater neglect. See Fiorillo's Geschichte der zeichnenden Kiinste. Cf. § 184. REMAINS OF ANCIENT PAINTING. 133 § 226. After the revival of the arts much curiosity was awakened respecting the monuments of ancient painting. A considerable num- ber, which were concealed in ruined buildings, tombs, and the like, or had remained unnoticed, were sought out, and by means of plates and copies a knowledge of them was communicated to amateurs of the art. Among these monuments are the pictures found on the pyramid of C. Cestius, of the time of Augustus ; some paintings on the walls of the palace and baths of Titus, of which some are preserved in the Escurial at Madrid ; some antique paintings preserved at Rome, in the palaces Massimi and Barberini, and particularly the piece called the Aldobrandine festival, formerly in" the Villa Aldobrandini, now in the pope's collection. We may mention as among the most remark- able the pictures found in the tomb of the Nasos in the year 1675. Many remains of ancient painting were discovered at Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabiae, which are still preserved in the Museum at Por- tici. They are above a thousand in number, most of them upon dry plaster or chalk, but some upon a moist ground, or proper fresco- paintings. Many of them, by being exposed to the light and air, lost their colors. Others were mutilated and injured in detaching them from the walls, before a safe and successful method was discovered. Respecting the tomb of Cestius, see Deserizione di Roma Antica con le Auto- rita di Panvinio, Nordini, &c. Rom. 1697. — Winckelmann Histoire &c. L. iv. c. 8. § 13 Note.— Johnson's Phil, of Travel, p. 178.— Hist. crit. de la Pyr. de C. Cestius, par I'Abbe Rive. Paris 1790. — For an explanation of the Aldobrandine festival, see BOttiger's archaologiscbe Ausdeutungen &c. Dresd. 1810. 4. — Winckelmann, Histoire &c. L. iv. c. 8. § 8. — Of the pictures in the tomb of the Nasos, with others, plates were published} by Bartoli and Bellori, with the title, Picturae antiquae Cryptarum Romanarum et sepulchri Nasonum. Rom. 1738 [it. 1750, 1791). Cf. Graevii Thes. Ant. Rom. T. xii. p. 1021, and Winckelmann Histoire &c. L. iv. c. 10. § 8. L. vi. c. 6. § 13. On the paintings discovered at Herculaneum there is a stately work ; Le Pit- ture antiche d' Ercolano — con qualche spiegazioni (di Pasqualo Carcani). Na- poli. 1757 sqq. 5 vols. Fol. It is part of the work styled Antichita di Ercola- no (§ 240). — On the Monuments of ancient painting see also Winckelmann 's Histoire &c. L. iv. c. 8. — There are some notices of paintings found at Pompeii, in the work slyled t Pompeii, republ. from Eng. edit. Boston, 1833. with wood cuts. § 227. It will be proper to mention here some of the works that treat of the painting of the ancients. Franc. Junii de Pictura Veterum Libri. III. Roterod. 1694. fol. in German Trans. Breslau. 1777. 8. — Histoire de la peinture ancienne, extraite de 1' histoire naturelle de Pline (par Mr. Burand), Lond. 1725. fol. — Geo. Trumbull'sTTea- tise on ancient Painting. Lond. 1740. fol. with 50 engravings of ancient paint- ings. — History of painting among the Greeks, in J. J. Rambach's Versuch einer pragmatisher Litterarhistorie. Halle. 1770. 8.— Riem, uber die Malerei der Al- ten. Berl. 1787. 4. ; cf. Winckelmann, Histoire de V Art. (Paris 1803. T. II. 2eP. p. 59).— C. A. BOttiger's Ideen zur Archaologie der Malerei. Dresd. 1801. 8. — J. J. Grund Malerei der Griechen. Dresd. 1810. 2 vols. 8.— There is a valuable but rare work, from the zeal of Count Caylus; Recueil des peintures antiques, imi- 134 ' ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. tees fiddlemenl pom les coulsurs el poui le dessein, d J apres les desseins colories faitspar P. S. Bartoti. Paris 1757 (improved 1781) fol.— See Svizer's Allg. Theorie, An. Mahierey, IV. — Architecture. § 228. Architecture may be contemplated in two different points of view, as a mechanic art, or as 3. fine art. In the latter view it is to be considered here ; that is, so far as the general rules of taste are applicable to it, and it has not mere utility, comfort or durability, but rather beauty and pleasure, for its object. Order, symmetry, noble simplicity, fair proportions and agreeable forms are the chief peculiar- ities that are requisite to render a building a work of taste, and are points to which the artist and the observer must turn their attention. § 229. In its origin architecture was only a mechanic art, and scarcely deserved that name, i It commenced in the first periods of hu- man society, as men must have immediately felt the need of defence against the heat of the sun, the violence of storms, and the attacks of wild beasts. The writings of Moses (Gen. iv. 17. xi. 4.) present the earliest notices of it in the residence of Cain, and the tower of Babel. The dwellings of men, after they were dispersed and lived in an un- settled state, were at first, it is likely, caves and clefts of rocks, and then huts and cabins, rudely constructed, according to the nature of the climate and the genius of the occupants, of reed, cane, boughs, bark, mud, clay, and the like. ' There are,' says Memes, ' three grand causes of structure and form in Architecture, three leading principles, which not only originated the primeval elements of design, but which to a great degree, have governed alt the subse- quent combinations of these. This influence extends not merely to the essen- tials of stability, equilibrium, and strength, but has suggested the system of or- nament. These master dispositions are first, the purpose, secondly, the material of Architecture, and^thirdly, the climate.' § 230. In early times wood seems to have been most commonly used for the purpose. But the use of this in building presupposes the invention of various instruments and tools, which probably were made of stone, earlier than of metal (§ 10). Edifices of stone were of later or- igin, as the construction of such demands a greater advance in knowl- edge. We learn from Moses (Ex. i. 14. v. 7—14) that in his times burnt bricks were common in Egypt. How early hewn stone, mor- tar and gypsum were employed in building cannot be determined. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 135 Several auxiliaries seem evidently prerequisite, as, for example, ma- chines for collecting the materials, and for working metals, especial- ly iron. ■§ 231. It was in the east, and particularly in Egypt, that archi- tecture first reached any considerable improvement, and this was in respect of solidity and grandeur rather than beauty. The Egyptians in their most celebrated works of this art seem to have intended to awaken the wonder of the latest posterity, rather than to gratify the taste of the connoisseur. In Egypt, a country destitute of wood, ap- pears to have been the earliest and most frequent use of stone, which the people could easily transport upon their canals, from inexhausti- ble quarries. Their most famous structure was the Labyrinth, of extraordinary extent, situated near lake Moeris, the work of twelve Egyptian kings. Their pyramids and obelisks too, which were probably designed both for monumental erections and for display, are ever remarkable for grandeur and solidity. See, De origine etusu obeliscorum, auctore Zoega. Rom. 1797. Fol. — Grobert, Description des Pyramids de Ghize. Par. 1800. (Trans, into Germ. Gera 1808.) — Clark's Travels in Greece, Egypt &c. — De l'architecture egyptienne, par Qua- tremire de Quincy. Par. 1803. 4. 18 plates. — Belzoni, Narrative of the operations and recent discoveries within the pyramids, temples, tombs &c. in Egypt and Nubia, Lond. 1820. The influence of the material in modifying the style of architecture is exhib- ited in the existing Egyptian structures. ' In wooden erections the supporting members may be much fewer and less massive than in structures of stone ; be- cause in the former, the horizontal or supported parts are both lighter and will carry an incumbent weight as a roof over a wider interval than in the latter. It is apparent also that in constructing edifices of stone, whether of the perpen- dicular or horizontal members, the dimensions would be greater than in eleva- tions of wood; and in the case of columnar structures, that the altitude in pro- portion to the diameter would be far less in stone than in timber supports. Hence the two grand characteristics of a massive or solemn, and light or airy architecture.' We see the former exhibited in the ponderous members of the mysterious edifices of Egypt. These characteristics appear the more striking when we contrast them with structures of that part of Asia which was the scene of the events recorded in the sacred Scriptures. Here wood was abundant, and was much employed in the most important buildings. In the Temple of Solomon, for example, cedar wood was the chief material both for roof and col- umns, that is, both for supported and supporting members. And generally, the temples of this region ' were more spacious, but less durable than those of Egypt, with fewer upright supports'. Hence Sampson brought down the whole fabric of the House of Dagon,by overturning only two columns, which would have produced but a very partial effect in an edifice constructed on the plan of the Egyptian temple, where pillar stands crowded behind pillar, in range beyond range to give support to the ponderous architrave. — It is obvious that the style may have a different modification, when different materials are combined in the same structure, as was evidently the case in the buildings of Persepolis. The marble columns were connected by cross-beams of wood and probably supported a roof of light structure, and they are accordingly loftier, further apart and fewer in number, than in Egyptian buildings. (Memes p. 233 ss.) Climate will exert some influence on architecture, chiefly however upon the external arrangements ; as buildings will be contrived, according to the latitude, to admit or exclude the sun, to give shelter from cold, or secure against heat, or merely to afford covering and shade without regard to either extremes. 13G ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. The purpose of a building, or use for which it was designed, would necessari- ly, in an early stage of ortas well as in a later, in a great measure determine both the magnitude and the form. The purpose or design of structure is the Inundation of a division of Architecture into three general kinds, or grand branches, Civil, Military and Naval. The two latter, which treat of ships, castles, towers, forts and the like, come not into consideration among the line arts. The former is subdivided according to its various purposes into Sacred, Monu- mental, Municipal and Domestic. Sacred architecture appears among the earliest efforts of the present race of man. ' The first impress of his existence left upon the soil, yet moist from the waters of the deluge, was the erection of an altar ; and the noblest evidence of his most accomplished skill has been a temple,' Monumental architecture is also of very early origin. Pillars of stone and mounds of earth are the primitive records both of life and death. Mounds or barrows have been used for monumental purposes throughout the globe. The pyramids of Egypt and India may be considered as mounds of higher art and more durable materials. Columns and triumphal arches area species of monu- mental structures. Under the head of Municipal architecture may be included all public build- ings more specially connected with the civil and social affairs of men ; as, e. g. halls of legislation and justice, baths, theatres and the like. Domestic architecture refers particularly to the dwellings of individuals, whether palaces, manors, villas, or common houses. § 230. In Asia Minor architecture must have made considerable advances by the time of Homer. Of this there is evidence from the descriptions he gives of buildings in both his epic poems, even if we allow much for poetic ornament and exaggeration. As examples, notice the description of the palace of Priam at Troy (II. vi. 243), and of Paris (II. vi. 313), and especially the palace of Alcinous king of Phsacia (Od. vii. 85), and that of Ulysses in several passages of the Odyssey. The manner also, in which Homer, in these poems and in the hymns, speaks of temples, seems to presuppose a construction of such edifices by no means rude. On the condition of domestic architecture as exhibited in the Iliad and Odys- sey, see Memes, History &c. p. 252. Cf. Mailer's Hist, and Ant. of Doric Race B. iv. ch. 1. $ 233. Yet the art was very far from the perfection, which it af- terwards attained among the Greeks. With them, its most flourish- ing period may be dated from about the middle of the fifth century be- fore Christ. During about a century succeeding this date, or between the time of Pericles and Alexander, there were erected in Greece, and particularly at Athens, a vast number of superb edifices of vari- ous kinds, temples, palaces, theatres, gymnasia, porticos &c. Re- ligion, policy, emulation, luxury, all united to encourage and advance architecture, which the Greeks were the first to raise fully to the rank of a fine art. It was however chiefly upon public buildings that they bestowed their care. Private dwellings, even those of the more cele- brated personages, and in the most flourishing period of the art, were comparatively simple and free from ornaments. architecture; Grecian. 137 For a historical view of Grecian architecture, consult, Mem.es, p. 248. — New Edinb. Encyclopaed. Art. Civil Architecture. — On the origin of Grecian architec- ture comp. Chateaubriand, Travels in Greece, &c. trans, by F. Schoberl. (p. 354. Am. Ed. N. York, 1814. § 234. The countless multitude of divinities occasioned an im- mense demand for terrifies ; and those consecrated to a particular deity- were, both in number and magnificence, proportionate to his supposed dignity and importance. These structures were, in general, not de- signed to receive within them assemblies of worshipers, but to form as it were habitations and memorials of their appropriate gods. Hence they were often small in size. They were usually raised so as to be entered by an ascent of steps, ornamented with statues, and with pillars erected completely around them, or at least in their front. From this last circumstance, relating to the pillars, temples among the Greeks received different and distinguishing appellations, e. g. neqimeqog, dinxsqog, nqoatvlog &c. according as the pillars were dif- ferently arranged. The porch or space in front was called ngovaog. In the Dorian temples, the doors were brought to a point at the top, and generally, it was by these openings alone that light was admitted ; they were commonly lighted also by lamps within. The interior was adorned, on the covering and on the walls, with the ornaments both of architecture and of sculpture. The whole temple was frequently surrounded by an enclosed court (ntQipoXos), which often included a grove, statues, and buildings appertaining to the temple. Temples were classed by Vitruvius in seven kinds according to the different dis- position of their columns. These kinds are represented and explained in Big- elow's Elements of Technology, Boston. 1829. p. 136. Cf. Pompeii (cited § 226) p. 104. Among temples most celebrated for their extent and magnificence were, that of Diana at Ephesus, those of Apollo at Delphi and Miletus, of Jupiter at Athens and Olympia, of Minerva or the Parthenon at Athens. The dimensions of the temple of Diana at Ephesus were 425 feet by 220, of Jupiter at Athens 354 by 171, of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus 303 by 164. See, Temples anciens et modernes, par UAbbe May. Par. 1774. 2 torn. 8. — Stieglitz, Archaologie der Baukunst der Alten. Leipz. 1792. 8. — Hirt's Beschreib- ung des Tempels der Diana zu Ephesus. Berlin. 1809. 4. — R. Stuart's Diction- ary of Architecture, Word Temple. — For notice of Greek temples, which still exist, New Edinb. Encycl. article Civil Architecture. § 235. The ancient theatres were structures of vast extent, some- times wholly built of marble. They had on one side the form of a semicircle with its ends somewhat prolonged, and on the other side the ends were united by a building passing directly across from one to the other. The Greek theatre was divided into three principal parts. One was the stage or scene (ax^if) in the part extending across the semicircle ; this was appropriated to the actors. A second 18 [S8 ARCH*;ni,ocy of art. was the partoccupied by the spectators, who sat in concentric rows (f dwha, ordines) around the semicircle ; this part strictly speaking was the theatre (6dcnQov, called also xodov, cavea). The third was between these two, and called the orchestra (o^'crr^a), being the part assigned to the choir of mimes, singers, and dancers. The seats for spectators rose behind each other in regular succession ; they were often however divided into two or three compartments, according to the size of the building, by means of wide passages (dia^wfiaTa,pra- cinctiones) running the whole length oi the seats and concentric with them. There were likewise openings or stair -ways (xUfiaxeg) pass- ing like radii to the semicircle, transversly to the seats. These free spaces facilitated the distribution of the audience. The several por- tions or compartments of seats between them (xegxideg) resembled wedges in shape, and were called cunei by the Romans. The mag- istrates and distinguished persons took the lowest seats, in the portion (called fiovlevtwov) nearest the stage. The successive rows of seats were, by a definite arrangement, appropriated to other citizens, to youth, whose part was called ecpyfiixov, to strangers, &c. Outside of the whole part occupied by the spectators there was usually a portico. The edifices called Odea, designed for the exhibitions (§ 65) of musicians, poets and artists, were constructed in a manner similar to theatres. The most celebrated was that of Pericles (' SlSelov) at Athens. The Greeks usually constructed their theatres on the side of a hill ; and when the nature of the place allowed, as atChscronea, Argos and other places, many of the seats were cut out of the solid rock. The principal instances now known of theatres built on a plain are those of Mantinea and Megalopolis. As to the size of Greek theatres, it is asserted that the theatre of Bacchus at Athens was capable of containing 30,000 persons. The theatre at Epidaurus is 366 feet in diameter ; those at Argos and Sparta were about 500. For a more full description of Greek theatres, see Stuart's Dictionary of Archi- tecture.— Antkon's Lempriere.— Pompeii (cited § 226) p. 213. — H. Ch. Genelli, das Theater zu Athen, hinsichtlich auf Architectur, Scenerie und Darstellungskunst. Berl. 1818. 4.— For notices of remains of particular theatres, consult Clarke's Travels, Gell's Itinerary, Dodwell's Class. Tour &c. § 242.— Respecting the Odea, see Martini, cited § 65. § 236. The Gymnasia, or schools for bodily exercises, first in- troduced at Lacedaemon, became afterwards common in the Greek cities, and were adopted among the Romans. They consisted of sev- eral buildings, or particular parts, united together; as the porches (ffroa't), with seats (eSedgai) and side-rooms, which were chiefly de- signed for intellectual entertainments; the iyrrfeZov, the place where the youth attended to preparatory exercises ; the room for undressing, xmqUsiov, yvfivaffTilQiov, used also perhaps as the oq>aiQt,OTri(>t,ov for exercise with the ball ; ihedlemT>iQ<.ov, or elaiodeaiov, for anointing 81 architecture; the orders. 139 the wrestlers ; the nuluiarqa, the place of wrestling particularly, and of other exercises ; the axddiov, the %voxoi, and other parts. The principal Gymnasia at Athens were that of the Lyceum, that of the Cynosarges, and that of the Academy (§ 74). See Bartkelemy's Anacharsis, ch. viii. — Potter's Archaeol. Graec. B. I. ch. viii. Stieglitz Archaeologie der Baukunst. Weimar. 1801,— The details are derived from Vitruvius, de Architectura (5th B). § 237. Porticos (atocli, porticus) were very common and impor- tant works of Greek and Roman architecture, and were constructed either alone by themselves, or in connection with other buildings, tem- ples, theatres, baths, market-places and the like. They served at the same time for protection against the sun and rain, for secure and con- venient public promenades, for common places of resort where friends might meet, and philosophers, especially the Peripatetics, imparted in- struction. They consisted of columns or pillars, with greater or less spaces between them (intercolumnia), where statues were often fixed, while the interior was decorated with paintings. They were not al- ways covered above, but were generally long and spacious. There was one at Rome a thousand paces in length, and thence termed Por- ticus Milliaria. One of the principal at Athens was that styled Facile {$ 74). \ 238. There were three forms of pillars (cmjAat, oxvloC) in use among the Greeks, commonly called the three orders of architecture ; the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. A particular explanation of these belongs to the theory of the art, rather than to its archaeology. The Doric exhibits the greatest simplicity and solidity ; the Ionic has pro- portions more agreeable and beautiful ; the Corinthian is most highly ornamented, and was less frequently employed in large and public buildings. The two other orders, Tuscan and Composite, are not of Grecian origin ; the former was, as its name imports, from Etruria, the latter was of Roman invention. The best specimens of the Doric' order are found in the Parthenon, the Pro- pylaea, and the Temple of Theseus, at Athens; of the Ionic in the edifice called Erectheum, at Athens, consisting of two, and according to some of three tem- ples ; of the Corinthian, in the choragic monument of Lysierates, the small but elegant structure, at Athens, sometimes called the Lamp of Demosthenes. For a brief account of the five orders of Architecture, see Eigelow's Tech- nology, containing views of several Greek and Roman structures, on the same scale. For explanation of terms, illustrated by plates, Slvart's Dictionary. § 239. Various ornaments, exterior and interior, were used in ancient architecture. In the best periods of the art they were intro- duced with propriety, taste, and in moderate number, but in later times 140 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. too abundantly, and so as to destroy both beauty and convenience. The exterior ornaments consisted e. g. of statues upon the ends of the buildings, bas-reliefs on the architrave, imitations of human forms combined with the pillars, like the Caryatides and Atlantes ; with various embellishments on the capital and entablature, and about the doors, vaults, and other openings. In the interior, the ceiling and walls were ornamented with stucco-work, gilding, painting, and mo- saic. The ordinary decoration of an apartment consisted in coloring the walls and attaching to them small pictures of diversified character. Ceilings adorned with fretwork were called by the Greeks qxxTvwftaza, by the Romans tecla laqueata or lacunaria. See Observations sur l'Architecture des anciens, Oh. ii. in Winchelmann His- toire d l'Art. (Par. Ann. He de la Rep. Vol. ii. p. 627.)— See notices of orna- ments in the buildings at Pompeii, in Pompeii (cited § 2261 p. 449, 156 163, 166 et al. L. VuUiamy, Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture drawn from the originals in Greece &c. engraved by A. Moses. Lond. 1828. fol.40 plates. C. H. Tatham, Grecian and Roman Ornaments, 1825, foJ. 96 plates. § 240. The most celebrated Greek architects were Dcedalus, to whom are attributed many of the most ancient and extensive structures of Greece, with much exaggeration and mere fable however (§ 174); Ctesiphon or Chersiphron, celebrated as builder of the Temple of Di- ana at Ephesus ; Callimachus (not the poet), who was also a sculp- tor, and said to be the inventor of the Corinthian Order ; Dinocrates, Avho lived in the time of Alexander and was employed by him in building Alexandria in Egypt ; Sostratus, a favorite of Ptolemy Phil- adelphus, who erected the celebrated tower of Pharos ; Epimachus, an Athenian, known by a stupendous war-tower constructed by him for Demetrius Poliorcetes in the siege of Rhodes. Memorie degli Architetti antichi e moderni, da Franc. Milizia. Parm. 1781. 2 vols. 8. — A catalogue of Greek and Roman architects may be found in Junius, de Pictura Veterum. Rot. 1694. fol. — also in Stuart's Dictionary (Appendix No. 1), with a notice of their works and the time when they nourished. § 241. In Italy, almost as early as in Greece, architecture was cultivated, especially in Etruria. The Tuscan order is among the proofs of this. In the early times of Rome also many temples and other buildings were erected thereby native art. But their architect- ure was greatly improved afterwards, when the Romans imitated Grecian models, and many Greek architects of celebrity resided in Rome. As the power, refinement, and luxury >of Rome advanced, splendid architectural works were multiplied, and thus arose in rapid succession temples, amphitheatres, markets, baths, bridges, aqueducts, palaces, manors &c. These buildings were magnificent not only architecture; roman. 141 from their architecture, but in their various embellishments, for which the other arts, especially sculpture and painting, were brought into requisition. Details respecting the names, arrangements, and uses of these structures belong properly to the subject of antiquities. Here we only mention the most distinguished Roman architects, who were, it must be observed, in part Greeks by birth, or scholars and imitators of Grecian masters ; Cossutius, Hermodorus, Vitruvius, Rabirius, Frontinus, Apollodorus. No specimen ot the Tuscan order has come down to us, as time has not spared a single edifice of the Etrurians. Some sepulchres exist in Italy whose architect- ure agrees with the character ascribed to the Tuscan buildings.— Mutter, Die Etrusker. Cf. § 109, 173. ' Although to the Etruscans, and subsequently to the early Romans, an order has been ascribed, no specimen of this Tuscan capital has come down to our times, and consequently there exist no means of tracing the narrative or de- scriptions of Vitruvius. But by the account even of this native writer, the pub- lic buildings of the regal and consular times were rude enough, exhibiting a state of the science as already described among the early nations of the East — vertical supports of stone, with wooden bearers. This continued to be their style of design and practice, till extending empire brought the Romans ac- quainted with the arts of the Dorian settlements on the east and southern shores of Italy. Down to the conquest of Asia and the termination of the republic, Rome continued a 'city of wood and brick.' Only with the establishment of the empire and the reign of Augustus, with the wealth of the world at command, and the skill of Greece to direct the application, commences the valuable history of architecture among the Romans. — Of all the fine arts — poetry not excepted — architecture is the only one info which the Roman mind entered with the real enthusiasm of natural and national feeling. Success corresponded with the ex- alted sentiment whence it arose ; here have been left for the admiration of fu- ture ages, the most magnificent proofs of original genius. This originality, however, depends not upon invention so much as upon application of modes. To the architectonic system, indeed, the Romans claim to have added two novel ele- ments in their own Doric, or Tuscan, and Composite orders. But in the restless spirit of innovation which these betray, the alleged invention discovers a total want of the true feeling and understanding of the science of Grecian design. — As far, as concerns the invention of forms, and the just conception of the ele- mental modes of Greece, the Romans failed. Their architecture was imperfect, both as a system of symmetry, and as a science founded upon truth and taste. But when their labors are viewed as regards the practice of the art, their mer- its are presented under a far different aspect. Whether the magnitude, the util- ity, the varied combinations, or the novel and important edifices of their knowl- edge, be considered, the Romans, in their practical works, are yet unrivalled. They here created their own models, while they have remained examples to their successors. Though not the inventors of the arch, they, of all the nations of antiquity, first discovered and boldly applied its powers ; nor is there one dig- nified principle in its use which they have not elicited. Rivers are spanned ; the sea itself, as at Ancona, is thus enclosed within the cincture of masonry ; nay, streams were heaved into air, and, borne aloft through entire provinces, poured into the capital their floods of freshness, and health. The self-balanced dome, extending a marble firmament over head, the proudest boast of modern skill, has yet its prototype and its superior in the Pantheon. The same stupendous and enduring character pervaded all the efforts of Ro- man art, even in those instances where more ancient principles only were brought into action. Where the Greeks were forced to call the opei ations of nature in aid of the weakness of art, availing themselves of some hollow mountain side for the erection of places of public resort, the imperial masters of Rome caused such mountains to be reared of masonry, within their capital, for the Theatre, Amphitheatre, and Circus. Palaces — Temples— Baths— Porticos— Arches of Triumph — Commemorative Pillars— Basilica, or Halls of Justice — Fora. or I 13 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. gnuares— Bridges— without mentioning the astonishing highways, extending to the extremities'of the empire— all were constructed on the same grand and mag- Dificent plan.' Mmss p. '270. CI. on the grandeur of Grecian works, Chateaubri- and (cited §'233) p. 140.— On Roman Architecture, see also Schasll, Hist. Litl. Rom. Vol. IT. p. 191. $ 242. The strength and solidity of Greek and Roman edifices wore such as to have easily preserved them to distant ages, had it not been for earthquakes, conflagrations, and the desolations of war. The remains of ancient architecture yet standing, especially in Greece and Italy, are highly interesting. Only some of the principal can here be named. At Athens we see still the ruins of the celebrated temple of Minerva, and traces of other beautiful temples at iEgina, Eleusis, Corinth, Thessalonica, Ephesus, Priene, Antioch &c. ; ruins of theatres are found at Athens, Smyrna, Mylasa, Hierapolis ; of pal- aces and royal mansions at Alabanda, Ephesus, Magnesia. — Magnif- icent ruins of cities remain on the sites of Palmyra, Heliopolis, Persepolis. In Egypt monuments of earlier and later architecture are presented in temples, obelisks and pyramids. Still more numerous and in better preservation are the remains of Roman architecture ; e. g. at Rome, the Pantheon, the temple of Vesta, several porticos, the Coliseum or amphitheatre of Vespasian, ruins of the theatres of Pompey and Marcellus, of splendid aqueducts, the baths of the Em- perors, the pillars and triumphal arches already named (§ 188), gates, bridges, tombs, mausolea &c. France exhibits some monuments of Roman architecture, particularly at Nismes ; some remains also, chief- ly of military structures, have been found in England. Besides the numerous accounts of these various remains given by modern trav- elers, there are works prepared expressly to make them known ,with engravings and explanations ; such are the following. 1. Remains in Greece or of Grecian architecture. LesRuines des plus beaux monumens de la Grece, par le Roy (or Leroi). 1758. 2d ed. 1770. 2 Vols. Fol. the first picturesque tour of Greece ; the drawings not always accurate. — Ruins of Athens by Robert Sayer. Lond. 1759. Fol. — The Antiquities of Athens, by StAiart and Revett. Lond. 1762—1816.4 Vols, fol.— The same, edited by W. Kin- nard, with many valuable additions. 1825 — 30. 4 vols. fol. 200 plates. — Ionian Antiquities, by Chandler, Revett, and Pars. Lond. 1769-97. 2 vols. fol. — The same, 1817. 2 vols. imp. fol. with fine plates. — Voyage pittoresque de la Grece, par Choiseul-Gou&er. Par: 1782. fol.— Atheniensia, or remarks on the Topogra- phy and buildings of Athens by Wilkins. 1816. 8.— The unedited Antiquities of Atica. By the Society of Dilettanti, and edited by Wilkins, Deering, and Bed- ford, 1817. imp. fol. 79 plates. — Olympia, or Topography illustrative of the ancient state of the plain of Olympia, by J. S. Stanhope, 1824. imp. fol. with fine plates.—/?. C. Cockerell, Grand Restoration of Athens, its Temples, Sculp- ture &c. Engraved by J. Coney. 1829. large fol.— By the same, Elucidation of the temple of jEgina— Architectural Monuments of Greece and Sicily, by F. Gart- ner. Munster. 1819. fol. in German, with lithographed plates.— The Antiquities of Magna Graecia, by Wm. Wilkins. Cambridge, 1807. M.—Delagardettc, Les RuinesdePaestum.ouPosidonia. Par. 1799. fol.— J. Hitlorfs, Architecture An- tique de la Sicile. Par. 1825-30. 6 livraisons, with plates.— Galerie Antique, ou Collection des Chefsd'ceuvres d' Architecture, de Sculpture, et de Peinture an- tiques. Paris. 12 parts in 1 vol. folio pertaining to Architecture. REMAINS OF ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. 143 In a Memoir prefixed to Chateaubriand's Travels in Greece &c. is found a brief notice of the state of Athens and her monuments since the Christian era, and of the travelers who have visited and described the remains of Greece. He closes with the following remark. ' It is a melancholy reflection, that the civi- lized nations of Europe have done more injury to the monuments of Athens in the space of one hundred and fifty years than all the barbarians together for a long series of ages ; it is cruel to think that Alaric and Mahomet II respected the Parthenon, and that it was demolished byMorosini and lord Elgin.' — Several travelers must be added to Chateaubriand's list. 2. Remains in Italy. Le antichita Romane opera di Giamb. Piranesi. Rom. 1756. 4 vols. fol. — Descrizione topografica ed istorica di Roma antica e moderna, da R, Vermti. Rom. 1763, 66. 2 vols. 4. — Le plus beaux monumens de Rome anci- enne,par Barbault. Rom. 1761. fol.-<-Veteris Latii antiquitatum amplissima col- lectio, ed. R. Venuti. Rom. 1769-80. 7 vols. fol. — Les edifices antiques de Rome, dessines &c. par Ant. Desgodetz. Par. 1682, it. 1697. it. 1779. fol, English tr. by G. Marshall, 1771. 2 vols. fol. — Raccolta de' tempi antichi, opera di Fr. Piranesi. Rom. 1780. fol. — The complete works of Giov. B. {John Baptist) Piranesi, pub- lished after his death, by his son Francis Piranesi, in 29 Vols. fol. containing nearly 2000 plates. (For contents of these vols, see Stuart's Dictionary, Appen- dix II, where is a catalogue of Works relating to Architecture, arranged in 13 classes). — Architectural Antiquities of Rome, by G. L. Taylor and E. Cresy. Lond. 1821 ss. 2 vols. imp. foL — G. Valadier, Raccolta delle piu insigni Fab- brichediRoma Antichaesue Adjacenze. Rom. 1810-26. imp. fol. 63 plates. — Antichita d'Ercolano &c. (with a vast number of Engravings from the busts, bas-reliefs, statues, paintings, buildings &c. discovered in the ruins of Herculane- um). Napol. 1765-92. 9 vols. fol. — Pompeiana, the Topography, Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii, by Sir W. Gell and J. P. G. Deering. Lond. 1824. 2 vols. imp.oct.-Ruinesde Pompeii, by F. Mazois. Par. 1830. 31 livraisons.-Pompeii, cit- ed § 226.-Ant. Nibby, Del Foro Romano, della Via Sacra &c. Rom. 1819. 8.-Archi- tectural remains in Rome, &c. from drawings by Clerisseau, under direction of Robert Adam (also author of Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian , with 61 plates. Lond. 1764. Cf. Gibbon Hist. Rom. Emp. Ch. xiii). — Rossini, Veduta di Roma, 101 large folio Views of the most remarkable antiquities and buildings in Rome and its neighborhood. Rom. 1823. 4. — Montfaucon's Antiquitee expliquee. 3. Remains in other countries — Cassas, Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie, de la Phenicie, de la Palestine et de la Basse Egypte. 2 vols. fol. with many plates. — R. Wood, Ruins of Palmyra. Lond. 1753. fol. By same, Ruins of Balbee. Lond. 1757. fol. — F. C. Gau, Antiquities de la Nubia. Paris. 1824. fol. — Voyages dans La Basse et la Haute Egypte par Denon. — The ancient and royal Palace of Per- sepolis, destroyed by Alexander the Great. Lond. 1739. 21 plates. — Seynes, Mon- umens Romains de Nismes. Par. 1818. fol. 16 plates. — Various notices of Ro- man Remains in England are found in the Work styled Archaeologia, or Miscel- laneous Tracts retaining to Antiquity, published by the Society of Antiquaries. Lond. 1793 ss. 22 vols. 4. — See Catalogue already mentioned in Stuart's Dic- tionary. It will be proper to add in this place some of the principal works pertaining to the history and theory of Architecture. — Observations sur les edifices des an- ciens peuples, par C. Roy. Par. 1768. 4. — Stieglitz, Geschichte der Baukunst der Allen. Leipz. 1792. 8. — By same, Archaologie der Baukunst der Griechen und Romer. Weimar 1801. 8. A. Hirt, die Baukunst nach den Grundsatzen der Al- ten. Berl. 1809. fol. 50 plates. By same, Geschichte der Baukunst bei den Alten. Berl. 1821. 2 vols. 4.— Goguet De l'Origin &c. cited § 32.— L. Le Brun, Theorie de l'Architecture Grecque et Romaine &c. Par. 1807. fol. 26 plates. — Vitruvius' Civil Architecture, translated by W. Wilkins, containing the Earl of Aberdeen's Inquiry into the Beauty of Grecian Architecture. Lond. 1812-17. 2 vols. 4. 41 plates. — New Parallel of the Orders of Architecture, according to the Greeks and Romans and modern Architects, translated by Mr. Pugin from the French by C. Normond. Lond. 1829. fol. 62 plates. — Rudiments of Architecture, practi- cal and theoretical, by Jos. Gwilt. F, S. A. Lond. 1826. 8. with plates and vig- nettes. — /. Rondelet, Traite Theorique et Pratique de l'Art de Batir. Par. 1829, 30. 6 vols. 4. with plates. § 243.* Although, strictly speaking, it is only classical art that belongs to our subject, it may not be out of place to allude here to a 144 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. style of architecture, which grew up after the dismemberment of the Roman Empire. ' The arts degenerated so far that a custom became prevalent of erecting new buildings, with the fragments of old ones, which were dilapidated and torn down for the purpose. This gave rise to an irregular style of building which continued to be imitated, especially in Italy, during the dark ages. It consisted of Grecian and Roman details, combined under new forms, and piled up into structures wholly unlike the antique originals. Hence the names Greco-Gothic and Romanesque architecture have been given to it. It frequently contained arches upon columns forming successive arcades, which were accumulated above each other to a great height. The effect was sometimes imposing.' The Cathedral and Leaning Tower at Pisa, and the Church of St. Mark at Venice are named as the best specimens of the Greco-Gothic style. The ancient saxon architecture in England was in some respects similar, as e. g. in the Ca- thedral at Ely, which exhibits arches upon columns. The same peculiarity is seen in some remains of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. Besides the different styles which have been named, Egyptian, Grecian, Ro- man, and Greco-Gothic, we may mention, the Saracenic, Gothic, and Chinese, 'The Chinese have made the tent the elementary feature of their architecture, and of their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon common China ware. The Chinese towers and pagodas have concave roofs, like awnings, projecting over their several stories. The lightness of the style used by the Chinese leads them to build with wood, sometimes with brick, seldom with stone.' The Saracenic style is distinguished by a peculiar form of the arch, which is a curve constituting more than half a circle or ellipse. It is exhibited in the buildings of the Moors and Saracens in Spain, Egypt and Turkey. A flowery ornament called Arabesque is common in the Moorish buildings. The Alhambraat Grena- da furnishes a specimen of this style. — The Minaret, a tall slender tower, appears in the Turkish mosques. The Gothic style is not so called in order to designate a mode of building de- rived from the Goths. The name was first applied as a term of reproach to the edifices in the middle ages, which were at variance with antique models. It is now chiefly employed to designate a style of building religious edifices introduc- ed in England six or eight centuries ago and adopted, nearly at the same time, in Prance, Germany and other parts of Europe. ' Its principle seems to have orig- inated in the imitation of groves, and bowers, under which the Druids per- formed their sacred rites. Its characteristics, at sight, are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires, its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profu- sion of ornaments, and the general predominance of the perpendicular over the horizontal.'— Bigelow's Technology. Ch. vii. PART II. HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE, GREEK AND ROMAN. 19 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Introduction. § V. The Greeks, beyond any other nation of antiquity, enjoyed a happy union of important advantages for the promotion of civiliza- tion and literature. The nature of their country, washed on every side by the sea, with its coasts formed into numerous gulfs and penin- sulas, afforded the people peculiar facilities for mutual intercourse. The singular mildness of their climate was such as to favor the happiest developement of the physical and intellectual powers, unit- ing a vigorous constitution with a lively imagination and profound sensibility. Their free forms of government afforded powerful motives to stimulate exertion. The commerce with foreign countries fur- nished a source of favorable influences. Equally favorable were the high honors and substantial rewards bestowed on knowledge and merit. Some have supposed that the existence of slavery contributed to the literary advancement of the Greeks, as it left the citizens more leisure for public life and study. But a more fortunate circumstance was, that oriental influence never established among the Greeks any thing like the system of casts, which prevailed in Egypt and some of the Asiatic states, and which confined the arts and sciences by a sort of hereditary right to the priests. The plan and scope of Grecian education deserves also to be mentioned here. It was in general more adapted to the common purposes of the whole community than in modern times, and was less modified by the individual and private aim of the pupil. The apparent good of the state was the object constantly in view. This gave to all their ideas and efforts not only a definite direction, but also a liberal and diffusive character. Comp. remarks on Greek and Roman education in Good's Book of Nature, Lect. XI. 148 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- s \ 2. In this last circumstance we find one obvious source of the permanent excellence and utility of the Greek writers and their works. Here was a foundation for their pre-eminent and lasting re- nown. No nation in the history of letters is so celebrated as the Greeks. And hence the imperious obligation laid upon every one, who makes any pretensions to literature, to acquaint himself with the language and the most valuable productions of the ancient Greeks. This knowledge is alike essential to the statesman, the orator, the phy- sician, the theologian, philosopher, historian and antiquarian; to the polite scholar and the philologian, to the connoiseur and the artist, it is absolutely indispensable. See an elegant and masterly discussion on the study of Greek Literature by Rev Mr. Cheever, in the American Quarterly Register, Vol. iv. p 273. V. p. 33. 218. The writer aims 'to prove that Greek Literature ought to be profoundly studied —First, for the native excellence of the Greek classics; Second, for the invigorating discipline which this study affords the mind; Third, for the prac- tical knowledge and mastery of our own native language ; Fourth, and most important, as a preparation for the study of theology.'— References on the im- portance and value of classical literature in Fuhrmann's Handbuch zurKentniss der griech. und rom. Schriftsteller. Einleit. p. 5-8— Cf. P. I. § 29. § 3. But independent of these considerations, the language itself presents sufficient inducements to the study ; such is its own intrinsic beauty; the high degree of perfection it exhibits, above all other lan- guages ; its unequalled richness in the most significant words and combinations, its symmetrical structure and syntax, its elegance in turns of expression, the singular skill in the arrangement of its par- ticles, clauses and members, and its wonderful harmony in prose as well as poetry. These are excellences, which impart to the best works of the Greeks a charm in outward dress fully corresponding to the value of their contents. See T.G. Trendelenburg's Vergleichung der VorzUge der deutschen Sprache mit den Vorz. der lat. und griech. im Vierten Bande der Schriften der deutschen Gesellsch. zu Mannheim. Frankf. 1788. 8.— Aug. Schelz, Versuch fiber den Werth der alten Sprachen und das Stud, der Lit. der Griech. fur Jurist. Frankf. a. d. 0, 1810. 8.— Cf. P. I. § 39.— Coleridge, Study of Gk. Poets, P. I. p. 34. § 4 £ . Respecting the origin of the Greek language and the causes of its perfection we have already remarked (P. I. §§ 35-39). Here we may further remark, that in the different provinces and settlements of the Greeks arose those differences in their language, which are named dialects. The principal, which are found in written composi- tion, are four, the iEolic, Doric, Ionic and Attic. The iEolic prevailed in the northern parts of Greece, in some north- ern islands of the Mgean sea, and especially in the iEolic colonies in the northwestern part of Asia Minor. It was chiefly cultivated by INTRODUCTION. 149 the lyric poets in Lesbos, as Alcaeus and Sappho, and in Boeotia by Corinna. It retained the most numerous traces of the ancient Greek. The Latin coincides with this more than with any other of the Greek dialects. The Doric was spoken chiefly in the Peloponnesus, with a few places north of the Isthmus, in the Doric colonies in the southern part of Italy, and in Sicily. It was particularly distinguished by the use of what was termed the broad sound of the vowels (nluTBi,aufi6c). The most eminent writers in this dialect were Theocritus and Pin- dar. Bion, Moschus, Stesichorus, and Bacchylides also used it. The Ionic was the softest of the dialects, in consequence of its nu- merous vowels, and its rejection of aspirated letters. It was spoken chiefly in the* colonies in the southwestern part of Asia Minor, and in the neighboring islands. The principal writers in this were Homer, Hesiod, Anacreon, Herodotus, and Hippocrates. The Attic was considered the most refined and perfect of the dia- lects, free from the extremes of harshness and softness. It had its seat at Athens, and prevailed in the most flourishing period of Gre- cian literature. It is the dialect used by many of the best writers of Greece; iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and others. These dialects passed through different changes, and included un- der them several varieties. They may be traced to two primary dia- lects ; as the Ionic and Attic were originally nearly or quite the same, and the Doric, and .ZEolic were at first the same,or had a common ba- sis. Their first distinct and definite separation from two into four may be referred to the time, when the iEolian and Ionian colonies were planted in Asia Minor, between 1030 and 1100 B. C. On the colonies referred to, see Mitford's Greece Ch. V. § li. — On the dialects, J. F. Facii Compendium Dial. Graec. Norimb. 1782. Mich, Mattaire Grsec. Ling. Dialecti. Lips. 1807. E. W. Sturz de Dial. Macedon. et Alexand. Lips. 1807. Hermann Progr. de Dialectis, Lips. 1807, and de Dialecto Pindari, Lips. 1809. also see Matthice's Greek Grammar, Robinson's Buttmann, § I. and StuarL's Grammar of N. Testament. — On the Doric peculiarities, see Mueller's Dorians. Vol. II. App. viii. § 5. The true pronunciation of Greek, since it must be viewed as a dead language, cannot be determined with certainty. The principal difference in the actual pronunciation of modern scholars on the European continent is in the enunciation of ^, «t, ot, si, ov and ev, which are sounded in two different ways. Erasmus and Reuchlin in the 16th century were the distinguished original advocates of the two modes respectively, and from this circumstance one is termed the [50 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Braamian and the other the Reuchlinian method. Very probably tliere was a different utterance of these vowels in the different provin- ces among the Greeks. The chief difficulty in pronouncing Greek is found in the expres- sion of what is called the accent. The tone in Greek is placed upon short syllables as well as long ; in German, it accompanies regularly only long syllables. The consequence is, that in reading Greek with the accent always placed where the Greek tone is marked, a German naturally violates quantity, and in verse destroys all poetical measure. Yet attention and practice will enable one to give the accent to the syllable marked by it and at the same time regard and exhibit the quantity in his pronunciation. Those who adopt the Reuchlinian method sound >;, ot and », like the conti- nental i (as in machine) ; ai like e in there ; and v in av and ev, like v or /. Those who follow Erasmus sound); like a in hale : at like ai in aisle, u like ei in height, 01 like oi in Boiotia, av and iv like au and eu in Glaucus and Eurus (Robin- son's Buttmann § 2. 6). The former are often called Iotistae and the latter Etis- tae from their respective modes of sounding the vowel i; ; these terms instantly suggest to a continental scholar the ground of their application ;— but to convey the meaning to an English or American eye and ear, they must be written and spoken eotistae or etistae and alistae (etists and atists). In England and in this country, especially in the northern schools and seminaries, it has been the com- mon practice to sound the Greek vowels according to the prevailing analogy of the vernacular tongue. The controversy between Reuchlimans and Erasmians has therefore excited little interest among us. For references to authors who have discussed the subject, consult Harles, Introductio in Historiam Linguae Gne- cae (Prol. § 7, and Supplement). Harles expresses the opinion hinted above in this section, that the vowels had not always and in all places a uniform sound. Cf. Messrs.de PorLRoyal, Gk. Grammar, Pref. ix. The mode of expressing what is called the accent is viewed as a subject of more importance. In giving an accent to a syllable in an English word we there- by render it a long syllable, whatever maybe the sound given to its vowel, and in whatever way the syllable may be composed; so that as above stated in rela- tion to the German, an English accent, or stress in pronunciation, accompanies only a long syllable. The consequence is, as the Greek tone (twos) is placed on short syllables as well as long, that, if we in pronouncing Greek put our accent wherever the Greek tone occurs, we shall in many cases grossly violate the laws of quantity. ' Let one take, for example, the word av&qvmos, and attempt toplace the stress on the first syllable, and yet make the second seem as long in quantity. He will certainly find some difficulty. It is of no consequence in the matter, which sound he givesto a in the first, the open or contracted ; the quantity, to an English ear, is the same whether he says an'thropos, or an' thropos. Nor does it make any difference, as to the point in question, whether he gives to eu in the sec- ond the contracted sound or the open ; in either case, the quantity will be the same to English ears, whether he say an' thropos, or an' thro pos, and must be the same in English verse, just as in the two words big' 6t ed and temp' o ral. Now in this difficulty what shall the student do ? Three different methods have been follow- ed by different persons. One is to persevere in the effort to separate stress and quantity, and give stress in all cases to the syllable which has the Greek tone, and at the same time to pronounce that syllable and the others with a prolongation or curtailment of sound according to their prosodial quantity. Many distinguished scholars recommend this effort, as Matthias, Michaelis, Foster, Buttman and oth- ers, with the assurance that perseverance will attain the object. But it is believed that very few, if any, ever succeed in the effort. It is indeed not very difficult to give a mere elevation to the syllable that has the tone, and still pronounce it in half the time employed in uttering either of the other syllables. Such enunciation, however, must to our ears seem like singing rather than accented pronunciation. INTRODUCTION. 151 Nor is elevation by any means synonymous with our accent; for the syllable which has the stress, in our language, is not always elevated above the others in enunciation, but is very often depressed below them. — Asecond method is to place the stress always on the syllable which has the Greek tone, and make no effort to exhibit the relative quantity of the syllables. This is done by the modern Greeks and is perfectly easy for us. But it is a method, which inevitably violates all the prosodial measures, and utterly destroys Greek versification. On this account, chiefly, scholars in this country, although often urged, have been reluctant to adopt it. (See J. Pickering's Memoir on the pronunciation of Greek.) — The third mode is to place the stress on the syllable (whether the Greek tone be on that syllable or not), on which it would fall by Latin analogy, i. e. on the penult, if the penult be long, or the antepenult, if the penult be short. This method, of course, is very easy for us, and it also accords with the Greek prosodial quantity far bet- ter than the second, although it does not by any means perfectly harmonize therewith. It however makes distinctly perceptible the quantity of the penult in all words of three or more syllables, and this is nearly all that can be accom- plished by modern pronunciation according to Buttman's statement. (Robinson's Buttman. § 7. Note 7). See Rules for pronouncing Latin and Greek, and a Me- thod of Logical Analysis applied to Greek Composition. Amherst, Mass. 1834. 32 pp. 12 mo. On this topic the following works may be mentioned. An essay on the differ-' ent nature of Accent and Q-uantity, with their use in the English, Latin and Greek Languages, &c. by John Foster. Third edition, Containing Dr. H. Gaily' s Two Dissertations against pronouncing the Greek according to Accents. Lond. 1820. 8. — Accentus Redivivi, or a defence of an accented pronunciation of Greek prose, by William Primatt. Camb. 1764. 8. — Metronariston, or a new pleasure recommended in a Dissertation upon a part of Greek and Latin Proso- dy. Lond. 1797. 8. — J. Walker's Key to the Classical pronunciation &c. with observations on Greek and Latin Accent and Quantity. Lond. 1798. 8. Boston 1818. 24. — An inquiry into the principles of Harmony in Language &c. by William Mitford. Lond. 1804.8.— See also Harles Introductio &c. Prol. § 6. and Supplement. § 6. It is important to begin the acquisition of this language at an early period of life. But a tedious, unfruitful mode of study must be avoided, lest a language so beautiful and excellent should become disgusting to youth. The pupil must first be well grounded in the principles of the Grammar, the understanding of which and the fix- ing of them in the memory may be aided by exercises in the transla- tion of easy passages from suitable text-books. The best mode of studying and teaching the languages has been a fruitful theme for discussion. In this place a few general remarks only will be offered. 1. Perhaps no one method of teaching can be devised, which shall, by its es- sential peculiarities as a method, be tJie best in all circumstances. It is essential to great success that the teacher's own mind should be roused to wakeful activity and interest, and also that the student should be put upon a kind and degree of exertion, which really tasks him, and which yet is fully within his present ability. It must be obvious to every observer, that the method, which might secure these objects in some cases, would utterly fail in others. The teacher therefore who relies upon any plan as possessing in itself certain efficacy, and on that account promising infallible success, will inevitably be disappointed. The efficacy of any method will depend very much on his own spirit and feelings, and if he trusts to a favorite method merely or chiefly as such, however successful it may be when executed with his own mind glowing with enthusiasm, he will soon discover that his method will not work by magic; as a machine or instrument employed with wakeful ardor by him it accomplishes much, but it can do little or nothing of itself alone. The judicious and skillful teacher will be regularly guided by cer- tain general principles, but will ever be on the alert to watch among his pupils the first flagging of interest in his present methods, and put himself to devise new expedients to forward his ultimate object. 152 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 'J. The analytical and syntkttical methods, as they have been termed, have often been contrasted. The former is less adapted for the study of a dead lan- guage than for almost any other branch of learning to which it can be applied,. Much has been urged in its favor in this study, but only doubtful evidence can tic adduced from experience. Where there is lime sufficient, and constant oral instruction can be afforded, such a method is no doubt adequate. But no abiding foundation is laid until the student is well grounded in the principles of gram- mar, as hinted in the section above. The principles of grammar are nothing but classifications or synthetic statements of those facts respecting the language, which by the analytic' process the pupil learns by induction from a series of par- ticular cases; i.e. if he learns them by the analytic process in reality; but in point of fact, he usually learns them, if he learns them at all, because his teacher orally states the general facts to him again and again as successive particular in- stances occur ; and thus when one of these facts has been stated so often that he cannot help remembering it, he has learned simply what he learns when he com- mits to memory from his grammar the rule or principle, in declension or syntax, which presents that one general fact ; and the former process is as truly synthetic as the latter, with this difference, that the master says the thing over and over till the pupil thus commits it, instead of committing it in a vastly shorter time and in a more accurate form from his grammar at the outset. ■ The remark of the author above, that the fixing of the principles of grammar in the memory may be aided by suitable accompanying exercises, is just and im- portant. Much of the prejudice against the method, which has been called syn- thetic, has arisen from the practice of forcing the beginner to spend many weeks in merely committing the grammar to memory: It is far better that he should be put upon the application of what he learns as he learns it, and that he should be furnished with exercises adapted for the purpose. This is the method most generally practised in the schools of our country. Most of the elementary books now in use, in the study of both Greek and Latin, contain portions design- ed for such exercises. A very good help for acquiring and fixing in this way the principles of Greek Grammar is, Lessons in Greek Parsing, or Outlines of the Greek Grammar divided into short portions and illustrated by ap- propriate exercises in Parsing, by Chauncey A. Goodrich. New-Haven, 1829. Attempts have recently been made in England to introduce, or rather, in the language of the advocates of the system, to restore the method of Interlinear Translation. A series of text-books has been published adapted to this design. The Greek course commences with Selections from Lucian's Dialogues. The beginner is freed from the toil and delay of studying a grammar or turning to a lexicon. The translation is given word for word the English directly under the Greek, and the learner is expected to be able, on examination by the master, to render the Greek into English word for word, and also without the book to give the English for each Greek word, and the Greek for each English word. The second volume in the course consists of the odes of Anacreon, and is to be studied in the same way, but accompanied with the study of a Grammar adap- ted to the plan. For an account of this system, see An Essay ort a system of Classical Instruction ; combining the me thods of Locke, Millon, Ascham and Colet ; the whole series being designed to exhibit a Restora- tion of the primitive mode of Scholastic Tuition in England. Lond. 1829. Cf. London Quarterly Re- view, No. 77. 3. It is sometimes asked whether a youth should begin with Greek or with Latin. The question is not perhaps of so much importance as some have sup- posed. But it may be observed that some of the most distinguished scholars, both in this country and others, as Pickering, Wyttenbach, &c. have thought that the classical course should commence with Greek. The chief remark we wish to urge here is, that it is of the utmost consequence that both languages should be commenced in early life. 4. Whatever methods are employed in the first stages, it is obvious that as the student advances his attention should be turned to various points by suitable exercises. The habit of thoroughly analyzing sentences upon, grammatical principles must be formed and never lost. It is a profitable exercise to the most advanced scholar occasionally in his readings to select a sentence and go over it in a perfectly minute examination of every word, and make a formal statement, even a written one, of all that is true respecting it in its place in that sentence. On the importance of thorough study, see Hints on the Study of the Greek Language by Prof. Stu- art, In Bibl. Repository, No. VI. Vol.11. p,290. INTRODUCTION. 153 Another exercise which will be found of much utility is that of analyzing upon logical principles. This analysis extends of course beyond the parts of a single sentence, and examines not only the mutual relations of those parts, but also the nature and ground of the connection between the sentences. It may be united with a tracing out of the train and order of thought in the mind of the author through successive paragraphs or a whole piece. The nature of this exercise is partially exhibited in A Method of Logical Analysis applied to Greek Composition, cited § 7.— Cf. Principles of General Grammar adapted to the capacity of youth, and pro- per to serve as an Introduction to the study of Languages, by A. J. Sylvestre de Sacy. Trans, by D. Fosdick. Andov. 1834. (P. HI.) Exercises in oral or written translation from the original into the vernacular are of indispensable importance. It is advantageous to vary the mode of trans- lating. The scholar may sometimes be required to give the vernacular for the original, word for word taken in grammatical order, a mode absolutely essential with beginners; sometimes he may proceed exactly in the order of the original, a method which will be found very useful in gaining familiarity with an author's mode of thinking and with the idioms of the language ; sometimes he may, either before or after reading the original, translate a sentence or passage as a whole, giving as far as possible the exact meaning of the author's words, in the best words of the vernacular, and using only vernacular idioms, a method of pecu- liar advantage in cultivating accuracy and promptness in the use of the verna- cular. Loose and paraphrastic translations cannot be safely indulged even in advanced scholars. Various other exercises, connected with inquiries on the facts and allusions, the sentiments, figures, and general scope of the original, and with topics of his- tory, chronology, geography, arts, and antiquities, will be suggested to every competent teacher. In all cases it is to be kept in mind that repealed reviewing cannot be too much recommended. On the last point and on this whole subject see, Dissertations on the importance and best method of studying the Original Languages of the Bible, by Jahn, with notes by M. Stuart. Andov. 1821.; also, Observations on the importance of Greek Literature and the best method of studying the classics, translated from the Latin by Prof. Wyttenbach. Boston, 1820. Translating from the vernacular into the language, which the student wishes to learn, is eminently useful. In the study of Greek this exercise has been prac- ticed among us much less than in the study of Latin ; owing chiefly to the want of suitable helps to enable the learner to begin it in the outset of his course. The student should commence the writing of Greek as soon as he enters upon his Chrestomathy or Readtng-Book. 5. How far Reading-Books, conrprising mere extracts and selections, should be used has been a subject of inquiry. In this country for many years, until re- cently, the course of study has been chiefly confined lo such Books in the Col- leges as well as other schools. Lately, objections have been urged which have awakened some prejudice against them. No friend of learning can object to the reading of 'whole authors,' which has been demanded. But the time allowed to Greek, in the present systems of study at our Colleges, is not sufficient for read- ing the whole of more than one or two important authors. — See Remarks on this subject by Prof. Stowe, in Biblic. Repository, Vol. ii. p. 740. That the student, who would derive full advantage or pleasure from the study, must go beyond his Collectanea or Excerpta needs not to be stated. In what order it is best to read the Greek authors is less obvious. The Odyssey of Homer and Anabasis of Xenophon are adapted for an early place in the course. On this point we may refer to J. G. Schilling, ueher den Zweck und die Methode beyra Lesen der Gr. u. Rcem. Class. (Hamb. and Kiel. 1795, 97. 2 Abth. 8,— Fr. Creuzcr, Das acad. Stud, des Alterthums. Heidelb. 1807. B.—K. G. Schelle, welche alte class. Autoren, wie, in welcher Folge und Verbindung mit andernStudien soil man sie auf Schulen lesen! Leipz. 1804. 2 Bde. 8.— Felton's Diss, on Read- ing the Classics. Lond. 1730. 8.—H. Sulzer, Gedanken ueber d. beste Art d. class. Schriftst, zu lesen. Berl. 1765. 8.— Cf. Fuhrmann as cited § 2. 6. It may be interesting to introduce here a notice of the methods of instruc- tion in the London University. The following account, is taken from the London University Calender for the year MDCCCXXXII. The outlines of the courses in Latin and Greek were prepared for the work by the Professors in these de- partments. We will insert both. 20 154 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. • The Instruction in the Latin and Greek Classes is communicated by daily examination of the Stu- dents in certain portions of a Latin or Greek author (for which they are required to prepare at home) ; by questions on the subject-matter and the words of the author; by remarks on the peculiarities of the language and on important facts ; by reference to books, or parts of books ; by the aid of maps, plans, views, models, coins, medals, &c.j and, finally, by requiring from the Students translations from these two languages Into English, and from English into Latin or Greek, with other exercises of various kinds.— There are, in all the Classes, regular examinations at Christmas, Easter, and the close Of the Session, conducted chiefly after the Cambridge plan, by written answers to questions privately printed ; by these it is determined to whom Certificates of Proficiency shall be granted, and the Prizes awarded.' Outline of Course in Latin Language and Literature.—' The instruction in this department will, from the commencement of the Session issi-a. be divided into three courses, as follows ; The Junior Class will begin with two or three books of Csesar's Gallic War. A certain portion of this will be daily translated by the Student himself, in the lecture-room. But to make him accurately acquainted with the language, he will be called upon, both orally in the lecture room, and in writing out of it, to translate a number of short sentences from English into Latin. All of these will be se- lected from Caesar's own writings, so as to illustrate the different idioms, as they from time to time occur. Those for immediate translation will, of course, be very simple ; while such as are to»be trans- lated out of the lecture-room will be of a difficulty somewhat greater, but still simple. These* exer- cises are already prepared, and will be printed before the autumn of the next year. No English-Latin Dictionary will be required by the Student ; all those words for which he might want to consult such a book will be supplied with the exercises. After he has thus overcome the difficulties occurring in narrative, he will read Terence's Andria, where the idioms peculiar to dialogue will present them- selves. These also will be fully explained to him, and impressed upon his memory in the same way viz. by easy passages, carefully selected for retranslation from the other plays of Terence, and those o( Plautus.— The Manilian Oration will close the Session.— In this class by far the largest share of the student's attention will be directed to the idioms and structure of the language. At the same time it will not be forgotten, that an acquaintance with certain portions of history, geography, and antiqui- ties isnecessary to the full understanding of every Latin author. The translations from English into Latin will be required four times a week, and once a week a written translation from the text of the author. The Senior Class will commence with the 21st and 22nd books of Livy, and the 9th book of the JEneid ; they will afterwards read part of Cicero's letters and the Satires or Epistles of Horace. In connexion with the two prose writers, there will be regular exercises adapted to each author, as in the Junior class ; but they will be of a more difficult character. In this class also, a weekly translation from some portion of the text will be required. In the Higher Class the instruction will be of a different character. The Professor will himself translate and explain some portion of a more difficult Latin author, or read a lecture connected with the history, antiquites, or language of Rome :— Thus in the Session 1831-2, it is proposed, that the sub- jects should be— 1st. A play of Plautus; fragments of Ennius and the earlier writers, with some of the oldest inscriptions; and a Course of Lectures on the etymological structure of the Latin language.— 2nd. History of Cicero's times, illustrated by his Orations and Epistles.' Outline of Course in Greek Language and Literature.— There are two regular academical classes, Junior and Senior, besides a class for more advanced students. In the Junior and Senior classes In- struction is given daily, except Saturday : in the Higher class twice a week. Junior Class.— This class is intended for those young students who enter the University at the ear- liest period that is recommended ; and also for students of a more advanced age, who have learned Greek only a short time, and wish to avail themselves of the more elementary kind of instruction. The Anabasis of Xenophon is the text-book, of which small portions are read daily, except Saturday. At the commencement of the session, the etymological structure of the language is developed by ex- plaining the particular forms that occur in each lesson, and by exhibiting on the black board other examples of the classes to which they belong.' Each lesson is twice read on successive days, and the more difficult parts are also translated and explained by the Professor. Written translations of cer- tain portions are required once a week, and they are corrected with reference both to the meaning and the mode of expression. One student's exercise is also selected to be read aloud in the Lecture-room by the Professor, who makes such remarks as he may judge proper, and calls on other students to read aloud parts of their exercises, and to explain any thing in them that is imperfect or obscure. When this exercise has been corrected, each student is expected to be able to give orally, and with closed book, the Greek text corresponding to the English, which the Professor reads out in short portions, and whenever it is practicable, in distinct propositions. To aid the student still further in acquiring the language by written exercises, shortEnglish sentences are given him to be turned into Greek, the model or exam- ple to be Imitated being always contained in some part that he has read, and to which he is referred. During the session the Professor explains the geography of Greece, and the Greek islands of the Mediterranean, and gives also such instruction on the geography of Asia as is necessary to under- stand the narrative of Xenophon. Every well ascertained fact of physical or modern political geogra- phy that can elucidate ancient geography comes within the plan. These explanations are always fol- lowed by examination. The student is recommended to use the maps of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and is referred to others on a larger scale in the Lecture-room, and the Library INTRODUCTION, 155 The subject matter of the Anabasis is explained to the student, as well as the language ; it being the Professor's design to connect, as far as he is able, all kinds of useful information with the accurate study of the Greek text. For the session 1830-31, the first four books of the Anabasis are read. In the session 1831-32, the last three will be read. The Senior Class.— This class is intended for those who have passed through the Junior Class, and for others who come prepared to enter it. The general plan for the Junior Class applies to this also, with such modifications as the higher acquirements of the pupils may render necessary. In the ses- sion 1830-31, the class reads Herodotus, Bookiii. ; the Orestes of Euripides ; and two books of the Iliad.— In the session 1831-32, the Senior Class will read Herodotus, Book viii. j the Pcrsa; of JEschy- Ius ; and two Books of the Odyssey. Higher Class.— The object of this class is to assist those students of more advanced age or acquire- ments, who are privately prosecuting their Greek studies.— For this purpose the Professor explains some portion of a Greek author, by translating the Greek text, making the necessary remarks on the subject matter, and the words, and by referring the students to books, maps, coins, &c. for further illustration. It Is his intention to choose for explanation such books as will be most instructive to older pupils ; Thucydides, the Attic orators, Homer, Aristophanes, &c. During part of each Spring Course, Greek inscriptions will be explained to the class from Boeckh's Corpus lnscriptionum, and from the marbles of theBritish Museum.' § 7t. Here it will be in place to mention some of the helps which the student in Greek may bring to his aid. 1. There are many valuable Chrestomathies and Reading Books. Jo. Math. Gesneri Chrestomathia Greeca. Lips. 1731. Several later editions. — Chrestoma- thia Greeca, Christ. Frid. Malthcsi. Mosc. 1773.— Eclogoe, sive Chrestom. Graec. a Frid. Andr. Strolhio, Gymnasii Gluedlinb. Rectore. Gluedl. 1776.— Griechische Blumenlese, von Jo. Frider. Fdcius. Wurnb, 1783. — Erstes Vorbereitungsbuch der griechischen Sprache, von Jo. Heinr. Martin Ernesti. Altenb. 1784.— F. Ge- dike's griechische Lesebuch. (edited by Buttman) Berlin 1321. 8. — J. C. F. Hein- zelmann's griech. Lesebuch. Halle 1816.8. — F. Jacobs, Elementarbuch der Griech. Sprache. Jena 1824. 4. Th. 8. This has been a very common text-book in Ger- many. It consists of four parts or Courses. The first is designed for beginners and is the part published in this country under the title of The Greek Reader by F. Jacobs. The second part, styled Attika, consists of extracts illustrating the history of Athens from the historians and orators. The third styled Socrates, is composed of philosophical extracts. The fourth is styled Poetische Btumenlese and consists of poetical pieces. — The Boston Stereotype Edition of the Reader contains some of the extracts of the second and of the fourth parts of the origin- al work ; this is the best American edition, entitled The Greek Reader by Fred- eric Jacobs, Professor of the Gymnasium at Gotha &c. Fourth American from the ninth German edition; adapted to the Grammars of Buttman and Fisk. ANAAEKTA 'EAAHNIKA 'H220NA, sive Collectanea Grseca Minora ad usum Tironum accornmodata, by A. Datzel, 2d ed. Edinb. 1791. Several editions have been published in this country. It was the common text-book for beginners until the publication of the Greek Reader, and is still used in some of the schools. The following is considered as the best edition ; Collectanea Grccca Minora, with explanatory notes collected or written by Andrew Dalzel, Prof, of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. Sixth Cambridge edition ; in which the Notes and Lexicon are translated from the Latin into English. — "£zAoyui ' IgroQtxat ; or Se- lecta Principum Historicorwm, by Wyltenbach. 2d ed. Amsterd. 1808. This has been pronounced an admirable selection. ANAAEKTA 'EAAHNlKA MEIZONA, sive Collectanea Graca Majora, ad usum Academicse Juventutis &c. by A. Qalzel. 1st ed. Edinb. 1789. 97. 2 vols. 8. Many editions have been published, as, e. g. the 8th Ed. of 1st. and 4th of 2d vol. under the care of G. Dunbar, Edinb. 1816, 17; and the 1st London ed. under the care of C. J. Blomfield, Lond. 1821, and 3d in 1830 ; and several American editions ; particularly, under the care of J. S. Popkin, Camb. 1824; the notes of Prof. Popkin, very briefly and modestly expressed, are very valuable, and this edition is considered as altogether the best extant. — A third volume was added by Prof. Dunbar, Edinb. 1819. comprising a greater quantity of Greek than the first or second ; it has not been re-published in this country. — The Graca, Majora has been until recently for many years the principal text-book in our Colleges. Cf. § 6. 5. — A few editions of particular authors have been published lately, de- 15() HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. signed for the use of schools and Colleges; e. g. Robinson's portion of Homer; Ft lion's Iliad of Homer; Woolsey's Alcestis of Euripides, &c. Publications of this class arc now increasing in England ; as among them may be mentioned the Yulpii Greet Classics and the editions of Prof. Long. -2. Grammars. It would be almost endless to name all the meritorious. The following are among the noted. Jacobi Wcllari Grammatia Grseca. (ed. Fischer). Lips. 1781. 8. — J. F. Fischcri Animadversiones, quibus J. Welleri Gram. Graeca einendatur &c. (ed. Kuinoel) Lips. 1798 — 1801. 3 vols, 8. — Trendelenburg's An- fengsgruende der griech. Sprache Leipz. 1805. 8. — Buttmami's griech. Schul- grammatik. Berl. 1824, 1831.— Same translated by Edward Everett, Bost. 1822. Abridged (G. Bancroft). — Butlman's Ausfuhrliche griech. Sprachlehre. Berl. 1819. 1827. 2 vols. 8.— A. Matthicc's Ausfuhrliche gr. Grammatik. Leipz. 1807. 8. Same translated by Ed. V. Blomfield (ed. J. Kenrick) Lond. 1832.— Fr. Thiersch, Grammatik des gemeinen und Irlomerischen Dialekts. Leipz. 1819. 8.— V. Ch. Fr. Host's griech. Grammatik. 3d ed. Gotting. 1826.— Rost's Greek grammar translated from the Germ. Lond. 1827. 8. — Belt's Compendious Gram- mer. — Jones's Philosophical G rammer. The Port Royal Greek Grammar; A new method &c. Translated from the French of the Messieurs de Port Royalby T. Nugent, (latest ed). Lond. 1817. — Smith's Greek Grammar. Bost. 1809. The Grammars more commonly used in our schools are, the Gloucester, Moor's, Valpy's, Hachenberg's or rather Goodrich's, Bultmann's by Everett, and Fish's. — It may be remarked that one chief diiference between these Grammars respects the plan of classing the nouns and verbs, some reducing the declensions to three, and the conjugations to three or two, others retaining the larger numbers of the old systems. — Some excellent thoughts on this subject are found in a pamphlet styled Remarks on Greek Grammars. Boston. 1825 (Not Published). — A brief his- tory of Greek grammars may be found also in J. C. Blomfield 's Preface to the Translation of Matlhiae above cited. The Grammar which will be most satisfactory to the more advanced student is Buttmann's Larger Greek Grammar, translated by Edward Robinson, Andover. 1833. — For the theological student we mention in addition, Winer's Grammar of the New Testament, Trans, by Stuart and Robinson. Andov. 1825. A Gram- mar of the N. T. by Prof. Stuart. Andov. 1834. In speaking of grammatical helps it is proper to refer to the treatises of the Greek refugees, as those learned men have sometimes been termed, who on the capture of Constantinople by the Turks fled into Italy. These treatises were published by Aldus, 1494 — 1525. Concerning the Aldine collections of Gramma- rians consult Fabricius, Bibl. Graec. Lib. V. c. 7. and in the edition of Harles, Lib. iv. c. 39. — Schall ^Hist. Litt. Gr. Int. p. xliv. lxviii. — Renouard Annales de 1' Imprimerie des Aides &c. 1803. 2 vols. 8. Supplem. 1812.— On the character and merits of these exiles, Humf. Hodius, de Graecis illustribus linguae grascae instau- ratoribus. Lond. 1742. 8. — Chr. Frid. Boernerns, de doctis hominibus Graecis, literarum Graecarum in Italia instauratoribus. Lips. 1750. 8. The ancient grammarians may also be mentioned; as the writers just named doubtless drew from these sources. — See Harles Introd. in Hist Ling. Graec. Pro- leg. § W—Schasll, Hist. Litt. Gr. Intr.p. lxii. — Comp. notice of Grammarians on a subsequent page. The Scholiasts likewise may he named, or those who wrote Greek commenta- ries on ancient authors. These, whatever there may be in their comments that is puerile, dull or false, nevertheless furnish some valuable assistance. Among the most important works of the kind, are the commentaries of Ulpian on De- mosthenes and Eustathius on Homer. — On the value of the scholiasts, see Jo. Mart. Chladenius, Opusc. Academ. Lips. 1741. 8. Cf. Harles as just cited. 3. Numerous Lexicons are also ni»w offered to the choice of the student, The most extensive is, Henrici Stephani Thesaurus Graec. Ling. Genev. 1572. 4 vols. Fol. ; to which a supplement was published by Daniel Scott. Appendix ad Ste- phani Thesaurum. Lond. 1745. 2 vols. Fol. An improved edition of the Thesau- rus was commenced, London. 1815. completed, 1825. (Valpy ed).Cf. Lond. Gluart. Rev. No. 44.— A third edition was begun, Paris 1831, superintended by M. Hase. see Lond. Q.uart. Rev. No. 101. or Bibl. Repos. No 15.— Next to this is, Lexicon Graeco-Latinum &c. opera et stud. Joan. Scapulae. Basil. 1579. Fol. oth. ed. Ba- zil. 1665. Lugdun. 1663. Glasg. 1816. 2 vols. 4.— To these add, Hederici Gracum Lex. Manuale, cura J. A. Ernesti et Wenderi, Lips. 1796. Edinb. 1827. 8.— Jo. Dan. a Lennep Etymologicum Ling. Graec. Traject. ad Rhen. Ed. Scheid. 1790. 2 vols 8.— J. G. Schneider's griechisch-deutsches Wcerterbuch. Lpz. 1819. sup- INTRODUCTION. 157 plena. 1821.— F. Passow, Handwcerterbuch der Griech. Sprache. Leipz 1830. 31. 2 Bde. 8. — The Tyro's Greek and English Lexicon by John Jones. 2d ed. Lond. 1825. — CorneliiSchrevelii Lexicon Graeco-Latinum. 13th ed.Lond. 1781. — Trans- lation of Schrevelius' Greek Lexicon into English, for the use of Schools. Lond. 1826. 8. — The Greek Lexicon of Schrevelius, translated into English, with many additions, by John Pickering and Daniel Oliver. Bost. 1826. — A Greek and Eng- lish Dictionary &c. by Rev. J. Groves. Lond. 1826. — A new Greek and English Lexicon, by James Donnegan.%& ed. Lond. 1831. Revised and enlarged by R. B. Patton. Boston, 1832. For reading the N. Test, the student will need Robinson's Lexicon of the New Testament. There are Lexicons illustrating particular authors. — Damm Lex- icon Pindaricum Berl. 1765. — Dammii Nov. Lex. Graec. Etymolog. cui pro basi substratae sunt concordantiae et elucidationes Homericae et Pindaricae. Cura J. M. Duncan, Lond. 1827. 4. — Clavvs Homerica, or Lexicon of all the words in the Iliad translated from the original by J. Walker. 12mo. — Schweighauser's Lexi- con Herodoteum. Aemilii Porti Lex. Ionicum, Francof. 1603. Aem. Port. Lex. Doricum. Francof. 1603. Useful in explaining Theocritus, Bion, Moschus. Aem. Port. Lex. Pindar- icum. Han. 1606. Respecting the various Lexicons and Glossaries by more an- cient authors, see Harks Introductio in Hist. Ling. Graecae. Proleg. § 19. 4. There are various subjects, on which the student may desire more full inves- tigations than can usually be given in a Grammar or Lexicon. (ft) Idioms. — Gul. Budcei Commentarii Ling. Graec. Par. 1548. (4th ed). Basil. 1556. fol. — Franc. Vigerus, de praecipuis graec. diet, idiotismis. Cumanimadver- sionibas Hoogeveeni, Zeunii et Hermanni. (impr. ed). Lips. 1822. 8. The work of Vigerus is compiled from that of Budaeus. — Viger's Greek Idioms abridged and Translated into English, with original notes, by Rev. J. Seager. Lond. 1828. 8. — Nelson's Greek Idioms. 8 vo. — Lockhart's Idioms of the Greek Language, accu- rately arranged and translated. 12mo. (b) Ellipsis and Pleonasm. — Lamb. Bos Ellipses Graecae etc. Norimb. 1763. Lips. 1808. Glasg. 1813. — Bos' Greek Ellipses abridged and translated into English, by Rev. J. Seager, Lond. 1830. — Furgault les principaux idiotismes de la langue grecque avec les ellipses &c. Par. 1784. 8.— Bj. Weiske Pleonasmi Graeci, Lips. 1807. 8. — G. Hermann Dissert.de Ellip. et Pleon. in Graeca Lingua, in the Muse- um Anfiquitatis Studiorum (vol. i). Berl. 1808. 8. (c) Analogy in Derivation and Composition. — L. C. Valcknaeri Observationes academ. quibus via munitur ad origines graec. investigandas. Traject. ad Rhen. 1790. Ed. Scheid. — Jo. Dan. a Lennep, de Analogia lingua? Graecae. Traj. ad Rhen. 1790. Ed. Scheid. — Jo. Christ. Struchtmeyeri Rudimenta Ling. Graec. Zuth- phen. 1797. Ed. Scheid. — The Primitives of the Greek tongue, with the most considerable Derivatives and a collection of English words derived from the Greek. By T- Nugent. Lond. 1801. 8. {d) Particles. — Devarius, de Graecae Lingua; particulis. (Ed. J. Gottf. Reus- mann) Lips. 1785. 8. — Doctrina particularum ling, graec. auctore et ed. Hem. Hooge- veen. Delphis. 1769. 2 vols. 4to. There is an abridgment by Schutz. Lips. 1806. Glasg. 1813. — Hoogoveen on the Greek Particles, abridged and translated into English by Rev. J. Seager. Lond. 1830. 8. — Prof. Stuart, on the use of 'iva, Bibl. Repos. and duart. Observ. No. xvii. Jan 1835. (e) Preposition and Article, — Casv. Frid. Hachenberg, (de significatione prae- positionum graec. in compositis) Ultrajecti. 1771. 8. — Middleton's Doctrine of the Greek Article applied to the criticism of the Greek Testament. — Remarks on the uses of the definitive article in the Greek of the N. Testament. By Gran- ville Sharpe. (Am. ed.) Philad. 1807.— Hints on the Greek Article by Prof. Stuart, in Bibl. Reposit. No. xiv. Apr. 1834. (/) Dialects. See § 4. — Mattaire's Greek Dialects abridged and translated into English by Rev. J. Seager. Lond. 1831. 8. (g) Accents. See § 5. and P. I. § 51, — K. GOltling, (Lehre von den griech. Accenten i Rudolst. 1820. 8. — M. Stuart, Practical Rules for Greek Accents and ■Quantity.' Andover, 1826. (h) Prosody, Metre and Quantity. — Lexicon Graeco-Prosodiacum, Auct. T. Morell, &c. Cantab. 1S15. (Ed. Edv. Maltby).— Analysis of Greek Metres, by J.B.Seale. Camb. 1804 — Notassive Lectiones ad Tragic. Graec. &c. Autore Beujam. Heath. Oxon. 1762. — A. Apel's Metrik. Leipz. 1814. — Godof. Hermanni de metris poet, graec. et rom. Lips. 1796. — Elementa doclrinae metricae. Auct. God. Hermanno. Lips. 1816. Glasg. 1817.— Hermann's Elements of the Doctrine 158 HISTORY QV GREEK LITERATURE. of Metres, abridged and translated into English, by Rev. J. Scagcr. Lond. 1830. H.— ltunlitir's Prosodia Gnecn, or Exposition oi' the Greek Metres. 8vo.— Mac- a nil's Metres ol' ilie Greek Tragedians explained. 8vo. — Greek Gradus; or Greek, Latin, and English Prosodial Lexicon, By Rev, J. Brasse. Lond. 1830. 8.— A new and complete Greek Gradus, &c. By Ed. Maltby. D. D. Lond. 1830. 8.— Grajfe's Prosodiacal Lexicon of the Greek Language collected from the He- roic poets, L2mo. 5. In writing Greek the beginner needs the help oi some Book of Exercises. The following may be named. — Hunting ford's Greek Exercises.— Neilson's, Val- m't — Dunbar's. — disk's. — An Introduction to Greek Prose Composition, from the German of V. C. F. Rost and E. F. Wtlstemann, by Rev. John Kenrick. t>. In order to a thorough and successful pursuit of classical literature, it is indispensable to attend considerably to the subjects of Antiquities and Mythology. On topics pertaining to the Archaeology of literature and art, we refer to the sections in Part First of this work. On other topics of Antiquities and Mytholo- gy, to the sections of Parts Third and Fourth. 7. An important class of helps is composed of such as illustrate the subjects of Chronology, Geography, History and Biography. (a) There are Classical Dictionaries, which include more or less fully all these subjects. — Diclionnaire (de Sabbalhier de Chdlons) pour l'intelligence desauteurs classiques grecs et latins, tantsacre's que profanes, contenant la Geographie, 1'- Histoire, la Fable et les Antiquites. Paris, 17G6— 1790. 37 vols. — L'Abbe Saba- ticr de Castres, Siecles Payens. Paris, 1784. 8 vols. — Furgault, Dictionnaire Geographique, Historique et Mythologique. Par. 1776. — Lemprier's Classical Dictionary. (1st ed.) Oxf. 1788. Many more recent. The best, by C. Anthon. N. York, 1833. 2 vols. 8. (b) Geography. — Christ. Cellarii Notitia Orbis Antiqua. Lips. 1701 — 1706. 2 vols. 4. Also 1771, 1773. — R. Mannert, Geographie der Griechen und Romen. Numb. 1787 sqq. 10 vols. 8. — Geographie der Griech. u. Rom. von der fruehes- ten Zeiten bis auf Ptolemseus, von F. Aug. Ukert. Weimar, 1816, with maps. — The Geographical system of Herodotus explained, &c. by J. Rennell. (2d ed.) Lond. 1830. 2 vols. Q.— Dodwell's Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece. Lond. 1819. 2 vols. 4. — Danville's Ancient Geography. 2 vols. 8. — There-are many smaller works, as Maya's Epitome of Ancient Geography, Pye's Dictionary of Ancient Geography, Laurent's Introduction, Long's, &c. — A work easily obtained and valuable is Geographia Classica, or the application of An- cient Geography to the Classics, by & Butter. Second Am. from ninth Lond. edition. With an Atlas. Phil. 1831. Some Atlas the student should have constantly at hand. — Danville's Atlas Orbis Antiqui. 12 sheets fol.~ Wilkinson's Atlas Classica. — Oxford Atlas of Ancient Geography, containing nearly 100 Maps, Plans, &c. 4.— The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography upon a new plan, giving two distinct Maps, one ancient and the other modern, of the same country. 50 plates. 4. — Bean's Classical Atlas, remodelled from the Ancient Maps of Cellarius. (e) Chronology. — J. C. Gatterer, Abriss der Chronologie. Gcett. 1777. — D. H. Hegewisch, Einleitung in die historische Chronologie. Hamb. 1811: — Hales, Analysis of Chronology and Geography, History and Prophecy. Lond. 1830. 4 vols. 8. — Play fair's Chronology. — J. Blair's Tables of Chronology. — Lavoisne's Atlas, Genealogical, &c. — J. Picot, Tablettes ChronologiquesderHistoireUniver- selle. Genev. 1803. 3 vols. 8. — Buret de Longchamps, Les Fastes Universels, ou Tableaux Historiques, Chronologiques, &c. Par. 1821. — Priestley's Chart of Biography.— Goodrich's Blair's Outlines ofChronology is a useful little compend. (d) History and Biography. — Dictionnaire Historique (de Chaudon et Delan- dine). 20 vols.— Moss' Manual of Classical Biography. 2 vols. 8. — Adam's Classi- cal Biography. — Mitford's History of Greece. 8 vols. 8. — Gillie's History of Ancient Greece. 4 vols. 8.— Mailer's History and Antiquities of the Doric Raee. 8. Benefit as well as pleasure may be derived from works giving philosophi- cal reflections, or elegant and popular views, on subjects embraced in classical study.— Such, e. g. as F. Heercn's Reflections on the Politics of Ancient Greece. — F.Schlegel's Lectures on the History of Literature. — A. W. Schlegel's Lectures on Dramatic Literature.— Campbell's Letters on the Greek Historians. 9. Among the very important aids in this study, are those which may be called Histories of Greek Literature, or Introductions to the history of Greek Literature, giving comprehensive notices of the Greek authors, their, different INTRODUCTION. 159 works, and the various editions, translations, commentaries &c. The design of the sketch of Greek literature given in the present work, is to furnish the scholar with a help of this kind. But he will wish to be referred to others. The most complete, although very deficient in method, is, J. A. Fabricii Bib- liotheca Grceca. Hamb. 1790— 1809 (Ed. by Theoph. Christ. Harles). 12 vols. 4to. There are many others more or less full. Theoph. Ch, Harles Introductio in historiam Linguae Graecae, Altenb. 1792-95. with Supplem. Jen. 1804, 1806. —By the same, Notitia brevior literaturae graec. Lips. 1812. — Jo. Ernest. Im- man. Walch, Introductio in lingam Graecam. Jen. 1772. — M. D. Fiihrmann's Handbuch der klassischen Literatur. Rudolst. 1804 — 1810. — By same, Kleineres Handbuch, &c. Rudolst. 1823. 8. — T. A. Rienacker's Handbuch der Geschichte der Griech. Lit. Berl. 1802. — God. Em. Groddek Historian Graecorum litera- riae Elementa. Viln. 1811. A new ed. commenced, 1821. — Geschichte der Litera- tur der Griechen und Rcemen, von G. C F. Mohnike. Greifsw. 1813. 8. consid- ered an excellent abridgement. — L. Schaaff's Encyklopsedie der klassischen Al- therthumskunde. Magd. 1120.2 Th. 8. — F. Passow's Grundzuege der Griech. und Rcem. Literaturgeschichte. Berl. 1816. 4.--Z,. Wachler's Handbuch der Gesch. der alten Literatur. Frankf. 1822. 8. The work which will be most satisfactory of all to the Greek scholar, is His- toire de la Litterature Grecque &c. par M. Scholl. (Sec. Ed.) Paris, 1823. 8 vols. 8. — Prof. Anthon has made much use of it in his last edition of Lempriere's Classical Dictionary (1833), which the student may consult on the Greek and La- tin authors with great advantage. On translations and editions, also the following. Degen's Literatur der deutsch. Uebersetzungen der Griechen. Altenb. 1797. 2 vols. 8. Supplem. Erlang. 1801. — F. A. Ebcrt's allgemeines bibliographisches Lexicon. Lpz. 1821. — Brtigge- mann's View of the English editions, translations, and illustrations of the an- cient Greek and Latin authors with remarks. Stettin 1797. 8. Suppl. 1801. 8. — Renouard, Catalogue de la Bibliotheque d'un Amateur. Par. 1819. 4 vols. 8. — C. F. Debure Bibliographie Instructive, ou Traite de la connoissance des livres &c. Par. 1763-82. 10 vols. 8. — Brunet Manuel du Libraire et de l'Amateur de Livres. — G. Peignot, Manuel du Bibliophile, ou traite du choix des livres. Dijon. 1823. 2 vols. 8. — Dibdin's Introduction to the knowedge of rare and valu- able editions of the Greek and Latin Classics. (4th ed.) Lond. 1827. 2 vols. 8. § 8*. We shall now proceed to the history of Greek literature. The method pursued will he, to treat of the principal authors, classing them under the departments in which they were chiefly eminent, and ranging them in chronological order. Before noticing the authors in any department individually, a general view of the character and progress of that department will he given. In order to secure greater distinctness of conception, the whole extent of time included will first be divided into a few periods, which will be regarded in the general view of each department. It will be most convenient to adopt the division of Schcell, in his History of Greek Literature, which has been already repeatedly quoted, and is the princi- pal source from which the translator has drawn in the additions made to Eschen- burg in this part of the work. Ilkl HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. The several Departments and 'principal Authors. § 9, The history of Greek literature embraces more than twenty-seven hun- dred years, In this long space of time many changes must have occurred in the circumstances of the people, which affected the character of their literature. The more obvious and remarkable of these changes may be selected to aid us in dividing the history into several periods. Some division of this kind is neces- sa ry to avoid confusion. Six periods may thus be readily distinguished. The first is the period preceding, and terminating with, the capture of Troy, 1184 B. C. The proper history of Greece does not extend further back than to this event, so much is every thing previous darkened by the fictions of mythology. The second period extends from the capture of Troy to the establishment of the Athenian Constitution by Solon, about 600 B. C. In this, Greek literature had its rise, commencing in poetry. Prose composition does not belong to the period. The third period is from the time of Solon to that of Alexander, 336 B. C. Du- ring this period Grecian literature reached its highest perfection. But the lib- erty of Greece expired at the battle of Chseronea, and from that time her litera- ture declined. The fourth period, beginning with the subjection of Greece to the Macedo- nians, ends with her subjection to the Romans, by the capture of Corinth, 146 B.C. In this period genius and fancy ceased to be the peculiarity of the litera- ture, and gave place to erudition and science. The fifth period reaches from the fall of Corinth to the establishment of Con- stantinople as the seat of the Roman government, A. D. 325. During this pe- riod Greece was but a comparatively unimportant province of a vast Empire. Her literature also was thrown wholly into the shade by the lustre of the Roman, which enjoyed now its greatest brilliancy. The sixth period terminates with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, A. D. 1453. The Greek language was still in quite extensive and honorable use, but neither the people nor their literature were raised from their depression. After a succession of adverse events, Greek letters were at length driven from their last refuge in the east to a few seats of learning in Italy. These periods may be designated by characteristic names, the Fabulous, the Poelic, the Athenian, the Alexandrian, the Roman and the Byzantine. § 10. In noticing the most important authors and prominent circumstances in the literary history presented in this vast field, the following order will be adopt- ed. The Poets will take the first place; next we put the Orators; then successively, the Sophists and Rhetoricians, the Grammarians, the Writers of Epistles and Ro- mances, the Philosophers, the Mathematicians and Geographers, the writers styled Mylhographers, the Historians, and finally the Authors on Medicine and Natural History. I. — Poetry and Poets. § 11. Among the Greeks poetry appeared much earlier than prose ; indeed the literature of all ancient nations commenced with poetical composition. Mor- al and religious maxims, principles of social and political action, physical phe- nomena, wonderful events, and the praise of eminent men formed the chief sub- jects of the earlier Greek poetry. Probably addresses to the Deity, practical rules of conduct, proverbial sentiments and oracles were first clothed in verse. This was not originally committed to writing, but sung by the poets themselves, who often wandered as minstrels from place to place, and by living rehearsals extended the knowledge and influence of their own verse and that of others. It was not until eminent poets had sung, that the rules of poetry, in its several branches, could be formed, as they are necessarily drawn from observation and experience. poetry; sacred. 161 § 12. The Greeks received much of their civilization from Egypt and Phoe- nicia (P. 1. § 40); something perhaps was derived from India; but itwasin Thrace that the Greek muses first appeared. Here in Thrace the traditions of the most remote antiquity centre and lose themselves, ascribing to this country the origin of religion, of the mysteries and of sacred poetry. The mountains of Thessaly and the vicinity, Olympus, Helicon, Parnassus and Pindus be- came the sanctuaries of this poetry. Here the lyre and harp were invented-. In Thessaly and Boeotia, provinces in later times destitute of men of genius and letters, there was scarce a fountain, river, or forest not invested with some in- teresting association. In a word the poetry, with which the civilization and lit- erature of Greece commenced, came from the northern portions of the land. Tradition has preserved the names of several poets who lived, or originated in those regions as early as about 1250 or 1300 years before Christ. Among these were Linus, Eumolpus, Melampus and Thamyris. North Amer. Review, Vol. xxi.— Beck's Allg. Welt und Volker Gesehichte. I. 319.— Heyne, de Musa- rum religione ejusque orig. et caus. (in Comment. Soc. Gott. viii). §13. The first Poets of Greece were at the same time musicians. Music and poetry were at first always united, or it may perhaps be more correctly said that music, song and dance together constituted poetry, among the Greeks. It is not easy to form an idea of their various melodies, but they must have been of a sim- ple kind, and each sort of music seems to have had a particular sort of poetry attached to it. Music purely instrumental the early Greeks appear to have valued very little. The constituent branches of poetry, just mentioned, were important parts of education. The dance was soon separated, and became a distinct object of attention, which at length resulted in the practice of the vari- ous exercises comprehended under the broad name of the Gymnastic art. At length song also began to be distinguished from music, and poetry assumed shapes and forms less adapted for instrumental accompaniment. On the origin and progress of Greek poetry, see Schas.ll, vol. 1. Ch. 2.— Sulzer's Allg. Theorieder schoenen Kuenste, art. Dichtkunst, and the references.— Dissertation on the rise, union and power, the progressions, separations and corruptions of Poetry and Music, by Dr. Brown. Lond. 1763. 4.— Plan der Gesch. der Poesie, Bereds. Mus. Mahl. &c. unter d. Griech. von C. E. L. Hirschfeld, Kiel , 1770. 8,— Cm/zer'« histor. Kunst d. Griechen.— F. Schlegel's Hist, of Lit. Lect. l.— Heeren's Reflec- tions &c. Ch. 15.— G, J. Vossius de Vet. Poet. Graec. et Lat. temporibus. Amst. 1654. i.—Fr. Jacobs, brief history of Gk. Poetry, in the CharaJa. d. vornehmst. Dichter aller Nationen. Bd. 1.— Hartmann's Versuch einer allg. Gesehichte d. Dichtkunst. Lpz. 1797.— Fr. Schlegel's Gesch. U. Poesie d. Griech. und Rcemer. Berl. 1798. § 14. Poetry and music were from the earliest periods favorite pursuits or amusements of the Greeks, and their poetry assumed in the course of its history almost every possible form. The first poetry was adapted to some instrumental accompanimenl, and might be therefore properly enough included under the term lyrical used in a general sense. But as it consisted chiefly of hymns to the gods, or songs referring more or less to religious subjects, it may more properly be considered as a distinct va- riety, under the name of sacred. Three of the most important forms of Grecian poetry were the lyric, the epic, and the dramatic, in each of which there were authors of the highest celebrity. Other kinds, which are well worthy of notice, were the elegiac, the bucolic, and the didactic. The epigram and the scolion were distinct and peculiar forms. There were other varieties or names which may be explained in connection with those already mentioned or separately, as the gnomic, cyclic, erotic, and sillic. On the division of poetry into different kinds, Cf /. J. Eschrnburg's Entwnrf einer Theorie und Literatur der Schoenen Redekuenste, (4th ed.) Berl. 1817. 8. (Poetik § 7.)— W. Schlegel's Dramat. Lit. (vol. I. p. 38. Lond. 1815).— Blair's Lectures. § 15. (a.) Sacred poetry. Under this may be included all that was produced antecedently to Homer, or what is often called antehomeric poetry. It is some- times designated by the name of Orphic poetry, from the circumstance that Orpheus was one of the most eminent poets of the period and class here referred to. It has also been called the poetry of the Thraeian school, as having its ori- gin and seat chieflv in (he region of Thrace and the vicinity. 2.1 H'r> 1IIST0HY OF CREEK LITERATURE. Tlu< general nature and subjects of this poetry, consisting, as has been men- tioned, oj hymns and religious songs, are such as suggest the name of sacred here applied toit. The poets probably united in their persons the triple character of bards (doidog), priest (Uqivs) and prophet (ji&vtis). The principal names which escaped oblivion were Linus, Olen, Melampus, Eumolpus, Thamyris, Tiresias, Orpheus, and Musaeus. There are pieces extant ascribed to some of these, particularly to Orpheus and Musreus, but nothing probably that is gen u- iue, except a lew imperfect fragments. A.1 though, when we speak of the sacred poetry of the Greeks, we usually mean (inly the pieces ascribed to antehomeric writers, yet it should be remarked thai the hymn (dftvos) in praise of the gods was not peculiar to that age. Hymns were composed by subsequent poets, but did not hold a specially prominent place, and are commonly included in the class of lyric productions. Several are ascribed to Homer. Callimachus, after the time of Alexander, wrote a number. On the Thracian school &c. Cf. North Amer. Rev. vol. xxi p. 393.— On the Hymns of the Greeks, Fr d. Sneedorff, do Hymnis veterum Gracorum. Hafn. 1786. S.—Souchay, Dissertation sur les Hymnes ilrs Anciens, In the Mem. de l'Acad. ties Inscr. T. .xviii. xxiv.—Sulzer s Allg. Theor. Art. llymne. Cf. Lowth's Lects. on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. Lect. 29. § 16. Among the productions comprehended in the sacred poetry, it is proper lo notice the oracles, which were ascribed to the Sibyls. The name 2'ipvMa is commonly derived from Slog (for Jlog) and Bovh' b and was synonymous with prophetess. What the ancients have said of the Sibyls is obscure and perplex- ing. As many as ten are enumerated on the authority of Varro. A very high antiquity. was assigned to some of them. A few fragments of the oracles as- cribed to these are preserved. (See Schceli, Hist. I. Ch. ii). The eight books now extant, called the Sibylline oracles, are spurious, evidently fabricated since the Christian era. What has now been mentioned constituted the whole literature of the Greeks antecedently to the Trojan war. There are indeed some works extant, ascribed to such personages as Hermes, Trismegistus, Horus, Zoroaster &c. But the time when they lived is a matter of dispute, and the works ascribed to them are the fabrications of later periods. On the Sibylline Oracles, see Fabricii Bibl. GrziBC.—Onwphirus de Sihyllis, in the work, Sibyl. Orac. a J. Opsopacocnm latina interpretations S. Castalionis. Paris 1607. 8. — r. Vossius de Sibyllinis alUsque quae Christi nat. praecess. Oraculis. Oxf. 1680.— Lud. Prateus, in his Juvenal, not. Sat. 3.—D Blondcll, De Sibylles &c. Charent. 1652. 4.— The most complete edition of the Sii. Or. is that of Gallat- us, (gr. et lat.) Amsterdam, 1689. 4.— In 1817, A. Mai published a 14th book, of 334 verses, from a man- uscript discovered by him in the Ambrosian Library at Milan.— Respecting Hermes, Zoroaster&c. Cf. Jtortes BreviorNotitia Literat. Graec. Lips. 1812. 8. p. l2.—Scha>U, Hist. Litt. Gr. Liv. V. Ch. 62, Liv. iii. Ch. 10. § 17. (b) Epic poetry. As the poet gradually lost the sacred and mystic char- acter, with which he had been invested, poetry assumed more of the epic form. It aimed more to interest and amuse the multitude, who gathered around the wandering minstrel, especially at festivals and shows, to hear his song and tale. The minstrels bore the name of Rhapsodists {' Paxf/mSol). Their songs partook more of the nature of narratives than those of the religious bards. They freely indulged in fiction ; a new term was soon introduced, expressive of this ; they were said lomakc their pieces {noiur, noi^xtjg); while the former were only said to sing (ndstv, aoiSog). They were not restricted in the choice of subjects. They clothed in new and exaggerated forms the oldest recollections and traditions ; they rehearsed the genealogy of the gods, the origin of the world, the wars of the Titans and the Giants, the exploits of the demigods and heroes. The poets were numerous after the time of the Trojan war. They brought to its perfection hexameter verse, which had been employed by preceding bards ; and from this time it was restricted chiefly to epic poetry. § 18. All the poets of this class were wholly eclipsed by Homer, who is just- ly styled the father of epic poetry, and who remains to this day acknowledged prince of epic poets. It is a remarkable fact, that the Homeric poems were the principal foundation of the whole literature of the Greeks. Yet it is supposed poetry; epic. 163 by many Ibat they were not committed to writing until the time of Solon and Pi- sistratus, at the close of the second or beginning of the third period before men- tioned (§ 9). They were then collected into a body, and constituted the first pro- duction that circulated among the Greeks in a written form. It "was a splendid model, and received with high and lasting admiration by every class of the peo- ple. The influence of these poems in Greece is beyond calculation. ' From Homer,' says Pope, ' the poets drew their inspiration, the critics their rules, and the philosophers a defence of their opinions; every author was fond to use his name, and every profession writ books upon him till they swelled to libraries. The warriors formed themselves upon his heroes, and the oracles delivered his verses for answers.' Cf. § 50 (4). § 19. The history of Grecian epics ends, as it begins, essentially, with Homer. The only poet near his time who has enjoyed much celebrity is Hesiod, who wrote in hexameter, and is usually ranked among the epic poets, although his principal work belongs rather to the didactic class. There is a story of a poetical contest between Hesiod and Homer, in which the former bore away the prize, but it is a fabrication, and the tradition, on which the story was founded, probably grew out of a conjectural comment on the passage of Hesiod, where he alludes to a prize gained by him at Chalcis, but says nothing of Homer. § 20. During the whole of the third period into which we have divided the history of Greek literature, from Solon to Alexander, we do not find a single epic poem. The Perseid of Choerilus is lost, and if extant would not secure its author a rank above his contemporaries in the class of later Cyclic poets. In other departments poetry flourished in the highest degree; but in this Homer had closed the path to glory. In the next period, the Alexandrine age, we meet with but one name of any celebrity, Apollonius Rhodius, author of the Argonautics, who flourished about 200 years B.C. Three other epic poets are mentioned, belonging to the same age, Euphorion of Chalcis, Rhianus of B ene in Crete, originally a slave, and Musasus of Ephesus, who lived at Pergamos. Each is said to have written several poems; which are wholly lost. (Schoell. Hist. L. IV. Ch. 30.) In the fifth period, from the supremacy of the Romans B. C. 146, to the time of Constantine A. D. 325, there were several didactic poems in hexameter, but not an epic appeared. In the last period, after the seat of empire was removed to Constantinople, there was a crowd of inferior poets or verse makers, hanging about the court. Many performances were composed in hexameter. The principal that can be called epic are the Dionysiacs of Nonnus, and the Paralipomena of Gtuintus Cal- aber, which, although some critics have highly praised them, will be read but very seldom. The Destruction of Troy by Tryphiodorus may also deserve to be named. For references on Epic Poetry in general, and on that of the Greeks, consult Sulzer'a Allg. Theorie, Art. HcMcnge&icht. § 21. (c) The Cyclic poets, and the Homcridce. Although there was no great epic poet after Homer, there were many, who imitated his manner, and sang of the same or similar subjects. Some of these, perhaps most of them, were Rhapso- dists, who publicly rehearsed portions of Homer and other poets, as well as their own verses. This led to the composition of the pieces called sometimes hymns (vfcvoi.) being addressed to some deity, and also proems (IlQooipia) because they were a sort of introduction to the rehearsal which followed. The Rhapso- dists who chiefly rehearsed or imitated Homer, have been called the Homeridce. (Schoell, Hist. L. II. Ch. IV.) But to all these poets, as a class, the term Cyclic was applied by the ancient grammarians. The name is derived from xvxXof, a circle, and was given, because their poetry was confined to a certain round or cycle of subjects and incidents. Their performances were of the epic charac- ter, but are almost totally lost. The cycle of subjects treated of by them in- cluded the whole extent of Grecian story, real and fabulous, from the origin of the world down to the sack of Troy. They are sometimes called the poets ot the epic cycle ; and have been divided into two classes, such as treated of the my- thology and legends anterior in the Trojan war, termed poets of the Mxjthic Cy- cle, and those who t/eatei 1 cf the variour: incidents connected with that war from the decision of Paris to the .eath of Ulysses, termed poets of the Trojan Cycle. ll'l HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- li is easy to perceive how the term cyclic should obtain its metaphorical sense of a monotonous and spiritless author, The Cyclic poets are interesting to us chiefly from the fact, that they furnished tin- sources whence subsequent poets drew their materials. Virgil and Ovid are said to have borrowed largely from those authors. There were several poets in the period between Solon and Alexander, who treated of subjects belonging to the epic cycle, and are sometimes called the later Cyclic poets (Schcell L. III. ch. 15). In the last period also of Grecian litera- ture the poets, who are called epic, are rather mere imitators and copiers of the Cyclic tribe, and might be classed with the same, as, e. g. Gluintus Calaber, Try- phiodorus and Tzetzes. Sec llcyne Excurs. 1 ad Aen. II.— Fabricii Bib. Graec. I.— Schall, L. II. Ch, 4.— Schwartz, Disserta- tlones selectae led. Harlessl. Erlang. 1778.— Bouchaiid, Antiqultes Poetiques, ou Dissert, surl. Poetes ■ cy Cliques, Par. 1799. 8.— Dodwell de Cyclls.— The chief original source of information is a passage taken from Proclus ; see Bibliothek d. Alt. Lit. und Kunst i. 66.— Photii Bib. ed. Schott. p. 980. The names and works of two or three of these poets are given on the Iliac Table ; this is a tablet of marble on which the capture of Troy and events connected with it are represented by little figures in bas-relier with names added. It was found among the ruins of an ancient temple on the Via Appia, and is preserved in the Museum of the capitol at Rome. Its date is not known, probably not before the time of Virgil. See Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. T. IV. On the Rhapsodists, Cf. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, vol. ii. p. 561 .— Coleridge, Introduction to Study of Greek Poets, (p. 45. Philad. 1831.) §22. (d) I/yric Poetry. It has already been remarked that in the earliest poetry of Greece, music and song were united. The hymns and other mythic pieces of the sacred poetry were adapted to some instrumental accompaniment. The rehearsals of the Rhapsodists and epic minstrels were not without the mu- sic of the harp or lyre, employed at least in proems and interludes. But the poetry distinctively called lyric originated later. It commenced pro- bably in odes sung in praise of particular gods, partly addressed to them like hymns, and partly recounting their deeds. Of these there were many varieties, as the Ilaiav, anode to Apollo originally, afterwards to any god; 'Yniqxw-i a song accompanied with dancing as well as music ; JiB-uqa^og, an ode in honor of Bacchus. There was also a class of songs, called HqogoSia, used on festivals and in processions, as the Jatpvijcpoqixa sung by virgins bearing laurel branches in honor of Apollo, TqinoS^oqixa sung when the sacred tripods were carried in procession, 'Oa^oipoQixa sung by youth carrying branches and clusters of the vine in honor of Minerva. There were odes giving thanks for deliverances, especially from epidemics, 'Emlolfua, and others supplicating help and relief *Evxrix'a. Diana was celebrated in the songs called 'Ovnlyya, Ceres in the ' lovXoi, Bacchus in the 'Jai/Sax^ot, Apollo in the iXtjXiadai. § 23. But lyric song was not confined to the praises of the gods and to reli- gious festivals. The enthusiasm awakened by the revolutions in favor of liber- ty burst forth in effusions of lyric poetry. The tumult and excitement of re- publican contests and hazards seem to have been congenial to its spirit. It ad- mitted a free license and variety of metres, and was suited to every imaginable topic that could awaken lively interest. It was shortly extended to almost every concern of life, and the weaver at the loom, the drawer of water at the well, the sailor at his oars, and even the beggar in his wanderings, hadeach his appropriate song, and, so generally was music cultivated, they could usually accompany it with the lyre. Accordingly we find numerous species of songs spoken of in the classics. Odes to|heroes were of three varieties, the 'Eyxi>fiwv proclaiming the deeds, 'Ettch- vbg, the virtues, and 'EttivIxiov, the victories, of the person celebrated. There were different forms of nuptial odes ; the'vfuraioi and yafn\Xta sung at the wed- ding, uQfiama, in conducting the bride home, i 7tt6aka/.aa, at the door of the bed- chamber. The t'atijlos was a sort of bantering satirical song; the naiyvia were of a similar but more sportive and loose cast. The nalSixa and naqbhia. were sung by choirs or companies of boys and virgins. The hqceiivai, X sXtS6na and xo- Qwvla f iciTa were songs of mendicants. Finally without enumerating any more, it may be remarked that Ilgen has pointed out about thirty different kinds, in a treatise on the convivial songs of the Greeks (§ 27). C. D. Ilgen, ZxoXta, h.e. carminaconviv. Grac.Jen. 1798. 8.— Burette Mem. sur la MusiqueAn- cienne, in Mem. de 1' Acad, des Insc. T. xi. xiv. and others.— Cf. Fuhrmann, Keineres Handbuch zur Kentniss giiech. und roem. class. Schriftsteller. Rudoldst. 1823. p. 113. poktry; lyric. 165 §24. It has been observed that lyric poetry allowed a great variety of metres. Many of these were afterwards distinguished by the names of the lyric poets supposed to have invented them. A great license was also indulged in the form of the stanzas or strophes in which the lyric pieces were composed, both as to the number of verses or lines included in them and the order or succession of lines of different metres. The earliest and simplest form of strophe consisted of two lines or verses of different metre. The second form seems to have included four verses, consisting of at least two metres, used by Alcaeus, Sappho and Ana- creon. But strophes of a more artificial composition were employed by Alcman •and Stesichorus. Those of Pindar and such, as are used in the choral parts of tragedy, exhibit the greatest art in their construction. On the metres and strophes consult Hermann and Seager cited § 7. 4. (hi. §25. Lyric poetry began to flourish at the close of the second period we have pointed out, from the Trojan war to Solon, and after epic had reached its height. The most ancient of these lyric poets as distinguished from the mythic, epic and cyclic poets, whose name is recorded, was Thaletas of Crete, induced by Ly- curgus to remove to Sparta. (See Plutarch on Lycurgus.) Archilocus, Alcman, Alcaeus, and Sappho flourished just before Solon, or about the same time, and were all celebrated among the ancients, particularly the first and last of them ; but we have nothing of their writings except a few fragments. In the next period, between Solon and Alexander, lyric poetry was cultivated with increasing ardor, and splendid success. Simonides, Stesichorus and Bac- chylides are mentioned with praise. Many other names of less note are also preserved, as Lasus, Hipponax, Ibycus, Pratinas, Asclepiades, Glycon and Phalsecus, Melanippides, Timotheus, Telesthes, and Philoxenes. Several po- etesses also adorned the circle of lyric authors in this age, as Erinna, Myrtis, Corinna, Telesille, and Praxilla. But it is not from any of the writers we have named, that the lyric poetry of the Greek derivesits high reputation among mod- ern scholars ; for of all their works almost every thing has perished ; a loss which some of the mutilated portions remaining cause us much to regret. Time has been more sparing in reference to the performances of two other poets, to whom the judgment of all has ascribed the palm of pre-eminent excel- lence in lyric verse, Anacreon and Pindar. Each of these excels, yet their char- acteristics are totally opposite. Anacreon sings of women and roses and wine ; Pindar of heroes, of public contests, of victories and laurels. The one melts away in amatory softnesss ; the other is ever like the foaming steed of the race, vaulting in the pride of conscious strength, or the furious war-horse, dashing fearlessly on, over every obstacle. Under these masters Grecian lyrics were ad- vanced to their greatest perfection. § 26. The ancients speak of nine as the principal lyric poets, viz. Alcman Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides,Pindar and Bacchy- lides. It will be observed that all these have been already mentioned. The age of Pindar completes essentially the history of lyric poetry in Greece, as that of Homer does the history of epic. No eminent genius appears after him. In the next period, after the time of Alexander, we hear of two or three poet- esses, as Anyta, Nossis, and Mcero ; and some of the poets at Alexandria wrote lyrical pieces, as Philetas, Lycophron, and Callimachus. But after the Roman supremacy we shall scarcely find a strictly lyrical production noticed in the ful- lest detail of Grecian poetry. On the subjects and varieties of Lyr. P. see Eschenburg's Entwurf Einer Theor. u. Lit. d. schcen • Redekunste.VH.— On the general character and history of Gk. lyr. P. see Pref. to Darter's Trans, of Horace.— M. de la Nauze, surles chansons d l'ancienne Grece, in Mem de VAcad. des Insc. T. IX.— Burney's Gen. History of Music, Lond. 1776. 4.— Mem. Histor. sur la chanson en gen. et en part. Fran- coise, par M. Meusnier de Qjuerlon. Par, 1765. 3 vol. 8. Histor. Ess. on the Orig. and Prog, of National Song. pref. to Select coll. Eng. Songs. Lond. 1783. 3 Vol, i.—Sulzer's Allg. Theorie. Artie. Ode, Lied &c. § 27. (e) The Scolion (oxoliov dopa). This was a species of poetry, which ap- peared before the time of Solon, and flourished especially in the period between him and Alexander. It was nearly aliedto lyric poetry, or more properly speak- ing was only a peculiar form of it, consisting of little songs, designed for social purposes, and particularly used at banquets and festive entertainments. The 166 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. word employed to designate it, oxoJkW-, has troubled the grammarians. It properly signifies some thing crooked or distorted (detnume), and evidently indicates something irregular in the poetry, to which il is applied. The question has aris- en wherein consisted the irregularity? According to Suidas, the Greeks had three modes of singing at the table. First, all the guests forminga joint chorus chanted a paean accompanied with the harp, in honor of some god. Then, the harp was passed from guest to guest, beginning with the one occupying the chief place, and each was requested to sing some moreeau or sonnet from Simonides, Stesichorus, Anacreon or other fa- vorite author. If any one declined playing, lie might sing without the harp, holding in Ins hand a branch of myrtle. There was a. third manner, which re- quired absolutely the accompaniment of the harp, and something of the skill of an artist. Hence the harp did not pass in order from guest to guest, but when one performer had finished some couplets, he presented the myrtle-branch to anoth- er qualified to continue the song and music. This one, having completed his part in turn, gave the branch to a third, and so on. Along with the myrtle was presented also to the singer the cup or vase, which from this practice gained the name of wW;. From this mode of passing the harp in an irregular manner, the poem thus' recited was termed oxoZior. Plutarch on the other hand states that the scolia were accompanied with the sound of the lyre; that this instrument was presented to each guest and those who were unable to sing and play could refuse to take it; he adds that the oxoXiov was so called because it was neither common nor easy. But he gives also another explanation, according to which the myrtle branch is represented as passing from couch to couch in the following way ; the first guest on the first couch passed it to the first on the second couch and he to the first on the third ; it was then re- turned to the first couch, and the guest occupying the second place there, having sung and played, passed it to the second on the second couch, and thus it went through the whole company. From this crooked manoeuvring the songs of the table were called oxoiia. These explanations are too subtile to be perfectly satisfactory. It seems much more simple to suppose the name to have referred originally to the irregularity of metre, in which respect the scolion seems to have had unlimited license. The subjects of these songs were not always the pleasures of the table and the cup. They often treated of more serious matters, including sometimes the praise of the gods. Songs forpopular use and those designed to enliven manual labor and domestic care, as those of shepherds, reapers, weavers, nurses &c. went under the common name of axolid. The earlest known author of scolia, or according to Plutarch the inventor of music adapted to them, is Terpander, of Antissa in Lesbos, who lived about 670 B.C. Other authors of such pieces are recorded; as Clitagorus the Lacedae- monian, Hybrias of Crete, Timocreonof Rhodes. Archilochus, and other lyric poets composed pieces which belong to the class here described. See M. de la Nauze, Burette and Ilgen, (cited §§23, 26), especially the latter.— H. H. Cludius, von den Skolion der Griechen, in Bibl. d. alt. Litter, u. kunst. No. 1.— Schatt. Hist. Lit. Gr. L. II. Ch. 5. § 28. (b) Elegiac Poetry. The origin of elegiac poetry was an ancient theme of dispute if we may credit Horace ; Quis to/men exiguos elegos emiserit auctor, Grammatici c.rtant, et adhuc svijudice lis est. ' It appears,' says Schcell, ' that the grammarians of Alexandria (forto these Horace doubtless alludes) raised this ques- tion from their confounding times and terms. The matter becomes clear, when we give to terms their proper meaning. It is necessary to distinguish between the ancient IXsyela of Callinus, and the later 'ileyog, the invention of which has been attributed to Simonides. The first was merely a lyric piece, particularly a war -song, composed of distichs with hexameter and pentameter alternating, the original form of Ionian lyrics. The word tUyoq (from e, alas ! and Xiyta) signi- fies a lamentation, and any lyric poem on a mournful subject was so termed. The Attic poets, when they sung on a mournful theme, employed the distich of alternate hexameter and pentameter, which had been previously used in the wai-song. It was now that this distich received the name "tleyeia, from the new class of subjects to which it was applied, for it was not originally so called, but went by the general name of 'ircoq, afterwards restricted to heroic verse. The term was therefore the name of a kind of metre or strophe rather than a kind of poetry. The grammarians overlooking this called the two kinds by the name of elegy, because the metre was the same in both. POETRY : ELEGIAC, PASTORAL. 167 Callinus of Ephesus is regarded as the author of the first poem composed in elegiac metre. He is commonly supposed to have lived about 684 B. C. Others place him mueh earlier. The fragment ascribed to him is part of a song stimula- ting his compatriots to fight valiantly against their enemies the Magnesians. Tyrleeus is next in time, immortalized by his songs composed for the purpose of rousing and encouraging the Spartans in a war with Messenia. § 29. The first example of the new application ot the elegiac metre (i. e. to mournful themes I, is said to have been given by Mimnermus of Colophon in Ionia, about 590 B. C. The few verses remaining of him breathe a sweet mel- ancholy, deploring the rapid flight of youthful days, and the brevity and ills of human life (see Dalz. Graec. Maj. vol. ii). But Simonides is considered as the inventor of the proper elegy, although he neither devised the metre, nor first applied it to topics of a saddening cast ; but it was after Simonides that the name 'Uiyog was given to a poem of considerable size in distichs of hexameter and pentameter. Most of his pieces which are preserved are, however, epigrams rather than elegies. Antimachus a lyric poet, Euripides the tragic writer, and Hermesianax are mentioned among the au- thors of elegies in the period now before us, between Solon and Alexander. In the next period the only elegiac writer of any importance was Callimachus ; although Alexander the iEtolian and Philetas of Cos are named. Callimachus was much admired and imitated by the Romans. After him elegiac verse does not appear to have been cultivated at all among the Greeks. In conclusion, very little of the Greek elegiac poetry remains to us, but some of the fragments we have are in strains peculiarly soft and sweet. On the origin of Gk. el. P. see J. Vol. Franckii Callinus s. quaest. do orig. carm. el. tractatio. Alton. 1816- 8.— C. A. Bottiger'e Abh. ueber d. Fabel vom Marsyas, in Wieland's Attisch. Museum. B.I. St. 2.— Sehcell, H. Gk. Lit. L. II. Ch. 5.— On Gk. el. P. generally, Fraguier, Mem. sur l'elegie Gr. and Lat in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Ins. (T. VIII. ed. d'Amst.)— Souchay, Discours sur les Elegiaques grecs, in the Mem. d l'Acad &. T. VIII.— Eschcnburg'3 Entwurf (cited § H) p. 165. § 30. (g) Bucolic or Pastoral Poetry. This species of poetry is supposed to have taken its rise from the rustic songs of Sicilian shepherds. Its invention is ascribed to a certain Daphnis, who lived in the early fabulous ages, and enjoyed the reputation of a divine descent, while he pastured his flocks at the foot of Mt. iEtna, But Theocritus, belonging to the Alexandrine age of Grecian literature, may be considered as the father of bucolic song. The Idyl had not been cultivated by any writer before him. This term, from IMlXiov, signifies a little picture, a representation in miniature, a delicate piece of poetical drawing. The Greek Idyl does not seem to have been confined to any one topic exclusively, yet was chiefly employed in representing the scenes of pastoral life. Its external form was marked by the use of the Hexameter verse and the Doric dialect. Theocri- tus carried it to a high degree of perfection, and in pastoral poetry, no poet, an- cient or modern, has surpassed him. In fact, Greek bucolic poetry begins and ends with Theocritus. Two other poets belonging to the same age, viz. Bion and Moschus, are commonly ranked in the class of bucolic or pastoral writers. But neither of them is considered as equal to Theocritus, and the subjects and scenes of their poetry have more of the lyrical or mythological than of the pastoral character. On pastoral poetry in general, see Disc, sur la nat. de l'eclogue par Bern, de Fontenelle. P. 1688. 8.— Diss, sur la Poes. past. &c. par Ch. CI. Genest. Par. 1707. 12.— Ess. sur la Pastorale, von Floricm, pre- face to his Estelle, Par. 1788. 12.— Pope, Disc, on past, poetry, in Tomson'sMiscell. Lond. 1707. 8.— The Guardian No, 28, 30, 32.— Newberry, Poetry on a new plan. Lond. 1762. 8.— Blair's Lectures. On Greek pastoral poetry, see Disc, sur les auc. Poet, bucol. de Sicile, par Al. Goulley de Bote Ro- bert, in Mem. de l'Acad. d. Insc— Hist, du Berger Daphnis, by Jacq. Hardion, in the same, Mem. &c. — Warton, de poesi bucolica Craec. pref. to his ed. of Theoc. Oxon. 1770.— Arethusa, Oder die buko- lisch. Dichter des Alterthumes. Berl. 1806-10. 2 Bde. i.—Schoell, Hist. Gr. Lit. L. IV. ch. 33.— Mueller's Dorians B. iv. ch. 6. § 10. § 31. (A) Didactic Poetry. In this form of poetry the literature of the Greeks was not peculiarly rich. The objects, which didactic poetry has in view may be included under two heads ; it aims to give instruction either in what pertains to morals, or in what pertains to science or art. In the earliest speci- ICiS HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. men of didactic poetry among the Greeks, the works and Days of Hesiod, there is a combination of both ; live first book chiefly consisting of moral precepts, and tlu> second of rule.-- of husbandry, concluding however with a repetition of pre- cepts on the conduct of life. This production belongs to the period before Solon. The next productions, which we meet in the account of Grecian didactic po- etry, consist wholly of moral precepts or sentences (yv?o- Salmastus | asth was published by D. J. Van Lrnnrp, 1822. [belle et bonne edition' Srhcellj: poetry; dramatic. 171 Tbe discovery of the manuscript copy of Cephalas excited much interest in the literary world. Sal ■ masius made preparations for publishing an edition, but died without having accomplished the work, having delayed it from conscientious scruples, as is said, about publishing some of the amatory pieces. After his death, J, Ph. d'Orville engaged in preparing for an edition of Cephalas, but he also died with- out effecting it, and his papers passed to the library at Leyden, Some portions of the work of Cepha- las were published, in the meantime, by J. Jensius at Rotterdam, 1742, and J. H. Leich at Leipzig 1745, But after D'Orville, the next principal labor upon this Anthology was by J. J. Reiske, who pub- lished his work under the title, Anthologias gr. a C.Cephala conduce libri ni. &c. Lips. 1754,8. Reiske having declined editing the impure pieces which constituted the 12th section of Cephalas, they were published by Chr. Ad. Klotz, under the title, Stratonis aliorumque vet. poet . gr. epigrammata eel. Altenb. 1764. 8. A more complete collection of Greek epigrams and small poems is found in Brunck, Analecta vete- rum poetarum Graecorum, Argentor, 2ded. 1785. 3 vols. 8. Each piece is placed under the name of the author to whom it is ascribed.— A new edition was afterwards published by Fred. Jacobs, Anthologia. Graca, sive poetarum gracorumlusus, ex recensione Brunckii, Lips. 1794, 1814. 13 vols. 8. ; the first 4 vols, contain the text, more correct ; the 5th consists of various tables and references; the remaining 8 contain a valuable commentary by Jacobs.— By the same, Anthologia Graxa, ad fidem cod. ohm Palatini nunc Parisini, ex apographo Gothano edita, curavit, epigrammata in cod. Pal. desiderata el annotat. critic, adjecit P. Jacobs. Lips. 1813, 17. 3 vols. 8. [un corps complet des epigrammesgrecques restantde l'antiquite, Schall.}— The text is followed in the stereotype edition of Tauchnitz, Lips. 1819, 3 vols. 12mo.---There are smaller collections; by A. F. Kanne, Halle, 1799. 8. A. WeicJiert, Mer/.en. 1823, 8. ; Meleager's Sinngedichte [epigrams], by Manso. Jena, 1789. 8. and by Grrnfe Leipz. 1811. 8.— English translations of some of the pieces; Collections from the Greek Anthology by the late Robert Bland, and others, comprising the fragments of early Lyric poetry, with specimens of all the poets in- cluded in Meleager's Garland, Lond. 1833. Revd. in Blackwood's Mag. June 1833.— There are tasteful translations into German of some of the most beautiful pieces in Herder's Zerstreute Blotter, Gotha, 1785. 8. several also in Tempe [by F. Jacobs]. Leipz. 1803. 2 vols. 8, For accounts of Anthologies &c. see Sclmll, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. v. ch. 51. L. vi. ch. n.—Fuhrinann Klein- eres Handbuch &c. p. 83. 474.— Schneider, Analects critica Fasc, 1,— P. Jacobs, prolegomena, in his Anthol. Grac. Lips. 1794 ss,— Harks, Introd. in Hist. L. G. proleg, vol. I. p. 91. § 36. (I) Dramatic Poetry. Dramatic poetry took its rise from the religious ceremonies of the Greeks. It was an essential part of the public worship of the gods, especially of Bacchus at Athens, that there should be choirs composed of a sort of actors, who should, with dancing, singing and instrumental music, rep- resent some story relating to the divinity worshiped. Herodotus states, that the people of Sicyon thus represented by actors the ad- ventures of Adrastus, whom they honored as a god, and although referring to a period anterior to the existence of dramatic poetry, he calls these choirs of ac- tors tragic, because they represented the sufferings (ra rcMsa) of Adrastus. Sui- das and Photius mention Epigenes the Sicyouian as the inventer of tragedy. Themistius asserts expressly, that tragedy was invented by the Sicyonians, and perfected by the Athenians. The father of history also states that, when the inhabitants of jEgina took away from the Epidaurians the statues of two national divinities of the latter, and erected them in their own island, they instituted, in honor of the same, choirs of females under the direction of a male leader, in imitation of the Epidauri- ans. These choirs, in the worship rendered to the divinities, performed what might, by an anachronism similar to the other just mentioned, be called comic dra- mas. At Athens, as has been intimated, there were choirs like those of Sicyon and JEg'ma,, that performed a part in the festivals of Bacchus. Sometimes repre- senting, by their dances, songs and gestures, the expeditions of Bacchus and other events of his life, sometimes yielding to the intoxication that accompanies the pleasures of the vintage, they constantly vaunted the praises of the god, to whom they were indebted for the vine. These performances were conducted with a high degree of licentiousness both in language and action'. In these performances the drama had its origin, Probably at first they did not include what is now understood either by action, or by fable. The songs employed were lyric in their nature. Those sung by the choirs of Sicyon and iEgina were lyric, but of a tragic or comic character. But at length it began to be a custom to interrupt the song of the choir by the representation of some scene or action which was called 6(>aua, or InnooSiov, i. e. something acted, or something brought in. The murder of Bacchus or Osyris by Typhon was, it is likely, one of the most common subjects thus repre^ented. But subjects of a grotesque character would also be natural, from the great license attending the 172 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. Dionysiac festivals. Gradually, and from causes of which tradition preserves no account, three distinct kinds or varieties of representation arose, and these laid the foundation of the three branches of the Greek drama, viz. tragedy, comedy, and satyre. § 37. (1) Tragedy. The etymology of the word tragedy is uncertain; per- haps it was derived from the circumstance that a goat (roiiyoc) was the prize re- ceived by the conqueror. Tragedy was an improvement upon the chorus of the Bacchian festivals, and for a long time retained marks of its origin; having taken its rise, beyond question, from the songs at these annual festivals of the god of dissipation, when the poet who furnished the most popular piece was re- warded with a goat, or perhaps a goat-skin of wine. The chorus was a principal and essential part of the tragedy ; it was lyric in structure, and like other lyric poems usually presented the regular divisions of strophe, antistrophe and epode. In tragedy the chorus was charged with the exposition of the fable ; it praised the gods and justified them against the complaints of the suffering and the unhappy ; it sought to soothe the excited passions and to impart lessons of wisdom and ex- perience, and in general to suggest useful practical reflections. The chorus usually never quitted the stage, but remained during the whole performance. Their presence was indispensable, because the tragedy was not as among the moderns divided into acts, and served also to preserve the unity of the piece. It was usually composed of men of advanced age and much experience, or of young virgins of uncontaminated minds. The number of XoQevTttl was at first quite large; in the Eumenldes of JEschylus it consisted of fifty ; but after the representa. tion of that piece, it was limited to fifteen. It was divided into two portions, each having its chief or head styled xoQvtpaios ; when united they were jointly under the direction of a leader styled ^ogij- yoc or [ieo6x<>QvS. When they took part in the dialogue, it was done by the Coryphaeus, or leader. The portion strictly lyrical was sung by the whole chorus together, accompanied by the flute. When the chorus moved, it was in the Orchestra, oo/ ijorgos ; when still, they occupied the thymele (6v- ftili}) asort of altar placed in the orchestra, whence as spectators they could look upon all that trans- pired on the stage. In singing the part termed the strophe., the chorus moved in a sort of dance across the orchestra from right to left, and back from left to right while uttering the antistrophe; in the epode they stood in front of the audience. Tragedy had its appropriate kind ofdancetermedEjiijufitto!; that of comedy was called xhqSa^ and thatof satyre, alxivvig. The chorus was instructed in per- forming its part frequently by the poet himself. (P. 1. § 66). The expense of preparing and furnishing a chorus for an exhibition was often very great ; It was defrayed by individuals (#o()Jjyoi) designat- ed by the civil authorities (Potter's Arch. Graec. B. i. ch. 15). Schall, Hist. Liu. Gr. L. ill. ch. 11.— On the import of the chorus, Schlegel's Dramat. Lit. Lect. Hi.— Heeren's Diss, de chori trag. Graec. natura. Gcett. 1785. i.—Ilgen, Chorus Graec. qualis fuerit, &c r Erf. 1797. 8.— Franklin, Diss, on the Tragedy of the ancients. Lond. 1762.— On the music of the cho- rus, J. N. Forkel's Allg. Gesch, der Musik. § 38. Thespis, of Icarus a ward of Attica, contemporary with Solon and Pisistratus, is regarded as the inventer of tragedy. Much obscurity rests on the changes, which were introduced by this poet, as the work of the peripatetic Chamseleon of Heraclea, which treated of the subject, is lost. His first innova- tion appears to have been in relation to the chorus. Before Thespis, its actors were masked as Satyrs and indulged in the most licentious freedom in amusing their auditors ; he assigned them a more decent part. He also introduced an actor whose recitals allowed intervals of rest to the chorus. Other events be- sides the exploits of Bacchus were likewise made the subjects of representation. But Solon prohibited the exhibiton of his tragedies as being useless fabrications. The performances of Thespis were no doubt rude, The stage is said to have been a cart, the chorus a troop of itinerant singers, the actor a sort of mimic, and the poem itself a motley combination of the serious and trifling, the ludi- crous and the pathetic. After twenty-five years the prohibition was removed by Pisistratus, and Thes- pis re-appeared with new glory. It was now, 537 B. C. according to the Parian marble, that he gained the prize in a tragic contest. Suidas gives the titles of four tragedies of this poet. There remain two fragments of doubtful authority cited by Clemens Alexandrimis (Strom. V) and Plutarch (De aud. poetis), and athird found in Pollux (L. VII. 13). Phrynicus, of Athens, is the next name in the history of tragedy. He was a disciple of Thespis, and introduced some changes, particularly the use of the female mask. He employed however but one actor besides the chorus, yet this TRAGEDY. 173 actor represented different persons, by changing the dress and masks. He was the author of a tragedy, which Themistocles caused to be exhibited with great magnificence, and which bore away the prize. The memory of its success was perpetuated by an inscription. The first author whose tragedies are cited as having been committed to writing, was Choerilus of Athens, about 500 B. C. It was from regard to him that the 4 Athenians constructed their first theatre. The ancients attribute to him 150 pieces, all lost. He is to be distinguished from Chceriius of Samos [§ 20), and from Chceriius of Iasus, the contemporary of Alexander. § 39. The real father of tragedy was iEschylus of Eleusis, who flourished in the time of the Persian war, and fought in the battles of Marathon, Salamis andPlataea. Before him, the fable formed but a secondary part, the episode, of tragedy ; he made it the principal part, by adding a second actor and speaker, and thus introducing a dialogue in which the chorus did not always take a share. Sophocles of Athens, a contemporary of iEschylus but 27 or 28 years younger, added a third speaker and sometimes even a fourth. Thus the importance of the chorus was diminished and the dialogue engrossed the chief interest of the play. Under Sophocles Greek tragedy received its final and perfect form. A third distinguished tragic writer, contemporary with the two just named, was Euripides born 16 or 17 years later than Sophocles. Euripides ad- ded nothing to tragedy in respect to its external structure; but in tragic interest he excelled both his precursors. The productions of these three authors were regarded by the Athenians as monuments of national glory. The orator Ly- curgus procured the enactment of a law, directing that an accurate and authen- tic copy of the tragedies of iEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides should be de- posited in the archives of the state, under the care of the magistrate called yqafiuarevg rijg n'oXswg. This copy, it is said, was obtained by Ptolemy III, son and successor of Philadelphus king of Egypt,on a pledge of 15 talents, for the purpose of correcting by it the copies in use at Alexandria ; he chose to forfeit the money and retain the original manuscript, sending back to Athens a copy in its stead. Some have expressed doubts whether we possess the exact productions of these poets, as they first came from their fertile imaginations. Corrections and addi- tions may have been made by persons called Siaaxsvaarai. Those of iEschylus are said to have been retouched by Bion, Euphorion, and Philocles ; those of Sophocles by his sons Iophon and Ariston, and those of Euripides by Cephiso- phorus. The history of tragedy in Greece, so far as it is chiefly important, is compara- tively brief. iEschylus, as has been stated, was its real author, and its history included but two other names of any distinction ; Sophocles and Euripides com- plete the list. These were nearly contemporary. iEschylus, at the age of 45, fought at the Battle of Salamis ; Euripides was born at that place on the very day of the battle; and Sophoeles, the same or the next year, being 16 or 17 years old, led the choir of singers and dancers around the trophy erected to commemorate the same battle. Of their writings only about 30 plays remain to us. But their reputation rests on a basis more solid than the quantity of what they produced, or time has spared. Perhaps, however, the plays now extant are valued the moie because they are so few, being considered, as it were, the savings of a vast wreck. (Cf. P. I. § 66.) § 40. Besides the three eminent tragic poets, the grammarians of Alexan- dria placed in their canon three others, viz. Ion of Chios, Achasus of Eretria, and Agatho of Athens, nearly contemporary with the three whose names are so illustrious. Only a few fragments of their works remain ; they may be found in the collection of Grotius. The names of above twenty others are recorded as writers of tragedies before the time of Alexander; but none of them are emi- nent, and nothing remains of their works but disconnected fragments. Among them are Euphorion and Bion, sons of iEschylus, and Iophon, son of Sophocles. We find also in the catalogue, Critias and Theognis, two of the famous thirty tyrants. In the period between Alexander and the capture of Corinth, there were a few tragic writers, whom the critics of Alexandria ranked in their second canon, the "first including the masters who wrote before the death, of Alexander. Their second canon, called the tragic Pleiades, included seven poets, who lived in the times of the first Ptolemies. They were Alexander of Aetolia, Philiscus of Corcyra, Sositheus, Homer the younger, iEantides, Sosiphanes and Lycophron. 17 1 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. The first Of these has been named among the elegiac, and the last among the lyric poets. The trifling fragments of these writers, now extant, are found in the collections of Frobenius and Grotius. Another poet, Timon, who for a while taught philosophy at Chaleedon, is said to have composed sixty tragedies. Ptolemy Philadelphia, in order to encourage the dramatic art, established the- atrical contests like those at Athens. But the productions of the poets at Alex- andria fell far short of those of Athens in the preceding period. The tragedies were rather works for the cabinet, than for the theatre, adapted for the amuse- ment of princes and courtiers, or the inspection of cold critics, rather than for- popularexhibilion. They were productions of subtlety and artifice, but com- paratively uninteresting and lifeless. After what is termed the Alexandrine age, nothing was produced in Greek tragedy. On the origin of tragedy, soo Schneider de origin, trag. Gr. Vratisl. 1817. 8.— Vatry Recherches sur l'orig. etle nrog.de la Tragedle, in Mem. de l'Aead, T. XXIII, XXX.— Dr. Blair's Lect. XI V.— Mar- mental Poet. T. U.—Brumoy, Disc, sur 1 orig. de la Trag. pref. to Theatre des Grecs.—Rich. Benltey, Resp. ad C. Boyle (Opusc. Phllol.). On the history and character of Gr. tragedy Jos. Barnes, Tract, de Trag. Vet. Grajc. &c. in his ed. of Euripides.— Le Beau, Des Tragiques Gr. in Mem. de l'Aead. XXXV.-- J. J. H. Nast, Obs. in rem trag. Graec. Stuttg. nn.—Barthelemy, Anacharsis Chap. 69—71.— .4, Auger De la Trag. Gr. &c. Par. 1792.— Brumoy, Theatre des Grecs, ed. Raovl Rochette. Par. 1820.— SchlegeVs Lectures on Dramat. Lit. (tr. by Black.) Lond. 1815.— Theatre of the Greeks. Cambr. 1830. 8.— Schttll, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. iii. ch. 11. § 41. (2) Comedy. Epicharmus of Cos, who was a professor of the Pytha- gorean philosophy at the court of Hiero, in Sicily, about 470 B. C. is usually considered as the first writer of comedy. The species cultivated by him is called the Sicilian comedy, which the ancient writers distinguished from the Attic comedy. Fifty comedies are ascribed to him, but the fragments preserved (found in the collection of Heriel) scarcely enable us to judge of their character. Phormis of Syracuse, was another writer in the same species. The pieces of Epichar- mus are said to have been known and admired especially by the Athenians, and to have given a great impulse to the cultivation of comedy among that people (Barthelemy's Anacharsis ch. 69). Schcell gives the following account of the origin of Attic comedy. ' Between Tragedy and Comedy in modern literature there is such an analogy, that they are justly regarded as two species of the same genus. From this it has been imagined, that both had the same origin among the ancients. But it is not so. Tragedy grew out of the songs, with which the cities of Greece celebrated the festivals of Bacchus. Comedy, on the other hand, took its origin in the coantry. The wards or boroughs (%y B. H'alioln, Loud. 1782. 8. On the Gr. Comedy Schlegcl's Lect on Dramat Ult.—jBrnmoy, Disc, sur la com. Gr. in his Theatre cles Grecs. - Theatre of the Greeks cited § 40. Van y Rechareh. sur l'or. et les prog, de la Com. Gr. In Mem. de l'Acad. I. XXV.—F/fflg-eJ's Gesch. d. kom. Literatui •■■ -For the fragments of the comic poets, Jac. Hertel, Vetustiss. sapientiss. comlcor. tiuin- quaglnta Sentential Has. I680. Brlx. lt]9.—Henr. Srephanus, Comlcor. Graec. Sent. Frankf. 1579. 8. 11. Qrotlus, Exceip. ox Trag, et Com. Gr. Par. 1626. 4.— J. Clericua (Le Clerc) Menandrl et Phllemonls Fragm. Ams. 1709. 8. § 44. (3) Salyre. The following account of the satyric drama is given by Barthelemy. 'After having traced the progress of tragedy and comedy, it re- mains to speak of a species of drama, which unites the pleasantry of the latter to the gravity of the former. This, in like manner, derives its origin from the festivals of Bacchus, in which choruses of Sileni and Satyrs intermingled jests and raillery with the hymns they sang in honor of that god. The success they met with gave the first idea of the satyric drama, a kind of poem in which the most serious subjects are treated in a manner at once affecting and comic. It is distinguished from tragedy by the kind of personages it admits; by the catas- trophe, which is never calamitous ; and by the strokes of pleasantry, bon-mots, and buffooneries, which constitute its. principal merit. It differs from comedy by the nature of the subject, by the air of dignity which reigns in some of the scenes, and the attention with which it avoids all personalities. It is distinct from both the tragic and comic dramas by certain rythms which are peculiar to it, by the simplicity of its fable, and by the limits prescribed to the duration of its ac- tion ; for the satyre is a kind of entertainment, which is performed after the trag- edies as a relaxation to the spectators. The scene presents to view groves, mountains, grottoes, and landscapes of every kind. The personages of the cho- rus, disguised under the grotesque forms attributed to the satyrs, sometimes execute lively dances with frequent leaps, andsometimes discourse in dialogue, or sing, with the gods or heroes, and from the diversity of thoughts, sentiments and ex- pressions, results a striking and singular contrast.' ' The satyrical drama,' says Schlegel, ' never possessed an independent exis-, tence ; it was given as an appendage to several tragedies, and from all we can conjecture was always considerable shorter. In external form it resembled trag- edy and the materials were in like manner mythological. The distinctive mark was a chorus consisting of satyrs, who accompanied the adventures of the fable with lively songs, gestures and movements. The immediate cause of this spe- cies of drama was derived from the festivals of Bacchus, where satyr-masks were a common disguise. As the chorus was thus composed of satyrs, and they per- formed the peculiar dances alluded to (^ixiitj) or ootirnc), it was not a matter of indifference where the poet should place the scene of his fable ; the scene must be where such a choir might naturally, according to Grecian fancy, display itself; not in cities or palaces, but in a forest, a mountain, a retired valley or on the sea-shore. The great tragic authors, iEschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, each distinguish- ed themselves by pieces of this kind. Several other writers, in the same age, are mentioned, as Pratinus, Aristias, Xenocles, and Philoxenes. But the most distinguished of all in the satyric drama were Acheeus of Eretria, and Hegemon. of Thasus. ' The latter added a new charm to the satyric drama,' says Barthel- m Y: ' by parodying several well known tragedies. The artifice and neatness, with which he executed these parodies, rendered his pieces greatly applauded, and frequently procured them the crown. During the representation of his Gi- gantomac/tia, and while the whole audience were in a violent fit of laughter, news arrived of the defeat of the army in Sicily. Hegemon proposed to break off the piece abruptly; but the Athenians, without removing from their places, covered themselves with their cloaks, and after having paid the tribute of a few tears to their relatives who had fallen in the battle, listened with the same atten- tion as before to the remainder of the entertainment.' The Cyclops of Euripides is the only drama of this species that has come down to lis. Its subject is drawn from Homer's Odyssey ; it is Ulysses depriving Polyphemus of his eye after having made him drunk with wine. In order to connect with this a chorus of satyrs, the poet represents Silenus and his sons the satyrs as seeking over every sea for Bacchus carried away by pirates. In the search, they are wrecked upon the shores of Sicily, enslaved by Cyclops and forced to tend his sheep. When Ulysses is cast upon the same shore, thev league SATYRE. MIMES. 177 with him against their master, but their cowardice renders them very poor as- sistants to him, while they take advantage of his victory and escape from the island by embarking with him. The piece derives its chief value from its rari- ty and being the only specimen, from which we can form an estimate of the spe- cies of composition to which it belongs. See Casaubon, de satyrica Graecorum poesi. Halae, 1779. 8.— H. C. A. Eichstaedt, de Dram. Graee. Comico-Satyrico. Lips. 1793. 8,—Brumoy, Disc, sur le Cyclope d'Euripide &c. in Theatre des Grecs.— J. G. Buhle, de Fabula Satyr. Graec. Gcett. 1787. 4.— Suiter's Allg, Theorie, Satire. § 45. It is important not to confound these satyrica] compositions of the Greeks, which have now been described, with the satire of the Romans, which was total- ly different in its nature. It may be remarked however here, that the Greeks had satire in various forms both in poetry and prose. The Margitesof Homer may be considered as a sort of epic satire. Of lyric satire (or iambic as it may be called, from the verse gen- erally used] a few fragments remain from different authors. Archilochus is one of them. Another was Simonides of Nimoa in the island of Amorgos, author of a satire upon women. We may add the name of Hipponax (Hor. Ep. VI. 12.) who employed, perhaps invented, the Ckoliambic verse { xuiZiufipog, Vaii{los oxutov) as best adapted to satirical purposes. Here also may be mentioned the poems called SV.loi ; for they were a kind of satire. They have been called by some didactic satire, as they seem to have ridi- culed especially the pretensions of ignorance. They were a sort of parody in which the verses of distinguished poets, Homer particularly, were applied in a ludicrous manner to the object of the satire. Xenophanes of Colophon is re- garded as the first author of this species. Yet the only writer, of whom it is cer- tain that he composed ZtXXot, is Timon of Phlius, the sceptic philosopher already named (§ 40) as a dramatist. His satires formed three books, and were very caustic. A few fragments are extant. He enjoyed a high reputation with the ancients, and Athenasus states that commentaries were written upon his SMot. This is not the place to speak of the prose satire of the Greeks, but it may be re- marked that the principal writers were Lucian and the Emperor Julian. Seele Beau, on Homer's Margites, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc, &c. T. xxix, xxx, 4to e^l.— E. L. D. Huchs, Versuch ueber die Verdienste des Archilochus urn die Satire, Zerbst. 1767. 8.— The fragments of Hipponax were published by Theoph. Fr. WelcJcer. Gcett. 1817. 4. Is. Heinr. Langheinrich de Timone sillographo, Lips. 1720, 21. 4.— Sulze r's Allg. Theor. art. Satire. Schasll Hist. Gr. Lit. L. IV. Ch. 34. Fred. Paul, de Sillis Gracorum. Jierol. 1821 . 8.— The fragments may be found in Brunlc's Analecta. § 46. Besides the three regular varieties of the drama already described, the • Greeks had a great number of performances, which were of the nature of farces. At festal entertainments buffoons were often introduced, whose panto- mime was mingled with extemporary dialogue (uvroxufidaXoi). In the theatre, ludicrous and indelicate representations were made by actors called ftifioi. Pie- ces of this sort were termed Ivaivoioi. or paymSai. No specimen of them is pre- served. The name of mimes (fufioi) was at length given to little poems designed to bring before the spectator or reader an incident or story, which was not, like that of tragedy, drawn from mythology or heroic adventures, nor like that of comedy, taken from civil or political life, but furnished by domestic occurrences. A piece of this sort contained a painting of manners and characters, without a complete fable. Sophron of Syracuse, B. C. 4'20, is mentioned as a writer of mimes. His pieces were written in the Doric dialect and not in proper verse, but in a kind of measured prose (xaraXoyuSr/v). Plato very much admired them, and encouraged at Athens a taste for such performances. The few fragments of Sophron's mimes which remain are not sufficient to enable us to judge fully re- specting their character. The fifteenth idyl of Theocritus is an imitation of one of them. A commentary on the mimes of Sophron was written by Apollo- dorus of Athens. Another author of mimes was Philistion of Nicea, who flourished in the last days of Socrates. For the fragments of Sophron, see Classical Journal Vol. tv.— Museum Critiaim, (Camb.) No. 7. Nov. 1821.— The sentences of Philistion and Menander were published by Nic. Rigoulet, Par. 1613. 8. § 47/ Having glanced in a general manner at the history of 23 178 HISTORY OF GRF.EK LITERATURE. I .reek poetry in each of its departments, the plan already pointed out (^ 8) loads us now to notice more particularly the principal poets. In doing- this, it will be recollected, we are to arrange the names in chronological order. To a brief notice of the poet and his works, a view of the more important editions will be added. Before com- mencing with individuals, however, we will subjoin here some ref- erences to works, which relate to the Greek poets or classes of them collectively. Lit. Greg. Gyraldi Historic Poetar. tarn Grsec. quam Latin. Dialogi X. 1548. 8. — G. J. Vossius, de veterum poetarum Graecorum et Latinorum temporibus. Amster. 1654. 4. — Hartmann's Versuch einer allg. Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Rcemen. Berl. 1798. 8. — Le Fevre, Vies de Poetes Grecs. — Lor. Crasso Istoria de' Poeti Greci. Nap. 1678. fol. — B. Kermett's Lives and Charac- ters of the ancient Grecian Poets. Lond. 1697. 8. — Here may properly be men- tioned Elton's Specimens of the Classic Poets. It may be proper to refer to some of the collections, which have been publish- ed. — J. Fr. Boissonade, Poetarum graecorum Sylloge. Par. 1823. in 32. Vol. i. Anacreon, with fragments of others, Vol. ii. Theocritus, Bion, Moschus; Vol. iii. Theosinis, Tyrtaeus, Phocylides and others. Whether completed not known. — R. F. Ph. Brunch, > H8txti nolyoig, sive Gnomici poetae graeci, cited § 31. Same with additions by G. Schcefer. Leipz. 1817. 8. — Claude Chapelet, Poetae grseci christiani. Par. 1609. 8. — Novem Lyrici Graecorum. cura Mmilii Porti. (printed by Commeline) Heidelb. 1598. 8.— Repr.Anjou, 1611. 4. H. Ste- phanus,' Ot rijg ijQw'iy.i/g noiijaeag nQwrlvovreg TroiijTut xal aXXoi ririg. Poetae graeci princ. heroic, carm. 1566. fol. — By same, HoirjOig (ptioaoyog. Poesis phi- losphica, &c. Par. 1573. 8.— Thos. Gaisford, Poetae minores Graeci. Oxon. 1814 -20. 4 vols. 8. — J. Lectins, Poets graeci veteres, carmini heroici Scriptores &c. Aurel. Allobrog. 1606, fol.— Same, Poetae graeci veteres tragici, comici &c. Colon. Allobrog. 1614. 2 vols. fol. — Mich. Mattaire, Miscellanea Grascorum ali- quot scriptorum carmina. Lond. 1722. 4. — Morel, E comicis graecis XLII deper- ditis sententise collectse, (gr. et lat.) Par. 1553. 8. — A. Schneider, Movo&v avdtj, sive poetriarum Graecarum carminum fragmenta. Giessae. 1802. 8; containing the fragments of Sappho, Erinne, Myro, Corinna &C.—R. Winterton's Poetae minores graeci. gr, et lat. Cantab. 1635, et al. Lond. 1739. 8. Weigel Bibliotheca classica poetarum Graecorum fed. J. G. Schcefer). — Tauch- nitz, Corpus poetarum Graecorum. — Same publisher, a later edition, stereotype ; convenient and valuable (Cfi Scholl. Hist. Litt. Gr. Introduction, p. 86. 89.] § 48. Orpheus, about 1250 B. C. a Thracian, pupil of Linus, and companion of the Argonauts. The tradition, that by his lyre he tamed wild beasts and moved inanimate things to actions, is mere alle- gory, and refers only to the moral improvement effected perhaps by means of his song. The works ascribed to him are (1) Hymns (Te- IetccI) 28 in number, (2) a historical poem on the expedition of the Argonauts (^AqyovovTtxd), (3) a metrical treatise on the secret pow- ers of Stones (TIbqI Aidwv), and (4) a piece on earthquakes (IIsqI Seta/iaf) and other fragments. These poems are now considered as the production of later times, coimposed at different periods. (I) The best edition is that of Hermann, Orphica cum notis H. Stephani, A. C. Eschenbachii, J. M. Gessneri, Th . Tyrwhitti, recensuit Godof. Hermannus, Lips. 1805. 2 vols. 8. A stereot. ed. of this text. Lpz. 1823. 12mo— Early edi- tions ; Princeps. Orphei Argonaut. Hv/mni. et Procli Lyoii Hym.Graece, Florent. 1500. 4to. (imp. Junta).— Aldina, 151' 7. 8vo— Stephani, in Poet. Graec. princ. ORPHEUS. MUS.EUS. 179 her. carm. cited § 47.— Other editions ; Gessneri (ed. Hambergerl Lips. 1764. 8. — HeQt Xidwv. Th. Tyrwhitl. Lond. 1781. 8. — 'AQyoravrixa. J. G. Schneider. Jena. 1803. 8. Translations of the hymns; Italian, Innidi Orfeo, esposti in versi volgari (Ant. Jerogadcs). Neapoli. 1788. 8. — Latin, by Jos. Scaliger. Lugd. Bat. 1516. 12; English, with prel. dissert, by Th. Taylor. 1787, 1824. 8. ; also by Dodd in his Callimachus. Lond. 1755. — German, with the original text, by D.K. P. Dielsch, Erl. 1822, 4.— Of the Argonautics, German, I. H. Voss. Heidelb. 180G. 4. (2) On the question concerning the origin of the Orphic poetry, see Huct, Demonst. Evang. Prop. IV. C. $.—Ruhnken, Epist. Crit. 1782. — Fried. Snedorj, de Hymn. Vet. Graec. Lips. 1786.— Car. G. Lenz, de Orphic. Frag. Gcett. 1789. — Gerlach, de Hymn. Orpn. Comment. Gcett. 1797. — Diss, de aet. Script, Argo- naut, in Hermann's ed. of Orpheus. — De Orphei Argonauticis. Rostoc. 1806. 4to. — De argument, pro Antiq. Orph. Argon. Lips. 1811. 4. — Bode, Orpheus Poet. Graec. Antiquiss. Gcett. 1824. 4.— Especially Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. Vol. i. p. 38. — North. Am. Rev. Vol. xxi. § 49. Muscrus, according to tradition a contemporary of Orphe- us, born at Athens, a poet and philosopher. The poem of Hero and Leander, Td xad' 'Hga y.alAeuvdQov, which has been ascribed to him, was certainly the work of a later age, probably the fifth century after Christ. It contains many passages of epic beauty, but far too little of the simplicity belonging to its pretended age. (1) There was a Musaeus, who flourished not far from A. D. 500. A letter from Procopius to him implies that he was a grammarian, which title is given to the author of the poem, in all the manuscripts. Hence it is conjectured that the real author was this person. We have the titles of many works ascribed to the ancient Musa;us ; the follow- ing, besides others, Xq>io/.(,oI, oracles ; TtXtrui, initiations, a. species of poem re- ferring to religious rites of an initiatory and expiatory kind, called also xa&aoftol, purifications, and naqalvasii, absolutions; 'Axtanq vuauir ; ' Tno&ijxai, precepts; Tltnl QccmQuyrciv, describing the remarkable things of Thesprotia; ZyaiQa, an astronomical poem &c. The few fragments of the ancient Musaeus remaining are gathered in the collection of philosophic poetry by Stephanus [see §471. (2) The best editions of the poem of Hero and Leander are by J. Schrader, Leuward. 1793. 8. by if. .P. Heinrich, Han. 1793. 8,&by C. A. Mobius, Halle 1814. 12.-Early editions ; Princeps, Al-dina, Gr. et Lat. 1494 ; supposed the first work from the Aldine press ; extremely rare. — Juntina (Phil. Giunta). Gr. et Lat. Florent. 1519. 8. — with other works Gr. et Lat. ap. J. Frobeninm, Bas. 1518. 8. — H. Ste- phani (in Poet. Graec. princ. &c. cited §47). — Others; J. H. Kronmayer, Halle, 1721. 8. — M. Rmver with the Scholia, and from collation of 7 Mss. and 17 editions (editor being 17 yearsof age) Leyd. 1737. 8. — Du Theil, Gr. and Fr. Paris, 1784. 12. Translations, besides those included in the above ; German, with original, by Fr. PasSow, Lpz. 1810. 8.— Latin and French, with original, by J. B. Gail, Par. 1796. 4.— by Ch. L. Mollerault, Strasb. and Par. 1805. 8.— Italian, edited by Frances. Mazar. Furao, Naples, 1787. 8. — English, G. Chapman, Lond. 1606. 4 — R. Stapylton, Lond. 1647. 8. — Stirling, Lond. 1728. 12, — Franc. Fawkes, (with Anacreon, Sappho, Bion and Moschus) Lond. 1760. — See Brueggemann's View &c— Sulzer's Theorie, Vol. II. p. 508. (3) Respecting the age and author of the poem, see the Prefaces of Schrader, Heinrich, and Passow. — Diss, in Kronmayer.— C. F. Hindenburg, Specimen Animadv. in Musaeum. Lips. 1763. — De La. Nauze, Rem. sur l'Hist. d'Hero &c. in Mem. de TAcad.des Ins. T. IV. and Nic. Mahudcl, Reft. Crit. &c. in same, T. VII. § 50. Homer lived about 1000 B. C. or perhaps later. The place of his birth is uncertain; seven Grecian cities claimed the honor; it probably belonged to Chios (Scio) or Smyrna. Most of ISO HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, the circumstances related of his life are derived from two biographies, which have been ascribed, on insufficient grounds, to Herodotus and Plutarch. The story of his blindness seems to have been a mere tra- dition. His two epic poems, the Iliad ('Ihdg) and Odyssey (' Odvo- oeLol) originally consisted of various Rhapsodies, which were first re- duced to their present form under the direction of Pisistratus and his son Hipparchus. On being committed to writing, which could hard, ly have been done by Homer himself, it is not improbable, that they received some additions and interpolations. Both of them are a se- ries of songs, probably from several authors, Homer and the Homer- ida;, composed at different times and successively enlarged. The subject of the Iliad is the 'wrath of Achilles,' his separation from the Grecian army in consequence of it, and the events of the Trojan war during his absence and immediately after his return. The theme of the Odyssey is the wandering of Ulysses, the dangers and sufferings of his return from Troy to Ithaca, and the events following his arrival. Besides these two heroic poems, the most celebrated of epic produc- tions, there is ascribed to Homer a comic piece, the Bcxrgaxofivofiaxia, (Battle of the Frogs and Mice), a mock-heroic poem, belonging un- questionably to a later period. There are also ascribed to him thirty three Hymns, besides various small pieces and epigrams. Some of the Hymns were probably composed by the Homeridse or- Homeric Rhapsodists (§21). (1) There is a diversity of opinion respecting the. period in which Homer lived. "While some place him as above, B. C. 1000, others place him only about B. C. 600. The Arundelia'n Marble places him B. C. 907. The date ascribed by wood (Essay on the Original Genius &c), and adopted by Mitford (Hist, of Greece, Ch. iii. App.) is B. C. 850. A writer in the Philosophical Transactions (vol. xlviii) brings Homer down to the sixth century before Christ, by astronomical calculations, not to be relied on. (2) Different traditions are related respecting his parentage and birth to ex- plain the terms Maeonides, son of Maon, and Melesigenes, bom by the riverMeles. Conflicting etymologies of his name "OfniQog have been devised, some of them sufficiently absurd. — Respecting his manner of life, all the accounts, whether genuine or spurious, generally agree in representing him as a Rhapsodist, wandering on the Asiatic coast and through the islands of Greece, and earning fame and a maintenance by the recitation of his verses. — His death is variously- told. One story brings him to his end by falling over a stone. Another allows him a gentler death. Another tells that he broke his heart out of pure vexation, because he could not solve a riddle proposed to him by some waggish young fishermen.— Cf. Coleridge ( § 21). p. 45, 60, 63. Numerous treatises have been written on the life of this Poet. Besides the two above mentioned, ascribed to Hejodotus and Plutarch, there are three short lives in Greek prefixed to the work of Allolius (de Patria Homeri, Lug. Bat. 1640. 8.), one of them written by Proclus. Of modern biographies those of Pope and Madame Dacier are very convenient. See also Thomas Blaclcwall, Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer, 2d ed. Lond. 1736. 8. Tr. Germ, by Vnss. Leipz. 1776. 8.— Wood's Essay, cited below (4).—Kasppen's Einleitung in dieerklEErende Anmerk. zum Homer, verbess. von Ruhkopf. Hannov. 1820.8. (3) Besides the works above named, many others were formerly ascribed to Homer, of which the titki only are preserved. The Maiiyhm has already been HOMER. 181 mentioned (§ 45), 'a satire upon some strenuous blockhead,' often alluded to by the ancient writers. At least twenty other titles are recorded, among which are the following; 'uifia&via, 5 Aqavofiaxia, reQavopax'ia, 'Eniyorot, KixQianeg, Nuocui, Waiyvia &e. — Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. i, 374. The BaTQaxofivopax'LU has been ascribed to Pigres, who lived in the time of the Persian invasion ; but some allusions and names in it are supposed to indi- cate an Alexandrian age and source. This mock heroic has bt en repeatedly imitated. Theodore Prodromus, in the 12th century, wrote ai> imitation in Iambic trimeters, called the Galeomackia. There are also Latin imitations (one by Addison in the Musoz Etoncnses). Fuhrman kleineres Hadbuch. p 44. J. F. D. Goes, Diss, de Batrachomyomachia etc. Erlang. 1798. 8.—C. D. Ilgen, Hymn. Homerici etc. (containing a modern Greek version of the Batrachom. by Demetr. Zenus, and the Galeomachia of Prodromus), Hal. 1796. 8.— Coleridge, p. 182. The greater part of the Homeric hymns belong to the class of addresses and invocations to the gods (IlQooifua) which the Rhapsodists were accustomed to make in commencing their recitals. But several of the larger ones, especially, may with propriety be termed epic. — Herniawi's Epistle, prefixed to his edition of Epigrams cited below (5). — Coleridge, p. 190. (4) The controversy among the learned respecting the origin of the Iliad and Odyssey has awakened much interest. The first doubts, whether Homer was the sole author, seem to have been expressed by Perrault in his Parallele des An- ciensetdes Moderns, (Paris 1688), in which it is suggested, that they are but a collection of many little poems, of different authors. This suggestion was en- forced by F . Hedelin, who went so far as to deny the personal existence of Ho- mer, in a treatise bearing the title, Conjectures academiques, ou Dissertation sur I' Iliad, 1715. Dr. Bently expressed ah opinion, that these poems originally con- sisted of several distinct songs and rhapsodies composed by Homer, but not uni- ted in an epic form until 500 years afterwards (in reply to Collins' discourse of free-thinking, Letter to N. N. by Phileuiherus Lipsiensis §7). The same idea was more fully developed by an Italian author, G. B. Vico, in a work called Prin- cipi di scienza nuova dintorno alia commune natura delle nazioni, Naples, 1744. 8th edition. A bolder position was taken by Robert Woods in his Essay upon the original Genius of Homer published in London 1770 ; viz. that Homer could not have committed his poems to writing. The performance of Wood was transla- ted into German, and attracted much attention, and gave a new impulse to the study of Homer. In 1795, Wolf published his Prolegomena ad Homerum, in which he maintained, that 'the Iliad and Odyssey are not the production of Ho- mer or of any other single author, but a collection of rhapsodies composed at different times and by different persons, and subsequently and gradually wrought Tip into the form in which they now exist.' This doctrine was not eagerly em- braced by the public. At the close of the year 1795, Heyne, who then had the reputation of the first Hellenist in Germany, while Wolf was acquiring that of a rival to him, published in the Gcettingen Journal a review of Wolf's Prolego- mena. Inthis review Heyne stated or insinuated, that he had himself always taught the same general doctrine respecting the Homeric poems. This was re- sented by Wolf, and occasioned a controversy between these champions, not, as has often been supposed, concerning the genuineness of these poems, but con- cerning the merit of priority in starting the new theory of their gradual forma- tion. This contest for the honor of originating the doctrine had great influence in deciding general opinion in favor of it in Germany. It was defended with in- genuity by Ilgen in the introduction to his edition of the Homeric hymns. One of the principal attemps to controvert it was made by Hug in his work on the invention of Alphabetic writing, published in 1801 (cited P. 1 § 32). In 1802 Heyne fully avowed and supported the theory in the excursuses in his edition of the Iliad. The theory was attacked in Prance by St. Croix in a pamphlet styled Refutation d'un pwradoxe litteraire. In England also a powerful opposer of it has appeared in Granville Penn, whose arguments are given in the work styled An examina- tion of the primary argument of the Iliad, fyc. published in 1821. Schcell gives a glance at the history of this question, and plainly intimates that he does not embrace the Woman doctrines. ' Posterity,' says he, 'will judge of their solidity, and we will only add, that while in Germany the views of Wolf are generally received, they are almost as generally rejected in England, Holland, France and Italy. It is known that they were firmly resisted by Ruhnken one of the greatest critics of the last century and by the celebrated Villoison.' Coleridge remarks, 'however startling this theory may appear at first sight, there are some argu- L82 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. ments in its favor, that with all calm and serious inquirers will ever save it from indifference and contempt./ For the arguments employed in this controversy, we must refer the reader to the works of the different writers ; merely observing, however, that the grand argument of Wolf and Heync is an assumption of that as a fact, which has never been provsi, namely that writing, or at least any common writing materi- al.fwns unknown in Greece in the Homeric age ; while the apparent familiarity of Homer with Sidonian artists, the close alliance between the Sidonians and the Jews, and the indisputable use of the art of writing among the Jews long before the Trojan War, render the opposite highly probable. Schcell, Hist. Litl. Gr. L. ii. ch. 4 — Coleridge, p. 37. ss.— Also besides the works cited in the preceding remarks, Bern. Thiersch,; Urgestalt der Odyssee, &c. Kcenigsb. 1821. B.—C. F.Franceson, Essai sur laCtuestion, si Homere aconnu l'usage de l'ecri- ture &c. Berl. 1818. 12.— Other references in Harles, Supplem. I. p. 95. 5. Best editions ; Ii.iad, C. G. Heyne, Gr. and Lat. Leipz. & Lond. 1802. 8 vols. 8 ; it. Lond. 1819. a 9th vol. appeared Leipz. 1822,-Odyssby, Baumgarkn-Crusius, Leipz. 1822. ss. 8.— Whole Works, F. A. Wolf. Gr.and Lat. Halle. 1794. 5 vols. 8. Leipz. 1804. 7. J. A. Emesti, Gr. and Lat. Leipz. 1759. 1824. Glasg. 1814. 5 vols. 8.— Samuel Clarke, Gr. and Lat. Lond. 1729. 1740. 4 vols. 4. 16th edition Lond. 1815. — Hymns and Batrachomyomachia, Matthia, Leipz. 1805. 8.— Epigrams and Hymns, G. Hermann, L/pz. 1806. 8. Early editions; {Princeps) Demetrius Chalcondylas and Demetrius Cretensis, Flor. 1488. fol. 2 vols.— Aldus, Venet. 1504. also 1517. 1524. 2 vols. 8.— Junta, Plor. 1519. 2 vols. S.—Hervagius, Basil, 1535. Pol. Cum. Schol. — Francini, Ven. 1537. 2 vols. 8.— With the Commentaries of Eustathius, Rom. 1542. 50. 4 vols, fol.— H. Stephanas, Par. 1566 (in Poet. Gr. Princ. cited §47}. 1588. 2 vols. 8. Gr. and Lat. Later Editions : Barnes, Camb. 1711. 2 vols. A.—Foulis, Glasg. 1756, 8. 4 vols. fol. very splendid.—./?. P. Knight, Lond. 1820. fol. (see Class. Journ. vol. vii. and viii. Lond. Gluart. Rev. vol. xxvii.) — J. A. Mueller, Iliad with extracts from Eus- tathius &c. Meissen, 1823. 2 vols. 8.—G. H. Schafer, Iliad and Odyssey. Leipz. 1810, 11. 5 vols. 12; prepared for the collection of Tauchnitz. and considered by Schosll as preferable to the stereotype impression of Tauchnitz, in 4 vols. — C. C. Felton, Iliad, from the text of Wolf, with English notes and Flaxman's Illustra- tions. Boston, 1833. a beautiful edition. There are numerous translations of Homer into modern tongues ; e. g. into English by Pope and Cowper ; into German by J. H. Voss, Alton. 1793. 8. (in which is an attempt to imitate the ancient hexameter] ; into French by Madame Dacier Amst. 1712, 1417.12;. into Italian by A. M. Cesarotti. Ven. 1786, 8.— For notice of others, see Harles and Brueggeman, cited §7 (9)- 6. It has been justly remarked, that it would be an endless task merely to name all the authors who have written about Homer. We will here only mention, in addition to those already presented, a few of the best works illustrative of this poet. — /. H. I. Kceppen, Erklaarende Anmerk, zum Homer, Hannov. 1787 ss. 6 vols. 8. — K. E. Schubarth, Ideen ueber Homer und sein Zeitalter (erne ethisch- historische Abhandlung). Bresl. 1821. 8. — L. Kuester, Historia Critica Homeri (in Wolf's Iliad.]— E. Feith, Antiquitates Homericse. Argent. 1743. 8.— For oth- ers, on various points, see Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Homer. § 51. Hesiod lived probably B. C. 950, according to some before Homer. He was born at Cuma in iEolia, and was called the As- craean, because educated at A sera in Boeotia. We have from him a didactic poem, on moral economy, "Eqya xai 'H/iegai, Works and Days, and another of a mythological character, Oeoyovla, a theogony, on the lineage of the gods and origin of the world. The piece styled 'Aanlg 'Hgaxleovg, Shield of Hercules is probably a fragment from a later author. As a poet Hesiod is inferior to Homer. But his poems are highly valuable, as they make known to us so much re- specting the conceptions and modes of thinking, which prevailed in a high antiquity upon domestic, mythological and physical subjects. HESIOD. 183 (1) We may collect from the poems of Hesiod that his father was a native of Cuma, and removed to Ascra at the fopt of Mt. Helicon, where he devoted him- self to pastoral and agricultural life. Of the estate, which his father left at death, the greater part was obtained by Perses, his elder brother, who had bribed the judges to make an unequal division. Yet Hesiod by the prudent management of his portion acquired a competence, while Perses was reduced by improvi- dence to want. It is an object of the poet in his Works and Days to rebuke his brother and judges for their injustice, and teach the duties of industry, frugality and prudence. — It has been supposed by some that he tended his own flocks on mount Helicon, while others maintain that he was the priest to a temple of the Muses on that mount. — He mentions a poetical contest at Chalcis, which formed a part of the games at the funeral of Amphidamas, king of Euboea, and in which he gained the prize of a tripod, afterwards by him consecrated to the Muses of Helicon. This incident was the foundation of the fable of his victory over Homer (§ 19), which Plutarch, in his Banquet of the seven wise Men, puts into the mouth of Periander ; and which forms the subject of a work styled '£2fi>JQov xai 'Hoiodov ayi>v, written after the time of the emperor Adrian. — A marvellous story respecting the death of Hesiod, which also is probably a fabri- cation, Plutarch introduces in the same piece, from the lips of Solon. On the life and age of Hesiod we refer to the Lives by Vossius, Kcnnett &c. cited § 47. — Also Prelim. Diss, in Robinson's Hesiod, and Discourse prefixed to Cooke's Hesiod (both cited below, 4). (2) The same theory, which some have so strenuously maintained in relation to the Homeric poems, has also been applied to the poems of Hesiod. They have been said to be pieces compiled by JtaaxevagTai in the ages of Solon and Pisistratus, from the recitations of the Rhapsodists, or at least from imperfect written copies; it being supposed that there were many poems from different au- thors imitating the manner of Hesiod, and in after times ascribed to him. Thus Hesiod has been considered as the head of an ancient Bmotian school of poetry, as Homer of an Ionian. — See Heinrlch's Prolegomena and Wolf's Notes in the editions below cited (4). — Aug. Tmesten's Commentatio critica de Hesiodi car- mine, quod inscribitur, Opera et Dies. Kilise. 1805. 8. — G. Hermann's Letter to Ilgen, in Ilgen's Hymn. Homer, cited § 50 (3). (3) The Works and Days of Hesiod consists of 828 Hexameter verses. It is a poem of unequal merit, some parts of it bordering on the puerile, others dis- covering great elevation of thought and feeling.— Pausanias says, that it is the only work allowed by the Boeotians to be the genuine production of Orpheus. He states that he saw near the fount of Helicon, a copy of this poem in lead, al- most destroyed by age. The Theogony contains about 1000 lines. There are passages in it of great force and sublimity. The contest of the Giants and Titans and of Jupiter with Typhceus are often specified as such. The Shield of Hercules, in 480 lines, is supposed by some modern critics to have belonged to a lost work of Hesiod, entitled ' Hqusoyovia, the Heroogony, a genealogy of the demigods, including, as they think, two pieces cited by the an- cients, viz. KaTai.oyog ywa.iy.iav, catalogue of women, a history of such as were mothers of demigods, and 'ffoiai ^ityalai, an account of heroines. The ICa-rldo- yo$ is sometimes mentioned as consisting of five cantos, of which the 'Hoiut formed the fourth. The title 'Hoiai was supposed by Bentley to have arisen from the phrase »/' oiij (qualis, such as), with which the transition was made from one heroine to another. Of this last piece the Shield is commonly thought to have been a part ; it begins with the phrase just mentioned, in a description of the person and adventures of Alcmene, which occupies the first 56 lines. Others consider the part of it relating to Alcmene as all that belonged to the piece styled 'Hoiat or Eozm, and view the rest, describing the armor of Hercules &c. as a separate poem. This portion of the '^ianig or Scutum is an amplification of Homer's description of the shield of Achilles. (Cf. Edinb. Rev. Vol. xv. p. 101. Thirteen or fourteen other works, not extant, were ascribed to Hesiod. Cooke's Hesiod. (4) Best editions ; whole works, Chr. Fr. Lossner, Gr. et Lat. Lips. 1778. 8. — Tliom. Robinson, Gr. et Lat. Oxon. 1737. 4. Lond. 1756. — B. Zanmgna (called also edition of Bodoni). Gr. et Lat. Parmae, 1785. 4. — works and days, L. Wachler, Lemgo. 1792.' 8. — shield, Car. Frid. Heinrich. Vratisl. (Breslaw) 1802. 8.— theogony, Fr. Aug. Wolf, Hal. 1783. 8. Early editions ; The Princeps contains only the Works and Days, Milan. 1493. fol.— The Princeps (or earliest) edition of the whole works of Hesiod, is that of 181 HISTORY OF ORTEK LITERATURE. Aldus, Vend. 1 l!l"). fol. connected with an edition of Theocritus.— Junta, FIo- rent. 1515. 8; this is the first edition of Hesiod separately—/?. Heinsius, Lug. Bat. 1608. 4. Or. et Lat.— Gncvius, Amst. 1667. S.—Clericus (Le Clerc), Amst. 1701. S. The two last are the foundation of Robinson's. Later editions; Lanzi, (Works ami Days) Florent. 1808. 4. Gr. Lat. et Ital,— SpoA»( Works and Days) Lips. 1819. 8; a more critical edition announced by same. — Gaisford, in hisPoetae Minores Greeci cited § 47; said by Dibdin to give the purest text of I [esiod. Translations, besides those in the above mentioned editions; German (verse), ./. If. Voss, whole works, Heidelb. 1806. 8.— J. D. Hartmann, Shield, Lemgo. 1794. 8.; English (verse) Thomas Cooke, Lond. 1728. 4. 1811. 2 vols. 24.— Ch. Ah. Elton, Lond. 1812. 8. ; French, P. C. CI. Gin, Par. 1798. 8. (5) Works illustrative ; S. F. Thiersch ueber die Gedichte des Hesiodus, ihren Ursprung Sue. Muenchen, 1813. 4.— Heynes Abh. ueber die Theogonie. : , in the Comment. Soc. Golt. Vol. ii. — F. Schlichlegr oil ueber der Schild des Hercu- les &c. Gotha. 1788. S.—Hartmann's translation above cited. § 52.* Archilochus flourished about B. C. 680. He was a na- tive of the island of Paros, and ranked among the greatest poets of Greece, and generally supposed the inventor of Iambic verse. He wrote satires, elegies and triumphal hymns and lyrical pieces, of which only trifling fragments remain. (1) Little is known of his life. He went, while young, with his father in a Parian colony to Thasos. He states of himself, that in a battle between the Thasians and Thracians, he threw away his shield, and saved himself by flight. On account of this, it is said, when he afterwards visited Sparta, he was ordered by the magistrates to quit the city. (2) The fragments of Archilochus are found in Brunch's Analecta, and Ja- cobs' Anthologia, (cited § 35). They were published separately, with comments, by Ign, Liebel, Lips. 1812. 8. enlarged 1819. 8. § 53. Tyrtceus, about B. C. 647, of Athens, or more probably Miletus, leader of the Spartans against the Messenians. By his ele- . gies, full of the praises of military glory and patriotism, he roused the ardor of his warriors, and rendered them victorious. Of his writings, only three elegies and eight fragments have come down to us. ( 1 ) The common account is, that the Lacedaemonians, at the bidding of Delphi- an Apollo, sent to the Athenians for a general to conduct their wars with the Mes- senians, hitherto unsuccessful, and that Tyrtseus, lame and deformed, was se- lected by the Athenians, out of hatred. Schcell remarks that the whole story has the air of fable, and that the alleged deformity had no foundation in truth, being a satirical allusion to his use of pentameter verse. But the effect ascribed to his poems is not improbable. The Lacedaemonians were accustomed to enter the field under the inspiration of martial music and songs, as illustrated in Plu- tarch's life of Lycurgus. The song thus used in rushing to battle was termed fiiXog ififSaTilQiov. The instruments used by the Lacedaemonians were flutes. Tyrtaeus is said to have invented and introduced among them the trumpet. (2) The elegies composed by Tyrtaeus amounted to Jive books. It is com- monly supposed that they were chiefly war-songs of the kind just mentioned (Cf. Lowth's Hebrew Poetry. Lect. I). Schcell remarks that we have but a single fragment of these songs of Tyrtaeus, which were in the Doric dialect, and that his remaining elegies, being in the Ionic dialect, are not to be confounded with them. A work by Tyrtaeus is cited by Aristotle and Pausanias under the title of 'E v- vopia ('bonne legislation'), which some have considered as a distinct poem, while others have supposed it to be only a certain class of his elegies collected together and so named. Schcell, Vol. I. p. 189,— Fahrmann's Kleineres Handb. p. 65. , SAPPHO. SOLON. 185 (3) Best editions, Chr. Adolph. Klotz, Altenb. 1767, 8; with a German ver- sion by Weiss, and dissertation on Tyrtaeus and on warlike songs.— Chr. Dokl, Upsal. 1790. 4. Gr. etLat. Other editions ; Princeps, by S. Gelenius, Bas. 1532. 4. with remains of poetesses. — Lond. 1761. 12. with English metrical ver- sion, — In Brunch's Gnom. Poet, and Kmppen's Blumenlese (cited § 31). — L. Lam- berti, with Lat. and Ital. version. Paris, 1801. 8. (4) Illustrative ; J. V. Franke's Callinus, cited § 29.— Matthia de Tyrtaei Carminibus. Altenb. 1820. 4. § 54. Sappho nourished probably about B. C. 612. She was a native of Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos. Of distinguished celeb- rity as a poetess, she is also remembered from the story of her un- happy passion for Phaon, and her tragical leap from Leucate into the sea, in a fit of despair. This story, however, seems to belong to an- other Sappho, of a later age. It is from the poetess that the verse termed Sapphic takes its name. Of her productions there now re- main only two odes, full of warm and tender feeling, and some small fragments. (1) There is disagreement respecting the precise date, which should be assign- ed to Sappho. Some make her a contemporary of Anacreon, considerably later than the time above named. — J. Ch. Cramer, Diatribe de avyxQ.oviafim Sapphus et Anacreontis. Jen. 1755. 4. — H. F. M. Volger, Diatribe historico-cril. de Sap- phus Poetria? vita et scriptis. Goth. 1809. 8. (2) Little is known of the life of Sappho, and her character is a subject of controversy. The imputations cast upon her are of doubtful authority, and are supposed by some to have had their origin in the license of the comic poets. They may have arisen from confounding her with the courtesan Sappho,' of Ere- sus, in the same island Lesbos. It is now made quite probable, that the whole story of the passion for Phaon and its fatal issue belongs to the latter, who was a person of some celebrity, as seems evident from the fact that her image was stamped upon some of the Lesbian coins, a circumstance which Barthelemy ap- Elies to the poetess. A coin brought from Greece in 1822, has upon it a female ead with the name 2AJI&S1 and the letters EFECI, supposed to refer to Ere- sus. — See Barthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. iii. — Fr. G. Welcker, Sappho von eineirt herschenden Vorurtheil befreyet. Gcett. 1816. 8. — De Hauteroche, Notice sur la courtisane Sappho d'Eresus. Par. 1822. — Schmll, Hist. Lit. Gr. L. ii. ch. 5. (3) Sappho is said to have composed, besides odes, hymns, elegies, scolia and epigrams. The two odes now extant are preserved the one in Longinus, and the other in Dionysius Halicarnasseus [de Composition*, verborum) as a specimen of soft and flowing style. Two or three epigrams are among the fragments otherwise preserved. (4) The princeps edition was by H. Stephanus, iwith Anacreon) Lut. Par. 1554. 4.— More recent; J. C. Wolf, Hamb. 1733. 4. as 1st. vol. of his Fragments of nine Greek poetesses.— H. F. M. Volger. Lips. 1810. 8.-4. Mosbius, Hannov. 1815.8. — Blomfield, in the Mus. Crit. or Cambr. Class. Researches, (vol. i.) Lond. 1813. this text highly valued.--The odes are found in most editions of Anacreon. The epigrams are in the Anthology of Jacobs. Translations ; German, by Ramler & Overbeck, cited § 59; English, in The works of Anacreon, by J. Addi- son. Lond. 1735. 8.— Cf. Addison's Spectator, Nos. 223, 229. § 55. Solon, the distinguished lawgiver of Athens, native of Sala- mis, and descendant of Codrus, lived B. C. 594. He wrote several poems. By one of them he aroused the Athenians to a war with the Megareans, in which he, as their general, subdued Salamis. After- wards he was appointed Archon at Athens, and this was the epoch of 24 I8f> HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. his legislation so much celebrated. We have a series of moral max- ims, in elegiac verse, ascribed to Solon. ( 1 ) Solon is said to have engaged in early life in trade, and in this pursuit to have visited Egypt and other foreign countries. On returning to Athens, he devoted himself to poetry and philosophy. After he was brought into public of- fice, as above mentioned, and had established his laws, he again left Athens for ten years, for the sake of rendering them permanent. He returned, and spent the remainder of life in literary pursuits, and is said to have done much in col- lecting and publishing the poems of Homer. Some accounts say that he died at Athens, others at Cyprus, at the age of 80. His biography is given by two ancient writers, Plutarch and Diogenes Laer- tius. (2) Besides the poetical remains of Solon there are some fragments of his laws extant, and a little piece on the pursuits of life. Diogenes Laertius also has lecorded certain letters, said to have been written by Solon. (3) The principal poetical fragments of Solon are found in Brunch's Gnomie Poets (cited § 31), Winterton's Minor Greek Poets, and other collections. — The best edition is probably that of Fortlage, Lips. 1776. 8; the second vol. of a collection of the Gnomic Poets. — The princeps edition was by Gelenius, in the work cited § 53 (3). — German translation, in G. C. Braun, die "Weisen von Hel- las als Saenger. Mainz, 1822. 8. see Fuhrm. Kl. Handb. p. 68. — English version of Letters, in Savage's Collection of the Letters of the Ancients. Lond. 1703. 8. The fragments of Solon's laws are found in the Leges Attica by Sam. Petit, Par. 1635. fol. ; imp. ed. by P. Wesseling, Lug. Bat. 1742. fol. § 56. Theognis, born at Megara, lived in banishment at Thebes, about B. C. 550. There remain of his poetry 1238 verses, belonging to the class of yvtifiou (sententia) or maxims. They are simple ver- ses or couplets, once, probably, forming parts of connected poems ; two poems, particularly, are said to have been composed by him. The portions extant are valued for their moral, rather than their poetical character. (1) Theognis is said to have died B. C. 495. His verses are addressed, un- der the name of naQaivzatig, exhortations, chiefly to a young man to whom he gives counsel on the conduct of life. He has been reproached for the licentious nature of some of his sentiments ; yet nothing of this character appears in the fragments extant. He inculcates religious and filial duty, and recommends caution in the choice of friends. (2) It is not improbable, that some of the verses ascribed to Theognis are of later origin, although most of them are thought to be evidently of high antiquity. In 1815, or near that time, 159 verses, never printed, were discovered by Bek- ker, in a Modena manuscript. These added make the whole number extant about 1400. (3) Best edition, Imm. Bekker, (with the translation by Grotius) Leipz. 1815. 8. The princeps was by AldMS, (together with Hesiod and others) Ven. 1495. fol. The verses (except the 159) are found in Brunch's Gnomic Poets, Gais- ford's Minor Poets [cited § 47], and various other collections.— On Theognis, cons. Gluart. Rev. No. 95. §57. Phocylides, of Miletus, lived about B. C. 540. He belongs to the class of Gnomic Poets. An ethical poem, called the Exhorta- tion or Admonition (noir\fia vovdszixov) in 217 verses, is ascribed to him (§31). It is' allowed by the critics to be the work of a later au- thor, perhaps a christian of the second or third century. Of the gen- PYTHAGORAS. ANACRKON. 187 nine verses of Phocylides, only a few fragments are extant, preserved by Stobseus. The genuine remains of Phocylides are in Brunck's Analecta ("cited § 35) and other collections. — The Exhortation was first printed by Aldus [with the Golden Verses of Pythagoras, in C. Lascar's Greek Grammar), 1495. 4. It is found in the collections just referred to ; it has been published separately several times ; best probably by J. A. Schier, Gr. and Lat. Leipz. 1751. 8. — Cf. Harles, Brev. Notit. Lit. Gr. p. 64. § 58. Pythagoras, of Samos, probably lived between 550 and 500 B. C. He is celebrated as the founder of the Italian School of phi- losophy. The fragments called Xgvad I'm], Golden Verses, which commonly pass under his name, are probably from some disciple be- longing to a later period. (1) Certain epistles, and a number of symbolical precepts (tta'a ano> HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Their credit having revived, it was again attacked at the commencement of the last century, by De Pauw. The same views were enforced by Fischer at the close of the last century, since when, the opinion above stated by Eschenburghas generally prevailed. The opinion is confirmed by the fact that, with two excep- tions, none of the existing odes are known to be cited by any ancient author. (3) One of the best editions is Jo. Frid. Fischer, Lips. 1573. 8. repr. 1776, and 1793, with additions. Also, R. Ph. Fr, Brunck, Strasb. 1780. 12. accurate. —J. Fr. Degen, Lips. 2d ed. 1821. 8- with a German translation, and other lyrical pieces.— Edw. Foster, Lond. 1802. 12. not professing to be critical, but correct, with elegant engravings. Early editions; Princeps, H. Slephanus, Lutet. Paris. 1554. 4. Gracce.— Morel $• R. Stephaims, Paris, 1556. 8.— Fabri (TanaquU Faber), Gr. et Lat. Salmur. 1660, 1690. 8.— Others; Barnes, Gr. et Lat. Cantab. 1705, 1721. S.—Mattaire, Gr. et Lat. Lond. 1725, 1740. 4. rare.— Pauw, Gr. et Lat. Tr. Rhen. 1732. 4.—Spalletti, Gr. Rom. 1781-83. fol. very splendid. 'Printed from an ancient Ms. of the tenth century; the type, com- prehending the first sixteen pages, a. facsimile of the Vatican Ms.' —Bodoni, Par- ma. 1784. fol. handsome.— F. G. Bom, Leipz. 1809. 8.—Bolhe, Leipz. 1805. 8. — Van Reenen, Amst. 1808. 8.—E. A. Mmbius, Halae, 1810. 8. approved by Harles. — The epigrams ascribed to Anacreon are found in Jacobs' Anthology. — Translations, besides those in the editions already named ; English, Th. Moore, Lond. 1812. 2 vols. 12. Stanley, Lond. 1815. 12. also by Fawkes and Addison I cited § 54) ; French, J. B. Gail, Par. 1799. 4.— De Saint Victor, Par. 1818; German, Overbeck, Lueb. 1800. Q.—Ramler, Berl. 1801. 8.—F. C. Brosse, Bert. 1806. 8.— A. Drexel, Landsh. 1816. 8; Italian, Ch. Ridolfi, Veaet 1765.8. (4) Works illustrative ; P. C. Henrici, de indole carminis Anacreontic!. Alton. 1752. 4.— Degen, ueberd. Philos. des Anacreon. Elang. 1776. 8. — J. G. Schneider's Anmerkungen ueber den Anacreon. Leipz. 1770. 8. — Manses Character of Anacreon in Nachtr. zu Sulzer, B. 6. — D. H. Urquhart, Dissert, on the Odes of Anacreon. Lond. 1790. 8. § 60. Pindar, of Thebes in Boeotia, about B. C. 490, a lyric poet of the greatest celebrity. He wrote in the higher kind of lyric verse, employed to celebrate the triumphs of heroes and victors. He sung chiefly the praises of victors in the great public games of the Greeks. There now remain 14 Olympic, 12 Pythian, 11 Nemean, and 8 Isthmian Odes. Many other Hymns and Paeans, Dithyrambics, Threni (dQrjvov) and the like, are lost. Q,uintilian justly ranks Pindar first among the nine most distinguished lyric poets of the Greeks (cf. § 26). He is marked by his lofty sublimity, his bold energy of thought, his vivid and poetical imagination, and the flowing fullness of his diction. Horace gives a lyric description of his character (L. iv. ode 2). (1) Pindar was early taught the arts of music and poetry. Lasus and Si» monides were his instructers. The Greeks related a story of him, that once, while he was a youth, as he threw himself upon the grass fatigued and sleepy, a swarm of bees deposited their honey on his lips, which prefigured the sweetness of his future poetry. In several instances he lost the prize in poetical contests with Corinna, who is, however, supposed to have owed something to the charms of her person as influencing the feelings of the j udges. He is said at last to have appealed from them to herself. From all other competitors he invariably bore away the prize. He enjoyed great honors while living. The conquerors at the public games counted it a great part of their glory to be celebrated in the verse ot Pindar, for which they courted his person, and bestowed on him the most libe- ral rewards. A statue was erected to him in Thebes, and was standing in the time of Pausanias, six centuries afterwards. The house which he had occupied was spared by the Spartans, and at a later period by Alexander, when Thebes was laid in ruins. — The age which he attained is variously stated, some say 55, others 66, and others 86 years. PINDAR. 189' For the incidents of Pindar's life we are chiefly indebted to Pausanias ; some circumstances are drawn from JSlian, Plutarch and others. Of the accounts by moderns, see (besides Lives of the Poets cited § 47) Preface in Tourlet's Trans- lation of Pindar, Paris, 1818. 2 vols. 8.— J. G. Schneider, Versuch ueber Pindars Leben und Schriften. Strasb. 1774. 8. (2) The division of the odes into four classes is ascribed to Aristophanes of Byzantium. He selected, out of the general mass of Pindar's effusions, such as had reference, more or less distinctly, to victories gained at the great games of the Greeks; yet some are found in the selection, which do not refer specially to- any particular victory. Schcell remarks, that some of these odes seem to have been prepared to be rehearsed at the general triumph of the conquerors on the evening after the contest in the games, and others for the more private festival afterwards given to the individual victor, by his relatives and friends. See Schwll, Hist. Litt. Gr. Vol. I. p. 277.— Pref. to West's Pindar, cited below (4). Various f&rms of poetical composition, besides odes, were written by Pindar, as, in the words of Neander, ' Paanes, Dithyrambi, Scolia, Epitaphia, Encomia, Tkreni, Prosodia, Parthenia, Enthronismi, Bacchica, Daphnephorica, Hyporchc- mata, Dramata tragica, Epigrammata epica, etc.' Very little, however, of all this remains. We have nothing entire except the odes. — Mich. Neander, Aristo- logia Pindarica Grseco-Latina. Basil, 1558. (3) One of the Odes (Olymp. 7) is said by a scholiast to have been preserved in a temple at Athens, in letters of gold. — The more the odes of Pindar are studied, the more the reader will be impressed with the genius of the author. The abruptness of his transitions has often been a ground of censure, but with great injustice. In many cases, where a new topic is introduced with apparent violence, or, as might at first seem, only by a perfectly wild imagination, there is found, on a closer view, a very philosophical and logical connection. There is much of an epic character in the use of history and mythology, which he so happily employs. The Doric dialect abounds in his language, but he does not confine himself to it, but adopts ^Eolic and other forms where strength, variety, or the peculiarity of his metre demands. — See C. W. Theoph. Camenz, Pindari ingenium etc. Misenae. 1804. 4. — G. Hermann de Dialecto Pindari Ob- servations. Lips. 1809, 4.— On Pindar's character and poetry, see also Quarterly Rev. vol. v. & xxviii. (4) Best editions ; Aug. Bozckh, Gr. & Lat. Leipz. 1811-22. 2 vols. 4. admi- rable.— C. G. Heyne, Gr. &Lat. Lips, 1817. 3 vols. 8. Early editions; Prin- ceps, Aldina, Ven. 1513. 8. with the hymns of Callimachus. — Calliergi, Rom. 1515. 4. Cum Scholiis. First Greek book printed at Rome. — R. Stephanus, Par. 1560. 2 vols. Q.—Erasm. Schmid, Wittenb. 1616. 4. Gr. & Lat. cum schol. Later ; West et Welsted, Gr. & Lat. Oxon. 1697. fol.— Foulis, Gr. & Lat. Glasg. 1744, 54, 70. 3 vols. 12.— D. Beck, Lips. 1810. 2 vols. 8. not completed.— Fr. Thiersch, with a German translation in Pindaric verse. Leipz. 2 Th. 8. — Tauch- nitz, Stereot. Leipz. 1819. 12. — Humingford, Gr. &. Lat. Lond. 1814. 8. with an abridgement of Damm's Lex. Pindaricum. — Ch. W. Ahlwardt, Lips. 1820i 8. He contests with Bceckh the priority of inventing a new metrical system for Pindar's verse. Translations ; Latin, N. Sudorius, Par. 1582. 8. — Jo. Costa, (in verse) Patav. 1808. 8. German ; Fr. Gedike, (prose) Olympic Odes, Berl. 1777. 8. Pythian, Berl. 1779. 8. — J. Gurlitt (prose), see FuhrmawtCs Klein. Handb. p. 124.— Goth. Fahse, (verse) Penig. 1804, 1806. 2 vols. 8.—F.H.Bothe, (verse) Olympic. Berl. 1808. 8. — Thiersch, cited above; in high estimation. Italian ; Ant. Jerocades, Nap. 1790. 8. French ; F. Morin, Par. 1617. 8.— Ja- quier, Lyon. 1754.— I,. C. Gin, Par. 1801. S.— Tourlet, already cited (1). Eng- lish; G. West, Lond. 1753. 2 vols. 8. 1766. 3 vols. 12.— Six Odes (omitted by West) by .ff. .7. Pye, Lond. 1775. 8.—E.B. Greene, Lond. 1778, 4. — T. Banister, Lond. 1791. 8. (5) Illustrative ; Lexicons of Damm oi'rmaai, Mi' t Siia, ' IrmblvToq OTB(pav7](pi(>og, Hippolytus Coronifer, "AUxtjOTig, AvSqouux'U ' Ixirties, The Female Suppliants, 'I; iv 'AvZlSi, 'Iifiyivtia tj \v TauQoig, TqcoaScg, The Trojan Women, Buxxat, The Female Bacchanals,' HqaxluSai, ' Elirrj, "luir, 'Hqaxlfjg fcaiv6/.uvog, Hercules furens, >HXixTQa, a.nd' Pijaog, Bhesus. This last, however, is considered as spurious by some of the best critics. The principal fragments are of two pieces entitled <&ai&u>v, and Javurj. — On the number of pieces written by Euripides, what genu- ine, what lost, &c Fuhrmann's Klein. Handb. p. 151. Schall, Hist. Litt. Gr. ii. p. 52. — Valc/cenaer, Diatribe in Euripid. deperditor. dram, reliquias. Lips. 1824. S.—Fr. Osann, Epist. ad Matthiseum, de nonnullis fabularum Euripidis deperd. titulis. in Wolf's literar. Analekten (vol. 2d. p. 527) Berl. 1820. — In same work (Analekten, vol. 2d. p. 392) ueber den Prologus der Danae (one of the fragments above named). — A. Boeckh, Graecre tragoediae principum, JEschyli, Sophoc. Eu- rip. numea qua? supersunt et genuina omnia sint, et forma primitiva servata etc. Heidelb. 1808. 8. — Hardion, sur la tragediede Rhesus, in Mem. de TAcad. des Ins. et B. Lett. T. X.— Class. Journ. No. 43, Ancient authors refer to another production of Euripides, styled 'Emxi'/Seiov, a funeral song, in honor of Nicias and others, who perished in the fatal expedi- tion of the Athenians against Syracuse. There exist alsofive letters ascribed to Euripides. They may be found in the editions of Barnes, Beck and others. — See Sch&ll, ii. p. 64. — The genuineness of the letters is discussed in R. Benlley's Dissert, upon the epistles of Phalaris, &c. Lond. 1816. first published in Wot- lon's Reflect, on anc. and mod. Learning (Cf. P. I. § 29). Comp. remarks of Beck, Glasg. ed. of Eurip. vol. 7. p. 720. (3) The Medea is generally considered as one of the best pieces of Euripi- des. It is said that Cicero was reading this, when arrested by the ministers of the proscription. In comparing Euripides and the other two masters in Grecian tragedy, it may be said, that he ranks first in tragic representation and effect, Sophocles, first in dra- matic symmetry and ornament, and iEschylus, first in poetic vigor and grandeur. iEschylus was the most sublime, Sophocles the most beautiful, Euripides the most pathetic. The first displays the lofty intellect, the second exercises the cultiva- ted taste, the third indulges the feeling heart. Each, as it were, shows you a fine piece of sculpture. In iEschylus, it is a naked hero, with all the strength, boldness and dignity of olden time. In Sophocles and Euripides, it may be per- haps the same hero ; but with the former, he has put on the flowing robes, the elegant address and the soft urbanity of a polished age ; with the latter, he is yielding to some melancholy emotion, ever heedless of his posture or gait, and casting his unvalued drapery negligently about him. They have been compared by an illustration from another art. ' The sublime and daring iEschylus resem- bles some strong and impregnable castle situated on a rock, whose martial gran- deur awes the beholder, its battlements defended by heroes, and its gates proudly hung with trophies. Sophocles appears with splendid dignity, like some imperial palace of richest architecture, the symmetry of whose parts, and the chaste magnif- icence of the whole, delight the. eye, and command the approbation of the j udgment. The pathetic and moral Euripides hath the solemnity of a Gothic temple, whose storied windows admit a dim religious light, enough to show its high embowed roof, and the monuments of the dead, which rise in every part, impressing our minds with pity and terror at the uncertain and short duration of human great- ness, and with an awful sense of our own mortality.' {Potter). On the character of Euripides and his writings, comp. Schlegel, Dram. Lit. Lect. v. — Char, vormehmst. Dicht. cited §61(2) vol.5. p. 335.— Anacharsis, ch. 59. — Clodius, Versuche aus der Literatur und Moral. Th. 1. p. 72. — Fr. Ja- cobs, Andimadvers. in Euripidem. Goth. 1790. 8. — Same, Curas Secundee in Eurip. Lips. 1796. 8. Euripides is defended from the common charge of misogyny in the work styled Hinterlassene Papiere eines philos. Land- predigers, herausgegeben von Karl Heinr. Heydenreich, Lips. 1798. 8. (4) Best editions ; Variorum, Gr. & Lat. (publisher Priestley) Glasg. 1821. 9 vols. 8. very highly commended by Dibdin ; the text of each play drawn from the most eminent editor of that play. — Beck, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1778-88. 3 vols. 4. —Matthiae, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1813-18. 8 vols. 8. Early editions: Princcps, Aldus, Ven. 1503. 2 vols. 8. [12 Dibdin]. There was an edition of four plays, perhaps earlier, but without date, printed at Flu- 25 194 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- ivniv.— MervMtws, Basil. 1637,44,61 [3 cdiiions] 2 vols. 8.—Oporimu, Gr. & l.ai. Basil. 1663, fol. — Canttrus, Antw. 1571. 12.—Commelin, Gr. & Lat. Hei- rlelb. 1697. "J vols, ft— JF». stcpkanus, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1602. 4. Later; lim ins, Or. & Lat. Cantab. 1694. fol. it eclipsed all preceeding editions. — Mus- trmv, Qr. & Lat. Oxon. 4 vols. 4. differently estimated by critics.— Foulis, Gr. & Lat. Gla.sg. 1797. 10 vols. 12.— E. Zimmermann, Gr. & Lat. Prancof. ad M. [ Fram-loi i) 1808-15. 4 vols. 8. To detail editions of single plays would take too much space. Hermann, Brunei?, Valckenaer, Elmsley, Porson, Monk, [Q.uart. Rev. vol. 16], Wuestemann, Markland and Robinson are the most cele- brated editors. Of the Cyclops, the best edition is Has/tier, Lips. 1789. 8. Translations; German," [metrical.! F. H. Bothe, Berl. 1800. 5 vols. 8.— French, P. Prcvost, Par. 1783. 3 vols. 8. and in Brumoy's Theatre des Grecs — English, R. Potter, Lond. 1783. 2 vols. 4. and later.— M. Woodhull, Lond. 1782. 4 vols. 8. 1802. 3 vols. 8. (5) Some other works illustrative ; C. Fr. Ammon, Diss, de Eurip. Hecuba. Erl. 1788. 4.— Fr. N. Morus, Prog, de Phcenissis Eur. Lips. 1771. i.—H.Bluem- vcr, Ueber die Medea von Euripides. Lpz. 1790. 8. — Bouterwek, de philosophia Euripidea &c in the Cornmentt. class, hist, etphilos. Soc. Reg. Scientiar. T. iv. and in Miscell. Grace. Dram. Cambridge. — C. A. BOttiger's prolusiones II de Me- dea Eurip. cum priscre artis operibus comparata. Weim. 1802. 4. — A. W. Schle- gel, Compar. entre la Phedre de Racine et celle d'Euripide. Par. 1807. 8. — L. Racine and Balteaux, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc. &c. T. viii. x. xlii. — Henr. Aug. Zeibisch, Disp. qua mos Graecorum infantes exponendi ex variis scriptor. anfiq. maxime Euripidis lone illustratur. Wittenb. 1753. 4. § 64. Empedocles, of Agrigentum in Sicily, who nourished about B. C. 440, may be mentioned here as a didactic poet. He was one jaf the most eminent men in his native land, and distinguished as a philoso- pher and naturalist. That from ostentatious pride he threw himself into to the crater of iEtna, is a fable ; he probably died while journey- ing in Peloponnesus. A poem in three books, on the nature of things, (IIs(>h s rajv ovrcov) is ascribed to him by ancient authors. It was imitated by Lucretius ; and a fragment of it still remains. An- other poem, called the Sphere (^qDatoa), was ascribed to him, but it is undoubtedly from some later author. (1) Other productions were ascribed to him, particularly a number of verses under the name of KaQappoL, and a poem called 'laTQtxbs ioyoj. Some have considered him as the author of the so called golden verses of Pythagoras. In philosophy he was a disciple of the Italic or Pythagorean school. His life is given by Diogenes Laertius. For his philosophical views, see Enfield's Hist. Phil. B. II. ch. xii. sect. 2. [vol. I. p. 430. Dublin, 1792].— H. Ritterixi Wolf's Analekten, vol. ii. p. 411.— Cousin's French Trans, of Tenneman's Hist. Phil. vol. i. § 108. (2) . The poetical fragments of Empedocles are found in Fr. W. Sturz, Empe- docles Agrigentinus &c. Lips. 1805, 2 vols. 8. containing a view of his life, character, writings &c. — also in A. Peyron, Empedoclis et Parmenidis Fragmen- ta, Lips. 1810. 8— The poem of the Sphere was published by F. Morel (Par. 1584. 4), as the work of Demetr. Triclinius, probably author of the copy that fell into the hands of Morel. Shortly after (1587. 4) a Latin translation by Q. Sept. Flo- rent. Christians.— The original and the Translation by B. Hederich, Dresd. 1711. 4.-Both found also in Fabricius [Harles ed.] vol. i. p. 816. $ 65. Aristophanes, lived at Athens about B. C. 430. His na- tive place is not certainly known. He is the only comic poet of the Greeks, from whom any complete plays now remain. Of more than fifty comedies written by him, only eleven are extant. They are ARISTOPHANES. 195 styled 'AxotQfsig, the Acharnians ; 'Imteig, Knights; JVecpekai, Clouds; Zcprjxsg, Wasps ; Elgr[V7], Peace ; "Ogvideg, Birds; Avaia- rqdtrj, Lysistrata ; OEOjiocpoQid'Qovoav, Females keeping the festival 0eafioq>oQi« (in honor of Ceres) ; Burga/ai, Frogs ; ExxX^aia^ovo-ai,, Females in Assembly ; JJlovjog, Plutus, god of riches. Aristophanes possessed a very fertile genius, a lively wit, true comic power, and Attic eloquence. We are obliged, however, to charge him with bitter personal satire, and ridicule of worthy men, especially Socrates and Euripides. This, it is true, was in accordance with the character of Grecian comedy at that time, as was also his abundant contempt for the common religious belief. His plays furnish a valuable means of learning the state of manners and morals among the Greeks in his age. (1) He was probably a native of iEgina. He is supposed to have died about 380, B. C. at the age of 80.— Nic. Frischlin, Life of Aristoph. prefixed to Kuster's edition (mentioned below). — Fuhrmarm's Klein. Handbuch. p. 163. (2) In the' uixaqvng, the author attacks Euripides, and in the 0eouo9. The former was rather a voluptuary ; the latter was particularly temperate. — Schlcgci's Dram. Lit. Lect. 7. (2) The best edition of the fragments of Menander and Philemon, is by A. Meinccke, Berl. 1823. 8. — They are found in the collections cited § 43. That of Le Clerc occasioned a bitter literary war (Schcell iii. p. 82. Harles, Int. i. p. 489. Brev. Not. p. 226). § 67. Lycophron, a poet and grammarian, born at Chalcis in Eu- bcea, nourished in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. about 284. His performance styled 'Ai.e^dv8qct, Alexandra or Cassandra, was improperly ranked in the class of tragedies ; it is a monologue or monodrama, in which Cassandra predicts to Priam the fate of Troy. This topic is interwoven with many others, pertaining to the history and mythology of different nations, so as to render the poem obscure and heavy. (1) Lycophron was a writer of tragedies andwas ranked among the Pleiades (§40). A work also on the subjectof comedy, Tltol xw(no8ias,v>as written by him. The loss of the latter is more regretted than of his dramatic pieces. The gram- marians of Alexandria collected a mass of materials illustrating his Cassandra, from which John Tzetzes compiled alarge commentary. — Schcell, iii. p. 96. (2) The best edition, according to Dibdin, is that of Ch. G. Mailer, Lips. 1811. 3 vols. 8. (Cf. Dibdin ii. p 211, Schcell iii. 106).— That of J. Potter, Oxf. 1702. fol. is very celebrated. The oldest or princeps edition was by Aldus, Ven. 1513. 8. together with Pindar and Callimachus. Other editions ; Peraxylus, or P. Lacisius, Basil. 1546. Fol. (Cf. Dibdin, ii. p. 208.)— W Canter, Bas. 1566. 4. with brief notes and two Latin translations, one in prose by Canter, the other in verse by Jos. Scaliger.—H. G, Reichard, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1788. 2 vols. 8.— L. Sebastian, Gr. & Lat. Rom. 1803. 4. commended by Dibdin. An English version of Lycophron by Royston, Class. Journ. xiii, xiv. § 68. Theocritus, a native of Syracuse, nourished in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and in the reign of the second Hiero, B. C. about 275. We have under his name thirty Idyls, 'EidvlUa, some of which are probably not genuine, and also twenty-two smaller pieces, chiefly epigrams. He was the most distinguished of ancient authors in the department of pastoral poetry. Virgil followed him as a mas- ter and model, but was his inferior in simplicity and fidelity to nature. (1) We cannot assert what induced Theocritus to remove from Syracuse to Alexandria, where he certainly spent a part of his life. Some have stated that certain satires composed by him against Hiero exposed him to the vengeance of 1 THEOCRITUS. BION. 197 that monarch. Where and when he died is not known, although it has been supposed, that he returned to Sicily and suffered a violent death from the ven- geance of Hiero— Life of Theocritus in Polwhele cited below. (2) The nature of the Greek Idyl has already been exhibited (§ 30). The Idyls of Theocritus are not confined to pastoral subjects. Of the thirty ascribed to him, only fifteen can properly be considered as bucolic or pastoral, viz. the first 9 and the 11th, considered by all as genuine bucolics, and the 10th, 20th, 21st, 23d and 27th, which may be put in the same class. Five are mythological, viz. the 13th, 22d, 24th, 25th and 26th. Three have been termed epistolary, 12th, 28th and 29th, bearing a slight resemblance to the epistles of Ovid, but having less of the elegiac character. They are called lyric by Schcell. Two may be denomi- nated comic, the 14th and 15th. The latter, ZvQaxovaiai, the Syracusan Gossips, has no more of the pastoral in its tone than a scene from Aristophanes. (Cf. § 46.) Two others maybe styled panegyrical, the 16th and 17th. And there areiwo in the collection, 19th and 30th, which may properly enough perhaps be called anacreontic, being mere imitations of the lighter odes of Anacreon. The re- maining one, 18th, is a genuine epithalamium, according to its title, 'EXevrj$ lm- SaXafliog. The reputation of Theocritus is built on his Idyls. The epigrams would scarcely have preserved his name from oblivion. One piece of a peculiar char- acter remains, termed the 2v$iy$, consisting of 21 verses so arranged as to form a resemblance to the pipe of the god Pan. In the Alexandrine age there was a depraved fondness for such odd and fanciful devices, in which the poet's lines presented the form of eggs, axes, wings or altars. — For the character of Theo- critus, see Elton's Specimens of Classic Poets. — Nachtr. zu Sulzer. i. p. 89. — C. W. Ahlwardt, zur Erklserung der Idyll. Theokrits. Rostach. 1792. 8. — Eichstcedt, Adumb. queest. de carm. Theocr. indole ac virtutibus. Lips. 1794. 4. (3) The epithalamium of Helen has been thought to resemble the Song of Solo- mon, and some have supposed that Theocritus imitated the latter. Schoell op- poses this idea, although there are passages in the Idyls containing imagery, which might have been drawn from the Scriptures. The Septuagint version was made in the time of Theocritus.— Comp. Idyl. 24, 84 with Is. 75. 25 and 11. 6; Id. 18. 26-28 with Sol. S. 1.9 and 6. 10; Id. 20. 26 with Sol. S. 4. 11; Id. 23. 23-26 with Sol. S. 8. 6, 7.— See Scholl, vol. iii. p. 146.— Matter, Essai sur l'Ecole Alexandrie. — Ck. Fr. Stceudlin, Theokrits Idyll, und das hohe Lied verglichen, in Paulus, Memorabilien. vol. ii. p. 162. (4) Best editions ; Th. Kiessling, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1819. 8. ' Perhaps the very best, up to the time of its publication.' Dibdin. — Jacobs, Hate, (commenced) 1824. 8. promising to be most ample. — Of previous editions, the best are Th. Warton, Oxf. 1770. 2 vols. 4. L. C. Valckenaer, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1779. 8. repr. (ed Heindorf) Berl. 1810. 2 vols. 8. Early editions ; Princeps, (18 Idyls, with Works and Days of Hesiod) Milan, 1493. fol. time and place known only by conjecture. Dibdin. — Second, by Aldus, (with Hesiod) Ven. 1495. fol. — Junta, Flor. 1515, 1540. S.—Calliergus, cum schol. Rom. 1516. 8. thought to be the se- cond Greek book printed at Rome. — Morel, Par. 1561. 4.—H. Slephanus, Par. 1566, in Poet. Princ. cited § 47. & 1579. 12. Gr. & Lat. with Bion and Moschus. — D. Heinsius, Gr. & Lat. Heid. 1604. 4. Repr. Oxf. 1676. 8. Lond. 1729.8. 1758. 8. Later; Martinus, Gr. & Lat, Lond. 1760. 8. — Reiske, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1765. 2 vols. 4,— F. A. Stroth, Gothse, 1780. 8. particularly valued for its illus- trations of terms and phrases pertaining to botany and natural history. Dibdin. 4th ed. by Stroth and Jacobs, (for schools) Gothae. 1821. 8. — Bodoni(e& B. Za- magna) Parm. 1791. 2 vols. 8. with Lat. version. — J. B. Gail, Paris, 1795. 3 vols. 4. with Lat. and Fr. vers, and figures. The two last are named by Scholl, as ' editions du luxe.'— Dahl, Lips. 1804. 8.— J. Geel, Amst. 1820. 8.— Th. Briggs, Camb. 1821. 8. Translations ; German, Finkenstein, Arethusa. oder die bukol. Dichter des Alterthums, Berl. 1806. 8. containing a Life of Theoc. — l H. Voss, Tubing. 1808. 8. French, Chabanon, Par. 1777. 8.— Gin, Par. 1788- 2 vols. 8.— Ital- ian, A. M. Salvini, Ven. 1718. 12. with annot. by Desmarais, Aret. 1754. 8. English, E. B. Greene, Lond. 1767. 8. — R. Polwhele. (with Bion and Moschus) Lond. 1792. 2 vols. 8. § 69. Bion of Smyrna, and Moschus of Syracuse, were contem- porary with Theocritus, as is generally supposed. The Idyls of IDS HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Moschus belong rather to descriptive than to pastoral poetry, properly speaking ; they have more refinement, with less of natural simplicity than the pieces of Theocritus. The seizure of Europa is the most beautiful. — The Idyls of Bion contain elegant passages ; but they savor too much of art, and are wanting in the freedom and naivete of Theocritus. His principal piece is the funeral song in honor of Adonis. (1) Some have placed the date of these poets considerably later than the time of Theocritus. Their era is perhaps a matter of real doubt.— Manso Abh. von Bion's Leben, in his ed. cited below (3). (2) There remain of Moschus four Idyls, and a few smaller pieces ; of Bion, besides the piece above named, only some short Idyls, and a fragment of a longer one. These pieces have usually been published in connection with those of The- ocritus ; and anciently they were in fact confounded with them. — Scholl, iii. p. 175. (3) Best editions ; Jacobs, Gr. & Lat. Gothse. 1795. 8. — Valckenaer with The- ocritus cited § 68 (4). Early editions; Princeps in Aldus, with Theoc. Ven. 1495, fol. — The first ed. of B. and M. separate from Theoc. was by Mekerckus, Brug. PI. 1565. 4.-- Vulcanius, Gr. & Lat. with Callimachus. Antw. 1584. 12.— Later; Heskin, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1748. — Schier, Lips. 1752. — Manso, Gr. & Germ. Gothae, 1784. 8. but without accents. — Wakefield, Lond. 1795. without accents. Translations; German, by Manso, just cited; French, Gail, and English, Greene and Polwhele, cited § 68 (4). § 70. Callimachus, of Cyrene in Lybia, flourished B. C. about 260. He was a historian and grammarian, at Alexandria, patronised by Ptolemy Philadelphus and by him placed in the Museum (Cf. P. I. § 74). Of his many writings we have only six hymns, some smaller poems, and a considerable number of fragments. His hymns exhibit more of study and artificial effort, than of true poetical spirit. Q,uin- tilian, however, ranks him as the first elegiac poet of the Greeks ; and he certainly was imitated by the Roman Propertius. (1) The Hymns of Callimachus are in elegiac verse. Five are in the Ionic, one in the Doric dialect. That addressed to Ceres is judged the best. Besides these he composed Elegies, which were regarded as the chief ground of his rep- utation ; but of which only fragments remain. Another class of his pieces con- sisted of Epigrams, of which nearly 80 remain. Strabo refers to his Iambics and Choliambics, and some fragments of these still exist. Among his poetical works are named also three little poems viz. "Striae on the causes of fable, custom &c. 'Exaltj, on the hospitality shown by an old female to Theseus, on his way against the bull of Marathon, and * Ifiig, a poem directed against one of his pupils charged with ingratitude. Many prose works were written by this grammarian and professed teacher, as ' ' Yno^vrifiara, Memoirs, or Commentaries, Krions vtlowv xal noitiav, Settlements of islands and cities, 0av/.i.uoia, on the won- ders of the world, Movottov, an account of the Museum at Alexandria, nlva£ navToiajiwv ouyypa/i^aTov, a sort of universal Tableau of Letters, in 120 books, containing an account of authors in every department methodically arranged, the first example probably of a history of literature. Some of those performan- ces styled JiSaaxaliai (P. I. § 66) are also ascribed to him. All these works are lost. — Schmll, iii. p. 109. (2) Best editions; Ernesti, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1761. 2 vols. 8.—C. J. Blom- field, Lond. 1815. 8.— A good school edition is Fr. M. Volger, Lpz. 1817. 8. con- taining the Hymns and Epigrams ; Volger promises a grand edition of all the remains of Callimachus.— Valcke?iaer's fragments of the Elegies, by Luzac, Leyd. 1799. 8. 6 b , j CALLIMACHUS. ARATUS. CLEANTHES. 199 Early editions; Princeps, J. Lascaris, Flor. 1495. 4. in capitals; called by Dibdin, the edition of Alopa, being the 4th of the 5 extremely rare works printed in capitals by L. Fr. de Alopa. — Froben, Basil, 1532. ^.—Robortellus, Gr. & Lat. Ven. 1555. 8. — H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1577. 4. — Faber iAnne Le Fever afterwards Madame Dacier) Lutet. Paris, 1674. 8. Gr. &Lat. Her first effort in editing.— Gravius, Gr. & Lat. Ultraj. (Utrecht) 1697. 2 vols. 8. Later; T. Bentley, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1741. 8. Cf. Mus. Crit. ii. p. 150. Class. Jour. ix. p. 35.— Fmlis, Glasg. 1755. fol.— Bandini, Gr. Lat. & Ital. Flor. 1763. 8.—Bodoni, Parm. 1792. fol. in capitals, with an Italian version. Translations; German, C. Schwenk, Bonn. 1821. 8. — Ahlwardt, (metrical) Berl. 1794. 8. French; G. la Porte du Theil, Par. 1775. 8.— P. Radel, with Lat. vers. Par. 1808. 8. English; W. Dodd, Lond. 1755. 4.— H. W. Tytler, Gr. & Eng. Lond. 1793. 4. (3) Illustrative; C. G. Goetling, Animadv. crit. in Callim. Epigrammata. Jen. 1811. 8. — J. G, Zierlein, Disp. de ingenio Callim. Hall. 1770. 4. — Nachtr. zu Sulzer's Theorie, otherwise styled Charakt. vornehmst. Dicht. cited § 61 (2), vol. ii. p. 86. — Philetas of Cos, in the time of Alexander the Great, is some- times mentioned in connection and comparison with Callimachus (§ 29). The fragments of his Elegies were published separately by C. Ph. Kayser, Gcett. 1793. 8. § 71. Aratus, of Soli in Cilicia, afterwards called Pompeiopolis, flourished B. C. about 278. At the request of Antigonus king of Macedon, he wrote an astronomical poem under the title of 0aiv6fteva xal JioaijfieZat,. It was not strictly an original, as the request of the king his patron was that he should clothe in verse two treatises, the "EvortTQov and the ftaivofieva, of Eudoxus. This poem is memora- ble on account of Cicero's metrical translation of it. Of this transla- tion, however, only slight fragments remain. It was translated into Latin verse also by Caesar Germanicus and Festus Avienus. That of Avienus, and a part of the other are still extant. (1) The poem of Aratus was much esteemed by the ancients. Cf. Ov. Amor, i. 15. v. 16. Quint, x. 1. 55. Although he is charged with knowing but little on the subject of astronomy, many of the mathematicians wrote commentaries on his work ; four of these are yet in existence. Delambre (Hist. Astr. Anc. i. p. 74) remarks that Aratus has preserved nearly all that the Greeks knew of the science, at least so far as it could be told in verse. — SchOll iii. 137. (2) There are three anonymous lives of Aratus, besides the notice of Suidas. On the later didactic poets of the Greeks, Aratus, Nicander, and Oppian, we may refer to the Nacht. zu Sulzer (Cf. §70), vol. vi. p. 350. (3) Editions ; Best, J. G. Buhle, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1793-1801. 2 vols. 8.— F. Ch. Matthia, Frankf, 1817. 8. Early ; Princeps, by Aldus, in the Astronomi Veteres. Ven. 1499. 2 vols. fol. Cf. Schmll, i. p. 50. Intr.— Micylli, Gr. & Lat. Basil, 1535. tol— Valderus, Bas. 1536. 4.— Colineeus, Par. 1540. 8. G. Morell, Par. 1559. 2 vols. 4. — Grolius, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1600. 4. among the more pro- minent of early editions ; the editor at the time but sixteen years of age.— J. Fell, Oxf. 1672. 8. with the KaraartqiOfiol of Eratosthenes. Repr. Oxf. 1801. 8. Later ; Bandini, Gr. & Lat. Flor. 1765. 8. with Ital.metr. vers, by Salvini. Not highly esteemed. — Th. Foster, Lond. 1813. 8. value not known: — Abbe Hal- ma, with French trans. Par. 1823. 4. — A German version by G. S. Falbe is given in the Berlin Monatschnft, 1806. Feb. & Aug. 1807. Feb. & March. $ 72. Cleanthes, of Assus in Troas, having been for many years a disciple of Zeno, at length succeeded him as teacher in the Stoic school at Athens, B. C. 264. Of his numerous writings, nothing re- mains but an admirable Hymn to Jupiter. 200 HISTORY OF ORBF.K LITERATCRK. (1) Cleonihes received the name yfuni>;? from the circumstance that, in order to enable himself, being poor, lo atteud the schools of philosophy by day, he spent a part of the night in drawing water as alaborer in the gardens of the city. Heissaidto have died at the age of 80 or 90, by voluntary starvation. The 1 1\ inn, winch still keeps alive his memory, is in hexameter verse, and con- lams some exalted views ot a supreme Divinity. — Enfield's Hist. Philos. cited § IM (1), i. p.376.— SchaU,OtT. Ljjft. ill. 335. — Diog. Laert. Lives of Philosophers. (•2) The Hymn -was first published by Fulv. Ursinas, Carmina novem illust. feminarum etc. Antw. 15G8. 8.— Again in H. Stephanas, Poesis Philos. cited § 47.— In R. Cudworth, Intellect. Syst. of the Univ. Lond. 1678. fol. p. 432. with a Latin metrical version by Duport.— In Brunch's Analekta (§ 35) and Gnom. Poet. (§31),& in other collections.— Separately published, F. W. SVurz, with Germ, trans. Lpz. 1785.4.— H. H. Cludius, Goett. 1786. 8.—G. Ch. Mohnike, Greifswalde 181 1. 8. with other remains of Cleanthes.— An English metrical version is giv- en in West's Pindar, cited § 60(4).— See J. F. H. Schwabe, Specimen theologiae comparative, exhibens KXeuvBovs tifivov eig Jla cum disciplina Christiana compa- ratum,etc. Jen. 1819. 4. v) 73. Apollonius Rhodius, B. C. about 195, was a native of Nau- cratis, or perhaps of Alexandria, in Egypt. The name Rhodius was occasioned by his residence at Rhodes, where he for a time taught rhetoric. He was a pupil of Callimachus, and became the librarian at Alexandria. His chief work was an epic, poem, 'Aqyovavttxd, on the expedition of the Argonauts. He imitated Homer, with talents much inferior. His poem, however, evinces great application, and has some beautiful passages, particularly the episode on the passion of Medea. Yet in poetical genius and style he is rather surpassed by his imitator among the Romans, Valerius Flaccus. (1) A bitter enmity existed between Apollonius and Callimachus until the death of the latter. Apollonius is said to have retired from Alexandria to Rhodes, from mortification at having been hissed by the partisans of Callima- chus at the public reading of his Argonautics. It was at a subsequent period, that he was appointed keeper of the Alexandrian library, being successor to Era- tosthenes. — There are four ancient biographies of Apollonius, in Greek. — A. Weichert, Ueber das Leben und Gedicht des Apollonius von Rhodus. Meissen. 1821. 8. (2) The poem of Apollonius consists of four books, or cantos. The critics- do not agree in their estimate of its worth, nor as to the comparative merits of the Greek original and the Roman imitation by Valerius. Schcell pronounces the latter superior to its model, in agreement with the remark of Eschenburg above. But in the edition of Eschenburg's work published after his death, the op- fosite is asserted. — Schwll, vol. iii. p. 1 17. — Groddech, in the Bibliothek deralten iiteratur und Kunst. St. 2. p. 61.— Charaktere vornehmst. Dicht. vol. vi. p. 199. — O. Th. Blcch, Diss, de carm. epic. Apoll. Rhodii. Havn. 1792. 8.— Gluintil. x, 1. 54. (3) Editions; Best, Wellauer, Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8.— Brunch, Lips. \8\0:.2 vols. 8.— Beck, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1797. 2 vols. 8 Early ; Princeps, Fr. de Alo- pa (cur. J. Lascaris) Flor. 1496. 4. in capitals.— Aldus, Ven. 1521. 8.—Bruba- chius, Prancof. 1546. S.—Rotmarus, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1572. 8.—H. Stephanus, Genev. 1574. 1.— Elzevir, (ed. Hmlzlin), Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1641. 8. Later; J. Shaw, Oxf. 1777. 2 vols. 4.—Flangini, Gr. & Ital. Rom. 1794. 2 vols. 4. with plates and map.— Hcerstel, school ed. Brunsw. 1806. 8. Translations; German, J. J. Bodmer, Zurich, 1779. 8.— French, J. J. A. Caussin, Par. 1797. 8.— English, Fr. Fawkes, Lond. 1780. 2 vols, 8. § 74. Nicander, bom at Colophon in Ionia, lived about B. C. 146. He was a physician, grammarian and poet. There remain from him NICANDER. OPPIAN. NONNUS. 201 two poems in hexameter, termed Gngiaxd, and ^AJ.eStqxxQfiaxa, the for- mer treating of venomous animals and remedies for wounds from them, the latter of antidotes to poisons in general. His rewqyixd, Georgics, andAhafoxd, Things pertaining to JEtolia, are lost. The two former possess no great merit either as poems or as treatises of natural sci- ence (§ 32). The scholia of Eutecnius upon them are of much value, particularly as illustrating the history of medicine. (1) Nicander wrote also, as has been before noticed (§ 32), a work styled meta- morphoses, wholly lost Schoell, iii. 141. Charactere vornehm. Dicht. vi. p. 373. (2) Editions j Best, J. G. Schneider, ' AWiitpa^iay.a, Hal. 1792. 8. 0ij§i«xa, Lips. 1816. 8. — Early; Princeps, Aldus, Ven. 1499. fol. with Dioscorides. — J. Soter, Cologne, 1530. i.—Gorrasus, (Morel print.) Gr. & Lat. Par. 1557. 3 vols. 4. uniting the two poems as edited separately by him in 1549, & 1556. — Later ; Bandini, Gr. Lat. & Ital. Flor. 1764. 8. with the scholia or paraphrase of Eu- tecnius. § 75. Oppian, of Corycus in Cilicia, a later Greek poet, lived as is supposed under the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus in the latter part of the 2d century after Christ. Under his name we have two didactic poems, 'Ahevzixd, on fishing, in 5 books, and Kwtj- ysTixd, on hunting, in 4 books. The former excels the latter both in thought and style. This circumstance has furnished some ground for ascribing them to different authors of the same name. The latter has been ascribed to an Oppian of Apamea in Syria, who lived under Caracalla, in the beginning of the 3d century. (1) The hypothesis of two poets by the name of Oppian, father and son, or uncle and nephew, was advanced by Schneider, in 1776, in his edition of the po- ems. In 1786 it was attacked by Belin de Ballu, in an edition of the poem on the chase. Schneider, in a new edition, 1813, still maintained his hypothesis. — Schce.ll, iv, p. 70. — Charakt, vorn. Dicht. vi. p. 379. The poem 'I&vnxa, on fowling, generally ascribed to Oppian, is lost; but there is extant a commentary upon it, by Eutecnius. This was published by E. Winding,Gr.&La.L Copenh. 1702. 8, (2) The best edition is, J. G. Schneider, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1813. ed. Schacfer. — The Princeps or first'e&ition was by B. Junta, Flor. 1515. 8. only the Halieu- tica. — Others; Aldus, Gr. &Lat. Ven. 1517. 8. — Turnebus, Par. 1555. 4. — Ritter- shusii, Lug. Bat. 1597. 8. Gr. & Lat. with a proem on the life and writings of Oppian. — B. de Ballu, Gr. & Lat. Argent. 1786. 8. Cynegetica only. Translations ; Of the Cynegetica, German, C. G. Lieberktthn, Lpz. 1755. 8. — French, Belin de Ballu, Argent, 1787. 8.— Italian, A. M. Salvini, Flor. 1728. 8.— English, M. Sommerville, Lond. 1788. 8. — Of the Halieutica, by Dnapper tf- Jones, Oxf, 1722, 1751. 8. § 76. Nonnus, of Panopolis in Egypt, flourished probably in the beginning of the 5th. century ; originally a pagan, afterwards convert- ed to Christianity. Little or nothing is known of his history. Two works by him are extant; one, the Jiowcnuxd, on the deeds of Bac- chus, in 48 books, of various contents, without much order or connec- tion, in a style-not generally easy or natural ; the other, a poetical, or 26 •Ml HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. be terms it, epical paraphrase of the Gospel of John, prolix and bom- bastic. (1) The Dionysioca of Nonnus has been ranked among epic poems, but per- haps not with sttict propriety (§ 20). It is a storehouse of mythological tradi- tions. Some learned men, as Falckenburg and Julius C. Scaliger, have highly praised, while others, as Nicholas Heinsius and Joseph Scaliger, have as strong- ly condemned it, — ScnmU, vi. 79. — J. A. Weicherl, de NonnoPanopolitano. VitelL 1810. 4.— Nic. Schow, Comment, de indole carminis Nonni etc. Havn. 1807. ('2) Editions; Diom/siaca, first,by G. Falckenburg, from a manuscript now at Vienna, Antw. 1569. 4. Re'pr. by Wechel, (with a poor trans, by Z/«Am) Han- ov. 1605. 8 ; to this edition was afterwards joined, (with a new title page, 1610) a volume published by Cunasus including a dissertation by D. Heinsius, and con- jectures by J. Scaliger. — G.H.Moser published 6 books (8-13) with notes, and arguments of all the books of the poem, Heideb. 1809. 8. The latest edition is by Fr. Grafe, Lips. 1819. 8. The 1st vol. then publ. containing the first 24 books, without preface, version, or comments; these with the remaining books of the poem expected in subsequent volumes. Metachrosis, or Paraphrase of John, first edition by Aldus, Ven. 1501. 4. — Others, F. Nansius, Leyd. 1589, 1599. 8. — F. Sylburg, Heidelb. 1596. 8. — D. Heinsius, in his Aristarchus Sacer, sive ad Nonni etc. Lug. Bat. 1627. 8. § 77. Coluthus, of Lycopolis in Egypt, was a poet of a later pe- riod, probably about the beginning of the 6th century. His poem, called 'Elsvijg dgnayrj, or Rape of Helen, has many defects, and but little real poetry. The whole is without plan, dignity, or taste, with many traces of too close imitation. (1) He is said to have lived in the reign of the emperor Anastasius, who abdi- cated A. D. 518. He wrote a poem in six cantos entitled Caledoniacs ; this, with other pieces by him, is lost. The Rape of Helen consists of 385 verses, in imita- tion of Homer. This poem was found by cardinal Bessarion, along with that of Q.uintus(Cf. § 78), and Schcell remarks that it is ascribed to Coluthus without certain evidence. ' The word rape (in the title) must not be taken in the com- mon acceptation ; for Paris was more courtly than to offer, and Helen more kind- hearted than to suffer, such a violence. It must be taken rather for a transport- ing of her with her consent from her own country to Troy.' — Schall, vi. p. 106. — Harles, Super Coluthi carm. deraptu Helenas. Erlang. 1775. fol. (2) Editions; Best; J. Dan. de Lennep, Leovard, 1747. 8. Imm. Bekker, Berl. 1816. 8.— A. Stan. Julien, Par. 1823. 8. Thishasthe text of Bekker, with translations in Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, English and German, and a fac- simile of two manuscripts of the poem (of the 15th and 16th centuries), rep- resenting not only the letters, but the color of the ink and paper. Early; Princeps, by Aldus, along with duintus and Tryphiodorus, without date, but sup- posed 1504 | Schcell, vi. p. 103). — H. Stephanus, in the Poet, princ. heroic, cited § 47. also in his Homer, Par. 1604. 12.— M. Neander, Opus Aureum, Bas. 1559. 4. Later; A. Th. Villa, Milan, 1753. 12. Gr. & Ital.— Ph. Scio de San. Mig- uel, Madrid, 1770. 4. Gr. Lat. & Span.— Bodoni, Parma. 1795. 4. Gr. Lat. & Ital. Translations; German, K. A. Kuttner, in his Callimachus, Alt. 1784, 8. English, W. Beloe, Lond. 1786. 4.— Meen, in Cooke's Hesiod cited § 51 (4). § 78. Quintus, or Cointus, lived probably in the first part of the 6th century. He was called Smyrnceus from his native place Smyrna, and received the surname Calaber from the circumstance, that his poem was found in a convent in Calabria. The poem ascribed to him, termed IIa^ulei,n6fieva ' OfirJQa, Things omitted by Homer, is drawn from the Cyclic poets (§21). It consists of 14 books, giving QUINTUS. TRYPHIODORUS. PRODROMUS. 203 the history of the siege of Troy from the death of Hector to the de- parture of the Greeks. It is of very unequal merit in its different parts. (1) Cardinal Bessarion found in a convent at or near Otranto in Calabria, a manuscript copy of this poem, and also of that of Coluthus. And there is in manuscript another poem ascribed to Quintus, on the twelve labors of Hercules, in the library of St. Mark, and in that of the king of Bavaria at Munich. Studious imitation of Homer is apparent every where in the Paralipomena. Some have considered it a sort of amplification of the Liltle Iliad of Lesch.es, one of the early cyclic poets, or a compilation gathered from various poets of that class. — Schmll, vi. 91. where is a pretty full analysis of the poem. — Tourlet, in his translation, and Tychsen, in his edition cited below (2). — K. L. Struve, in his Abh. u. Reden meist. philol. Inhalts. Koenigsb. 1822. 8, (2) Editions; Best; Th. Chr. Tychsen, Strassb. 1807. 2 vols. 8. Early; firstby Aldus, with. Coluthus, cited § 77 (2). — Rhodomann, Gr. & Lat. Han. 1604. 8. Later ; J. C.de Pauio, Gr. &Lat. Leyd.1734. 8. Translationin French, bjR. Tourlet, Par, 1800. 2vols. 8. 'not faithful.' (Fuhrmann). (3) In connection with the imitations of Homer in the poems ascribed to Co- luthus and Ctuintus, we may notice another imitation of a singular kind, the ' OfitiQoxevTQa, Homerocentra. This is a. Life of Jesus Christ, in 2343 hexameter lines, formed by verses and hemistichs selected from Homer. It is ascribed by some to a Pelagius, who lived in the 5th century ; by others to Eudocia, wife of the Emperor Theodosius 2d. It was probably the work of both, having been commenced by the former and finished by the latter. — The latest edition is that by L. H. Teucher, Lpz. 1793. 8. Gr. & Lat. § 79. Tryphiodorus, a native of Egypt, of whose history nothing is known, lived in the 6th century, and was the author of a poem, en- titled 'IUov alcoaig, the Destruction of Troy. It is is marked by bombast and affectation of ornament. (1) He is said to have written other poems, as the Marathoniaca, the Hippo- dameia, and the Odyssey called Lipogrammatic, f.einoytyauuaiixr,, because some particular letter of the alphabet was excluded from each of its 24 books, or ac- cording to others, because the letter Z was excluded from the whole poem. The Destruction of Troy consists of only 681 verses, and is perhaps merely a sort of. argument of a more full work contemplated by the author.— Schcell, vi. 109. (2) Editions; Best; F. A. Wernicke, [completed by Zumpf) Lpz. 1819. 8.— Thorn. Northrnore, Camb. 1791. and Lond. 1804. 8. Early ; first or Princeps by Aldus as cited § 77 (2).— Fr. Jamot, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1537. 8. Others ; J. Merrick, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1741. 8. with a dissertation on the life and writings of Tryph. and an English metrical version in a separate volume. — Bodoni, 1796. fol. — Tauchnitz, Lips. 1808. fol. § 80. Theodorus Prodromus lived at Constantinople in the first half of the 12th century. There are several works by him yet remaining in manuscript, from which it appears that he followed the various pursuits of theologian, philosopher, grammarian and rheto- rician. He is mentioned here on account of his erotic poem in 9 books, styled the Loves of Rhodanthe and Dosicles (Cf. § 33). (1) He enjoyed high reputation among his contemporaries, and the epithet Cyrus (KvQog for Kvqio?) often joined to his name, is said to have been given to him in token of respect. On embracing monastic life he assumed the name of Hilarion. His poem above mentioned is but an indifferent performance. There is only one edition of it, G. Gaulmin, Paris, 1625. 8.— A French translation is found in the Bibl. d. Rom. Grecs. vol. xi.—Schasll, vi. p. I21.—Huet, Traite de H'origine des romans. Par. 1711. 12. p. 118. 204 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. (2) Various other poetical pieces were composed by him ; as the Qaleomya- machia, or Uulcomachia, mentioned § 50 (3) ; a poem, styled Poverty gives wis- tlom, published by F.Morel,Qr. & Lat. Par. 1608. 8; another styled Friendship banished, published by Morel, Par. 15-1!). 4 ; and some epigrams m honor of em- inent Christian Fathers, Basil, Chrysostom and others, published by Jer. Erard, Lpz. 1598. 8. Other pieces remain in manuscript. (:!) Many works in prose were also written by him, of a character, which places them in the class of grammatical and rhetorical woTks, — Schozll, vi. 215, 965.— Harks, Brev. Not. Lit. Gr. p. 591. §81. Tzctzes or Tzctza {John) was a grammarian of the 12th century, at Constantinople. From the works and fragments of other poets, and without taste, he compiled what were called his Antehome- rica, td nqo 'OfnJQov, Homcrica, id 'Ofiyoov, and Posthomerica, xd (ted' " Ofirjgov. To these he also furnished scholia, or comments. (1) The three pieces form a whole of 1665 hexameters, and are together called 'lhaxix. The firstcontains events from the birth of Paris to the tenth year of the Trojan war, with which Homer's Iliad opens ; the second consists of an abridgment of that poem ; the third, like the poem of duintus, refers to what occurred between the death of Hector and the return of the Greeks. Tzetzes also wrote a work in political verse, called BLfttog [aroQixij, treating of topics of history, mythology and literature, in a very miscellaneous and disconnected manner; the work is more commonly called Chiliades, from a division of the verses into several suites of a thousand lines each. He also composed an Iambic poem, on the education of children. Several other works in verse by him are yet in manuscript. The most considerable is the ' TrciAeois tod ' OprjQov, explain- ing the fables of Homer. — Schcell, vi. p. 125. (2) The first edition of the pieces constituting the Itiaca, G. B. Schirach, Hal. 1770. 8. very imperfect. — The next, and improved, Fr. Jacobs, Lpz. 1793. 8.— Last and best text, J. Bekker, Berl. 18l6. 8. — The Chiliades were published by N. Gerbelius, Bas. 1546. fol. — J. Lectius, in Poetse Gr. etc. in unum. redacti cor- pus. Colon. Allobr. 1614. 2 vols. fol. (3) Tzetzes holds a higher rank as a grammarian and scholiast. He wrote commentaries on Homer's Iliad and on Hesiod. His commentary on Lycophron, by some ascribed to his brother Isaac Tzetzes. has been mentioned § 67 (1). —Schcell, vi. 265, 269. II. — Oratory and Orators. § 82. M Prose was cultivated later than verse, and oratory later than other branches of prose composition, of which the earliest form was historical. But although oratory in form and as an art did not yet exist, yet even in the heroic ages there was actual eloquence. There was practical skill in moving the feel- ings of assembled numbers in civil and military affairs. We have evidence of this in the addresses made by the warriors of Homer, which, although doubt- less the productions of the poet, are yet a proof of the existence and the success of a sort of oratory. § 83 m The example of those historical writers, who were not indifferent to the beauties of style, seems to have first suggested to the Greeks the advantage of careful attention to the language and manner of their spoken addresses. From the time of Solon (B. C. 594) political eloquence was much practised at Athens, and by the emulation of great speakers was ere long advanced to high perfection. Rhetoric and oratory soon became objects of systematic study, and ORATORY. 205 were indispensable in the education of such as wished to gain any public office, or any influence in the affairs of the state. § 84. It may be remarked, then, that Grecian oratory was not of early or sudden growth. It was not till after Greece had adopted the popular forms of government, not till after the works of her Homer had been collected and begun to be studied, and after her general prosperity and independence allowed her citi- zens to attend to speaking as an art, that Greece exhibited any very eminent orators. At the time of Solon, beyond which the history of Grecian eloquence cannot be carried back, several of the states had existed much longer than Rome had at the time of Cicero. While eloquence made its first appearance thus late, and gradually rose to perfection under the peculiar circumstances of the nation, it continued in power and splendor only for a short period. Its real history must be considered as terminating with the usurpation of Philip and the supremacy of Macedon over southern Greece, so that the whole space of time, during which Grecian oratory particularly flourished, includes less than three hundred years. This space. coincides with the third of the periods into which we have divided the history of Greek Literature, from Solon about 600 B. C. to Alexander B. C. 336. It is, however, the brightest period in the annals of Greece ; a glorious day, at the close of which her sun went down in clouds and never again rose in its native splendor. § 85. It is also worthy of remark, that whatever glory has redounded to the Greeks for their eloquence belongs almost exclusively to Athens. In the other states it was never cultivated with success. The orators, of whose genius any monuments are still preserved, or whose names have been recorded as distin- guished, were Athenians. So that Cicero in his Brutus inquires, who knows of a Corinthian or Theban orator, unless you except Epaminondas 1 Out of Greece, however, the study flourished, both in the islands and in the settlements in west- ern Asia. The Sicilians were the first who attempted to form rules for the art, and theRhodians had orators that might be compared with the Attic. § 86. To one, who traces the history of Grecian oratory through the period which has been mentioned, it will present itself under three different aspects suc- cessively. It exhibits one characteristic appearance from the time of Pisistratus to the close of the Persian war, another from the close of the Persian to the close of the Peloponnesian, and a third from the close of the Peloponnesian war to the supremacy of Macedon. A glance at the peculiar character of the elo- quence of these three portions will give us perhaps the best general view of the whole. See Cicero's Brutus.— Heeren's Greece by Bancroft, p. 257, where some of the views touched upon in the following sections are beautifully developed. § 87. Of the first portion no monuments or fragments of the oratory remain. Its character must be drawn altogether from the testimony of later periods and from circumstantial indications. It was in this age, that the poems of Homer were collected and published, which gave anew impulse to Grecian mind, and unquestionably exerted an influence on the language and oratory of the times. As the models of language and style were all in poetry and not in prose, the speeches and the composition of this age were marked by a poetical structure, by something of the rhythm and measure of verse. Such indeed was the pre- ference for metrical composition, that Parmenides taught his philosophy in verse, and Solon published his laws in the dress of poetry. Solon is ranked among the distinguished orators of the period, and the first circumstance, which brought him into notice, was a poetical harangue to the populace of Athens. § 88. Oratory as an art was now scarcely conceived. The orators were only the favorite leaders of the people ; chiefly such as had been brave and successful in war, who gained popular influence by military enterprize, and were permitted to be powerful statesmen because they were fortunate generals. Their speeches were brief, simple, bold ; adorned with few ornaments, (Anach. II. 257) accom- panied with little action. Such was Pisistratus, whose valor in the field and eloquence in the assembly raised him to an authority utterly inconsistent with r h 2UG HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. the republican principles of his country. Such too was Themistocles. In him predominated t lie bravery and art of the military chieftain. It was his policy and energy, that saved Greece from the dominion of Persia. He acquired un- limited sway as a statesman and orator, because, in proposing and urging the plans which his clear and comprehensive mind had once formed, he could not jut be eloquent, and because he never offered apian, which he was not ready and able to execute with certain success. His eloquence, like his policy, was vigo- rous, decided, bordering on the severe, but dignified and manly. It was alto- gether the most distinguished of the age ; and the name of Themistocles is there- fore selected to mark this era in the history of Grecian eloquence. § 89. Of the second portion of the period in view, as well as the first, we have no remains, which are acknowledged to be genuine, if we except the harangues of Antiphon. The number of eminent public speakers was however increased, and there began to be more preparation by previous study and effort for the busi- ness of addressing the popular assemblies. In this age the orators were men, who had devoted their early years to the study of philosophy, and whose attain- ments and political talents raised them to the place of statesmen, while this ele- vation still imposed on them the duties of the soldier and the general. The most celebrated among them were Pericles, who flourished first in order of time, and after him successively Cleon, Alcibiades, Crilias, and Theramenes. Pericles and Alcibiades exerted the greatest influence upon the condition and interests of the Athenians. The latter, ambitious of glory and fearless of dan- ger, ardent and quick in feeling, and exceedingly versatile in character and Erinciple, was able, in spite of a defective pronunciation (Anach. I. 305) and a esitating delivery, so perfectly to control a popular assembly and mould their feelings by his own will, that he was regarded as one of the greatest of orators. § 90. But to Pericles must be granted the honor of giving a name to this era of eloquence. His talents were of the highest order, and he qualified himself for public influence by long and intense study in private. He disclosed his pow- ers in the assemblies with caution, and whenever he spoke, impressed the hear- ers with new convictions of his strength and greatness. His information was various and extensive, his views always liberal .and elevated, his feelings and purposes in general highly patriotic and generous. Cicero remarks of him, that even when he spoke directly against the will of the populace and against their favorites, what he said was popular; the comic satirists, while they ridiculed and cursed him, acknowledged his excellence; and so much did he shine in learning, wisdom, and eloquence, that he ruled Athens for forty years almost without a rival. Pericles pronounced a funeral eulogium over those who fell in the first battles of the Peloponnesian war. This oration Thucydides professes to give us in his history (ii. 35), but most probably we have the fabrication of the historian, and not the actual production of the orator. The piece, however, may indicate the peculiarities of Pericles and the other speakers of the age. § 91. The distinguishing qualities of their eloquence were simple grandeur of language, rapidity of thought, and brevity crowded with matter to such an ex- tent even as to create occasional obscurity. They had very little of artificial plan, or of rhetorical illustration and ornament. Their speeches are seldom marked by any of the figures and contrivances to produce effect, which the rules of sophists brought into use among the later orators. They have less of the air of martial addresses than the harangues of the first period we have noticed, but far more of it than appears in the third. Their character is such as to show, that while the orator was a statesman of influence in the civil council, he was also at the same time a commander in war. Such was the eloquence of the era, which is designated by the name of Pericles. §92. But the third is the most glorious era, and is marked by a name, which has been allowed to stand pre-eminent in the history of human eloquence, that of Demosthenes. It was an age fruitful in orators, of whose talents there still re- main rich and splendid monuments. The orator was no longer necessarily united with the general; but was able to control the deliberations of the people, although he never encountered the perils of the camp. ORATORY. 207 It was now, that oratory became a regular study, and numbers devoted them- selves to the business of teaching its rules. These teachers, known by the name of Sophists and Rhetoricians, made the most arrogant and ridiculous pretentions, professing to communicate the art of speaking copiously and fluently on any point whatever. But we must not affix to all, who went under this name, the idea of a vain and pompous declaimer. There were some honorable exceptions; e. g. Isocrates, who taught the art and whose influence upon the oratory of this period was so great, that Cicero gives him the honor of forming its general character. His school was the resort of all, who aimed at the glory and the re- wards of eloquence. Isocrates, Lysias, Isseus, vEschines, and Demosthenes are the bright names in the constellation which marks this era. Andocides, Dinarchus, Hyperides, and Lycurgus are also recorded as eminent speakers. These, with Antiphon of the preceding era, form the illustrious company of the ten Athenian orators. They could have been, however, only a small part of the number in the profession in this period, as we might judge, even had no names been recorded, from the fact, that at its very close there were at least ten, and according to some thirty, whom the Macedonian conqueror demanded to be delivered up to him as hostile to his supremacy.— Schall,ii. p. 265. § 93. In the age before us, the general characteristics are to be found in the state and circumstances of the profession, rather than in the form or nature of the eloquence. Each of the more eminent orators had his distinguishing pecu- liarities, which makes it difficult to mark the prominent traits, which might be stamped upon all. It is easy, notwithstanding, to notice the influence of the sys- tems of art, to which the speakers of this age thought it necessary to attend. There is in their orations too little of the plain and direct simplicity of former times, and much, often far too much, of the ambush and artifice of logic, the flourish and sound of mere rhetoric. You discover also, frequently, the orator's consciousness of influence arising from his skill in speaking. It was an age, when the populace flocked to the assemblies and the courts of justice for the mere sake of hearing and being affected; when even the unprincipled demagogue could, by the spell of his tongue, raise himself to the archonship of Athens. § 94. This period furnished a greater number and variety of occasions for the display of oratorical talents. Numerous state prosecutions, similar to that in which Lysias engaged against Eratosthenes, grew out of the disturbances and revolutions connected with the Peloponnesian war, and these necessarily drew forth the genius of opposing advocates. Public discussions, likewise, became frequent upon different subjects relating to war, politics, and government, which opened a wide field not merely for harangue, but for studied and labored compo- sition. At the close of the period, the encroachment of Philip on the Grecian rights afforded an ample theme both for the ambitious demagogue and the zealous pa- triot. This circumstance was perhaps the cause of the peculiar energy and warmth of feeling, which distinguished much of the oratory of the period. Al- though the writers and speakers differed in opinion as to the true policy of the Greeks, their orations breathe a common spirit of national attachment and na- tional pride and confidence. Indeed the patriotism and the genius of Greece seem to have exhausted themselves in the efforts of this last day of her indepen- dence and her glory. In Demosthenes she heard the last tones of her favorite art, as she did the last remonstrance against her submission to servitude, § 95. Such is a glance at the rise and progress of eloquence in Greece. Late in its origin, confined chiefly to Athens, flourishing only for a comp aratively short time, marked successively by the eras of Themistocles, Pericles and Demosthe- nes, it ended its career when the country lost its independence, but with a glory that is gone out into all lands, and will survive through all ages. It should be observed, however, that Cicero and other writers speak of the eloquence of the period immediately subsequent to Philip and Alexander ; and here is the place for a few words respecting it. § 96. True eloquence, says Schoell (iii. 239), that which speaks to the hearts and passions of men, and which not merely convinces but carries away the hear- JOS HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. or, ceased with the fall of liberty. Under the successors of Alexander, not finding any object worthy of its exertions, it fled from the scenes of politics to tke retreats of the schools. Athens, degraded from her eminence, no longer was the exclusive residence of an art, which had once thrown such lustre over her name and history. From this time instead of the orators of Attica, we hear only of the orators of Asia. In reality, however, instead of orators at all, among the Greeks any w lure, we find, after this time, only rhetoricians. The most famous ot the schools just alluded to was that of Rhodes, founded byJEschines. In these institutions the masters gave out themes, on which the young pupils exercised their talents. These were frequently historical subjects. Often the questions, which had exercised the great orators of the previous age, were again debated. But such performances had notfor their object to convince judges,' or force aji assembly on to action. The highest aim now was to awaken admiration in hearers, who wished not to be moved, but to be entertained. The noble simplicity of the old orators was exchanged for a style overcharged with rhetorical ornaments. Hegesias of Magnesia, is regarded as the father of the new style of eloquence and composition, which now appeared, and which, as has been already mention- ed, was termed Asiatic. His discourses are lost. § 97. But the principal name worthy of notice after the time of Alexander is Demetrius Phalereus, who was appointed governor of Athens, by Cas- sander king of Macedonia. He was the last of the great orators of Greece. Cicero speaks of Demetrius with considerable commendation, as the most learn- ed and polished of all after the ancient masters. But he describes (Brutus, 9) his influence as substituting softness and tenderness instead of power; culti- vating sweetness rather than force, a sweetness, which diifused itself through, the soul without stirring the passions ; forming an eloquence, which impressed, on the mind nothing but its own symmetry, and which never left, like the elo^ quence of Pericles, a sting along with the delight. § 98. We pause here in our general glance at Grecian oratory, becauseevery thing pertaining to the subject, in the periods after the capture of Corinth B. C. 146, will be more properly introduced in speaking of the Sophists and Rhetoricians. But it is important to allude to the three branches, into which Grecian oratory was divided by the teachers. They were the deliberative, the legal or judicial, and the demonstrative or panegyrical. Demosthenes is the unrivalled master in the first. Lysias and Isaeus present rich specimens of the second. The best performances of Isocrates belong to the third. But no orator was confined, to either branch ; according to preference, he might thunder in the assembly of the people, argue in the court of justice, or declaim before the occasional and promiscuous concourse. On the legal oratory of Greece, see Quarterly Rev. Vol. xxix.— Panegyrical, same,. VoLxxvii. c) 99/ We now proceed, according to our prescribed plan (§8), to notice individually the principal orators, of whom there are exist- ing remains. But it will be proper to give first some references to sources of information respecting them, and to the printed collections of their performances. The chief original sources of information are the fragments of a treatise of Dionysius Halycamasseus, in which Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus and Demosthenes were critically examined, ar.d the lives of the ten orators ascribed to Plutarch. We may refer also to Ruhnken, Historia critica oratorum Grsec. in his ed. of Rutilius Lupus. Leyd. 1768. 8.— Dissertations sur l'orig. et les progres de la rhet. ehez. les Grecs, in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Ins. T. 13-36.— Manso, ueber die Bildung der Rhe.torik unterden Griechen, in his- vermischten Abh. u. Aufs. Bresl. 1821. 8.—Schall, Hist. Litt. Gr. ii. 197. The following collections may be named ; Aldus Manutius, Ven. 1513. 3 vols, fol. very rare.— H. Stcphanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1575. fol. Isocrates and Demos- thenes not included.— J. J. Reiske, Oratorum Grac. qua? supersunt monumenta ANTIPHON. ANDOCIDES. LYSIAS. 209 ingenii, etc. Lips. 1770-75. 12 vols. 8. contents detailed by Schoell, ii. 260.—/. Bekker, Oratores Attici. Oxf.and Lips. 1822. 7 vols. 8. Cf. Dibdin. I. 483.— IT. S, Dobson, Oiatores Attici et quos sic vocant Sophistae. Lond. 1828. 16 vols. 8. § 100. Antiphon, of Rhamnus in Attica, was born about B. C. 480. In the year 41 1 or 410 B. C. he was condemned and put to death as a traitor. He was celebrated at Athens as an orator and a teacher of eloquence. The ancients ascribed to him a treatise on rhetoric, Te%vr\ 'qrjtoqixri, said to have been the first written on the subject. He also prepared orations or speeches to be used by others, for which he re- ceived payment. Of the fifteen, which are still extant, three belong to criminal cases actually occurring and brought to trial; the other twelve seem rather to be imaginary speeches adapted to supposed cases. 1. Antiphon was a pupil of the sophist Gorgias, andf is said to have been the first to apply the art of rhetoric to judiciary proceedings. Thucydides was in- structed in his school. During the Peloponnesian war, Antiphon repeatedly had the command of Athenian troops. He was a member of the council of the 400, the establishment of which was, in a great degree, owing to his influence. He is said to have been the first, who for money composed orations to be read or spoken by others; this became afterwards a frequent practice and a source of great emolument. 2. His orations are given in Reiske, cited § 99, vol. vii. p. 603. — Bekker, vol. i. See P. V. Spaan, Diss, de Antiphonte, Lugd. Bat. 1765. 4. also in Reiske vii. 795, and Ruhnken's Opusc. orat. phil. et crit. Lug. B. 1807. 8.— Cicero, Brutus. 12. — Thucydides, viii. 68. French translation of some parts, in Auger's (Euvres completes d'Isocrate, avec &c. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 8. § 101. Andocides an Athenian of illustrious birth, later than An- tiphon, about B. C. 468. He was distinguished as a statesman and orator, but too restless in his political character. He suffered many vexations and finally died in exile, B. C. about 396. "We have four speeches from him, which commend themselves by their simplicity and force of expression, and which are of much value in illustrating the history of the times. 1. One of the discourses of Andocides is against Alcibiades, Karli'^4Xxi^i- u;s avriSigiwg, on the exchanging of property, relates to his own personal affairs. The remaining three are parecnetic, naoonviTixbg. One of these, TJqbg Jr/fiirt- ISOCRATES. ISMVS. LYCURGUS. 211 «ov, is by some critics ascribed to another Isocrates. That styled Nixoxljc, and sometimes KvnQiog Xoyog, written for the use of Nicocles king of Salamis in Cy- prus, is said to have procured from the prince in return a present of 20 talents. Besides these orations, there is a discourse against the Sophists, Kara -cS>v oocpta- rmv. An art of rhetoric, Tixvy, is also quoted by Gluintilian. Ten epistles, likewise, are preserved as having been written by Isocrates.— Schcell, ii, 208 — Mitford, vii. 212. 3. Editions; Best; W. Lange, Halle, 1804. 8.— Coray, Par. 1807. 2 vols. 8. entirely in Greek, with a preface in modem Greek.— Early ; Princeps, Demetr. Chalcondylas, Mediol. 1493. fol.— In Aldus, Rhet. Greec. cited § 99.—Hieron. Wolf, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1570. fol.— P. Stephanus, Gr. &. Lat. Genev. 1604. 8.— Later ; TV. Battie,Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1749. 2 vols. 8.— Auger, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 8. — Given also in Bekker, 2d vol. and Dobson, 3d vol. The discourse neql av- Tidooso)?, incomplete until the discoveries of a modern scholar, Mustoxydes, (Schasll, ii. p. 263), was published separately by J. C. Orelli,7,ttr. 1814. 8.— The HavtiyvQixbg, by Morus, Lips. 1786. 8. impr. by Spohn, Lips. 1817. 8. — For other editions of separate parts, see Harles, Brev. Not. p. 144. Translations; German, W. Lange, Berl. (commenced) 1798. 8.— French, Auger, Par. 1781. 8. — English, Gillies, in work cited § 102. 2. § 104. Isceus, a native of Chalcis in Eubcea, but resident at Athens, was a scholar of Lysias and Isocrates, and the teacher of Demosthe- nes. Born about 400 B. C. he probably died in the former part of the reign of Philip. He took Lysias for his model, but excelled him particularly in dignity and elevation. 1. Of 50 orations by Isseus extant in the time of Photius, only eleven now re- main. They all relate to the subject of inheritances {Zoyoi xXtjQixoi), and con- tain much information respecting the laws of heirship at Athens, the customs relative to the adoption of children, to testaments and bequests and almost every thing connected with the transferring of property. They present also a melan- choly picture of the fraud and cruelty frequently indulged by guardians, execu- tors and contending heirs. The style is full of nerve. Demosthenes is said to have chosen him as a master in preference to Isocrates, on account of this trait. — Cf. Q.uart. Rev. voL xxvi. 2. Ten of the orations are in Reiske, vol. 7 ; one of them, however, the in/ieri- tance of Cleonymus, was first published in full by A. Mai, Mil. 1815 ; the eleventh, the inheritance of Menecles, was published by Tyrwhiti, Lond. 1785. 8. — They are given in Bekker, 3d vol. — Dobson, 4th vol. — Translations ; French, Auger, (with Andocides, and Lycurgus) Par. 1783. 8. — English ; Sir Wm. Jones, Oxf. 1779. and in his works, 4th vol. § 105. Lycurgus, descended from an ancient Athenian family, died at an advanced age, B. C. about 330. He was a pupil of Isocra- tes and Plato, and a friend of Demosthenes. He was warmly devoted to the interests of the commonwealth, and was rewarded with the ho- nors of the state. Of his orations, 1 5 remained in the time of Plu- tarch ; but only one has been preserved to us ; that against Leocrates, for his deserting Athens in her distress after the fatal battle of Chasro- nea. His oratory was marked by strong moral feeling and patriotism, without much effort to be eloquent. 1. He fearlessly resisted all the claims of Philip and Alexander, and was one •of the orators demanded by Alexander after the capture of Thebes. His chil- dren, to whom he left no property, were educated by the state. It is supposed that one of the inscriptions, which Fourmont caused to be copied at Athens, is an account of the administration of LyGurgus, in which he received and ex- 212 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. pended, according to the inscription, 13,900 talents. (Cf. P. I. 5 90. 7 (c).— Scholl, n. 819. 2. The oration is in Reiske, 4th vol.— Bekker, 3d vol. — Dobson, 4th vol.— Sepa- rately, Hauptmaim, Lpz. 1753. 8. — For schools, A. G. Becker, Magd. 1821. 8>~ Translation, German, F. A. Simon, Hamb. 1811. 8. § 106. Demosthenes was born B. C. 385, in the Attic borough Paeania, and died B. C. 322, in the island of Calauria, by poison self- administered, in order to escape the vengeance of Antipater. Isaeus was his master in rhetoric, but he received instruction also from Isoc- rates and Callistratus. His celebrity was much greater than that of any other Grecian orator, on account of the fire, vehemence, and strength of his eloquence, which he especially exerted in rousing the Athenians to Avar with the Macedonians, and in defeating his rivals bribed by the latter. We have 61 orations of Demosthenes, and 65 introductions, which are probably not all genuine. The characteris- tics of this orator were strength, sublimity, and a piercing energy and force, aided by an emphatic and vehement elocution. His peculiar- ities, however, sometimes degenerated into severity. 1. At the age of seven he lost his father. His guardians wasted his property, and at the age of 17 he appeared before the courts against them, and urged his own cause successfully. Thereby encouraged to speak before the assembly of the people, he failed entirely. He retired and studied and toiled in secret for many years. At the age of 25 he came forward again and commenced his brilliant career. — The life of Demosthenes is given by Plutarch, and also in the Lives of the ten Attic orators ascribed to him. There are also two other lives anciently written, and a eulogy by Libanius. — For a good view of his history, see Scholl, ii. p, 224. and Heeren, trans, by Bancroft, p. 276. — Cf. A. G. Becker, Demosthenes als Staatsmann und Redner, Hal. 1816. 2 vols. 8. 2. Seventeen of the orations belong to the class of deliberative ; 12 of these relate to the contests between Philip and the Greeks, 3 styled Olynthiacs, and 4 called Philippics, the rest of the 12 bearing different titles ; the whole 12 were spoken between B. C. 351 and 340. Forty-two are judicial speeches ; 30 of these relate to private or individual interests, where the case was termed dixy; among them are the 5 pronounced against his own faithless guardians, showing plainly the hand of Isaeus in their style: the other 12 relate to public or state affairs, where the case was termed xarrjQoy la; among these was the oration TtsQi om- (payov, in which Demosthenes defends Ctesiphon against the accusation of Ms- chines, and in making the defencp justifies his own policy in reference to Philip, notwithstanding the disastrous issue of the battle of Chaaronea; it is considered as the best of his orations, and a master-piece of eloquence. Only two of the extant orations of Demosthenes belong to the kind called, demonstrative, both of them probably spurious; one is the eulogy (emrucfiog) upon those who fell at Chaeronea.— We have also six letters of Demosthenes, five of them written dur- ing his exile to the people of Athens.— Scholl, ii. 231. 3. Editions ; Best ; Reiske, as edited by Schafer, Lond. 1822. 3 vols. 8.— Dobson, Lond. 1827. —Early; Princeps, by Aldus, Ven. 1504. fdl.—Hervagius, Basil. 1542. with the Commentaries of Ulpian.—H. Wolf, Gr. & Lat. (containing also .ffischines) Basil. 1549. fol. and better, Francof. 1604, fol.— Later; Taylor, Gr. &. Lat. Camb. 1748-57. 4. 2d and 3d vols, only ; 1st never appeared.— Auger, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1790. 1st vol. only. Usually purchased to complete Taylor's.— There have been many editions of particular orations ; of de Corona, some of the best are, Harles, Gr. & Lat. Alt. 1769. repr. Lpz. 1814. 8.— Stock, Gr. &Lat. Dubl. 1769. 2 vols. 8.— Wolf, Gr. & Lat. 1798. 8.— Bekker, Hal. 1815. 8.— Trans- lations; German, Reiske, Lemgo. 1764-69. 5 vols. 8.— F- Jacobs, Lips. 1805. 8. 13 orations and Philip's Letter, with notes.— A. G. Bekker, Hal. 1823. 8. the Philippics.— French, A. Aueer, Par. 1804. 6 vols. 8.— English, Ph. Francis, Lond. 1776. 2 vols. 4.— Th. Leland, 1802. 2 vols. 8. SOPHISTS AND RHETORICIANS. 213 § 1G7. JEschines lived at Athens at the same time with Demos- thenes, and was a pupil of Isocrates and Plato. He became the most distinguished rival of Demosthenes, although by no means equal to him in powerful eloquence. Demosthenes obtained a complete tri- umph over him by the oration concerning the crown in the trial of Ctesiphon, and iEschines retired to Rhodes, where he gave instruction in rhetoric. He died in the island Samos. In the judgment of Q,uintilian, he deserved the first rank among Grecian orators, next to Demosthenes. His great merit may readily be seen in the three ora- tions preserved to our time. 1. iEschines was 12 or 13 years older than Demosthenes, being born B. C. 395, and lived a year or two later, dying at the age of 75. In early life he does not appear to have enjoyed much success or reputation. His opposition to Philip first brought him into notice; yet he afterwards became a partizan for him in opposition to Demosthenes. — The most important of his orations is that against Ctesipkon, kotos Krrjat(favrog, to which Demosthenes replied in his oration upon the crown.— Vatry, Recherches surla vie et sur les ceuvrages d'Eschine, in Mem. de PAcad. des Insc. T. xiv. — Schmll, ii. 215. — Matthiae, de iEschine oratore, in Reiske, vol. iv. 2. The remains of ^Eschines are given in Reiske, vol. 3d and 4th. — in Bekker, vol. 3. — Dobson, vol. 12th, which is probably the best edition. — also in H. Wolf, cited §106. 3.— Separately, Reiske's, Lpz. 1808. 8. 2vols. — T.H. Bremi, Z(lr. 1823. 8. — The oration against Ctesiphon often published with Demosthenes on the crown; Stock, cited § 106. 3.— Bekker, Hal. 1815. 8.— Alex. Negris, Bost. 1829. with a preface in modern Greek and English notes. — Translations ; German, Reiske, with Demosthenes, cited § 106. 3. — F. V. Raumer, (iEsch. and Dem. in the case of Ctesiphon) Berl. 1811. 8.— French, Auger, with Dem. cited § 106. 3.— English, Andrew Portal (iEsch. and Dem. concern. Ctes.), Oxf. 1755. 8. III. — Sophists and Rhetoricians. § 108. The term Sophist, as has been mentioned (§ 92), was originally applied in Athens to those, who taught the art of speaking. One of the earliest, that at- tained eminence in this profession, was Gorgias of Leontium in Sicily, about 430 B. C. Prodicus of Ceos, and Hippias of Elis flourished in the same period. ' All these,' observes Mitford, ' are saidto have acquired very considerable riches by their profession. Their success therefore invited numbers to follow their example, and Greece, but especially Athens, shortly abounded with those, who under the name of sophists, professors of wisdom, undertook to teach every sci- ence. The scarcity and dearness of books gave high value to that learning, which a man with a well stored mind and a ready and clear elocution could com- municate. None without eloquence could undertake to be instructors; so that the sophists in giving lessons of eloquence were themselves the example. They frequented all places of public resort, the agora, the gymnasia, and the porticoes, where they recommended themselves to notice by an ostentatious display of their abilities in disputation with one another, or with whoever would converse with them. In the competition thus arising, men of specious rather than solid abili- ties would often gain the most extensive estimation. Many of them would take either side of any question, and it was generally their glory to make the worse appear the better cause.' §109. It is easy from this account to see how the name of sophist should 2U HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. soon become a term of reproach, as it did, more particularly, after the time of So- . rates. The term rhetorician was also applied to the same class of teachers. But a distinction has been made between the two words, which seems to have a just foundation. The term rhetorician is applied to those, who simply gave pre- cepts in the a ns of composition and oratory ; the term sophist to those, who ac- tually practiced the art of speaking. In this sense the name of sophists is given to all the speakers we read of after the decline of oratory as already explained (§ 9<>). After the supremacy of Rome over Greece, and especially under the emperors, there was a great number of these. Their talents were confined to a limited sphere, to the exercises in the schools, or discourses, lectures, and decla- mations before promiscuous assemblies, which formed a part of the public amusements. Some of them traveled from city to city like modern lecturers, and received a liberal pay for their services. The various performances, in which they engaged, were distinguished by different names applied for the purpose , e. g. fniirii, a declamation carefully written, in which the writer bears an assumed character; auoragi?, a little discourse or address, in which the writer recommends himself to another; oxMaopa, an extemporaneous speech; (JtaJUijic, a sort of dis- sertation, &c. 4 110. Between Augustus and Constantine there were several distinguished authors, who may be properly classed among the sophists, as Dio Chrysostomus, Lucian, and Athenseus. Lesbonax and Herodes Attieus belong to the same class. The emperor Adrian often exercised his talents in such performances as employed the sophists of the age. Polemo, iElius Aristides, and Flavius Phi- •lostratus may also be mentioned ; the latter is spoken of as an eloquent speaker. In the time of Constantine, and afterwards, there were also numerous authors, whom we must refer to this class. Among them, Themistius, Himerius and Libanius are the most distinguished. The emperor Julian may be properly ranked here. Subsequent to these are found many names, yet none of much ce- lebrity, except such as are known by writings of another class, as Basilius Proco- pius, Theophylactus, and Theodoras Prodromus. — Schasll, L. vi. c. 77, § 111. By rhetoricians, in distinction from sophists, are meant, as has been stated (§ 109), those who gave precepts on eloquence rather than attempted to practice it. Rhetoric, or instruction in the art of eloquence, originated in Greece later than eloquence itself, as Cicero has justly remarked ; esse eloquentiam non ex artificio, sed artificium ex eloquentia natum. Empedocles is commonly con- sidered as the first Greek rhetorician, who taught the rules of oratory orally. His scholars Corax and Tisias, about 400 B. C. are said first to have committed such rules to writing. Gorgias the Sicilian, and those termed sophists generally in the flourishing age of Greek letters, taught the art of oratory. Isocrates a pupil of Gorgias, and generally classed among the orators, was a distinguished teacher of rhetoric, and had the honor of forming in his school the greatest ora- tors of Greece. Antiphon, also ranked among the orators, was a teacher of rhetoric, and wrote a treatise which is quoted by the ancients. § 112. In glancing at the list of Greek authors on the subject of rhetoric, we find Aristotle, the philosopher, and the teacher of Alexander, one of the earliest. Demetrius Phalereus occurs next. (§ 97). After him we find none important to notice until the time of Augustus, when we meet the names of Gorgias, who taught a school of rhetoric at Athens, and Apollodorus and Theodorus, who had rival schools, the former at Pergamus, the latter at Rhodes. Whatever they wrote is lost. The principal author was Dionysius of Halycarnassus, known also as a historian. After Augustus the eminent writers were Hermogenes and Longinus. Many other names occur, as Apthonius, Theon, Numenius, Menander, Minucianus, and Apsines, who all wrote on some of the topics of rhetoric ; only inconsidera- ble fragments, however, now remain. Of the vast mass of compositions by the ancients on the art of speaking and writing, but a small portion has come down to us, § 113. Before noticing more particularly individuals of the class now before us, we will give some general references. GORGIAS. ARISTOTLE. DEMETRIUS PHaLEREUS. 215 On the Sophists ; Enfield, Hist. Philos. B, ii. c. 4.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, Ch, 13.— L. Cresollii Theat'rum vet. rhet. declam. i. e. Sophistarum, de eorum disci- plina ac discendi docendique ratione. Par. 1620. 8. and in Gronovius, Thes. vol. x.—G. N. Kriegk, Diss, de Sophistarum eloquentia. Jena. 1702. 4. Collec- tions of the remains of the rhetoricians; Aldus, Rhetores Greed, 1508. 2 vols. fol. — Leo Allatius, Excerpta graec. Sophistarum et rhetorum declamationes. Rom. 1641. 8.—H. Stephanus, Polemonis, Himerii et aliorum declamationes. Par. 1567. fol.— Th. Gale, Rhetores Selecti, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1676. 8. repr. (ed. J. F. Fischer) Lpz. 1773. 8. The most important precepts of rhetoric, drawn from Greek and Roman authors, in F. A. Wiedeburg, Praecepta rhetorica. Brunsw. 1786. 8. Cf. J. Ch. Th. Ernesli, Lexicon technologies Graecorum rhetoricae. Lips. 1795. 8.— See also Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, vol. iv. p. 45. 6 114.' Gorgias, of Leontium in Sicily, a philosopher, statesman, orator and rhetorician, nourished at Athens about B. C. 430, as a teacher of eloquence. Cicero celebrates his oratorical talents, but charges him with too great attention to the rounding of .his periods. We have two declamations ((ieXezui) ascribed to him, a eulogy on Helen, and an apology for Palamedes. These pieces are given in Reiske, cited § 99, vol. 8. — Belcker, vol. 5. — Dobso7i's Oratores Attici, vol. 4, 666. — Gorgias was greatly admired, and honored with a golden statue at Delphi. He is said to have died B. C. 400, aged 108. Eschen- burg, in the original of the above, represents him as known at Athens in the Per- sian war; the translation is conformed to the more common statements. — Cf. Milford, Ch. xviii. Sect. 1. — Barthelemy, Anacharsis. Ch. vii. § 115. Aristotle, born at Stagira in Macedonia, B. C. 385, went to Athens while young, and became one of the most distinguished pu- pils of Plato. He was subsequently the instructer of Alexander the Great, after which returning again to Athens he founded the Peripa- tetic sect in philosophy. He died in Chalcis, B. C. 322. His name belongs especially to the history of philosophy, but is introduced here, on account of his treatise on rhetoric. This consists of 3 books, and is a work of much merit. His treatise on poetry also may be pro- perly mentioned here ; it is a fragment of a large work. The Rhetoric is given in Aldus, Rhetores Graeci, cited § 113. and in the editions of Aristotle's works. — Separately, Goulston, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1619. 4.—BaUie, Gr. & Lai. Camb. 1728. 8. repr. Oxf. 1809. 8.— The Art of Poetry, in the edi- tions of A's works. — Separately, Harles, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1780. 8.— Tyrwhitt, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1794. 8.—GrdJenhan. Lpz. 1821, 8. French translation of the Poetics, Abbe Batleux, Les duatres Poetiques d'Aristote, d'Horace, d'Vida, de Despreaux, avec remarques. Par. 1771. — English, H. J. Pye, Lond. 1788. 8. — Th. Twining. Lond. 1789. 4. 1812. 8. § 116. Demetrius Phalereus, of Phalertrrn, one of the harbors of Athens, nourished B. C. about 300. He was a pupil of Theophras- tus, and by his eloquence rose to distinction. Driven by Antigonus from the authority at Athens, which he received from Cassander (§ 97) and had enjoyed for several years, he retired to Alexandria, where he was patronised by Ptolemy Soter. But being banished by the next 0|6 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. king, Ptolemy Philadelphia, to a distant province, he put an end to his life by the bite of an asp, B. C. 284. Many works were composed' by him, which are lost. There is extant a treatise on elocution, Hbqp iofiijreiaa;, which has been ascribed to him ; but its real author was perhaps a later Demetrius, who lived at Alexandria in the reign of the emperor Marcus Antoninus. It contains many ingenious and acute remarks on the beauties of composition, particularly on the structure of periods. 1. Demetrius is said to have suggested to Ptolemy Soter the idea of founding the Library and Museum of Alexandria. The displeasure of Philadelphus was incurred by his having favored the claims of an elder brother to the throne. — Bonamy, sur la vie de Demetrius de Phalere, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc. T. viii. 2. Among the lost works, are a treatise on the lonians, one on the laws of Athens, and another on Socrates. A little piece on the Apophthegms of the Seven Sages, is preserved in Stobaeus, as having been written by Demetrius. — Schcell, hi. 241. -3. The treatise HcqI eQfirjvelag is given in Aldus, Gale, and Fischer, cited § 113. — Separately and best, J. G. Schneider, Altenb. 1779. 8. with a commentary. § 117. Dionysius Halicarnasseus, in the time of Augustus, cele- brated as a historian, was also a rhetorician. He wrote several trea- tises, which may be properly classed in this department, particularly a work ITepl avvdeue ug ovoftaTuv, de compositione verborum, on the arrangement of words, and another styled T&x v H 'QrjTo^txrj, art of rhetoric, which has come to us in a very defective state. 1. Two other rhetorical pieces of Dionysius were T]toqix>i, H. A, Schott, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1804. 8. — Tmvnalaiav Xaqax^ T>7e*s, first in H. Stephanus, Dion. Hal. scripta quasdam critiea. Par. 1554. 8. — Holwell, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1778. 8. with a dissertation on the use of the middle verb.— Heal row 'Atnxmv 'QijroQwr, E. R. Mores, Oxf. 1781. 2 vols. 8.— The Let- ters, in Ch. G. Krieger, Dion. Hal. historiographica. Hal. 1823. 8. § 118. Dion, surnamed on account of his eloquence Chrysostomus (xgvaoazo/iog), lived in the 1st and beginning of the 2d century after Christ. His birth-place was Prusa in Bithynia. After following the pursuits of a sophist, he became at length a Stoic philosopher. He fled from the cruelty of Domitian into Thrace, but under Nerva and Trajan lived again at Rome, enjoying particularly the favor of the latter. Of his writings, we have 80 dissertations or declamations on various topics, displaying much rhetorical ability. He is, however, HERODES ATTICUS. jELIUS ARISTIDES. LUCIAN. 217 often deficient in simplicity, and his style wanting in brevity and clear- ness. 1. The titles of Dion's discourses are given in Schasll's History of Greek Lite- rature. That styled "FoSiaxog is pronounced his chef-d'oeuvre; it condemns the custom practised by the Rhodians of using ancient statues with new inscrip- tions in honor of their contemporaries, — Scholl, iv. 210. 2. The best editions are C. Morel (printer ), Gr. &Lat. Par. 1604, 1623. fol. with a commentary of I. Casaubon, and notes of Fred. Morel, ; the translation that of Klrchmayer or Naogeorgus, published Bas. 1555. fol. — J. J. Reiske, Lpz. 1784, 1798. 2 vols. 4. — A German translation of 13 of the discourses is given in Rehke's Hellas, Mitau. 1778. 8. — English, some of the discourses, G. Wakefield, Lond. 1800. 8. § 119. Herodes Alliens, a native of Marathon in Attica, was a distinguished sophist in the age of the Antonines. He was appointed consul at Rome, A. D. 141. We have from him only a single dis- course and some fragments. 1. The full name was Tiberius Claudius Atlicus Herodes. After obtaining his education and traveling abroad, he gave public lectures at Athens on elo- quence. Such was his reputation, that he was invited to Rome as teacher to Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He died at Marathon, B.C. 185, at an advanced age. His life is given by Philostratus.—Schazll, iv. 228. 2. The remains of Herodes are given in Reiske, vol. 8. — in Dobson, vol. 4. p. 555.— Separately, R. Fiorillo, Lpz. 1801. 8.— The inscriptions of Herodes have been already mentioned (P. I. § 92. 4J. § 120. JElius Arislid.es, of Hadrianoplis in Bithynia, lived at Smyrna in the 2d century, held in great estimation as a speaker. There remain from him 54 declamations, which evince a successful imitation of the ancient masters in Greek eloquence, but betray also in the au- thor too high an idea of his own excellence. We have also from him some letters and a treatise in two books, entitled IleQl nolmxov xal dyslovg loyov, ' Du style politique et du style simple.' 1. His contemporaries considered him as equal to Demosthenes, and he' was honored with many statues. Some unedited pieces of Aristides were discovered by Mai in a palimpsest or rescript manuscript of the Vatican. — Schmll, iv, 234. 2. The best edition is that of «S. Jebb, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1722, 30. 2 vols. 4,— The Princeps or earliest, by E. Boninus (print. Ph. Junta) Flor. 1517. fol. con- taining 52 of the uif.srai, with the anonymous scholia termed vTzo&lottq. — Corn- ier, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1604. 3 vols. 12.— The two books on style, in Aldus Rheto- res Graec. cited § 113.— Separately, L. Normann, Upsal. 1688.' 8.— The discourse against Lcptincs, first by J. Morell, Ven. 1788. 8.—F. A. Wolf, Halle. 1769. 8. § 121. Lucian, of Samosata in Syria, flourished in the 2d century He at first engaged in the business of an advocate at Antioch, but re- nounced it for the more congenial employment of a sophist, and finally professed to embrace philosophy. He is said to have been pro- curator of Egypt under Marcus Aurelius. He was neither a pagan nor a christian, nor did he espouse any sect in philosophy. He was distinguished by acumen, lively wit, and a power at ridicule and satire, 218 IllsToKV OK HUEKK LITERATURE. which he often indulged too freely an ^ wantonly, against men and god* alike. Mostof the numerous pieces, which we have from him, are in the form of dialogues. His Dialogues of the Gods and Dia- logues of the Dead are the most remarkable. His pure Attic and tasteful .style is the more praiseworthy from the circumstance, that he was not a native Greek. 1. Leaving Antioch, Lucian traveled in Asia, Greece, Gaul and Italy, deliv- ering his discourses in various places, and afterwards settled at Athens. It was in advanced life, that he was put in office under Aurelius. 'One of the chief characteristics of Lucian,' says Schoell, ' is that species of originality which the English term humour.' — It has been supposed by some, probably without founda- tion, that Lucian once embraced Christianity and afterwards apostatized. In the pieces styled Ileal ti}s JTfotygiVot! rti.e vTtj$, and iXonarqtg, he makes unsparing attacks upon christians ; the genuineness of the latter has been doubted. — Schoell, iv. 248. where is a brief analysis of his several pieces ; given also in Anthon's Lempriere. 2. Editions. Best; Hcmsterhuls (with J. M. Gessner fy J. Reitz),Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1743. 3 vols. 4. to which is added as a 4th vol. the Lexicon Lv.cianeum of C. R. Reitz,mtiai, 1746. 4. f The edition of Schmid, Mitau, 1776-80. 8 vols. 8. and the Bipont edition, 1789-93. 10 vols. 8. are chiefly reimpressions of Hem- sterhuisV — I. G. Lehmann, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1822 ss. 10 vols. 8. Early; Priw- ceps, (neither printer nor editor known) Flor. 1496. fol. — second, Aldus, Ven. 1503, 1522. fol. — Between this and that of Hemsterhuis were several. Cf. Schosll, iv. 280.— A good edition of the Gk. text is Fr. Schmieder, Hal. 1800. 2 vols. 8. with promise of a commentary. Of select parts of Lucian there have been many editions ; among the best are Seybold,Gotha. 1*185. 8.— FA. Wolf, Hal. 1791. 8.— Gehrich, Gcetting. 1797. 8. Dialogues of the Dead, by J. Gail, Par. 1806. — J. G. Lehmann, Lpz. 1813. 8. — Dialogues of the Gods, by Lehmann, 1815. 8. — E. F, Poppo, "Lpz. 1817. 8. — Lucius, or the Ass, by Courier, Par. 1818. 12. Translations ; German, C. M. Wieland, Lpz. 1788. 6 vols. 8. — French, J. N. Belin de Ballu,Va,x. 6 vols. 8.— English, Th. Franklin, Lond. 1780. 2 vols. 4. § 122. Hermogenes, of Tarsus, lived about the middle of the 2d century. He left a celebrated work on rhetoric, consisting of five parts, which was written when he was but 17 years old. At the age of twenty-five, he lost memory, language and understanding. 1. Hermogenes lived to advanced age in this state, a striking and melancholy example both of the power and of the weakness of the human intellect. The account we have of him is drawn from Philostratus, Suidas, and Hesychius. — The parts of his Ti/vti 'QyToQiy.tj were 1. TLooyvfivaa^ara, Preparatory exercises; 2. JTtpJ oT&atwv, On the states of the question; 3. Iltpl svoioeuiv, On invention, the most valuable part of the work; 4. Ileol ISeiov, De Formis ; 5. Utol pt663ov dei- i otijtos; De effectu. This work was long used as a text-book in the schools of rhetoric, and several commentaries were written upon it. 2. Under the title, which the first part of Hermogenes bears, there exist two separate rhetorical works of two later authors ; viz. the HooyvpvaonaTa- of Aph- thonius, based upon or extracted from Hermogenes. and the Hqoyv^iraa^iaxa of Theon, explaining the principles of both the preceding.— Schosll, iv. 322, ss. 3. The 1st part of Hermogenes was published first by Heeren in the Bibl. der alten Lit. u. Kunst. viii. and ix.— afterwards in Class. Journal (v— viii), 1812.— Separately, G. Vesenmeer, Nuremb. 1812. 8.— Ang. Krehl, (with works of Prisci- an) Lpz. ^ 2 vols. 8. The other 4 Parts were printed first by Aldus as cited § 113.— The best editions are J. Sturmius, Gr. & Lat. Strasb. 1570,71. 4 vols. 8. —and G. Laurentius, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1614. 8. — The Progymnasmata of Aph- thonius and Theon were published together by J. Schaffer, Upsal, 1680. 8. ATHEN^DUS. LONGINUS. 219 $ 123. Athenaus, a grammarian and rhetorician, may be placed perhaps as well heie as in any department, although he was properly an encyclopce&ian compiler. He was a native of Naucratis in Egypt, and lived at the beginning of the 3d century. His JsinvocrocpHnai, or Banquet of the Sophists or Learned, in 15 hooks, is a treasure of various and useful knowledge. It is a rich source of information on topics of philosophy, history, poetry and antiquities, and preserves many interesting fragments and monuments, which the stream of time must otherwise have borne away from us. It is to be regretted, that the work has several lacuna or places wanting or defective, especially in the last book. The two first books also, and the beginning of the third, are extant only in an abridgment or epitome, made by some grammarian at Constantinople. 1. The work is in the form of dialogue. A number of learned men, above 20, lawyers, physicians, poets, grammarians, sophists and musicians, meet at a banquet given by a rich citizen of Rome named Laurentius, and, in noticing the different instruments, materials and preparations of their feast, remark upon al- most every thing pertaining to the knowledge or customs of the ancient Greeks. — Scha.ll, iv. 297. — Ed. Rev. vol. iii. 2. There have been but few editions of Athenseus. Princeps, by Aldus (Mu- surus assisting as ed.), Ven. 1514. fol. — Bedrotus (^ Herlinus), Bas. 1535. fol. — Is. Causaubon, Gr. & Lat. 1597-1600. 2 vols. fol. very celebrated. The Latin version by Dalecampius (Dalechamp), first printed 1583, at Lyons; the 2d vol. printed 1600. contains Casaubon's Commentary. — Same, repr. Lyons, 1612-21, and 1657-64.— G. H. Schcefer, Lpz. 1796. 8. only 1st vol. published. The plan contemplated three parts, each consisting of 3 volumes ; comprising the text, the commentary of Casaubon with notes, and the French version of Villebrune first printed Par. 1789. 5 vols. 4. The last ed. is Schweighceuser, Gr. & Lat. Argent. (Strasb.) 1801-7. 14 vols. 8. Cf. Schcell, iv. 300. Dibdin, i. 335. Monthl. Mag. Jan. 1803. § 124. Long inus ( Dionysius Cassius) a rhetorician and critic, who embraced the Platonic philosophy, and flourished in the 3d century. His birth-place was probably Athens, although it is not certain. Lit- tle is known of the circumstances of his life, excepting that he was a teacher and counselor to Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and was put to death by order of her conqueror Aurelian. Many works, now lost, were written by him. The treatise Ilegl vipovq, on the sublime, which has come down to us only in a defective state, is a celebrated production. It does great honor to the judgment and fine critical powers of the author, and well illustrates the nature of the sublime in thought and composition by principles and examples. 1. Longinus spent a considerable part of his life as a teacher of rhetoric and criticism at Athens, before he became preceptor to Zenobia. — Of the various works, of which we have merely the titles, with a few fragments, the most im- portant was that styled 0.ol6yoi, or i).oloyoi ouiXlai, consisting of 21 books, containing criticisms upon authors of his own and more ancient times. — Ruhnken (under the fictitious name Schardam), Diss, de vita et scriptis Longini. Lug. Bat. 1776. and in Weiske, cited below. Cf. Schmll, IV. p. 329. 280 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 9. Edition* Host; 1). Wtiske, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1809. 8. Repr. Lond. 1820. E&rly ; Prince])!;, Robortelltis, Bas. 1554. 4. — P. Manutius, Ven, 1555. 4. — Em. Port us, Gen. 1569. 8. basis of all subsequent till that of Pcarcc. — G. de Petra,GtT. &Lat. Gen. 1612, 8.—Tollius, Gr. & Lat. Traj. Rhen. 1094. 4.— Pearct, Gr. & L^t, Lond. 1724. 4. much valued and often repr. in 8. — (Tumer- mtuiii \ Kianigj Gr. Lat. Gall. & Ital. Veron. 1733. 4. — Toup, Gr. & Lat. Oxon. 1778. 4, and 8. celebrated. Repr. 180G. Translations; German, best, J. G. Schlosscr, Lpz. 1781. 8. — French, Boileau, Amsi. 1701. 8. and in Tumermann cited above. — English, W, Smith, Lond. 1739. 8. often reprinted. ^ 125. Themistius, surnamed Euphrades, was a celebrated orator and sophist of the 4th century, a native of Paphlagonia. He acquir- ed great reputation at Constantinople by his philosophy and" his in- structions in rhetoric. He enjoyed also the favor of several emperors, especially Constantius. Besides several commentaries, or paraphra- ses, illustrating Aristotle, we have from him 34 discourses, marked by clearness, order, and richness of expression. 1. He was highly regarded by Julian and his successors, down to Theodosius the Great, who entrusted him, although a pagan, with the education of his son Arcadius. He was the master of St. Augustin, and a friend of Gregory Nazi- anzen, who styled him BaoUtvg ?.6yi»v. He resided for some time at Rome. He must not be confounded with Themistius, a deacon at Alexandria in the 6th cen- tury, and founder of the sect of Agnoetce. The titles and arguments of his discourses are stated by Schasll. — The para- phrases avefour in Greek, and two extant only in Latin versions. — Schxll, vi. 141. vii. 121. 2. The first edition was the Aldine under the title, Omnia Themistii Opera (cur. V. TrincaveUi) Ven. 1534. fol. containing the 4 Greek Paraphrases, and 8 Discourses. — The Latin Paraphrases were printed, Ven. 1558, and 1570. Of the discourses, subsequent editions, H. Slephcmus, Par. 1652. 8. (14 Disc.) — Dionys. Pelavius, Par. 1618. 4. (19 Disc.) — T. Hardouin, Par. 1684. fol. (33 Disc. Cf Scha.ll, vi. 159. Harles Brev. Not. 479) — A Discourse found and pub- lished by Mai, Milan, 1816. 4. — A complete edition of Themistius is wanting. § 126. Himerius, a native of Prusa in Bithynia, flourished at Athens as a sophist and speaker, under the emperor Julian in the 4th century. He was an imitator of iElius Aristides. 1. Like other sophists he traveled about, pronouncing discourses and ha- rangues. Afterwards he was established at the head of a school in Athens. Ba- sil, Gregory and Nazianzen were among his pupils. He left above 70 discourses ; of which we have only 24 entire, and 10 imperfect. One ot the most interesting is that in honor of Julian and the city Constantinople. His style is affected, and loaded with erudition.— Schcell, vi. 182. 2.. The only complete edition is that of Gottl. (Theopk) Wemsdorf, Goett. 1790. 8. — Wemsdorf, a professor at Dantzig, had spent many years in preparing this work, accompanied with a version and commentary, but died -1774, without having found a publisher. In 1783, Harles published a specimen of the work, which induced a book-seller to publish the whole. § 127. Julianus [Flavins Claudius), more commonly known by the name of Julian the Apostate, became emperor of Rome on the death of Constantius, A. D. 361. He possessed undoubted abilities, and a philosophical turn of mind, yet was by no means free from so- JULIAN. LIBANIUS. 221 phistvy and bigotry. He wrote discourses, letters and satires. One of the most celebrated of his pieces is the satire called the Caesars, Kaluugeg, or 2vfin6ffiov. 1. The epithet Apostate^ Anoarurrn) was given to Julian on account of his openly renouncing the christian leligion, in which he had been educated by his uncle, Constamine the Great. He made great exertions in various ways to over- throw Christianity. He intended by rebuilding Jerusalem to disprove the pre- dictions of the sacred scriptures, but his efforts were all defeated by the most sig- nal disasters. He died in consequence of a wound received in battle, in an expe- dition against Persia, A. D. 363, at the age of 32. Gibbon has very speciously and artfully drawn his character.— Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch, xxiii, xxiv.— Cf. Warburton's Discourse entitled Julian, Lond. 1751. — For the life of Julian, Am- mianus Marcellinus is considered good authority. — His life written in French, by Ph. C. de La BleUerie, Amst. 1735. 12. — Same, transl. by A. V. Desvccux, Dubl. 1746. 8. — Also, in French, by Tourlet, as cited below.— A. Neander, uber den Kaiser Julianus und sein Zeitalter, Lpz. 1812. 8. 2. Julian composed a work expressly against the faith ot christians. It is lost, and most, that is known respecting it, is learned from a refutation written by Cyri.ll of Alexandria. In the last century a French author, the Marquis D'Argens, undertook to restore the wor^ of Julian, and published his performance, Berl. 1764. ,8. It was soon refuted by G. F. Meir, Beurtheilung den Betrachtungen des Marq. v. Argens ueber den Kaiser Julian, Hal, 1764. 8, and by W. Crichton, Betrachtungen ueber des Kaiser Julian Abfall von der Christlichen Religion &c. Hal. 1765. 8. Among the most singular of his discourses are the two, Hlgxov paaOAa "HXiov, to the monarch, the sun, and Elq ti,v fiijTlQu6sa>v,tothe mother of the gods (Cybele) ; they exhibit his bigoted or hypocritical attachment to the grosest pagan absurdi- ties. — Of the letters, one peculiarly interesting is addressed to a pagan priest, in- structing him how to sustain the cause of paganism against the christians. — Schmll, vi. 186.— Cf. Chr. Sped. vol. 5. p. 539. 3. There have been 3 editions of his works ; Martinius <$• Cantodarus, Par. 1583. 8. — Dion. Peiavius (Petau) Par. 1630. 4. Best, Ez. Spanhcim,, Lpz. 1696. fol. with the work of Cyril! mentioned above. — But neither of these con- tains all the letters. Several, not in Spanheim, are given by Muratori, Anecdota Graeca, Petav. 1709. 4. and others still, in Fabricius, Lux salutaris Evangelii, Hamb. 1731. 4. Of separate pieces, we notice the following ; The Caesars, by B. Picart, Amst. 1728. 4. with Plates and French Tr. — J. M. Heusinger, Gr. Lat. &Fr. Gotha, 1741. 8. — The Caesars and Misopogon, by H. I, Lasius, Greifsw. 1770. 8, The Eulogy on Constantius, by G. H. Sdiccfer, Lpz. 1802. 8. with D. Wyttenbach's notes. Translation, in French, of complete works, H. Tourlet. Par. 1821. 3 vols. 8. § 128. Libanius, of Antioch, lived also in the 4th century, and mostly at Constantinople. He belonged to the profession of sophists, and was distinguished beyond all his contemporaries in eloquence. His writings were various. Besides a treatise styled ngoyvfivaafid- rav naQadeiyficna, Examples of rhetorical exercises (or prceexercita- tiones), and numerous Letters, we have also many of those pieces, which were called Msleral, Harangues or Declamations. We may observe in the style of these discourses an affectation of Attic purity and ele- gance, by which the charms of natural ease and freedom are often lost. 1. Libanius suffered from the envy of rivals, by whose influence he was ban- ished from Constantinople, A. D. 346. He retired to Nicasa and then to Nico- rnedia,but was aftei wards recalled to Constantinople. Subsequently, however, 222 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. he withdrew unit passed the remnant of his days at Antioch, his native city. He was admired and patronized by Julian the apostate, and in common with the lat- ter rlierished the hope of restoring the reign of paganism in the Roman empire. He lias left an auto-biography, styled Jiyoc mol rijg savrov rv/tjg, which is plac- ed among his discourses. — SchOll, vi. 159. — See also Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. xxiv. — Tilkmont, Hist, des Empereurs, T. iv. p. 571. — Lardner, Heathen Testimo- nies, vol. iv. p. 576. 2. Schcell gives the Greek titles of above 60 of the discourses or harangues. In the Rhetorical examples are 13 sections, each devoted to examples of a sepa- rate kind. The letters are about 2000, some of them to christian Fathers; Ba- sil and Chrysostom both were pupils of Libanius. He left also Arguments to the orations of Demosthenes, which are usually given in the editions of this orator. — Sch.mll, vi. 176. 3. There is no edition of the whole works of Libanius. The most complete edition of the Discourses is that of -J. J. Reiske, Altenb. 1791-97. 4 vols. 8. pub- lished after his death by his widow. It contains the Rhetorical exercises. — Two additional discourses have been since published, one by Ch. Siebenkees, in his Anccdota Graeca, Norimb. 1798. 8 ; the other by A. Mai, in his Fronto, Rome, 1823. The most complete edition of the Letters is that of J. Ch. Wolf, Amst. 1738. fol. — In the Libraries of Spain are discourses and probably other writings of Libanius hitherto unpublished. A German translation of 5 of the discourses by the wife of Reiske, in the Hellas, Lpz. 1791. IV. — Gramm arians. § 129. Next to the rhetoricians, it will be proper to notice the writers called- grammarians, rqa^anxol. This class included not merely such as treated of the subjects now comprehended under mere grammar, but all who devoted them- selves to any of the various branches of philology (P. I. §71). This depart- ment of study began to be more specially cultivated in the period after Alexan- der, and particularly at Alexandria. It was in this period, that catalogues were first formed of authors regarded as classical; these catalogues were called canons. § 130. Among the various works of these grammarians, were Jtoo&wocig, re- visions of the text of classical authors ; c YTtopvttfiara and 'E'itiyijgeig, commenta- ries; Sxokia, explanatory notes; Z^n'/fiara, Avong, investigations and solutions of particular difficulties ; JTAwooai and M^sig, which treated of dialectic and pecu- liar forms and single words ; 2vfi.fuxra, collections of similar phrases and passa- ges from different authors. Some wrote upon the subject of grammar in the more limited sense ; some upon different specific topics included in it, as syntax, metre, dialects and the like. These authors undoubtedly exerted considerable influence upon the language and literature of their own and subsequent times; and their works are of value to us as containing much information respecting earlier periods and authors. § 131. The most distinguished that flourished before the fall of Corinth, B. C. 146, were Zenodotus founder of the first school of grammar at Alexandria, Aristophanes of Byzantium his disciple, and Aristarchus of Samothrace a dis- ciple of Aristophanes. Crates, Philemon, Artemidorus and Sosibius are names, which occur also in this period. That of Zoilus has been preserved as a com- mon name for a severe and captious critic ; he made himself notorious, in an age abounding with admirers of Homer, by his criticisms and declamations a- gainst that poet, and thus gained the epithet Homeromastix. Whatever the gram- marians of this age composed, nothing remains to us but trivial and scattered fragments.— Schmll, Liv. iv. Ch. 35. In the next period of Grecian literature, particularly after the time of Augus- tus, the list of grammarians is altogether larger. Only a few names can here GRAMMARIANS. 223 be given. Of those who may be called lexicographers, Apollonius snrnamed the Sophist, Erotianus, Timacus and Julius Pollux are the principal. Tryphon son of Ammonius, Phrynicus the Arabian and iElius Mceris wrote on dialects, Among the scholiasts and commentators may be mentioned Ptolemy VII, Didy- mus, Apion, and Epaphroditus. Of the writers on different topics of grammar we may select Dionysius Thrax, Tryphon above named, Apollonius Dyscolus and his son Herodianus, Arcadius of Antioch author of a treatise on accents, and Hephaestion, whose Manual on Metres comprises nearly all that is known on the subject. Some of the above mentioned will be noticed separately. — Scka.ll, Liv. v. ch. 59. § 132. After the time of Constantine letters continued to be cultivated by • the grammarians. Constantinople was now the seat of erudition. A sort of University was founded here, in which all the branches of human knowledge were professedly taught. The teachers or professors were styled Oixovfievixoi, universals, A valuable library was also established. Philology in its various parts was among the sciences taught by the oecumenical professors. These studies were not renounced with the destruction of the library and the decline of the royal College, but were continued with more or less attention until the final capture of the city by the Turks. The writers during this long period were very numerous; only a few have acquired celebrity ; while many of their productions yet remain in manuscript. The names and works of the most im- portant authors will be given below. It may be proper to observe here, that the Greek literati, who fled from Constan- tinople on its capture in 1453, and exerted an important influence on the study of Greek letters in Italy and western Europe, belonged chiefly to the class denomi- nated grammarians. Their labors in their new asylums in the west, were chiefly • of a •philological character. § 133/ We shall place here some general references, and then proceed to notice separately a few of the Grammarians. Collections; Lexicographical, Aldine; Dictionarium Graecum etc. Ven. 1497. fol. — Dictionarium Graecum etc. Ven. 1524. fol. — H. Stephanus, Glossaria duo esinu vetustatis etc. 1572. fol. — Vulcanius, Thesaurus utriusque linguae etc. Lug. Bat. 1600. fol. — Cf. C. F. Matthia, Glossaria graeca minora etc. Rig. 1774. 8. — J. A. Emesti, de gloss. gra?c. vera indole et recto usu. Lips. 1742. 8. — Fabriclus, Bibl. Gr. vi. 141. — Scholl, Hist. L. G. vi. 281 ss. Grammatical, Aldine, C. Lascaris Erotemata, etc. Ven. 1494. 4. — Theod. Gaza. Introd. Gram. etc. Ven. 1495. fol. and 1525. 8.— Thesaurus Cornucop. et Horti Adonidis. Ven. 1496. fol. — Erotemata Chrysolorae, etc. Ven. 1512 and 1517. 8. — H. Stephanus, in the Appendix to his Thesausus (§ 7. 3). — Phil. Giunta or Junta, Enchiridion gram- mat. Introd. etc. Flor. 1514, 1517, 1540. fol. — Ber. Junta, Theod. Gaza, gram- mat, etc. Flor. 1526. 8. — !V . Vacosanus, Thomae Magistri et Moschopuli Ectogae, etc. Lut. 1538. — Villoison, Anecdota Graeca etc. Ven. 1781. 2 vols. 4. — J.Bekker, Anecdota Graeca. Berl. 1812-21. 3 vols. 8. — W. Dindorf, Grammatici Graecu Lips. 1823. 8. — See C. D. Beck, Commentarii de Uteris et auctoribus Graec. at- que Latinis. Sect. I. p. 47. — Cf. remarks and references given § 7. 2 at close. § 134. Hephastion, of Alexandria, lived about the middle of the 2d century. He is to be distinguished from the my tho graphical wri- ter, who had the same name. His Manual on Metres, 'EyxeiQidior nsgl fiixQuv, contains almost every thing which is known respecting the rules and principles of the ancient critics on this subjeet. The first edition was in B. Junta, cited § 133. — A. Tournebouf, Par. 1533. 4. with scholia, —Best edition, Gaisford, Oxf. 1810. 8. $ 135. Apollonius Dyscolus was also of Alexandria, and flourish- ed in the 2d century under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He has 224 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. left us four grammatical treatises, viz. HsqI aurrdSsoig, Of Syntax; IIsqI uriMi-vfiias, Of the pronoun ; HsqI ovvSBO[twv, Of conjunc- tions : ami //."(,>< ' Fnin^fidiiav, Of adverbs. We have also a compi- lation styled 'Inogiat 6avftdaiui, or Wonderful Histories. 1. The treatise on Syntax, was published by Aldusin Thesaurus Cornuc. cited §133.— sulhiti", Prancf 1590. i.—J. Bekker, Berl, 1817. 8.— That on the Pro- noun bv ././>'>/./. xal 'Ellijvwv, is pre- served. 1. It was first published by J. Hudson, Oxf. 1712. 8. — next by J. Fischer, Lpz. 1756. 8. with the Lexicon of Timaeus. — best by J. Pierson, Leyd. 1759. 8. 2. Tryphon and Phrynieus the Arabian were mentioned (§ 131) in connec- tion with Moeris as having also written on dialects. There are some remains from them noticed by Scholl (v. 11). The principal is the JltioTTaQaoxivlj auquo- tix>i, ' Apparatus sophistique ' of Phrynieus, in the latter part of the 2d century; published by Bekker as cited § 133. vol. I. § 139. Harpocration, of Alexandria, probably flourished as a contemporary of Libanius in the 4th century. He was the author of a Lexicon entitled As^stg iw dsxa 'qtjtoqojv, useful in reference to the Greek language generally, and the Attic orators in particular. Published by Aldus, (with Ulpian's Comm.) Ven. 1503. M,—Blancard, Leyd. 1683. 4.— Better, by J. Gronov, Leyd. 1696. 4.— A new edition, Lips. 1824. 2 vols. 8. $ 140. Hesychius lived at Alexandria, as is generally supposed, towards the close of the 4th century. He compiled a Greek Lexicon or Glossary from the more ancient grammarians, and illustrated his se- lections by examples from the best Greek authors. Additions were made to this work by later hands, among which are probably the nu- merous theological glosses (glossce sacra). Perhaps, in its present state, it is the work as enlarged by some christian author. 1. The best edition, J. Alberti (completed by Ruhnkcv>\, Leyd. 1774-76. 2 vols, fol. — A new ed. has been expected from Gaisford. — Previous; Princeps, by Aldus, Ven. 1214. fol. [ed. M. Musurus). — Junta, Flor. 1520. fol.— Schrevelius, Leyd. 1688. 4. — The results of a collection of Atberli's, edition with the only manuscript existing (in Lib. St. Mark, Venice) was published by Nic. Schoiv, Lpz. 1792. 8. — The glossce sacra were collected by J. C. G. Ernesti, Lpz. 1785. 8. with a Sup- plement, 1786. 8. — Cf. also ScAleusner, Observ. in Suid. et Hesych. Wittemb. 1810. i.—Schcell, vi. 282. 2. The author of the Lexicon must not be confounded with Hesychius of Mi- letus, in the 6th century, under Justinian, from whom we have some remains not very important. Published by J. Orelli, Lpz. 1820. 8.— Scholl, vi. 404. vii. 75. § 141. Ammonius, of Alexandria, probably lived in the latter part of the 4th century. He is said to have been an Egyptian priest, and to have fled from Constantinople on the destruction of the pagan temples. He was the author of a work, entitled Tle^i dfioiuv xai di- acpoQwv legswv. It is a work of some value in the criticism of words. It was published in Aldus, Dictionarium etc. cited § 133. — H. Stephanus, in App. to Thes. cited § 7. 3. — The best edition is Valckenaer, Lug. Bat. 1739. 4. Repr. (ed. Schafer), Lpz. 1822. 8. — A good abridgment of Valckenaer' shy C, F. Ammon, Erlang. 1787. 8. — There is a treatise by Ammonius, ZIuqL' AxvqaXoyiaq^ Chi improper use of words, never printed. 29 226 HISTORY OF CiREEK LITERATURE. sN 142. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, died A. D: 891. He may be placed in the class of writers now under notice, although he was a man of letters in general rather than a grammarian. His Mvqi6{irf)>ov, Bibliotheca or Library, is in many respects valuable. It contains ciitical notices of about 280 works of ancient writers, ac- companied with extracts. Of a number of these works we should otherwise have scarcely known the titles. His Lexicon, Ai^euv av- vayuyij, although in a mutilated state, is useful in the study of the his- torians and orators. 1. The life of Photius presents a series of interesting incidents. His charac- ter was not without some blemishes, and he experienced great vicissitudes of for- tune. From a layman he was raised to the office of patriarch. He was deposed and banished, after 10 or 11 years recalled and reinstated, but again deposed and confined in a monastery, where he died.— Gibbon, Rom. Empire ch. ix. — Milner, Ch. History. 2. Besides the works above named, we have also from Photius a work styled Nomocanon, a collection of Canons of the church, and a number of letters, homi- lies and (he like, of minor value. — For a particular account of the MvQi6(li(li.or } see Scholl, vi. 305.— Fabricius, in Bibl. Gr, X. 678. ed. Hades.— Cf. Ed. Rev. No. 42. 3. There is no edition of the whole works of Photius.— Of the Library, there have been, until recently, but three editions. D. Hczschel, Augsb. 1601. fel. — P. Stephanus, Genev. 1611. fol. with the version of A. Schott, first publ. Augsb. 1696. — Same, repr. by Berthelin, Rouen, 1553. fol. — A new ed. was commenced by Bekkcr, Berl. 1824. 4. The Lexicon was first published by G. Hermann, with the Lexicon of Zonaras, Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 4. (by Tittmann <$• Hermann.) Photius the. 3d vol.— Better, R. Parsons, Lond. 1822. 2 vols. 8. (ed. by Dobrec).— The Nomocanonwas printed Par. 1620. fol. with Balsamon. — The Letters (248) by Montacutius {Montague), Lond. 1651. fol. § 143. Suidas probably lived about A. D. 1000, although it cannot be made certain. He was the author of a Lexicon, compiled from various authors, grammarians, commentators and scholiasts. It is not executed with much judgment, accuracy or skill in arrangement. Yet it is of considerable value on account of its store of literary and antiquarian information ; and many of its defects, especially in the ap- parent want of method, may be owing to interpolations and additions made by tranjjribers and others. There have been the following editions; Princcps, by Dem. Chalcondylas, Mil. 1496. fol.— Aldus, Ven; 1514. M.—Frobenius, Bas. 1544. M.—Mm. Portus, Gr. & Lat. Gen. 1619. 2 vols, fol.— Best, L. Kusten, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1705. 3 vols, fol. — The following works further illustrate Suidas. — Toup's Emend. &c. Lond. 1760-75. 4 vols. 8. also in his Opusc. crit. Lpz. 1780. 2 vols. 8. and ed. by Burgess, Lond. 1790. 4 vols. 8.— Schweighceuser , Emend, et Obs. in Suidam, Argent. 1789. 8. — Reinesii Observ. in Suidam (ed. C. G.Mueller) Lpz. 1819. 8. § 144. In this connection we ought to notice the work of an un- known author, who lived about A. D. 1000. It is a Greek Glossary, styled 'Exvfj.oloyiy.6v (isya, the Etymologicum magnum. Besides its value as a grammatical work, it is still more useful because it has pre- EUSTATHIUS. GREGORIUS. THOMAS MAGISTER. 237 served many passages of ancient authors, and furnished solutions of many difficulties in history and mythology. 1. Editions of the 'Erv/.ioi'.oyixbv ; Princeps, by Z. Calliergus (ed.M Musurus) , Ven. 1499. fol.— P. Manutius (ed. Torrisani), Veil. 1549. fol. — Commelin led. F. Sylburg), Heidelb. 1594. fol.— Panagiola (.of Sinope), Ven. 1710. M.—Schee- fer, Lpz; 1816. 4. a repr. of Sylburg's. To this last ed. the two following works may be viewed as the 2d and 3d volumes ; F. W. Sturtz, Etymologicum ling. Gr. Gudianum etc. Lpz. 1818. 4. — By same, Orionis Etymologicum. Lpz. 1820. 4. — Cf. Schcell, vi. p. 277. 294. 2. In the Libraries of Europe are several Lexicons or Glossaries, still re- maining in manuscript, particularly in the Royal Library of France. — We may also mention here one first published by Villoison in his Anecdota cited § 133; the > Imvia, or Violarium, by Eudocia, wife of the emperor Constantine Ducas, and his successor for a short time, but soon after placed in a convent. In this retreat she wrote her work, a sort of historic-mythologic compilation, supposed to be of much value before Villoison published it. — Schcell, vi. 296, 318. § 145. Eustathius, of Constantinople, flourished in the 12th cen- tury, and became finally bishop of Thessalonica. He is particularly celebrated for his copious and learned Commentary on Homer, enti- tled flags xfiolal sig t^v 'Ofirjgov , IlnxSa and sig jtjv ' Odvocrsiav. We have also from him a less valuable commentary on Dionysius Pe- riegetes. 1. The Comm. on H. was first published, Rome, 1542-1550. 3 vols. fol. contain- ing the index of Devarius. (Cf. §50.. 5.)— This repr. Bale, 1560. 3 vols, fol.— An ed. commenced by Polili, Flor. 1730; but never finished.--Extracts from the Comm. often published with Homer. — Cf. Bulletin des Sciences Historiques, vol. 4. p. 337. A commentary by Eustathius on Pindar is lost. — Schall, vi. 269. 2. John Tzetzes may be named in connection with Eustathius ; he was a grammarian at Constantinople in the same century (§ 81]. § 146. Gregorius, surnamed Pardus, and afterwards CorinUnvs from being the bishop of Corinth, lived about the middle of the 12th century. Of his many works two only have been published ; one is a treatise on the Greek dialects, IIeqI Jialev-Tcav, and the other a Com- mentary on the last part of the rhetoric of Her mo genes (§ 121. 1). The treatise on dialects, edited by G. Koen, Leyd. 1766. 8. better than any ed. previous. — By G. H. ScAcefer, Lpz. 1811. 8. still better.— The commentary given in Reiske (cited § 99) vol. viii, § 147. Thomas Magister, or Theodulus, may be mentioned here. He lived in the beginning of the 14th century (about 1310). After holding the place of Magister officiorum under the emperor Androni- cus Palseologus, he became a monk with the name of Theodulus. A work by him is extant, called' Exloyal ovo/ndroov 'Awixiav. First published by Calliergus, Rome, 1517. 8. — Best, by J. S. Bernard, Leyd. 1757. 8. and /. G. S. Schvabe, Allenb. 1773. 8.— Cf. G. 'Hermann, Progr. de pne- ceptis quibusdam Atticislarum. Lpz. 1810. 4. 228 msTOKY or greek literature- V. — Writers of Epistles and Romances. § 148." We shall next introduce the class of writings called Letters or EpistUs. There are many extant, ascribed to distinguished men of ancient times. Rut a great portion of them are spurious, being the productions of the sophists and grammarians of later periods. Some of them, however, are un- questionably genuine; as e. g. those of Isocrates, Demosthenes and Aristotle. In these (the genuine), there is generally a noble simplicity of manner, entirely free from the art and labor, which are betrayed in the epistles fabricated in the age of the later sophists. The latter class were composed with designed reference to publication, and treat of various subjects, particularly subjects of a historical and romantic character. We shall mention below some of the principal authors of Greek epistles, either real or supposed. § 149. As the form of epistles was so often adopted by the sophists and others in composing pieces which were, properly speaking, works of fiction, we shall mention the names of the principal writers of romance in the same connection. The species of composition termed romance was unknown in the most flourishing periods of Greek literature. A modern writer has pointed out the reason. ' In. the most refined ages,' says he, ' the whole empire of fiction was usurped by the ingenious polytheism of the Greeks. This filled every imagination and satis- fied the love of the marvelous so natural to man. Every festival renewed the tale of some god's singular adventures. The theatre owed its charms, in great measure, to the strange union of the heroic daring of mortals, and the interven- tion of deities. In a nation so happily adapted for the elegant arts, fiction natu- rally assumed the garb of poetry, and the beautiful fables so well sung by the poets left no place for recitals in prose, composed, as it were, of vulgar dreams. The people, it must also be remembered, were all engrossed in public and active life. Retirement and solitude were almost unknown. The state, so to speak, made it a business to amuse its citizens in public. While such was the publicity of the master's life, the universal prevalence of domestic slavery, and the degraded and immured condition of the female sex, rendered private life a uniform and monotonous scene. Thus, while there was no opportunity to imagine any won- derful adventure, or very singular character and destiny, without violating proba- bilities, there was at the same time but little scope for the passion of love, which holds so important a place in modern romance.' ( Villemain, quoted by SchOll, iv. p. 304. § 150. It was not until the fifth period of our outline (S 9), that works of this description made their appearance, and scarcely any thing of the kind is earlier than the time of Augustus. These works are called in general erotic tales. But we may include in the same class, not only romances properly so called, or formal love stories, but also amatory letters, Milesian or magical tales, and imaginary voyages. Of imaginary voyages one of the first authors was Antonius Diogenes, whose work, Tit vniq SovXtjr aniara, the incredible things beyond Thule, is quoted by Photius. It seems to have contained a tissue of absurdities, in forty-four books. Lucian also wrote an imaginary voyage, entitled * AXrfirfi loroQia, in two books; a satire upon voyagers, who relate marvellous stories, full of grotesque represen- tations, with malignant allusions to the miracles of the sacred Scriptures. Milesian tales are so called because a certain Aristides of Miletus, of whom little is known, wrote a series of stories, the scene of which was Miletus. A specimen of this sort of tale is found in the piece of Lucian styled Aoxlxio? i) "Ovof (Cf. § 121. 2). The Latin work of Apuleius, styled the Golden Ass, be- longs to the same class of fictions. Of amatory letters the only specimen, before the time of Oonstantine,is given in some of the letters of Alciphron. In the next period, not long after Constan- tine, we find a work of this class, entitled 'Emarolal 'townxal, ascribed to Aris- taenetus. § 151. A work of Parthenius, in the age of Augustus, may be considered as ANACHARSIS. 229 \ a precursor of the formal romdnce, being a collection of amatory tales, entitled Ileql iqamx&v Ila&tjuaTuiv, chiefly of a melancholy cast. But the most ancient writer of the proper romance was Jamblichus of Syria, in the reign of Trajan. His work styled ' laroQiai Bafivf.wvixai, or the Loves of Rhodane and Sinonis, is quoted by Photius. The next author in order of time is probably Xenophon of Ephesus, to whom is ascribed a Greek romance, called 'Equataxa. In the period after Constantine, we find several romancers. Three, whose works were in verse, have already been named (§ 33). Besides these, there were at least/our prose writers, whose romances are extant, Heliodorus, Achilles Ta- tius, Longus, and Eumathius. The romance ascribed to Chariton also was pro- bably written in the same period. Xenophon, already named, is by some like- wise placed here. Heliodorus is considered by many as the best writer of the whole class, and his work is said to have been the model, not only of the Greek ro- mances, but also for the early French romances of the 16th century. (Cf. §258.2). Others pronounce Longus to be decidedly the first among the Greek romancers. fy 152/ The following are references on the class of authors and works now under notice. The principal names will be given in the following sections, the real or supposed writers of epistles first, and the romancers after them. 1. On the epistles attributed to ancient Greeks, Schmll, ii. 273. — Schmnhcydoi, in the N. Biblioth. d. sch. Wiss. vol. 5.— Collections of Greek Epistles; Aldus, Epistolarum gracarum collectio. Ven. 1499. 2 vols, 4.— Reprinted, Gen. 1606. fol. with Lat. version ascribed to Cujacius. — Camerarius,*Ey.).oyij SiayuQwv inio- roi.wvetc, Tubing. 1540. 8. — Stepk. Prevoteau, Ttay i?J.7]vixqtoriisSv Ibyoi $' (4) ; and it is possible that by some copyist the last word was taken for the name of the wri- ter.— Schoell. vi. 238.— Cf. For. Quart. Rev. No. 9. 2. Editions ; Princeps by Columbanus, (printer Junta) Flor. 1598. 4. — Three editions in the 17th cent.— Nealmus, (Neaulme, publisher',) Par. 1754. 4. with Lat. vers, and plates.— Boden, Gr. and Lat. Lpz. 1777. 8—Villoison, Gr. and Lat. Par. 1778.2 vols. 4. one of the best editions.— Mitscherlich as cited § 152.2 — G. H. Schafer, Lpz. 1803. 8, a better text— A splendid ed. with plates printed by Didot, Par. 1802. 4. Translations; German, J. C. Krabinger, Landsh. 1809. 8.— Fr. Passow with the Greek text. Lpz. 1811. 12.— French, J. Amyot, Par. 1559. 8. often repr.— English, G. Thomley, Lond. 1617. 8. XEN0PH0N. CHARITON. EUMATHIUS. 233 § 1 63. Xenophon of Ephesus, whose period of nourishing is un- known, was the author of the story of Anlhia and Abrocomas, in 5 books. 1. Some have placed this writer as late as the 5th century ; others suppose he must have lived before the time of Constantine ; Peerlkamp, the latest editor of this romance, thinks that its author was the earliest writer of the class, and that Xenophon is merely an assumed name. — Schoell, iv. 310. — Dunlop, Hist, of Fic- tion. V 2. Editions; first, Ant. Cotchi, Gr. &Lat. 1726. 8' — Two next editions faulty. — (Fourth) Mitscherlich, cited § 152. 2. — A. E. de Locelta, Gr. & Lat. Vindob. 1796. 4. one of the best.— P. H. Peerlkamp, Harl. 1818. 4. good.— Schall, iv. 311. Translations; German, J. G. Krabinger, Milnch. 1820. 8. — French, Jourdan, Par. 1748. 12. and in Biblioth. cited § 152. 2.— Italian, Salvini, Lond. 1723. 12. before 1st edition of the original. § 164. Chariton, of Aphrodisia, is another romance writer of whom nothing is known. The work bearing his name is the love- story of Chareas and Callirrhoe, T&v Ileal Xcuqeav xai KalXi^gor/v ioonwiov dt,riyr)imT(av loyoi r\, in 8 books. This was first published by J. Ph. d' Orville (Doruillius) Amst. 1750. 3 vols. 4. with a Lat. trans, by Reiske, and a very learned commentary. — Repr. of same, ed. C. D. Beck, Lpz. 1783. 8. Translations, German, Heyne, Lpz. 1753, 8 — Schmieder, Ebend. 1806. 8. — French, Larcher, Par. 1763. 8. — English, Lond. 1764. 2 vols. 12. (Fuhrmann, p. 528.)— Schall. vi. 246.— For. Quart. Rev. No. 9. § 165. Eumathius, or Eustathius, of Egypt, also of an uncertain age, was a writer belonging to the same class. This person must not be confounded with Eustathius the celebrated commentator upon Homer. He wrote the tale of Hysmine and Hysminias, To xud" 'Yo^lvijv xal c Yafitviav doafta, in 1 1 books. The romance of Eumathius, of little value, has been printed but seldom ; G. Gaulmin, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1617. 8. repr. Vienn. 1791. — L. H. Teucher, Lpz. 1792. 8. (Gaulmin's without notes). Translations; German, Madam Reiske, in. the Hellas, (Th. 1. p. 101), Lpz. 1778.— French, in the Biblioth. and Collect, cited 6 152. 2.— Schall, vi. 247. VI. — Philosophers. § 166. 2 * Grecian philosophy was not properly speaking of native origin, but was introduced by various colonists from Egypt, Phoenicia and Thrace. It first appeared in the poets who treated, in their verse, of the nature of things, the ori- gin of the world, the system of the gods, the principles of morals, &c. Linus, Musseus, Orpheus and Hesiod belong to this class, and even Homer may be in- cluded. The poets of Greece, it may be truly said, were her first philosophers. — Cf. P.I. §§40—42. See D. Tiedcmann, Griechenland's erste Philosophen, oder Leben und Systeme des Orpheus &c. Lpz. 1780. S.—Tcnnemann. Hist. Phil. (Fr. vers.cf Cousin. Sect. ib.—EnfieW, Hist. Phil.B. II. ch. 1 30 284 HISTORY OF OREEK LITERATURE. 6 1H7 It mav also be remarked with propriety, that the next philosophers of Greece were her priests and Legislators. Grecian philosophy had a religious as- pect in its vciv beginnings, in I he fanciful speculations of the poets respecting the ori-iii of tilings and the nature and offices of the gods. The notion of a multi- titiide of supernatural spirits, having each an appropriate department in govern- in" the world could not but affect the philosophical reasonings of all embracing it It whs nei feel Iv natural to inquire how these superior agents would make known their will, and predictto man the future, or warn him of danger. Thus was furnished a fruitful field of speculation upon the various subjects of augury, omens oracles and the whole system of divination. The ideas, which became incorporated into the popular belief, were indeed but a mass of absurdities not de- serving the name of philosophy, yet it was about such ideas that the early Greeks expended much thought, or rather indulged in much imagination. Upon this foundation arose a curious fabric; divination, under the ingenuity of priests, who united to personal shrewdness and foresight some knowledge of physical na- ture «rew into a sort of regular science. The institutions termed mysteries had, in tneir nature and design, some intimate connection with this early religious philosophy. (Cf. PI. §41). " When the progress of society demanded the care of the lawgiver, and began at the same time to furnish the talents and knowledge requisite to frame success- ful codes then philosophy assumed anew aspect. The moral and social nature ot man began to be studied more. Reflecting minds examined into the motives, by which men may be actuated, and contemplated the nature, proper punishments and preventives of crime, the theory of government and of education. In learn- ing the character of this political philosophy, we must consider particularly the ci vil institutions of Lycurgus and Solon, and the character and doctrines of those, who are called by way of eminence the wise men of Greece. A glance at the former shows us, that very particular reference was had to the training of vouth for their future circumstances. The two legislators differed widely in th'eir systems. The Spartan aimed to foim a community of high- minded warriors; the other sought rather a community of cultivated scholars. Their plans of education varied accordingly. Lycurgus enjoined abstinence and hardships ; Solon furnished books and teachers. It must not be forgotten, however, that the Spartan system was two hundred years earlier than the Athe- nian The seven sages belong to the age of Solon, who was indeed himself one of them. They were all actually employed as magistrates and statesmen ; but they were also the philosophers of the age. They were not merely speculative like the disciples of the different sects afterwards, nor did they like the preceding poets indulge in fanciful dreams; they were rather men of shrewd practical ob- servation. Hence the character of their philosophical fragments, which are wholly proverbial maxims, adapted for the conduct of life in manners and mor- als. Their precepts were not always given in formal statements, but sometimes clothed in symbolic expressions, which were understood only by those, to whom they were explained. Fabulous tales were also sometimes employed for the same purpose ; such were those of iEsop, in which moral and political maxims are drawn out into allegory. On the political philosophy of the Greeks, Enfield Hist. Phil. B ii. teh. 2— Warburton, Div. Lega- tion of Moses, B. ii. sect. 1—3. Chevalier Ramsay, Travels of Cyrus, B. iv. and v.— C. G. Heyne, De ZaleucietCharondaelegibusatqueinstitutis, in his Opusc. Academ. T. ii— Is. de Larrey, Histoire des sept sages, t with rem. by Beamnarchais) Lahaye, 1734. 2 vols. 8. § 168. The next aspect, in which we find Grecian philosophy, presents it as exhibited in the different schools and sects. This aspect was not distinctly assum- ed until a little after the age of Solon, during our third period of Greek Litera- ture (§9j. The first origin of different schools is commonly ascribed to the clash- ing interpetations, which were put upon Homer by the Rhapsodists (§21), who af- ter rehearsing passages from the great poet and master, added their own explan- ations and comments. These interpeters disagreed in expounding the Homeric philosophy, and soon had followers or advocates among those not belonging to their particular profession. At length two very eminent men arose and became each the head of a school in philosophy, about the same period: viz. Tholes and Pythagoras, PHILOSOPHERS. 235 who died, the former about 540, the latter about 500 B. C. — Thales founded what is called the Ionic school, and Pythagoras the Italic school. From these two original schools all the sects may be derived. We will first slightly notice these two, and then briefly speak of the sects that subsequently grew out of each. § 169. The Ionic was the earliest of the two schools. Thales, its founder, was a native of Miletus, possessed of wealth, and great talents. He traveled in Crete and Egypt. Ranked among the seven sages, he devoted much thought to political philosophy. But he also took up all the inquiries about the physical and material world, which were agitated by the Rhapsodists. The precept yvia&i otavrov is attributed to him. Philosophy as studied in this school included in reality every branch of sci- ence, not only morals and politics, but rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy and all that is now comprehended under natural philosophy and natural history. — It was a grand point of inquiry among the disciples to ascertain what was the first principle of all things in the universe. Some found it in one or other of the ma- terial elements ; others recognized a divine mind, as prior to all other causes. The principal philosophers were Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Archelaus of Miletus. Erifteld, B. ii. ch. 9.—Cudvjorth's Intellectual sytem, Ch. I. §22, and ch. iv. §20.— H. Ritter, Histoire de la Philosophie Ionienne, Berl. 1821. 8.— Abbe de Canaye, sur le philosophe Thales, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Inso. T. x,— Cowsm's Tennemann, Sect 85—37. §170. The iMieschool was still more celebrated. Its founder, Pythagoras, was a native Samos. After traveling, especially in Egypt, he taught morals and politics at Samos. For some cause he afterwards went to Italy, and established his school at ( .'rotona in Magna Gracia. The pupils, whose numberssoon amount- ed to 600, dwelt in one public building, and held their property in common. Their business for each day was very regularly planned. They were divided into two classes, probationers and initiated ; the latter only were admitted to all the privi- leges of the order, and made acquainted with its highest knowledge. This es- tablishment was at length broken up by popular violence. Under philosophy the Italic school, like the Ionic, included every object of human knowledge. But Pythagoras considered music and astronomy of spe- cial value. He is supposed to have had some very correct views of astronomy, agreeing with the true Copernican system. The beautiful fancy of the music of the spheres is attributed to him. The planets striking on the ether, through which they pass, must produce a sound ; this must vary according to their differ- ent magnitudes, velocities and relative distances; these differences were all ad- justed with perfect regularity and exact proportions, so that the movements of the bodies produced the richest tones of harmony ; not heard, however, by mor- tal ears. One of his distinguishing peculiarities was the doctrine of emanations ; God is the soul of the universe, pervading all things, incorporeal ; from him emanated four different degrees of intelligencies, inferior gods, daemons, heroes, and men. Another was the doctrine of ^rettyji^waig, or transmigration of the soul. Gene- ral abstinence and self-government were strongly urged. — Some of his apoph- thegms and symbolic precepts are preserved. (Cf. § 58. 1). Some of the principal disciples were Empedocles (§ 64), Ocellus, Archytas, and Philolaus. The latter is said to have sold to Plato the records and books of the Pythagorean school. EnJield,B. ii. ch. 12. Ramsay, Trav. of Cyras, B. vi.— Heeren,by Bancroft, ch. xiv, p. 297 — J. Schrf- fer, de natura et constitutione philosophise Italicae. Vitemb. 1701. 8 —Dacier, La vie de Pythagoie ses symbols &c. Par. 1706. 2 vols. 12— Th. Kiessling, Jamblichi de Vita Pyth. liber. Lips. 1815. S.—Cous in's Tennemann, §§ 88-95. § 171. The first school, that drew its descent from the Ionic, was the Socratic. This is so named from its founder Socrates, who was a pupil of the last public teacher of the Ionic school. Socrates is entitled to the praise of being the best man of pagan antiquity; the charges brought by some against his purity being without evidence. He was first trained to the manual employment of his father, a common statu- ary; but was afterwards patronized by a wealthy Athenian, named Crito, and enjoyed the instiuclion of eminent teachers. He was several times engaged in 236 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. war as a soldier; m one engagement he saved Alcibiades when wounded ; in an- other Xenophon. Alter he bewail to teach, most of his lime was spent in public, ami he was always ready and Tree lo discourse. In the latter part of his lite lie u as called to civ il olliees. His domestic vexations from his wife are proverbial, but very possibly exaggerated. The trial, condemnation ahddeathof Socrates are themes of intense interest both to the scholar and the philanthropist, and have fixed an indelible blot on the character of the Athenians. At trial he had no advocate, but made his own plea. Lysias had prepared an oration for his use, but he declined the favor; Plato would have spoken, but the court forbade it. The Socratic mode of instruction has been mentioned before (P. I. § 73). One of the grand peculiarities of Socrates was, that he confined the attention of his pupils chiefly to moral science. Reconsidered the other subjects included in the studies of the old Ionic school as comparatively useless. He seems to have believed, but with some doubtings, the immortality of the soul. He left nothing in writing ; but we have an authentic source of knowledge respecting his views in his Memoirs, ' \Anoftvriftovtvnara, by Xenophon. The writings of Plato cannot be so much depended on for this object, because he was himself the founder of a new sect. Those disciples of Socrates, who adhered to their mastersimply with- out advancing notions of their own, are sometimes denominated pure Socratic. jEschines, Cebes, and Xenophon are the principal. Enfield, B. ii. ch. 4.— Rollin, B. ix. ch. 4.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. xxiv.— Mitford, ch. xxii. § 3.— J. G. Cooper, Life of Socrates &c. Lond. 1771. S.—G. Wingers, Socrate comme horame, citoyen ct phi- losophe. Rost. 1807.— is. Nares, Essay on the Demon of Socrates, Lond. 1712. 8.— Cudworth, Int. Syst. ch. iv. §83.— Cousin's Tennemann, §§ 113-118. § 172. The Socratic school was soon divided into numerous branches. No less than five sects appeared, headed by philosophers who had listened to Socra- tes, and two of these ere long gave birth each to a new sect, thus raising the number to seven. These maybe divided into two classes, and perhaps well de- signated as Minor Socratic, and Major Socratic sects, the original and proper school of Socrates being called Pure Socratic. The Minor Socratic were three, the Cyrenaic, Megaric, and Eliac. The Cyrenaic had its name from Cyrene, in Libya, the native place of its foun- der Aristippus. The peculiarities of this sect favored indulgence in pleasure. Its author was fond of luxury and ornament. The sect was of short duration. They were sometimes styled 'Hdovixol. The Megaric took its name likewise from the native city of its founder Euclid, who was born at Megara. It was also called Eristic from its disputatious char- acter, and Dialectic, from the form of discourse much practiced by its disciples. This sect was famous for its subtleties in the art of reasoning. Some of their futile sophisms are recorded; e. g. the Horned; what you have never lost, you have ; horns you have never lost, therefore you have horns. These philosophers also agitated the controversy about universals and particulars ; the same sub- stantially as that, which was so acrimonious in the middle ages, between the nominalists and the realists. The Eliac was so called from Elis, the place where its founder, Phsedo, was born and delivered his lectures. It is sometimes called Eretriac, from the cir- cumstance that Menedemus, a disciple of Phsedo, transferred the school to Ere- tria, the place of his own nativity. It opposed the fooleries of the Megaric phi- losophy, and the licentiousness of the Cyrenaic, but never acquired much im- portance. On the Cyrenaic sect; Enfield. B. ii, ch. s.—Fr. Mentz, Aristippus philosophus Socraticus, Hal. 1719. 4.— Cousin's Tennemann § 121.— On the Megaric; Enfield,, B. ii. ch. 6.— X G. Hager, Dissert, de modo disputandi Euclidis.Lpz. 1736. 4.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 125.— On the EMac; Enfield, B. ii. ch. 7. § 173. The Major Socratic sects were four, viz. the Cynic and Stoic, Aca- demic and Peripatetic ; each of which was founded at Athens, and will deserve a short notice. The Cynic originated with Antislhenes, a pupil of Socrates. He maintained that all the philosophers were departing from the principles of that master. He assumed the character of a reformer ; severe in manners ; carefully negligent of dress, so much so as to provoke the ridicule of Socrates. The Cynics were rather a class of reformers in manners, than a sect of phi- PHILOSOPHERS. 237 iosophers. Their name is said by some to have been occasioned by their severi- ty and sourness, which were such as to bring upon them the appellation of Dogs. They had two grand peculiarities; one was, that they discarded all speculation and science whatever ; the other, that they insisted on the most rigid self denial. One of the most famous of this sect was Diogenes. He carried the notions of Antisthenes to extravagance. Made up of eccentricities, he was always a cen- sor, and his opposition to refinement often degenerated into rudeness. He sati- rized the instructions of other philosophers; having heard Plato define a man to be a two legged animal without wings, he stripped a cock of feathers, and taking it into the Academy, exclaimed, ' See Plato's man.' There are no writings of this sect except some fragments of Antisthenes. On the Cynics; Enfield, B ii. ch. 10'.— Barthelemy, Trav. of Anach. ch. vii.— Schasll, Hist. Litt. Gr. ii, 360.— The remains of Antisthenes are two discourses, given in ReisJce (cited § 99), 8th vol. and some sentences, given in J. Orelli, Opuscula &c. cited § 103. 1. The letters ascribed to him are in /. Orelli, Collectio&c. cited § 152 1. § 174. The Stoic sect maybe said to have sprung from the Cynic. Its foun- der was Zeno, anative of the island of Cyprus. Brought to Athens by the mer- cantile pursuits of his father, he was accidentally introduced to the school of the Cynics, and from them he borrowed many of the notions of the sect he estab- lished. Zeno, however, visited the other schools which then existed, and bor- rowed from all. The name of Stoic was drawn from the Portico (P. I. § 7-1), where he gave his lectures. The Stoics differed from the Cynics, in as much as the former devoted them- selves much to speculative studies, which the latter wholly discarded ; but they resembled the Cynics in some degree in their general austerity of manners and character. Indifference to pleasure or pain, adversity or prosperity, they incul- cated as the state of mind essential to happiness. The doctrine of fate was one of their grand peculiarities; they considered all things as controlled by an eter- nal necessity, to which even the Deity submitted ; and this was supposed to be the origin of evil. — Their system of morals was in general strict and outwardly correct, but one which was based upon and which greatly fostered a cold self- relying pride. It approved of suicide, which was perpetrated by Zeno himself. Yet it stimulated to heroic deeds. — In logic they imitated the quibbles and soph- isms of the Megaric sect. The story of the sophist Protagoras and his pupil well illustrates the absurd trifling of their dialectics. Their system, however, presents a division of things similar to that of Locke, into four kinds, substances, qualities, modes and relations. The later Stoics are supposed to have borrowed some views from Christianity. They speak of the world as destined to be destroyed in a vast conflagration, and succeeded by another new and pure. One of them, addressing a mother on the loss of her son, says, ' the sacred assembly of the Scipios and Catos shall wel- come the youth to the region of happy souls Your father himself Ifor there, all are known to all) shall embrace his grandson, and shall direct his eyes, now fur- nished with new light, along the courses of the stars, with delight explaining to him the mysteries of nature, not from conjecture, but from certain knowledge.' Among the most distinguished of the early disciples of this school were Cle- anthes, immediate successor to Zeno(§ 72), and Chrysippus, who also became the public teacher in the school at Athens. The latter was celebrated as a dispu- tant ; ' give me doctrines,' said he, ' I will find arguments tesupport them.' His industry, it is said, produced many hundred treatises; of which nothing remains except a few scattered citations. Nor have we any written productions from Zeno or any of the early stoics. The principal authors, whose works remain, are Epictetus and Antoninus, who lived after the christian era. On the Stoics, Enfield, B. ii. ch II.— Cudworlh, Int. Syst. ch. iv. § 25.— Adam Smith, Theory of Mo- rat Sentiments, P. vii. Sect. 2. ch. 1. (p. 115. ed. Bost 1817).— Th. Brown, On the Philos. of Hum. Mind. Lect. xcix. (p. 547. 3d vol. ed. And. 1822) —Epictetus, and Antoninus, cited in subsequent sections. § 175. The Academic sect originated with Plato, a native of Athens, descen- ded on his father's side from Codrus, and on his mother's from Solon. In youth devoted to poetry and painting, he wrote a poem, but after comparing it with Homer, committed it to the flames. Captivated by the lectures of Socrates, he left poetry for philosophy. After much travel, through the East and also in M3S HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Magna Gtascia, he opened his school in a public grove, from which the sect de- rived the name of the Academy (P. I. § 74). Over his door was the inscription Oiittli : ,'t)- f «7iMi,ii,u)v ■mohbi; so much did he value mathematical scieuceas a inundation for higher studies. One of the peculiarities of the Platonic philosophy respected the relations of matter to mind ; the system recognized a supreme intelligence, but maintained the eternity of matter"; matter receives all its shapes from the will of the intel- ligence, yet contains a blind refractory force which is the cause of all evil. The human soul consists of parts derived from both these, the intelligence and the matter; and all its impurity resulted from the inherent nature of the latter constituent. — A very striking peculiarity was the doetrine respecting ideas. It was briefly this; that there exist eternal patterns, or types, or exemplars of all things; these exemplars are the only proper objects of science; to understand them is to know truth :. on the other hand, all sensible forms, the appearances made to the several senses, are only shadows ; the forms and shadows are ad- dressed to the senses, the exemplars or types to the intellect. These exemplars were called ideas. The doctrines respecting matter and ideas essentially controlled the system of study in this sect, and their practical morality. To gain true science, one must turn away from the things around him and apply his mind in the most perfect abstraction to contemplate and find out the eternal original patterns of things. And to gain moral purity, he must mortify and deny the parts of the soul derived from matter, and avoid all familiarity with the shadows. Hence probably the readiness to embrace the Platonic system manifested among the christians of the middle ages, when the mystic notion of cleansing the soul by solitude and pe- nance became so common. The Academic sect was very popular, and eminent philosophers successively taught its doctrines in the grove. Some adhered closely to the views of Plato, and were called disciples of the Old Academy, while others departed from them and formed successively the Middle and the New Academy. The Old was be- gun by Plato B. C. about 400 ; the Middle, by Arcesilaus, B. C. about 300; the New, by Carneades, B. C. about 180. — The distinguishing point of difference between the three branches was their opinion respecting the certainty of human knowledge. The Old Academy maintained that certain knowledge can be ob- tained, not of the sensible forms, but only of the eternal exemplars; the Middle, that there is a certainty in things, yet it is beyond the attainment of the human mind, so that positive assertion is improper ; the New, that man has the means of knowledge, not infallible, but sufficiently certain for all his wants. On the Academic sect, Enfield,, B. ii. ch. 1— Middleton'shife of Cicero, sect, xii — Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. xxxii J. F. Herbart, De Platonici Systematis fundamento. Gcstt. 1805. a.— Cousin's Ten- nemann §§ 128-138, and references there given. § 176. The Peripatetic sect grew out of the Academy, Aristotle its founder having been long a pupil to Plato. Having closed his labors as the teacher of Alexander, he returned to Athens, and his master, Plato, being dead, he com- menced his lectures in the Lyceum (P. I. § 74). He taught for 12 years. Ac- cused of impiety by enemies and rivals, he retired to Chalcis, where he remain- ed until his death. The Peripatetics, according to the established practice of the philosophers, had their public and their secret doctrine, or the exoteric and esoteric (P. I. § 72). In his morning walk, Aristotle imparted the latter to his particular disciples; in his evening walk, he proclaimed the former, his public doctrine, to a mixed crowd of hearers. Very contradictory accounts have been given of the essen- tial principles of Aristotle and his sect. But nothing perhaps was more distinc- tive, than the system of syllogistic reasoning, which was introduced by the foun- der, and became so celebrated in subsequent ages, and for so long a period held the highest place in the plans of education. Of the early disciples of this sect, Theophrastus and Strato were among the most eminent. They succeeded Aristotle as teachers in the Lyceum. Dicsear- chus, the geographer, and Demetrius Phalereus, the rhetorician (§ 116), were also distinguished Peripatetics. On the Peripatetics, Enfield, B. ii. ch. 9.— Gillies, ch. x\.—Cudworth, ch. iv. 24.— Smith, Theory Mor. Sent. P. vii. Sect. 2. ch. \.—Mitford, ch. xli. § l.— Ed. Encycl. Aristotle.— Cousin's Tennemann. % 139-150. -- On the Logic of Aristotle, Reid's Analysis of A.'s Logic— Stewart, Elements of Phil Hum. Mind. Vol. ii, ch. 3.—/. CUUies, Analysis &o, in his Translation of A.'s Ethics and Politics.' Lond. 1797. 2 vols, t, PHILOSOPHERS. 239 § 177. We will next notice the sects which were derived from the Italic school (§ 168). They were four, the Eleatic, the Hcraclltean, the Epicurean, and Sceptic. The Eleatic was founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, who early left his na- tive country for Sicily, and thence passed over into Magna Grascia. Here he became a celebrated disciple in the Pythagorean school, but advanced new and different views in his own lectures. The sect derived its name from the place where some of his most distinguished followers belonged, Elea in Magna Graecia. The doctrines of the Eleatic sect were atheistical. Matter is made up of in- finitely small atoms, which have no property but a tendency to move. By the eternally varying motions of these atoms, every existence and every effect in the universe is caused. Yet there is no real change except in our senses. The soul of man is material. The most distinguished supporters of this sect were Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, Leucippus, who is said to have been the chief author of the atomic theory, and Demoeritus of Abdera, commonly called the laughing philosopher. Another eminent follower of this sect was Protagoras of Abdera, who acquired great power and wealth at Athens in the profession of sophist, but was finally banish- ed, his writings having been publicly burned, on account of his impiety. The Heraclitean sect was instituted at Ephesus by Heraclitus, from whom it took its name. It is but little noticed as a separate sect. The doctrines were atheistic, and many of them more absurd than those of the Eleatic philosophers. One of the notions was, that all nature is full of souls or daemons. Fire is the principle from which all things are produced, and those souls are the best, which have the least moisture, and approach nearest to the primary fire. The most celebrated name among the Heraclitists was Hippocrates, who in some points agreed with this sect, but was not properly speaking a disciple. On the Eleatic sect, Enfield, B. ii. ch. 13.— Cudworth, ch. i. §8. eh. iv. § 20.— J. G. Buhle, com- ment, deortu et progressu pantheism! indo a Xenophane prirao ejus auctore usque adSpinozam. Gcett. 1790. 4.— Cousin's Tennemann, §§ 37-102, 104, 105.— Fragments of their writings, in H. Stephanas, Hoitjgtg (pMooipog, cited § 47. Cf. 64. 2,—Schoell, ii. 316. On the Heraclitean, Enfield, B. ii. ch. 14.— Cudworth, ch. i. § 16. iii. 8. iv. 13.— Ch. Gottl. Heyne, Progr. de animabus siccis ex Heraclites placito optime ad sapient, ac virt. instructis. Gcett. 1781. fol. and in his Opusc. Acad. vol. 3d.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 103.— Fragments of writings, Stephanus as just cited. -Letters ascribed to Heraclitus, in the collections cited § 152. l. § 178. The Epicurean sect had its name and origin from Epicurus, born near Athens. He first gave lectures at Mitylene, but afterwards opened hisschool at Athens in a garden, in which he lived, and often supported large numbers of young men, who flocked to hear him; The doctrines of this sect were derived from the atomic theory of the Eleatics, and were on the whole atheistic, although not so fully and formally. All happi- ness was founded in pleasure. This principle opened the way for the great li- centiousness of the latter disciples of this school. Epicurus explained and lim- ited his language so as to recommend the practice of virtue, 'It might have been his pleasure to be chaste and temperate. We are told it was so ; but others find their pleasure in intemperance and luxury; and such was the taste of his principal followers.' The sect became popular, and existed to a very late period. Of the writings of the sect only trifling fragments remain. Yet Epicurus alone is said to have written several hundred treatises. Hermachns, or properly Hermarchus, was successor to Epicurus, and inherited his books and garden. On the Epicureans, Enfield, B. ii. ch. 15.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. xl.~ Smith, Theor. Mor. Sen'. P. vii. Sect. 2 ch. 2.— Brown, Intell. Phil. Lect. 99.— Cousin's Tennemann, §§ 151-157.— Fragments of Epicurus, J.G. Schneider, Epicuri physica et meteorologia duabus epistolis ejusdam comprehensa. Lips. 1813. 8.— J. C. Orelli, Epicuri fragmenta librorum ii et xi de natura &c. Lpz. 1818. 8.— Cf. Schatll, iii. 321. § 179. The Sceptic sect was so named from its doctrine; it was also called Pyrrhonic from its founder Pyrrho. He was educated in the Eleatic sect, and particularly admired the notions of Democritns, from whom he drew the ele- ments of his system. He was also instructed in the dialectic sophistries of the Megaric sect, and seems to have been disgusted with their frivolous disputes. The doctrines of this sect were very similar to those of the middle Academy 840 HISTORY OK GWBEK LITERATURE. (§ 175), and many real sceptics concealed themselves under the. Dame of the Academy, as their owe seel was rather unpopular. Their essentia) peculiarit] « as, thai nothing is certain, and no assertion can be made. Happiness they placed in tranquillity or mind, ana i his could be obtained only by absolute indifference to all dogmas. They ridiculed the disputes and contradictions of the other seeis, especially the boasted confidence of the Stoic, and the proud sophistries of theMegaric. Bui Seneca well remarked in comparing the Megaric and the Sceptic sects, ' I prefer a man who teaches me trifles, to him who teaches me nothing. II' the Dialectic philosopher leaves me in the dark, the Sceptic puts out my eyes.' One of the eminent disciples of this sect was Timon already mentioned as a poet (§ 15). The sect had its professors and teachers down to the time of Sexlus Empiricus, whose writings are a principal source of information respecting the. views of the Sceptics. On the Sceptics, Enfield, IS. li. ch. 16.— Gillies, oh. x\.—R. Bo-Jersen, rte philosopliia Pyrrhonia. Kit. lsiu. i.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 124.— Langhelmich cited § is.—hchcell, iii. iv*,, § 180. We have given a view of thesectsas they grew one out of another. It may be remarked here, that four of them arose after the commencement of the 4th period in our division of the history of Greek literature (§9), viz. the Peripatetic and Stoic, descendants of the Ionic school, and the Epicurean and Sceptic, offspring of the Italic ; all the others existed before the time of Alex- ander. It was in the 4th period also, that the middle and the new Academy appeared. In the 5th period, i. e. after the Roman supremacy, Grecian philosophy lost much of the dignity and importance it had enjoyed. Its professors were viewed ■• more in the light of mercenary teachers. The spirit of honest inquiry gave place to the prevalence of scepticism. Visionaries and impostors assumed the garb of philosophers, and new sects were formed under the old names, the out- ward forms and technical expressions being retained, with almost nothing else. Such especially were the New-Pythagoreans. As eminent among these may be mentioned particularly, Sextius, in the time of Augustus, Sotion af Alexandria, under Tiberius, and Apollonius Tyanensis, the famous impostor. On the New-Pythagoreans, Enfield, B, iii. ch. 2. sect. 2.— Cousin's Tennemann, § lb4. — Schcell, Liv. v. ch. 60. § 181. The New-Platonists also appeared under the Roman emperors. These professed to disentangle the pure doctrines of Plato from the additions and cor- ruptions of the later Academicians ; but they themselves mingled much that was foreign to his system, and soon prepared the way for the Synchrelistic, or Eclectic school. The principle of the Eclectics was to select whatever was true in the various conflicting doctrines of all the sects and thus form a harmonious union. .The first projector of this plan is said to have been Potemo, a Platonist of Alexandria. But Ammonius, of the same city, surnamed Saccas, is considered as the actual founder of the Eclectic school. He had been educated among Christians, and en- deavored to incorporate in his system some of the principles of Christianity. And this sect numbered among its disciples both Christians and pagans. The more eminent of the pagans, before the time of Constantine, were Plotinus, Por- phyry, and Jamblichus. On the New-Platonists and Eclectics, Enfield, B. iii. ch. 2. sect. 3, 4.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 185, 200-219:— Schozll, Liv. v. ch. 61, 62. § 182. There were also during the same period, under the Roman emperors, followers and advocates of the principal ancient sects, as (besides the Academic), the Peripatetic, the Cynic, the Stoic, the Sceptic, and especially the Epicurean. It is not important in this glance to notice them separately; indeed the Eclectic principles held a great sway with the age, and under the prevalence of these, on the one hand, and of a christian philosophy on the other, the adherents to the old names had but a limited influence. After the time of Constantine, who died A. D. 337, the New-Plalonists, who were generally great enemies of Christianity, established their school at Athens. The most distinguished philosopher was Proclus. This school was at length suppressed by Justinian (P. I. § 82). PHILOSOPHERS. 241 Of the other systems the Peripatetic was the most in vogue among the Greeks especially at Constantinople. Indeed it was not long after Constantine when all, who did not embrace Platonism, were included under the general name of Pe- ripatetics. Many writers employed themselves in attempting to explain and en- force the system. In the 8th and 9th centuries the Peripatetic philosophy was introduced among the Arabians, and the works of Aristotle were translated into the Arabic lan- guage. By them it was propagated in the west of Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. Here it gave rise to that scholastic philosophy, which exhibited such a singular union of acuteness and folly, and which reigned in Europe until the revival of letters. On the several sects above named, underthe Emperors before Constantine, Enfield, E. iii. ch. 2. sect. 5-9.— Schcell, Liv. v. ch. 63-67. On the christian philosophy, of the same period, Schcell, Liv. v. ch. 38.— Enfield, B.vi. ch. 2. Cf. § 288. On the New-Platonists after Constantine, Enfield, B. iii. ch. 2. sect, 4 — Schcell, L vi. ch, 93— On the Peripatetics, Schcell, L. vi. ch. 94. Cf. Hallam, Vie w of Europe in Middle Ages, Ch, ix. P. 2. (p. 352. 2d vol. ed. Phil. 1824, § 183/ We shall now mention some of the principal sources of information respecting the Greek philosophy, and also some of the more important works on the History of philosophy, and then proceed to notice the more distinguished Greek philosophers, of whom we have written remains. • Original sources. Diogenes Laertius in his Lives of the Philosophers. He flourished, probably, m the beginning of the 3d century; little is known of his lile. His work is in 10 books, and contains the biography of the principal phi- losophers of the various sects, together with their most remarkable apophthegms Their contents are briefly stated by Schcell, vol. 5. p. 226. The whole of the 'last book is devoted to Epicurus.— There have been many editions. Princcps bv i^feMthesonsof), Bas. 1553. 4,— H. Stephanvs, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1570-94. 2 vols 7~ £. e best are - M Mcibomlus, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1692. 2 vols. 4. — Lon- golms Gr. & Lat. (text of Meib.). Hof. 1739. 2 vols. 8. with engravings of heads —Hilbncr Lys. 1828. 2 vols. 8.— There are several translations. It was first published in the Latin of Ambrosius (Travcrsari) before 1475 which had a 2d ed. Ven 1475. toL— Walter Burley, in the beginning of the 14th cent, translated or closely followed Diogenes, in his work De vita et moribus philosopkorum &c. printed at Cologne,1472.4; and is supposed by some to have had a better text of the original than is now possessed (Cf. Half's Anal. Litt. vol. li. p. 227) —German ilJr m £ m B i° r7 iZ ck >J ien - andPr - 18 07. 2 vols. 8.— French, {oMomymousS Amst'. 1/61. 3 vols. 12.— English, Lond. 1688. 2 vols. 8. Cicero, in his philosophical writings, especially De Finibus, & Quaeslioncs Academico.e, may also be consid- ered as a valuable source. Modern works on the History of philosophy. Th. Stanley, History of Philo- sophy Lond, 1655. fol.-3d ed. 1701. 4,-^. Brucker, Historia Critica Philoso- pniEE &c.L,pz. 1742-6/. 6 vols. 4.— By same, Institutiones hist. Philos. Lpz 1756 ,4 ( ?J- 5 '?) i 790 - 8 — W - infield, History of Philosophy &c. Lond. 1791. 2 vols. 4. Dubl. 1/92. 2 vols. 8. (a translation and abridgement of Brucker) — W. G. Tennemann, Geschichteder Philosophie. Lpz. 1798-1819. 11 vols. 8 one of the best works in this department.— By Same, Grundnss der Gesch. d. Phil (3d ed. by Wcndt) Lpz. 1820. 8. Trans. into French by Cousin. Par 1819 8—J.G Buhlc Lehrbuch der Gesch. d. Philos. und ihrer Literalur. Gott. 1796-1804 8 ™° ls \ 8 -— °f» e? 'f "A Histone Comparee des svstemes de la Philosophie. 2d ed Par. 1822. 4 vols. 8.-~ W. T.Krug, Geschichte der Philosophie alter Zeit vor- nchmlichimterGnechen und Rcemern. Lpz.I815.8. —The following abridgements may be added. F. Ast, Grundriss einer Geschichte der Phil Landsh 1807 8 — /. G Gurhtt^ Abriss der Gesch. d. Phil. Lpz. 1786. S.-G. Socher, History of the systems of Philosophy from the time of the Greeks down to Kant Mun 1802 8 (in German),— W. Anderson, Philosophy of Ancient Greece, Lond 1791 4 — Fenclon, | Abridged Lives of the Philosophers, Par. 1795. 8. Tr into En- bv Cormack.— For other references, see Cousin's Tennemann, S§ 37 38 ° 31 242 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. ■J 1 184. slhop, a Phrygian, generally supposed to have lived B. C at Least 600, do< s aot strictly belong to the class of Greek philoso- phers ; yet he may properly he named here, on account of the princi- ple of moral and political philosophy embodied in his Fables. I''. He was Nun a slave, and served different masters; the last of whom, ladmon of Samos, a philosopher, gave him his freedom. The other circum- stances of Ins life are bul imperfectly known, although they are detailed with considerable fullness in the biography of him ascribed to Maximus Planudes, a monk' of Constantinople in the 4th century; upon which, however, little reliance can be placed. The same Planudes also collected aad enlarged the fables of iEsop, never, probably, committed to writing by himself. They had been put into Choliam- bic verse by Babrius (improperly called Babrias and Gabrias), who lived in the time of Augustus (§ 31). From this metre they were gradually reduced again to prose, and received their present form from Planudes. 2, The editions of .Esop have been drawn from several different manuscript collections, containing different numbers of Fables, an account of which is given by Scholl, vol. 1. p. 252. ss. The best editions are, J. M. Heusinger, Gr, & Lat. Lpz. 1741, 1799. 8.— Er- nesli, Lpz. 1781. 8.— F. De Furia, Gr. & Lat. Flor. 1809. 2 vols. 8. from an an- cient Ms. at Florence in the library of the Cassini monks, and supposed to pre- sent the Fables as they were before the changes made by Planudes. Repr. Lpz: 1810. with additions; Dibdin says ' this appears to be, upon the whole, the very best.'— There are later editions; Coray, Par. 1810. 8.— J. G. Schneider, Bresl. 1812.8, after the Augsburg Ms. and containing 231 Fables of iEsop, with 50 of Babrius. — G. H. Schafer, Lpz. 1821. 8. Therp have been numerous transla- tions. The most ancient was probably that of Hildebert, of Tours, 12th cent, in Latin verse; published Rome, 1473. 4.— German, J. C. Bremen, Gtuedl. 1788. 8.— I. F. W. Molz, Lpz. 1794. 8.— French, A. le Grand, Par. 1801. 8.— English, S. Croxall, Lond. 1722. 8.-1788. 12— Cf. Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, JEsop— JNachtr. zu Sulzer, or Char, vornehmst. Dicht. vol, v. p. 269.— Th. Tyrwhitt, Diss, de Babrio. Lond. 177G. 8. 3. There is another collection of Fables in Greek, being a version of those Oriental tales commonly ascribed to an ancient brahmin of India, named Pilpay. This version was made by Simeon Sethus, of Constantinople, in the 11th cen- tury, under the title Sriipavirrig xal '.T^vjjAut?;? (le Vainqueui et V Invesligateur). The Greek text has been published once, Starke, Berl. 1697. 8.— There are trans- lations of Fables in all the modern languages.— Schisll, vii. 187.— Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, Fabel. § 185. Ocellus Lucanus, a pupil of Pythagoras, lived B. C. about 490. To him is ascribed an extant treatise Ileql Tfjg tov navjog cpvcreug, On the nature of things. If genuine, it must have been written in the Doric dialect, and been changed into the common by some gram- marian of subsequent times. Notwithstanding all its errors, it evinces much acumen, and contains some very valuable precepts upon educa- tion. Yet it is quite probably the work of a later author. 1. The question of the genuineness of this work has been much agitated. The conflicting opinions are examined by Rudolphi, in a Dissertation in his edi- tion of the work. He ascribed it to Ocellus. —Schmll, vol. ii. p. 311. 2. Editions. Best ; Abbe Batteux, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1768. 3 vols. 12.— A F. W. Rudolphi, Lpz. 1801. 8. Gr. only. Early, Princeps, Par. 1539. 8. h. Nogarola, Ven. 1559. 4. with vers, and notes. Repr. by Commelin, Heid. 1596.8.— Th. Gale, in his Opuscula Mythologica. Camb. 1671. 8. Later, Marquis d'Argens (Dar- gensius), Berl. 1762. with Fr. vers, and Commentary. XENOrilON. .ESCHINES. 243 § 186. Xenophon, an Athenian, was born B. C. 450, and died B. C. 356. Besides his great merit as a military commander, and as a historian, he is worthy of special notice as a philosopher, and one of the most excellent among- the pupils of Socrates. The discrimina- tion, solidity, precision, and mildness of manner so remarkable in his master, he acquired himself, and transfused into his writings. From the writings of Xenophon especially, we may learn the true spirit of the Socratic philosophy (§ 171). 1. He was born at the borough Ercheia. While a youth his personal comeli- ness attracted the attention of Socrates, who one day accidentally met him in the street, and invited him to his lectures. He accompanied Socrates in the Pelopon- nesian war, and was saved by his master in the battle of Delium (P. I. § 90. 6). At the age of 43, he engaged in the service of Cyrus the younger, and after the disastrous battle of Cunaxa, conducted the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand. Four or five years after his return to Greece, he entered into the service of Agesi- laus, king of Sparta, as a warrior. By this incurring the displeasure of the Athenians, he was accused for his former connection with Cyrus, and banished. He was received into protection by the Spartans, and enjoyed a pleasant retreat at Scillus, where he composed most of his works, and died at the age of 90. — MUford's Greece, ch. xxiii, xxviii. sect. 9 (p. 273. vol. v. ed. Bost. 1823;. 2. The works strictly belonging to the department of philosophy are 5, viz. 'AvtoinniuovtifiaTa Swy.Qurovg, Memoirsof Socrates ; 2wzQurovg ' Anoloyta nQog toi)? Staaatug, Apology of Socrates, not so much a defence from the charges laid against him, as a justification of the motives which induced him to choose death; ^Oixovo^iixog Xoyog, Discourse on Economy, a treatise on morals applied to rural life; the two last have been considered by some to have formed originally parts of the Memoirs; 2vfinoaiov (piXoaoipmv, The banquet of philosophers, of peculiar excellence as to style, and designed to illustrate the purity of Socrates ; ' Hqvw fj TviJawog, Hiero or The Prince, comparing public and private life, with remarks on the art of governing. There are 6 other pieces, which may be mentioned here, although less strictly of a philosophical character, J7f(u ' Innncijg, 'Jn7raQ- X ixt >g, KwyycTixbg, IIoqoi ij 7Ji(>l nqoaubiav, On the revenues of Attica, JaxeSai- fioviuv no?.iT£ia, and 5 Adrjva'iav nolniia; the two last, however, may not be the productions of Xenophon; although the former of them seems to be a grateful return for the asylum furnished to him on his banishment from Athens. His in- tercourse with the King of Sparta was the occasion of a eulogy styled, Joyog elg Ayi\o'iXaov. 3. Editions, whole works; Best, J. G. Schneider, Lpz. 1815. 6 vols. 8. — B. Weiske, Lpz. 1798-1804. 6 vols. 8.— Gail, Gr. Lat. & Fr. Par. 1804-16. 11 vols, small 4. to which must be added a 12th vol. styled Recherches historiques &c. Par. 1821. 4.— The Princeps was Junta, Flor. 1516. fol.— next, Aldus, Ven. 1525. fol. — then Brubachius (with pref. by Ph. Mela-ncthon) Hal. Suev. 1540. 3 vols. 8. the first which actually contained all. — Afterwards were, H. Stcphanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1581. M.—Leunclavius, Gr. &Lat. Par. 1625. fol— Wells, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1703. 5 vols. 8, — Thieme, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1763. 4 vols. 8. — memorabilia. Best, Schneider, (ed. by Benwell) Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1804. 2 vols. 8.—Schutz, Hal. 1822. 8. — apology, Zeune, (Zeivnius) Lpz. 1782. 8, with the Banquet, Hicro, Economy, and Agesilaus. — banquet, Dindorf, Lpz. 1823. 8. — polity of the Athenians arid of the Lacedemonians, Zeune, Lpz. 1778. 8. with the Revenues, and the treatises on horses and the chase. Translations, German, Whole works by A. Ch. $■ K. Borheck, Lemg. 1778-1808. 6 Th. 8.— Memorabilia by 1. I. Hottinger, Zuer. 1819. 8. — French, Whole works, by Gail cited above. A valuable help in illustrating this author is P. W. Sturz,. Lexicon Xenophonteum, Lpz. 1801-4. 4 vols. 8. § 187. JEschines, the philosopher, is not to be confounded with the orator of that name (^>107). He was born at Athens, and became a pupil of Socrates. We have under his name three philosophical 'J 14 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. dialogues, which are probably the work of another. They are char- acterised by their clearness of style, ease of manner, and instructive contents. The titles arc UsqI 'Aqsrrjg, 'Egv^iotg rj nsgl ttIovtov, and ' A£io%os ■>] nefjl Oukxtov, on virtue, riches, and death. These dialogues are found in many of the editions of Plato. They were pub- lished separately firstbjj. Leclerc, Amst. 1711.8. — The best edition is J. F. Fischer, Lpz. 17!Hi. 8. The Eryxias and AxiocAus are given by Aug. BccckA, in the work entitled, Smonis Socrakci dialogi iv. &c. Heidelb. 1810.8. — Cf. Ch. JFV, M iners, Judicium dequibusdam Sucraticoium reliquiis, imprimis deiEschi- nis dialogis, in Comment. Soc. Go3tt. 1782. § 188. Cebes, of Thebes, also a pupil of Socrates, B. C. 435, was the author of three dialogues. The third only is extant, entitled niva$, The Table, nor is it certain that this is genuine. It treats of the state of souls before their union with bodies, of the character and destiny of men during life, and of their exit from the world. The plan is ingenious, and it is executed in an instructive and useful man- ner. The Picture or Table is commonly published along with Epictetus (§ 193). — The more important editions are, Gronovius, Amst. 1689. 12. — Johnson, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1720. 8. — MessercAmid, Lpz. 1773. 8. — especially, Schweighttuser, Ar- gent. (.Strasb.) 1806. 12. first publ. in his Epictetus. — and G.F. W. Grosse, Meiss. 1813. 8. Translations, German, M. H. Thieme, Berl. 1810. 8. with orig. text. — French, de Vlllebrune, Par. 2 vols. 12. with text and Epictetus. Cf. FuArmann, Klein. Handb. p. 243. — SchmU, ii. 346. § 189. Plato lived from 430 to 347, B. C. He was the son of Aristonof Athens, a disciple of Socrates, and founder of the Academy. He threw happily into a written form the oral discourses of that great master. Plato laid the first foundation for a scientific treatment of philosophy. Antiquity bestowed on him the epithet divine, and all in modern times have acknowledged his merit and admired his writings. His works consist of numerous dialogues, on different subjects, meta- physical, political, moral and dialectic. They are exceedingly valua- ble for both style and matter, rich in thought, and adorned with beauti- ful and poetical images. Cf. §175. 1. We have 35 dialogues of Plato, besides the letters ascribed to him (§156). Several of the dialogues have been pronounced spurious by some critics, while others have strongly defended their genuineness. On this subject, and on the different schemes of classifying the dialogues and also for an analysis of their contents, we must refer to Schasll (vol. ii. p. 375. ss). 2. There are six ancient biographies of Plato; the earliest byApuleius in Latin ; the other five in Greek, including that of Diogenes Laertius, one by Olym- piodorus, another by Hesychius of Miletus, and two anonymous. — Many commen- taries on this philosopher have perished ; yet many still remain. There are also excellent scholia, collected in the most complete form by D. RuAnken, and pub- lished after his death. (Schol. in Plat. Amst. 1800. 8.) The Platonic Lexicon of Timaeus has been mentioned (§137. 3). Cf. ScAmll, ii. p. 416. 3. It has been made a subject of inquiry, whether Plato did not derive some of TIMjEUS. ARISTOTLE. 245 his notions from the Hebrews.— Cf. Enfield, Hist. Phil. B. ii. ch. 8.— Ramsay, Disc, on Theology of the Pagans. — Jakn's Bibl. Archaeology, § 313. — Prideaux, B. vi. P. l.—Kidd, On the Trinity, p. 526. ss. — Chateaubriand, Beauties of Christianity, B. i. ch. 2.—Eusebius, Prseparatio Evangelica, B. 14. 4. Editions. Best, /. Bekker, Gr. & Lat. Bed. 1816-18. 10 vols. 8. Repr. (Priestley) Lond. 1827. with notes of various editors.— The Bipont ed. 1781-87. 12 vols. 8.— Very good also are those of F. Ast, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1819-24. 7 vols. 8.— and of G. Siallbaum, Lpz. 1821-25. 8 vols. 8. Early; PHnceps, Aldus, Ven. 1513. 2 vols. io\.—Grynceus, Bas. 1534. fol.— H. Stephanus, (ed. Serranus) Par. 1578. 3 vols. Gr. & Lat.— Many of the dialogues have often been printed separately; only a few of the editions can be named; Symposium <$• Alcibiades, by Ast, Landsh. 1809. 8.— Crito & Phcedo, by Fischer, 1783. 8. Several others also by Fischer at different times. — Phadrus with 3 other dial, by Heindorff, Berl. 1802. 8. others also by Heindorff since. — Gorgias,by Routh, Oxf. YiM.--Ph.cedo by Wyttenbach, Lud. Bat. 1810, 8.— A new edition of Phcedo is promised by Prof, Stuart of Andover. Translations; German, best by Fr. Schleiermacher, Berl. 1804-17. Cf. Bibl. Repos. vol. v. p. 266.— French, by And. Dacier (10 dial.), Par. 1799. 2 vols. 12. — Jean le Grou (7 dial.), Amst. 1770. 2 vols. 8. — English, Sydenham fy Taylor, Lond. 1804. 5 vols. 4. 5. Other works illustrative ; F. Ast, Platon's Leben und Schriften. Lpz. 1816. 8. — I. Socher, Uber Platon's Schriften, Muench. 1820. 8. — On the Republic of P. cf. Southern Rev. No. 7. — Plato and Aristotle compared, North. Am. Rev. vol. 18.— Cf. Fuhrmann, Kl. Handb. p. 246. § 190. Timccus of Locri, a Pythagorean philosopher, especially- devoted to physical inquiries, was one of the instructors of Plato. It was from him that Plato derived the name of one of his dialogues. The treatise Ileql xjjvx&s xoafiu xal yvcriog, On the soul of the world, and on nature, which is ascribed to him, was probably from a later au- thor, and seems to have been drawn from the dialogue of Plato just alluded to, named Timseus. This treatise is given in Bekker' s Plato (vol. viii) and in other editions. — Separately, by Marquis d'Argens, Gr. & Fr. Berl. 1763. 8. — also in Batteuz, cited § 185. — Cf. Meiners, Gesch. der wiss. inGriechenland und Rom. vol, i. — Schwll, ii. 313. § 191. Aristotle has already been named as a rhetorician (fy 115). His father, Nicomachus, was a physician and awakened in him in early life a fondness for the study of nature. But his intellectual pow- ers were more fully developed by the instructions of Plato, whose lectures he attended for about 20 years. After the death of Plato he opened his own school in the Lyceum (P. I. § 74). It was the great merit of this philosopher, that he classified the objects of human knowledge in a methodical manner, and gave them more of that scientific form, which has since been preserved in treating upon them. He reduced logic to a system, and laid the first foundation of meta- physics. His works contain a great mass of clear thought, and solid matter, although his insatiable love of inquiry was often betrayed into abstruse subtilties, as idle as they were dark. He wrote upon a vast variety of subjects ; especially on themes of logic, physics, metaphys- ics, politics and morals. £46 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 1. The works of Aristotle may be classed under the heads of Logic, Physics, Metaphysics, Mathematics, Ethics, Politics, Rhetoric, and Poetry. In the latter department we have a Pecan or Hymn to virtue, and a collection of epitaphs and epigrams under the title of llinXo?. Those belongiug to rhetoric have been named {§ 115). — The works on logic are all included in the collection usually called the ^Ooyavov, Orgamim ; they are particularly the KaTiiyoQiai, HeoL 'Eq- itqvtfas, 'AvaXvTixa, Tontxa, and IU$i oowioTixwv , EXcyx u ' r - It was in reference to the title of this collection, that the celebrated work of Lord Bacon was named Novum Orgaivum. For an account of the metaphysical and other writings of Aristotle, see Schmll, iii. p. 266— Cf. § 274. 2. Editions, whole works, Best; Duval, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1639. 4 vols. fols. — Buhlc, Gr. &Lat. Bipont. 1791. 5 vols. 8. but not completed. — Earlier; Prin- ceps by Aldus, Ven. 1495-8. 6 vols. fol. containing also Theophrastus ; ' One of the most splendid and lasting monuments of the Aldine press.' — Bebcllius, Bas. 1531. io\.—P. Manutius, Ven. 1551. 6 vols. 8. — Sylburgius,Fra,txcf. 1584-7.5 vols. 4. — /j. Casaubon, Gr. & Lat. Lugd. 1590. 2 vols. fol. Best editions of sepa- rate parts; organon, J.Pacius, Gr. &Lat. Genev. 1605. 4. — metaphysics, C. A. Branclis, Berl. 1823. 2 vols. 8. — ethics, Wilkinson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1716. Repr. 1818. 8.— C. Zell, Gr. & Lat. Heidelb. 1820. 2 vols. 8.— politics, J. G. Schneider, Gr. & Lat. Traj. ad Viad. (Francf. on Od.) 1809. 2 vols. 8. There were numerous Latin translations of different treatises of Aristotle (SchcbU, iii. 299), and also many commentaries (Dibdin, i. 327), We will only mention here some of the later translations ; German, Ethics <$• Politics by C. Garve, Bresl. 1801, 1802. 8.— French, Politics by C.Millon, Par. 1803. 3 vols. 8. — English, Politics by W. Ellis, Lond. 1776. 4. — Ethics <£• Politics by J. Gillies, Lond. 1797. 4.— Ethics <$• Rhetoricby Th. Taylor, Lond. 1817. 2 vols. 8. § 192. Theophrastus, of Eresus in the island Lesbos, about B. C. 321, was a scholar of Plato and Aristotle, and on the death of the latter became public teacher of the Peripatetic school. He possessed eminent powers both in eloquence and philosophy; distinguished for watchful observation, he placed more reliance on experience than on speculation. We have treatises from him, which place him among the writers on natural history (§ 275). His ethical pieces, styled' Hdi- xoi zaQjg avrov Ti?.£vrijs, Of the life and death of Epictetus. Two astronomical pieces mentioned by Photius, on comets and on meteors, were probably from this philosopher. — Schasll, v. 185, 239. 2. The best edition of the ' Dissertations' is in Schweighceuser, cited § 193. — That of Upton, Lond. 1741. 2 vols. 4. is good. — Princeps, that of V. Trincavelli, Ven. 1535. 8. Translations, German, best by J. M. Schultz, Alton. 1801-3. 2 vols. 8.— English, Miss Carter, as cited § 193. 2. § 195. Plutarch, of Chseronea in Boeotia, flourished at the close of the 1st and beginning of the 2d century. His instructor at Athens was Ammonius. Afterwards he himself taught philosophy at Rome, by public lectures, yet without attaching himself to any sect exclu- 24S HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. sively. He was a warm opposef of the Stoics and especially the Epicureans. In hisnumerous philosophical pieces we find an eloquent diction, and a rich fertility of thought, together with various knowl- ed r« and real prudence. They arc important sources for learning the history of philosophy, and of the human mind. Yet they are often surcharged with erudition and mysticism, unequal in point of style, and .sometimes even obscure. Although upon very various topics, they are usually all included under the common name of moral wri- tings, under which are comprised 84 small treatises. Some of the more distinguished among them are those on education, on reading the poets, and on distinguishing the friend from the flatterer, and' the Table Questions (Svfinooiaxd nqo§l^itaxu). 1. Plutarch returned from Rome to his own country while young, and ap- pears lo have discharged with fidelity different offices in his native city. He is said also to have served as a priest of Apollo. As a philosopher he rather fa- vored the disciples of Platonism, and may be ranked among' the New-Platoni- cians.— Schmll, iv. 118. v. 76.— Cf. §243. 2. Editions, whole works, Best, Reiske, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1774-79. 12 vols. 8. —HuUer, Gr. only, Tuebing. 1791-1805. 14 vols. 8.— Early, Princcps, by //, Stephanas, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1572. 13 vols. 8. — Cruserius, Gr. & Lat. Prancof. 1599. 2 vols. fol. — Xylander, Gr. & Lat. Franc. 1620. 2 vols. fol. moral wri- tings, Best, D. Wytlenbach, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1795-1800. 6 vols. 4. and 10 vols. 8. followed by Animadversions &c. 2 vols. 8. Cf. Ed. Rev. April, 1803. Dihdin, ii. 345. — The princcps or first was Aldus, (ed. Demetr. Ducas) Plutarchi Opuscula lxxxii. Ven. 1509. fol. — single pieces, On education (IIsqI naiSxav aywyijg), Schneider, Strasb. 1775. 8. — On reading poetry (TTwj Sttrbv vior noirjfiaTiav axotlsiv), Krebs, Lpz. 1779. 8. — On distinguishing the flatterer and friend, Krigcl, Lpz. 1775. 8. — On opinions of the philosophers {UsqI riav ' jLqzoxbvruiv roia ipiXooiipois), Beck, Lpz. 1782. 8. Translations of the Moralia; German, Kaltivesser, Frankf. 1783-1800. 9 vols. 8.— French, Ricard (with notes) Par. 1783-95. 17 vols. 12.— English, Th. Creech, M. Morgan and others, Lond. 1684. 5 vols. 8. 5th ed. Lond. 1718. § 196. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, siyrnamed the philosopher, and known as a Roman emperor in the 2d century, is also worthy of remembrance as a writer. His 12 books of Meditations, Twv elg eavrdv fiifilia t(5' ', consist of instructive philosophical maxims and observations, relating to morals and the conduct of life, and exhibiting the practical principles of the Stoics. 1. He was generally a mild and excellent prince, but through a blind de- votion to paganism he allowed the persecution of Christians during his reign. He died of a pestilential disease at Vindobona (now Vienna), in Pannonia, while engaged in war with the revolting tribes in that region, A. D. 180.— A re- markable deliverance of Aurelius and his army in a previous war is recorded by Eusebius, and ascribed to the prayers of Christian soldiers constituting one of his legions (12th), to which, as a mark of distinction, he is said to have given the name of the ' Thundering Legion.' Whiston, in the last century, strenuously defended the story; it was as strongly controverted by Moylc.— Schmll, v. 193. Cf. Gibbon, Hist. R. Emp. i. 83. ii. 42. (ed. N. Y. 1822).— Thomas, Eloge de Marc- Aurelius. Par. 1773. 12. 2. The Princeps edition was by Xylander. Gr. & Lat. Tigur. 1558. 8.— One of the best is Galakcr's, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1652. 4.— Stanhope's, Gr. & Lat. Lond.. EMPIRICITS. PLOTINUS. PORPHYRY. 249 1707. 8. and Wolf's Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1729. 8. are good.— Better, Schultz, Gr. & Lat. Schlesw. 1802. Q.—Struve, Regiom. 1823. 2 vols. 8. Translations ; German, best, Schultz, Schlesw. 1799. 8.— French, T. P. de Joly, Par. 1803. 18.— English, R. Graves, Bath, 1792. 8. Lond. 1811. 12. § 197. Sextus Empiricus ^Ef/Tteiptxog, so called from his pro- fession as a physician) was a Sceptic or Pyrrhonic philosopher under Commodus, about A. D. 190. He left a work in three books, com- prising the theory and principles of the Sceptic sect, and another in eleven books against the Mathematicians, or rather against those teach- ers who professed positive knowledge, the five last being particularly opposed to the logicians and other philosophers. These works are very valuable in illustrating the history of philosophy, especially that of the Sceptical school. 1. He was born in Africa; but very little is known of his life. The former of the two works is entitled HviJtiavsiai 'Ynorvnoiang, ?} axejiTty.lt r Yno/nn'jiaTa; the latter, Hgbgrovg Ma6-rjuarty.bvg avTinfjrrrixol. — Schecll, v. 202. — Stccudlin, Geschichte u. Geist des Skepticismus. Lpz. 1794. 2 vols. 8. 2. The first ed. was printed at Paris, 1621. fol. — Latin versions of both works had been previously published. The next ed. was by Fdhricius, Lpz. 1718. fol. Another commenced by J. G. Mutual, Hal. 179G. 4. Translations; German, Buhle, Lemgo. 1801. 8. — French, (of the Hypotyposes) anonymous, 1725. 12. § 198. Plolinus, of Lycopolis in Egypt, in the 3d century, was one of the most celebrated among the New-Platonists, and taught at Rome in the latter part of his life. His writings are deficient in me- thod, solidity and purity of style, yet exhibit many signs of acumen and research. They consist of 54 books. These books one of his pupils, Porphyry, distributed into 6 Enneads or divisions, containing 9 books each; he endeavored also to improve the style, and indulged himself in interpolations and additions. 1. He was very enthusiastic and eccentric ; yet was much admired at Rome, and patronized by the emperor Gallienus. The latter even meditated the scheme of establishing for him, in Campania, a colony of philosophers, to be named Platonopolis, where the imaginary Republic of Plato should be realized. Plotinus died in Campania at the age of G6. "We have his life written by Por- phyry.— Schwll, v. 121.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 203. 2. The only edition of the complete works is that printed at Basil (Bale) 1580 and 1615. fol. with the Lat. version of M. Flcinus. — The treatise on Beauty sep- arately by Creuzer, Heidelb. 1814. 8. — A German translation commenced by Engelhardt, Erlang. 1820. 8. (1 vol. containing 1st Enuead). § 199. Porphyry was born A. D. 233, at Batanea, a Syrian vil- lage near Tyre, and from this circumstance he was often called the Tyrian. His Syrian name was Malchus (Melek). At Rome he be- came a scholar of Plotinus and an advocate of his philosophy. His writings were very various and numerous. Besides the Life of Plo- tinus and of Pythagoras, some of the more important are the pieces 32 250 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. styled as follows, On abstinence from animal food, Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle, and Homeric Investigations. 1. Porphyry was instructed by Origen the Christian Father, probably at Ce- sarea; afterwards by Longinus at Athens. He was a violent opposer of Chris- tianity, and wrote against it several treatises which are lost. His wife Marcella is said to have been a Christian, A letter from him to her was found and pub- lished by Mai. Milan, 1816. 8.— Schcell, v. 129, 2. Many of the pieces of Porphyry are as yet unpublished. Fuhrmdnn, Kl. Handb. p. 434. — The best ed. of the treatise on Abstinence is /. de Rhoer's, Utrecht, 1707. 4. repr. Leyd. 179*2. 4. containing also the Cave of ike Nymphs, ed. by Van Gocn.— The Life of Plotinus is found in the ed. of Plot, cited § 198. 2. § 200. Iamblichus, of Chalcis in Ccele-Syria, in the beginning of the 4th century, was a new Platonist, a scholar of Porphyry. He had the reputation of working miracles. A part only of his many writings are preserved ; and notwithstanding the extravagance, mysti- cism and fable with which his works abound, they are yet a valuable help in getting an idea of the philosophy of the later Platonists. 1. While Plotinus and Porphyry must both be called enthusiasts, Iamblichus maybe stigmatized as an impostor. He was a warm advocate of paganism. — Scfucll, v. 144. — Cousin's Tennemann, §217. 2. There has been no edition, of his entire works. Of separate parts, we no- tice the following; Mysteries of the Egyptians, by Gale, Oxf. 1678. fol. — Life of Pythagoras &c. by Kiessling, Lpz. 1815. 2 vols. 8, — Theology of Arithmetic (Ta 6eoXoyovfieraTijg 'jlQtSntjriy.ijg), Wechel, Lpz. 1817. 8. 3. Another philosopher of the same school was Proclus, born at Constanti- nople, A. D. 412, for an account of whose works, we must refer to Schcell, vii. 109. ss. § 201. Stobceus {Johannes), a native of Stobi in Macedonia, pro- bably flourished about A. D. 500. He collected from a multitude of writers in prose and verse a mass of philosophical extracts, which he arranged u^ :crd'n? to their subjects, in a work entitled 'AvdoXoyiov exloyav, dnoepdey/idxov, vrtodqxwi', in 4 books. They are perhaps more correctly considered as two works ; one, Eclogce physicce et ethi- ccb, in 2 books ; the other, Sermones, also in 2 books. The whole collection is valuable, both on account of the contents in themselves and also of the numerous passages rescued from destruction only by being inserted therein. 1. John of Stobi cultivated the habit of reading with a pen in his hand. The selections, which we have, were arranged, it is said, for the use of his son. Each chapter of the Eclogce, and of the Sermones, has its title, under which the extracts are placed, the sources whence they are drawn being noted in the mar- gin. More than five hundred authors are quoted, whose works have mostly perished.— Schcell, vii. 133. 2. The best edition of the Eclogce is Heeren's. Gr. & Lat. Gott. 1792-1801. 4 vols. 8. — Of the Discourses, Gaisford's J. Stobsei Florilegium, Oxf. 1822. 4 vols. 8.— Of both, Fr. Fabrus (Favre, books, of Lyons) Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1609. fol.— The poetical extracts were collected and edited by H. Grotius, Par. 1623. 4. with trans, in Lat. verse. Cf. Schosll, vii. 159. HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE 251 VII. — Mathematicians and Geographers. § 202. M The very name of Mathematics (paQfriara, /ua%<t>aivt>psva) relating to as- tronomy— Sc/xrll, iii. Wsi—Fiihrmann, Kl. Handb. p. 339. •J. There have been 5 editions oi the Works of Euclid. Princeps,by S. Gry- noiu, Has. 1533. fol.— Bas. 1659. fol.— C. Ddsupodius (Rauchfass) Gr. & Lai. Strasb, 1571.-0. Gregory, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1703. fol.— Best of all, Peyrard, Gr. Lai. & Gall. Par. 181 1 3 vols. 4.— Of the Elements, A. Caia.no, Gr. & Lat. Rome, 1545. 9 vols. H.—Ch. Mcld.cn, Leyd. 1673. 12.— Th. Haseldcn, (with the Data) Load. 173-3. 8.— Best, Camerer, Gr. & Lat. Berl. 1824. 8. (1st vol. containing G Books of the Elements, with Excurs. and Plates). Translations. There have been many editions of the Elements in Latin ; among the best, Bwrmann, Lpz. 1769.8.— S. Horslcy, (12 books). Oxf. 1802. 8.— English, R. Simpson, B. 1-6, 11, 12) Glasg. 1756. 4. and often reprinted.— J. Wil- liamson, (whole 15), Lond. 1781-88. 2 vols. 4.— German, 1. F. Lorens, Hal. 1818. 8. — French, Peyrard, above cited. § 210. Archimedes was born at Syracuse B. C. about 287, and was put to death by a soldier during the storming and capture of that city by the Roman general Marcellus, B. C. 212. He was celebrated especially for his skill in mechanics; but his inventive genius en- riched almost every branch of mathematical science. He acquired his greatest celebrity by discovering the relation between the Cylin- der and Sphere, and by contriving several military engines, by the aid of which the Syracusans defended themselves for three years against the Romans. The account of his use of reflecting mirrors, or burn- ing glasses, for setting fire to the Roman fleet has been considered as very doubtful. We have several works from him ; neglTTjg ScpaLqag xal KvXlvSgov, On the Sphere and Cylinder ; Kvxlov fietqr^aig, The Measuring of the Circle ; Ilsqlrav ' Oxov/uevcov, Of floating bodies ; V'afi/nlTTig, Arenarius, and others. In general it may be remarked, however, that we possess the works of Archimedes only according to the recensions of Isidorus and his pupil Eutocius, in the 6th century. 1. The sepulchre of Archimedes was near one of the gates of Syracuse, but was forgotten and almost overgrown with briars in the time of Cicero. It was discovered by the exertions of the latter, while Quaestor in Sicily, marked by a small pillar bearing an Iambic inscription and the figures of a cylinder and sphere. Polybius, Livy and Plutarch speak of the engines invented by Archimedes to harass the Romans, but say nothing of his destroying their fleet by means of reflecting mirrors. Lucian is the first author who mentions the burning of the fleet, but he does not tell the means. Tzetzes and the writers of the Bas-Em- pire state, that it was by the aid of mirrors. The story has been treated as a mere fable, although the possibility of the thing has been proved by Bujfon. — Schmll, iii. 360. vii. 57.— Cf. Foreign Rev. No. 1. p. 305.— Ed. Rev. Vol. 18. For an account of the magnificent vessel constructed under his care for the king of Syracuse, see Schmll, vii. p. 446. 2. There have been 4 editions of the Works of Archimedes. Princeps, by T. Gechauff( printer Hervag) Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1544. fol. — Rivault (printer Morel) Gr. & Lat. Par. 1615. fol. repr. 1646. ed. Richard.— Borelli, Messina, 1572. fol. repr. Palerm. 1685. fol. — Best entirely, Mr. Robertson (begun by Torelli) Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1792. fol. with the commentary of Eutocius, — Of the Dimcnsio circuit (with the Arenarius) Wallis, Oxf. 1676. 8. — Arenarius, with English transla- tion by G. Anderson, Lond. 1784. 8. Translations; German, Slum (whole works), Nnrnb. 1670, M.—Hauber APOLLONIUS. PAPPUS. DIOPHANTUS. 255 (Sphere and Cylinder) Tueb. 1798. 8.—Kriigen (Arenarius), duedl. 1820. 8.— French, Peyrard (whole), Par. 1807. 4. 1808. 2 vols. 8. § 211. Apollonius, surnamed Pergceus from his birth-place Perga in Pamphilia, lived at Alexandria about B. C. 250, under Ptolemy Euergetes. He studied mathematics under those who had been pu- pils of Euclid. As a writer he is known by his work on Conic Sec- tions, Kwvwd Sroixeca, in 8 books. Only the first 4 books, however, are extant in the Greek ; the 3 next are in a Latin translation from an Arabian version, and the 8th exists only as restored by Halley from hints found in Pappus. 1. The 4th, 6th and 7th books of the Conic Sections were translated from the Arabian about the middle of the 18th century, by J. A. Borelli. — The other works of Apollonius were UsqI 'EnaySiv, De Tactionibus, or Contacts of lines and circles, and 'EnlneSoi totcoi, Planes, which have come to us in a very muti- lated state; TItql Ncvoeuiv, De Inclinationibus, of which scarcely any thing re- mains; UsqI xwqIov 'AnoTopijg, De Sectione Spatii, of which we have nothing, and IIsqI Abyoo 'Anorofiijg, De Sectione rationis, which is preserved in Arabic. 2. The only edition of the Conies is that of E. Halley (begun by Gregory), Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1710. fol. — Attempts have been made to restore some of the other treatises. De Tactionibus, by Camerer, Goth. 1795. 8. — Haumann, Bresl. 1817. 8. — J. Lawson, the two books of A. concerning Tangencies &c. Lond. 1775. 4. — On Planes, by R. Simpson, Glasg. 1749. 4.— On Inclinations, by S 1 . Horsley, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1770. 4.— R. Barrow, Lond. 1779. A.—Dc Sectione Spatii, by E. Halley, Oxf. 1706. 8. with a Latin translation, from the Arabic, of the treatise de Sect, rationis, $ 212. Pappus, an Alexandrine philosopher and mathematician, flourished in the 4th century. His principal work, known to us, is entitled Madrj^arixal awayayal, Mathematical Collections, in 8 books. 1. This work is chiefly interesting on account of the extracts it contains from mathematical writings, which are lost. Other works are ascribed to him, as a treatise on military engines, a commentary on Aristarchus of Samos, a work on geography &c. — Schcell, vii. 49. — Amer. Quart. Rev. No. 21. 2. Only fragments of the Greek text have yet been published. A fragment of the 2d book was published by J. Wallis, in his ed. of Aristarchus of Samos, Gxf. 1688, 8. — The second part of the 5th book, by Eisenmann, Par. 1824. fol. — The preface to the 7th book by Halley, Oxf. 1706. 8. (with a treatise of Apollo- nius as cited § 211. 2). — Some lemmas from the 7th book, in Meibornius, Dialog, de Proportionibus. Hafn. 1655. fol. A Latin version of 6 books (3-8), by Fr. Commandini, an Italian mathemati- cian of the 16th century, printed, Pesaro, 1583. fol. and (ed. Manolessius) Bolog- na, 1660. fol. — A fragment of the 4th book not in this version is given by Bre- dow, Epistola? Parisienses. Lpz. 1812. 8. § 213. Diophantus or Diophantes, of Alexandria, lived probably in the 4th century, under Julian. He composed an Arithmetic, ~"Aqi,6firjxiici], in 13 books, of which 6 are now extant. A work styled IIbqI nolvydtvmv dgid/ntiv is also ascribed to him. 1. The Arithmetic of Diophantus is not only important as contributing to the history of Mathematics, by making known the state of the science in the 4th '.!">('> HISTORY OF ORF.F.K LITERATURE- centarr, but it is ateo interesting to the mathematician himself, as it furnishes luminous methods for resolving various problems. H presents also the first tra- ces of that hrance of the science, which wascalled Algebra, in honor of the Ara- bian Qtber, to whom its invention is ascribed. — SehaU, vii. p. 43. 9, A Latin version of all his remains was published by Xylnndcr (Holz- IMUM), Bas 1575. fol.— Tlie first edition of the text was by C. «. Backet {dc Me- : iriac), Gr. & Lat. Par. 1021. fol. A German translation of the treatise //„■; ,,.;.. hQtd. [von den Polijgonal-zaMen')b^ Poselger, Lpz. 1810. 8.— Of the Arithmetic, by Schultz, Berl. 1822. 8. (containing also Poselger's). § 214. Hanno, the first name we mention among the geographers, probably lived B. C. about 500. He was a Carthaginian general, and is supposed to have written in the Punic language the Voyage, which, either during his life or shortly after, was translated into Greek, under the title ITsQinloog. What we possess is considered by some as only an abstract of a greater work. 1. The full title is "Arvtavos Kaqxi^' 10311 ^oili tog mqinlooq riSv vTitQ lag 'HqaxXsovg Stilus AipvxwvTijs yijg fisgiav, ov xoti aviOtjXiv iv Tw tou Koovovrefiivei SijlLovyra rude. Hanno is represented as sent with a fleet of 60 vessels and 30, 000 colonists to explore the western coast of Africa, and as having continued his voyage until his store of provisions failed. How far he proceeded has been a theme of much discussion. — On this point see Rennell, Geogr. of Herodotus §26.— Cf. Vierthalcr, on the Peripl. of Hanno, Salzb. 1798.8. The age and authenticity of the Periplus have also been a subject of dispute. See Dodwell, Diss, in Hudson's Geogr. Min. cited § 208. 2. — Bougainville, in Mem. de TAcad. des Insc. t, xxvi. and xxviii, 2. Editions. Gelenius, (with Arrian) Bas, 1533. 4. Berkel, [with Stcphanus Byzant.) Leyd. 1674. 12. — In Hudson, Geog. Min.— Separately, I. H. Bozkler, Strasb. 1661. 4. — Th. Falconer, with an English translation. Oxf. 1797. 8.— J. L. Hug, 1808. 4. with a list of authors on the subject. — An Engl, trans, is given in Anlhon's Lemp. Hanno. There is extant another Periplus of an early date, that of Scylax of Caryan- da, placed by some B. C. about 500. — Cf. Schcell, ii. 193. — This is found in Hudr- son's collection.— Separately by I. Vossius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1632. 4. § 215. Eratosthenes, of Cyrene, flourished B- C. about 230. He was a pupil of Callimachus and the philosopher Ariston, and distin- guished as a mathematician and the first founder of scientific geog- raphy. He was also known as a poet, interpreter of the old comic writers, a chronologist, and author of popular philosophical writings. In youth he lived at Athens; afterwards at Alexandria, having the charge of its famous library. Of his numerous writings pertaining to the mathematical sciences we have only some imperfect fragments. These belong chiefly to the work, entitled Ta yswygacpovfieva, which consisted of 3 books, and contained the first attempt at the measure- ment of the earth. The loss of this work is much regretted. 1. In the 1st book Eratosthenes treated of physical geography, in the 2d, of mathematical, and in the 3d, of political. What remains is preserved chiefly by extracts made by Strabo. — A treatise called KaraariQia^tol, explaining the con- stellations, has passed under his name, but on various grounds it is considered as not genuine— Schmll, iii. 375, 385. 2. The fragments of Eratosthenes were published by Ancher, Goett. 1770. 4.— More complete, Seidel, Goett. 1789. 8,— Most full, Bemhardnj, Erathosthenica, STKABO. OIONVSIUS. PTOLEM^US. 25/ Bert. 1822. 8.--The KuTttoTtQiaftoi were published first by J. Fell, Oxf. 1G72. 8. Cf. §71 (3).— Gate, in his Opusc. Myth. Amst. 1688. 8.— Best, /. C. Schaubach, Gastt. 1795. 8. \ 216. Strabo was born at Amasea in Pontus, and lived about the time of Christ, under Augustus and Tiberius. By his travels through Egypt, Asia, Greece and Italy, he was the better qualified to write his great work entitled rehiyqacpixd. It consists of 17 books, and is not a mere register of names and places, but a rich store of interesting facts and mature reflections, and of great utility in the study of ancient lit- erature and art. The first two books are a sort of general introduc- tion ; the rest are occupied in descriptions of particular countries, their constitutions, manners and religion, interwoven with notices of distin- guished persons and events. 1. The 7th book has come to us in an imperfect state; the rest complete. The 3d book describes Spain and the neighboring islands ; the 4th, Gaul, Britain and the islands adjacent, and the Alps with the tribes occupying them ; the 5th and 6th treat of Italy, concluding with a survey of the Roman power; the 7th gives an account of the northern countries, and the nations on the Danube; the 8th, 9th and 10th are devoted to Greece ; the next five, from the 11th to the 16th, contain an account of Asia, and the 17th describes the countries of Africa, There is an abridgment or Chrestomathy of this work, made probably in the 10th century by some unknown Greek. There are also several collections of ex- tracts from Strabo, in Manuscript. — Strabo wrote a continuation of Polybius un- der the title of ' Ynoftvtifiara ' Iotoqixu. — Schcsll v. 278. — Lond. Quart. Rev. Vol. 5. 2. Editions; Princeps, (in sed. AIM) Ven. 1516. fol. — Is. Casanbon, (2d ed. by Morel) Par. 1620. fol. Gr, &Lat. considered good.— Almelovcen, Gr. &Lat. Amst. 1707. fol. repr. of Casaubon, with additional notes. — Siebenkees, (continued by Tzschucke and Friedemann) Gr. &Lat. Lpz. 1796-1819. 7 vols. 8. — T/i. Falconer, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1807. 2 vols. fol. the most ample ed. (yet censured) ; Cf. Ed. Rev. Vol.14. — Cor ay, Par. 1816 — 19. 4 vols. 8. best text ; preface and notes in Greek, The Chrestomathy is found in Hudson 's Geograph. Min. cited § 208. 2. Translations; German, Penzel, Lemg. 1775-77.4 vols. 8. — French, La Porte du Theil and Coray, (under patronage of Fr. Gov.) Par. 1805-14. 5 vols, 4. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. 5. $ 217. Dionysius, of Charax in Persia, was a contemporary of Strabo. He was sent by Augustus into the east in order to prepare a description of those regions for the use of his adopted son. We have from him a geographical treatise in Hexameter verse, entitled TleQirf. yrjat,g ' Oixovfjevyg, a description of the habitable world. From the title of this piece he has received the surname of Periegetes. Cf. § 32. We have a learned commentary on the Periegesis written by Eustathius. — The Pcriegesis is in the 4th vol. of Hudson as cited § 208. 2. with the commentary. — Also in Matthia's Aratus, cited §71 (3). § 218. Claudius Ptolemceus, of Pelusium in Egypt, flourished in the middle of the 2d century, at Alexandria. He acquired great distinction in the sciences of geography, astronomy and music. Among the writings left by him, the two most important are the Meydlrj ovv. ra^cg, Great construction, and the reuygacpixij 'vqnjytjais, a system 34 258 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. of Gtography. The former, consisting of 13 books, now called the Almagest, is the earliest formal system of astronomy. The latter, in 8 books, gives a geographical account of countries and places, with a designation of their Latitude and Longitude, for which the labors of Marinus of Tyre had laid the foundation. Of the other works of Ptolemy now extant we mention particularly his Kuv&v Baadiwv, Table of Kings, which is of much value in the department of history and chronology. 1. The astronomical observations of Ptolemy were probably made in the Serapcum, or temple of Serapis, at Alexandria, and not in the Serapeum at Can- opus. The name of Almagest is derived from the title, which the Arabians gave to Ptolemy's astronomical work, to express their admiration. It was translated into the Arabic in the 9th century with the patronage and aid of Caliph Alma- moun. From the Arabic it was translated into Spanish and into Latin, before the Greek original was known in Europe. In the last book of the Geography, Ptolemy states the method of preparing maps, and here are found the first prin- ciples of projection. The lasting reputation of this work has been mentioned (§ 207).— Schcell v. 240-260, 312-323. 2, Editions ; Almagest, Grynceus, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1538. fol. with the Comm. of Theon. — Abbe Halma, Gr. & Er. Par. 1813-15. 2 vols. 4. — Geography, Princeps, Erasmus, Bas. 1533. fol. (There had previously been several editions of the Latin. Cf. Schcell. v. 319.)— Montanus, Gr. & Lat Frankf. (and Amst). 1605. fol. with maps by G. Mercator, after those of Agalhodamon, an Alexandrine of the 5th century. — Better, P. Berlins, Leyd. 1618. fol. — Halma, Par. 1828. 4. but con- taining only 1st book and part of 7th, with a French version. — Canon, Perizoni- us, Leyd. 1745. 8 — Halma, Par. 1820. 4. For other works of Ptolemy and edi- tions, see Schmll. v. p. 255. ss. § 219. Pausanias, according to some born at Csesarea in Cappa- docia, perhaps however a native of Lydia, flourished in the 2d century. He traveled over Greece, Macedonia, Italy and a great part of Asia. In advanced life, at Rome, in the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines, he composed his Itinerary of Greece, 'Ellddog negirlyyo-ig. It con sists of 10 books, which are frequently named from the provinces de- scribed in them. The work is full of instructive details for the anti- quarian, especially in reference to the history of art, as the author makes a point of describing the principal temples, edifices, statues and the like. This gives his work an interest it would not otherwise possess. 1. The style of Pausanias is rather negligent; sometimes his descriptions are obscure; but he displays much judgment and knowledge, and casts light on very many topics of history and mythology. — Schcell. v. 307. 2. Editions. Princeps, by Aldus (ed. M. Musurus). Ven. 1516. fol. — Xylander, Frankf. 1583. fol— Kuehn Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1696. fol.— Better, Facius, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1794-97. 4 vols. 8.— Best, Sicbelis, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1822-28. 5 vols. 8. Translations; German, Galdbagen, Berl. 1798. 5 vols. 8.— French, Clavier (and others), Par. 1814-20, 6 vols, with original Greek and notes.— English, Th. Taylor, Load. 1793. 3 vols. 8. § 220. Stephanus of Byzantium was a grammarian and geogra- pher, who lived towards the close of the 5th century. He wrote a co- rAL.El'HATUS. HKRACLITUS. 259 pious grammatical and geographical Dictionary, called "EOvixd. Of the original work we have merely a fragment. There is an abridg. ment, however, 'Edvixwv 'eniTOfi-j, styled also Ileql nolewv, made by the grammarian Hcrmolaus in the time of Justinian. The best edition of the Epitome is that of A. Bcrkel (completed by Gronovius), Leyd. 1688. fol. Amst. 1725. fol. VIII. — My t ho graph ers. § 221." The principal existing sources, whence the traditions and fables of the Greeks may be learned, are three ; the poets, who bring forward mythical ideas and fabrications, either incidentally, or as the subjects of particular songs; the historians, who weave into their narratives the popular faith and tales, and make known'Jbistorical circumstances whichservetoillustratethesame; and finally the mylhographers, who have made it their particular business to treat of mytholo- gical subjects and to present connected views or specific details of the ancient fables. Some of the principal writers of the latter class will now be named. The fol- lowing collections pertain to this subject. — Aldus, (Fabulists) Ver. 1505. fol. — Th. Gale, Histories poeticae scriptores antiqui, Par. 1675. 8. — By same, Opusculamy- thologica etc. Camb. 1671. 8.— Amst. 1688. 8. § 222. Palcephalus, an Athenian, probably lived about B. C. 320 ; some place him in the time of Homer, but without sufficient grounds. His book IIsqI d nicrTuv, On things incredible, contains 50 Muthi or fables, with an explanation of them. It is probably but a corrupted abridgment of the first part of the larger work, in 5 books, ascribed to this author, but now lost. The style is very simple and easy, and the contents amusing and instructive ; it is often used as a reading- book in teaching the elements of the Greek language. It is found in Aldus and Gale, Opusc. cited § 221. — Separately, best, Fischer, 6th ed. Lpz. 1789. 8.— School ed. Emesti, Lpz. 1816. 8. — German translation, Buech- ling, Hal. 1821. 8.— French, Polier, Lausanne, 1771. 12. § 223. Heraclitus was a grammarian, whose ep6ch and history are wholly unknown. He is to be distinguished from the philosopher of Ephesus bearing the same name (§177). He is mentioned as the author of two mythographical works, one entitled IleQi dniaxav, Of things incredible, the other ^Allvyoqiai ' Ofirjqixai,, Homeric Allegories. The former seems to be a mere abridgment. The latter is a more considerable work, but gives the most forced and unnatural explanations to the fictions of the poet. It derives value from containing poetical fragments of Archilochus, Alcasus, Eratosthenes and others. oftO HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. I. The first work is given in Gate, Opnsc. cited §221.— Separately Teucker, L«ng IT96. 8, School ed. —The other, in Gale also.— Separately, Gessner, Gr. & Lat.^Bas. 1544. 8, as the work of Heraciides of Pontus.— Better, Schow Go3tt. 9 There is another work extant with the title TT^qI aniortav. It is from an m'knoirn author, w ho is supposed to have lived much later, about the time of the emperor L»o the Thracian. It contains 22 sections, and appears to be an abstract of a larger work,— Published by L. Allatius Rome 1641.8.— Gate in Opusc. cited above.— Teuelter, with Heraclitus cited above. ^i 224. Apollodorus, a son of Asclepiades, was a grammarian, who lived at Athens, B. C about 145. He was a pupil of Aristarchus and embraced the Stoic philosophy. According to Photius he wrote a history of the gods (IIsqI dear), in 24 books. We have, however, only 3 books under the title of Bt^ltodr\xt}, or Library, which may be an abridgment of the fore mentioned, but perhaps is a wholly differ- ent work. It contains a brief account of the gods and heroes before the Trojan war. It is "iven in Gale, Hist. Poet, cited § 221.— Separately, best, Heyne, Gcett. 1802. 2 vo\s°8.— Clavier, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1805. 2 vols. 8.— German Translation, Beyer, Herborn, 1802. 8.— Cf. Schmll, v. 36. iv. 57. § 225. Conon, also known as a grammarian, lived at Athens in the times of Caesar and Augustus, B. C. about 30. He wrote 50 mythical Narratives, Jtnyrjcreis, which are now extant only in the ab- stracts given by Photius in his Bibliotheca (§ 142). They are addres- sed to Archelaus, king of Cappadocia. Although containing little that is peculiarly interesting, they are yet of some value in illustrating ancient history, relating particularly to the origin of colonies. They are given in Gale, Hist. Poet, cited § 221. — Separately, J. A. Kanne, Gcett. 1798. 8.— French translation, Abbe Gedoyne, in Mem. de TAcad. des Insc. T. xiv. p. 170.— Cf. Schasll, v. 41. § 226. Parthenius, born at Nicaea, lived under the emperor Au- gustus. He wrote a work, dedicated to Cornelius Gallus, and entitled LJeqI sQWTixar nad^ftdzuv, On amorous affections, designed to furnish that poet with materials for song. The narratives contained in it were drawn from the old poets, and clothed in an easy and prosaic style. He seems to have written other works both in prose and verse, although the elegiac poet of this name mentioned by Suidas was perhaps anoth- er person. The work is found in Gale as last cited.— Separately, Comarius Gr. & Lat. (printer Froben) Bas. 1531. 8.— Teucker, Lpz. 1802. 8. with Conon.— Best, La- grand, and Heyne, Gcett. 1798. 8. with Conon— For the account of Parthenius by Suidas, see Schmll, v. 42. $ 227. Phurnutus, or more correctly Annceus Cornutus, born at HEPHyESTlON. LIBERAL1S. SALLUST1US. ' 261 Leptis in Africa, probably lived in the last half of the 1st century. He seems to have been the teacher of Persius, and a disciple of the Stoic sect in Philosophy. We have from him a Theory of the nature of the gods, BsuqIu tibqI xi\g tav Oetiv cpvcreoig, in 35 sections. It is an attempt to solve the common fables by the help of allegories, most- ly of a forced and extravagant character. Given in Gale, Opusc. Myth, cited § 221. — Villoison left the Apparatus for a new edition ; now in the Royal Library of France {Schmll, v. 179). — On Cornu- tus see Enfield's Hist. Phil. B. iii. ch. 2. sec. 7. § 228. Hephcestion (Cf. § 134), often called Ptolemceus son of Hephaestion, was a native of Alexandria, and lived in the 2d century under Trajan. His mythological work bore the title Ileql rrjg 'eig nolvfiddeiap xaivrjg iaToqiag, Of new History pertaining to erudi- tion ; it consisted of 7 books, but we have only the brief extracts found in Photius. Published by Gale, Hist. Poet, before cited. — Teucher, with Cononand Parthe- nius, Lpz. 1802. 8.— Cf. Sc/iall, v. 43. § 229. Antoninus Liberalis, of whom little is known with certain- ty, most probably lived in the 2d century under the Antonines. His collection of Metamorphoses, MerafioqqjvxjEwv avvayayr^, is a compil- ation gathered from various writers, in 41 sections. The style is very unequal, and shows that the author drew his materials from poetical sources. Contained in Gate, Hist. Poet. — Separately, Princepsby Xylander (Holzmann) Bas. 1568. B.—Munker, Gr. & Lat. 1676. 12.— Walch, in his ed. of Phcedrus, Lpz. 1713. 12.— Better, Verheyk, Leyd. 1774. 8.— A school ed. by Teucher, Lpz. 1806. 8. with the Fables of Gabrias. On Antoninus and other mythographers, see Bast, Lettre Critique ; in Lat. trans, by Schcefer, Lpz. 1809. 8. § 230. Sallustius, who was a Platonic philosopher, in the time of Julian and Jovian, and Consul A. D. 363, may be mentioned here. He must not be confounded with Sallust the Latin historian, nor with, the Cynic of the same name in later times. He lived at Athens and Alexandria, and acquired much celebrity as a speaker. He has left a work entitled Ilsql deavxalxoo/iov, On the gods and the world, in 21 chapters. It is perhaps a philosopical rather than mythological trea- tise, and seems to'be directed specially against the system of Epicurus. The author maintains the eternity of the world and the immortality of the soul. Published;?™^ by Naudceus, Gr. & Lat. Rome, 1638. 12.— Gale, Opusc. Myth, above cited.-- Formey, Gr. & Fr. Berl. 1748. H.— Orelli, Gr. & Lat. Zuer. 1821. 8. —The titles of the chapters are given in Scliall. vii. 80.--Geiman Translation. Schvlthcss, Zuerich. 1779. 8. ■Jli-J 111ST(JK\ 01 CKKKIi LITERATURE. IX. — Hi slorians. § 931." In very early times the Greeks, like other nations of antiquity, had 1 few, if any, regular historical records. The art of writing was not brought into that frequent and general use, which is requisite for such purposes. Oral tra- ditions, visible monuments, and commemorative festivals were the principal means of transmitting a knowledge of important and interesting facts. The oral accounts were commonly thrown into the form of verse and song; and thus the poetswere the first historians, Their poems, in epic, lyric and dramatic forms, presented the story of the fabulous and heroic ages, and were impressed on the memory in youthful education, were sung at the festivals of the gods and the funeral celebrations of heroes, and afterwards circulated by means of written copies. When afterwards the use of writing became more common, and prose composition began to be cultivated, historical narrative was the first and principal application of it. Pherecydes of the island Leros, and the three Milesians, Dionysius, Cadmus, and Hecatcms, who lived between 550 and 500 B. C. are named as the earliest au- thors of histoiy in prose. At this period truth and fable were more carefully distinguished; the former was selected as the proper material for prose and history, and the latter was left to the sole use of the poet. Afterwards writers began to record the history of their own times and connect it with the traditionary accounts of former ages. The art of writing was more sedulously cultivated. The theory of historical composition was investigated and fixed on philosophical principles. Ere long, Greece possessed historians, who are even to the present day viewed as masters in the art, in respect both of matter and manner. G. F. Creuzer, Hlstorisch Kunst der Griechen. Leipz. 1803. 8.— G. J. Vossius, De Historicis Graecis. L. B. 1051.4. § 232. It was in the earliest part of the period between Solon and Alexander, that historical compositions in prose began to be produced. Some of the earli- est writers were natives of Asia Minor. Such authors were termed XoyoyQiKpot, and their performances loyoyQatplai. These authors, besides drawing from tra- ditionary accounts and the works of poets, consulted all the monuments of anti- quity, inscriptions, altars, statues and edifices erected or consecrated in connec- tion with particular events. The logographics were the first fruit of this spirit of investigation. They were a kind of writing holding an intermediate place be- tween epic poetry and veritable history. We have no entire specimen of them; but there are many fragments, for which we are indebted to quotations made by historians and writers on mythology in later periods, by the scholiasts, and some of the christian Fathers. The works of the prose writers named in the prece- ding section belonged to this class. Cadmus is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist. VII. 56.) as the most ancient author of the kind. There are extant fragments of Pherecydes of Leros, Acusilaus of Argos, Hecatseus of Miletus, Charon of Lampsacus, Xanthus of Sardis and Hellanicus of Mitylene. G. F. Creuzer, Hist. Graec. antiquiss. Fragmenta. Heidelb. 1806. 8.— Able Sevin, respecting Heca- taeus and Charon, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. and Bell. Lett. T, Viand XIV.— Also the fragments of Hellanicus collected by F W. Sturz, and published Leipz. 1787. 8, and of Pherecydes and Acusilaus by the same, Leipz. Gera, 1789. 8. 2d ed. Leipz. 1824. 4. § 233. The writers just mentioned are, however, scarcely entitled to the name of historians. Herodotus is the earliest Greek author who gave a finished and connected form to the narration of interesting events, and was with much justice styled by Cicero, the father of history. After him, and partly contempo- rary, were Thucydides and Xenophon. These three are the most eminent of all the Greek historians, and their works are among the most valuable remains of Greek prose composition. They all belong to the most brilliant period of Gre- cian literature. Their histories are chiefly occupied with Grecian affairs, and are the grand source of our knowledge respecting the Grecian states, in the pe- riods to which they relate. HISTORIANS. 263 There were several other historians before the time of Alexander, known to us only by a few fragments of their works, or by the judgment passed on them by ancient writers. The most important of these were Ciesias, a contemporary of Xenophon, and Theopom.pus, who lived a little later. We have slight frag- ments, likewise, of Philistus of Syracuse, and Ephorus of Cumae in iEolia. The fragments of Philistus published by Gmller, In his De Situ et or. Syracusarum. Lips. 1818. 8.— Of Ephorus, by M. Marx, Carlsr. 1815. 8.— Of Theopompus, the Prolegomena to an ed. by F. Koch, Stett. 1803. 4.— Cf. Schcell, II. 170. ss. §234. It may be proper to notice here a class of writers who confined them- selves to the history and antiquities of Athens. Their works 'are cited under the common name of '^irSiScg, or Treatises on Attica. As the materials for these works were drawn not merely from loose traditions, but from various au- thentic sources, their loss is to be regretted, although they were no doubt abun- dantly charged with fable, and full of imperfection. Works of this description were written in the period before Alexander, by Clitodemus and Phanodemus, of whom little is known. Four others of the same class belong to the period following the time of Alexander, viz. Demo, Androtion, Philochorus and Ister. The fragments of these authors were collected and published by Lenz, and Sibelis; (Philochorus and Androtion) Leipz. 1811. 8. ; (Phanodemus and Clitodemus, Demon and Ister) Leipz. 1812. 8.— Schcell, 11,185,111.224. * § 235. The principal historian in the next period, from Alexander to the Ro- man supremacy in Greece, is Pulybitis of Megalopolis. He published several historical works, which are all lost with the exception of a part of his Universal History, This was without a rival in its kind. In style and eloquence it is in- ferior to the histories of the great masters of the preceding era ; but it may be considered as the first successful attempt to exhibit in a philosophical manner the principles of morals and politics as developed in the changes of human society. Polybius may justly be ranked among the most distinguished of ancient histo- rians. In this period there were numerous writers, who composed historical perfor- mances chiefly relating to the life and exploits of Alexander, although including often much other matter. Almost every thing from their pens, however, has per- ished. The following were some of the writers: Callisthenes, Hieronymus or Jerome of Cardia, Diodotus of Erythree, Nearchus and Nymphis of Heraclea. Sainte-Croix, Examen des Hist'riens d'Alexandre-le-Grand. 2d ed. Par. 1805.4.— Clayton, Crit. Enq. into Life of Alex, the Great. Lond. 1793. 4. Cf. Dildin, vol. 1. p. 330.— Aibe .Sevin, Recherch. sur la vie et sur les ouvr. de Callisthenes, in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc. &c. T. VIII.— and de Jerome de Cardie, in the same, T XIII, and de Diodote T. XIX.— Ang. Mai, Julii Valerii res gestae Alexandri Macedonii, translatae ex Aesopo Graeco. Mediolani. 1817. 8.— Fragments of Nymphis in the Collection of the remains of Memnon and other writers of Heraclea, by J. C. Orellius, Leipz. 1816. 8. Respecting Nearchus see under Arrian § 249.— Schcell, L. IV. eh. 36. § 236. There were also in this period, between Alexander and the capture of Corinth by the Romans, other historical authors, some of whom ought at least to be mentioned here ; as Hecataeus of Abdera, Berosusthe Chaldean priest, Aby- denus his disciple, and Manetho of Diospolis in Egypt. We may name also Timseus of Tauromenium, who, on being banished from Sicily, resided at Ath- ens, and is quoted by Cicero as a model of the Asiatic style of eloquence (Brut. 95. De Orat. II. 13), Aratus of Sicyon already mentioned among the poets (§ 71), Phylarchus his contemporary, and Polemo Periegetes. Of only a part of these authors have we any remains. The most important fragments are those of Be- rosus and Manetho. See Schcell, L. IV. ch. 37.— The fragments of Hecataeus were published by P. Zorn, Altona, 1730. also in Creuzer's Hist. Graec. cited § 232.— For those of Berosus, see Jos. Scaliger, De emendatione Tempo- rum ; also Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. Vol. XIV. Comp. Cory's Anc. Fragments. A work on Antiquities, un- der the name of Berosus, was published in Latin by J. Annius, or Nanni, a Dominican of Viterbo, who (lied 1502. This forgery, with other pieces, was p rinted by E. Silber, Rome, 1498. The remains of Manetho were also published by Scaliger, in the treatise above cited. The discove- ry (in 1792) of the Armenian version of Eusebius (§ 288) has furnished the means of a more complete collection. Cf. Journal des Savans, W20-— Sir J. Marsham endeavored to reconcile Manetho with the Scriptures in his Chronic us Canon, Lond. 1672. fol.— Cf. Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist, connected, B. xi. (2d vol. p. 133. ed. Phil. 1821). J(il HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- § 237. The period which conies next, the time of Roman supremacy, pro- duced a great number of historians, but all of secondary rank. We will name first those who wrote before the christian era. The two most important authors were Diodorus Siciilus and Dionysius Halicarnasseus, who flourished but shortly before the time of Christ, and whose works are, in part, still extant. There were several authors whose works are lost ; as Castor of Rhodes, a con- temporary of Julius Ctesar, Theophanes of Mitylene, friend and biographer of Pompey, Timagenes of Alexandria, selected by Augustus as his historiographer, but discarded for certain imprudent sallies of wit, Posidonius the Stoic, and Juba son of the king of JNumidia, taken captive by Julius Cresar, and educated at Rome. Here may be mentioned also Nicolaus of Damascus, and Memnon of Heraclea, who both lived in the time of Augustus, and of whom some fragments remain. J. Bake, Posidonli Rhodii reliquias doctrlnae etc. Lugd. Bat. 1S10.8.— The fragments of Nicolaus were published by Orellius, Leipz. 1804, with a Supplement, lSll.— Those of Memnon by H. Stepha- nus, Par. 1594, and Ore.llius, Leipz. 1816.— See Schall , Liv. v. ch. 53. § 238. Of the historians between the time of Augustus and Constantine, one of the most interesting and important is Flavins Josephus the Jew. His History of the destruction of Jerusalem, of which he was an eye-witness, is on many ac- counts of great value. It was written originally in Hebrew, or rather in the Syro-Chaldaic, and afterwards by himself translated into Greek. It is a work full of tragic interest. Plutarch, who flourished in the first century of the Christian era, must be in- cluded among the historical writers, not only because his Lives partake so much of a historical character, but on account of several other works upon historical topics. After Plutarch the most important historians were Arrian, Appian, Di- on Cassius, and Herodian. iElian is placed among the historians, but holds a low rank. There were some other historical writers in the times of which we are speaking, to whom it may be suitable barely to allude. Herennius Philo of Biblus, in the second century, is said to have written several historical works, particularly to have translated into Greek from Phoenician the antiquities of Sanconialhon. Praxis or Enpraxidas, the author of the work ascribed to Dictys Cretensis, lived in this period, probably in the time of Nero. Phlegon of Trades in Lydia wrote, besides other pieces, a sort of universal chronology, most of which is lost; in a fragment of this is mentioned an eclipse of the sun in the 18th year of Tiberius, which has by some been supposed to refer to the darkness that took place at the crucifixion of Christ. Respecting Sanconiathon, see R. Cumberland, Panconiathon's Phoenician history, trans, from the first book of Eusebius de Praepar. Evang. &c. Lond. 1720,— Christ, Meiners, Hist. Doct. de vero Deo. Vol. I.— Cory's Ancient Fragments. Dictys Cretensis is said to have served in the Trojan war, and to have kent a journal (Icpij/itplc.) of its events. The original fabrication of Praxis in Greek is lost, and the work exists now only in a Latin version, in 6 books.— Cf. Schcell, iv. 107, and below, § 258. also Schosll, Hist. Litt. Rom. Par. 1815. 3d Vol. p. 158.— Best edition, Perizonius, Amst. 1702. 8. The remains of Phlegon were published by Franz, Halle, 1822.— Several publications appeared in England, early the last oentury, on the eclipse mentioned by him; e. g. Sylces, Dissertation upon the Eclipse &c. Lond. 1732. 8.— Whiston, Testimony of Phlegon &c. Lond. 1732. 8.— Chapman, Phlegon ex- amined &c. Lond. 1734. 8.— Cf. Lit. $• Theol. Rev. No. V. p. 53, 57. § 239. In entering upon the long period from Constantine to the capture of his favorite city by the Turks, the first historian we meet is Eusebius, a Christian, and bishop of Cesarea, one of the most distinguished men of the age, and par- ticularly patronized by the Emperor Constantine. The only work of this author, which belongs strictly to classical literature is his Chronicle or Universal History, IlavroSan), (aroqla. (Cf. § 288). After Eusebius, we find a long list of historical authors. There are, however, only two names of much importance, viz. Zosi- mus and Procopius (§§ 255, 6), until we come to the mass of writers still less cele- brated, and commonly grouped under the name of the Byzantine historians. This series of authors, beginning with the 7th century, extends to the final overthrow of Constantinople. ' They have little merit, except that they are the only sources, whence we can derive the history of the middle ages. A few among them exhibit a degree of purity and elegance in style ; but most of their HERODOTUS. 265 works are destitute of taste and of method, and degraded by superstition and ab- ject flattery.' The Byzantine writers have been divided into four classes. The first included Zonaras, Nicetas Acominatus, Nicephorus Gregoras and LaonicusChalcondylas, which four authors form what is termed the Corpus or Body of Byzantine historians, properly speaking. Taken together they give a complete history of the period from Constantine to the capture of Constantinople by the Turks. A second class includes the writers that have been termed Chroniclers, who attempted to give gen- eral histories, or annals extending from the beginning of the world to their own times, Schcell men- tions 15 or !6 names belonging to this class. The third consists of such as confined themselves to the history of a short period, a particular event, or of certain individuals, and may rather be called biogra- phers. Above 20 names are given in this class; Agathias was one of the more eminentamong them. The fourth class is composed of authors who occupied themselves rather with antiquities and statis- tics. Of 10 or 12 included in this number Constantine Porphyrogenitus was one of the principal. The works of the Byzantine authors were first published at Paris, with the patronage of Louis 14th, under the title of Corps de VRistoire Byzantine, 1648-1711. 36 vols, fol.— They were reprinted Ven. 1729 ss. 35 (in 23) vols. fol. the 23d vol. consisting of works not in the 1st edition.— Cf. SchoM, vi. 415.— A new and more complete edition was commenced by Niebuhr, and is continued, since his death, under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences, at Berlin. Bibl, Repos. ii. 408. Much use of the Byzantine writers was made by Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall of the R. Empire. —Also by L. Cousin, in his Histoirede Constantinople depuis le regne de l'ancien Justin jusqu'a la fin de Pempire traduite sur les originaux grecs, Par. 1685. 11 vols. 12. § 240. We now proceed to notice separately the most distinguish- ed of the Greek Historians. Herodotus, of Halicarnassus in Caria, flourished B. C. ahout 450. He is the oldest Greek historian whose whole works are preserved. His History, in 9 hooks, which have been named after the nine, muses, was originally rehearsed in part at the Olympic games, and at the Panathensean festivals of Athens, and ultimately improved and finish- ed at Thurium in lower Italy. Its main subject is the history of the Greeks, whose conflicts with the Persians he details down to the bat- tle of Mycale ; but he also introduces much that pertains to the Egyp- tians and Lydians. That he wrote in his 44th year is a circumstance of some importance in reference to his chronology. His style is characterized by dignity and simplicity united, and presents a striking resemblance to the poetical drapery of Homer, the more obvious per- haps from being in the Ionic dialect. The contents of the works are also highly instructive and useful : although some things in it have no sufficient evidence to support them. He too readily adopted as matter of fact whatever the Egyptian priests related to him, either from traditionary reports, or possibly from their own arbitrary inven- tion. It must be remembered, that he offers many things merely as popular traditions and rumors. 1. The names of the muses are said to have been given to the different books of Herodotus by the hearers, who admired their style and manner when rehearsed at the games. It was at one of these rehearsals that Thucydides was affected to tears.— Scholl, ii. 140 ss. — Rollin, Hist, of Polite Learning Ch. ii. Art. 1, Sect. i. Plutarch boldly assailed the veracity of Herodotus, in his piece styled Hcql t^; 'HqqSotov xaxotidetag. The Father" of history is ably defended by a modern, the Abbe Geinoz.—SchOll, iv. 162. 2. Editions. Best ; Schweighceuser, Gr. & Lat. Strasb. 1816. 6 vols. 8. Repr. Lond. 1817. 6 vols. 8. To this belongs the Lexicon Herodoteum by the same edi- 34 b 266 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, hu.publ. 1824. 2 vols. 8.— Some of the other principal are, Princeps, by Aldus, Von. 1609. fol.— H. Stephamus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1592. fol.— Gale, Gr. &Lat. Lond. 1679. fol.— Wtsseling. Gr. & Lai. Amst. 1763. fol. much celebrated.— Laing, Gr. & Lat. K.linK 1800.' 7 vols. 8.— Borhcck, Gr. Lemg. 1808. 3 vols. 8.—Gaisford, Gr. Oxf. 1821. 1 vols. 8.—Schultz, (the parts relating to the war with the Persians) Hal, isoi). 'J vols. Translations; Gorman, Degen, Frankf. 1783-91. G vols. l.—Lange, Bed. 1812. 2 vols. 8.— French, lurcher, Par. 1786. 7 vols. 8. 1802. 9 vols. 8.— In Gail's ed. Gr. &Fr.Par. 18-21. 4 vols. 8. -English, Bcloe, Lond. 1791. 1812.4 vols. 8. 3. Works illustrative; Borhcck, Apparatus ad Herodotum intelligendum, Lemg. 1795-99. 5 vols. 8. — Creuzer, Comment. Herodoteae. Lpz. 1819. 8. — Const. Fr.de Volncij, Supplement a l'Herodote de Larcher &c. Par. 1809. 2 vols. 8. — Rm nctt, Geographical System of Herodotus &c. 2d ed. Lond. 1830. 2 vols, with maps. ^» 241. Tlmcydides, an Athenian, flourished a little after Herodo- tus, B. C. about 420. His master in rhetoric was Antiphon. In the Peloponnesian war he was a commander of the Athenian allies. Dur- ing his banishment from his native city, he prepared the materials for his history, of which that war forms the subject. His work does not, however, contain an account of the whole war, but terminates with the beginning of the 2 1st year. It is characterized by an impartial love of truth, and a style noble and highly cultivated, yet sometimes ob- scure from its very closeness and fullness of thought. The ancients viewed him as a model of good Attic ; and Demosthenes formed his style upon Thucydides. The history is usually divided into 8 books, sometimes 13. Of most of the incidents related he was himself an eye-witness ; the rest he collected with great diligence and careful scrutiny. 1. On his banishment he retired to Scaptesyle in Thrace, where his wife own- ed a valuable mine, and spent there 20 years, returning, it is said, near the time when Athens fell into the hands of the Spartans under Lysander, B. C. 404 — Schmll, ii. 157. — Smith, Discourse on the Life of Thucydides, in Trans, cited below. —Rollin, Polite Learn. Ch. ii. Art. 1. Sect. 2. 2. Editions. Best, Belcher, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1821. 4 vols. 8.—Gottleber and Bauer, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1790-1804. 2 vols. 4. Better as repr. (by Priestley) Lond. 1819. 5 vols. 8.— Very good, Elmsley, Gr. & Lat. Edinb. 1803-6. 6vols. 12.— Prin- cipal other, Princeps, by Aldus, Ven. 1502. fol.— Junta, Flor. 1526. fol.— H. Ste- phanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1564. fol.— Hudson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1696. fol. celebrated. —Dulcer, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1731. 2 vols, fol.— The Bipont, Gr. & Lat. 1788. 6 vols. 8.—Haack, Lpz. 1820. 2 vols. 8.—Poppo, Lps. 1821. 2 vols. 8. commenced.— Bloomfield, Lond. 3 vols. 12. a school ed. with Eng. notes. Translations; German, Heilmann, Lemg. 1760. 8. ed. by Bredow, Lemg. 1823. 8.— Max. Jacobi, Hamb. 1804.-8. 3 vols. 8.~French, Levesque, Par. 1795. 4 vols. 8.— English, Smith, Lond. 1753. 4th ed. 1805. 2 vols. 8. Phil. 1813.— Bloomfield, Lond. 1819. 3 vols. 8.— Modern Greek, N. Dukas, with orig. text, Vienn. 1806. 10 vols. 8. 3. Works illustrative ; T. F. Benedict, Comment. Critici in Thue. Lips. 1815. 8.—E. F. Poppo, Obs. crit. in Thuc. Lips. 1815. 8.— Creuzer, Herodot und Thu- cydides, Versuch einer nahern Wurdigung ihren historischen Grundsatze. Lpz. 1198.— Smith, Discourses on Thucydides and his History, pref. to Trans, above cited. § 242. Xenophon has already been named among the philoso- phers ($ 186). He is also distinguished as a historian. His style is XENOPHON. CTESIAS. 267 peculiarly excellent in narrative, being uniformly simple, tasteful and agreeable. The work entitled 'EXlqvixd comprises 7 books, and may be considered as a continuation of Thucydides. It relates the closing scenes of the Peloponnesian war, and carries on the history of the Greeks and Persians down to the battle of Mantinea. The Expedi- tion of Cyrus, Kvqov ^Avd§aaig, is also in 7 books, and gives an ac- count of the attempts of the younger Cyrus, and the celebrated retreat of the 10,000 Greeks. 1. The Cyropcedia, Kvqov naiSela, is usually ranked as a historical work, al- though some place it among the philosophical writings of Xenophon. It consists of 8 books, unfolding the education and life of the elder Cyrus. Many, both an- cients and moderns, have considered it as a sort of historical and political ro- mance. Cicero remarks (Lib. 1. Ep. 1. ad Q,.) that Xenophon's design was not so much to follow truth as to give a model of a just government. There are several points of discrepancy between Xenophon and Herodotus in giving the history of Cyrus, especially in reference to the circumstances of his birth, the manner of his uniting the Median and Persian thrones, and the occasion of his death. — Cf. Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. vii. xxxii. (vol. i. p. 315. and iii. p. 501. Lond. 1801). Mitford, ch. xliii. Sect. 1, (vol. vii. p. 150. Bost. 1823).— Schmll, ii. p. 172, and references there given. 2. Editions. Of whole works, see § 186. — Of Hellenica, Schneider, (best) Lpz. 1821. 8.— Morns, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1778. 8.—Bothe, Lpz. 1823. 8— ana- basis, Hutchinson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1735.4. often repr.— best, Camb. 1785. 8. with Porson's addenda.— Lion, Goett. 1822. 2 vols. 8.— cyROPffiDiA, Hutchinson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1727. 4. often repr .-latest Oxf. 1812. 8. (1st Am. Phil. 1806. 8.)—Poppo, Lpz. 1821. 8.— Weckherlin, Stuttg. 1822. 8. Translations ; German, Cyropcedia, by Meyer, Frankf. 1813. 8.— Anabasis, by Halbcart, 2d ed. Bresl. 1822. 8.— Hellenica, by Borheck, Frankf. 1783. 8.— French, Cyrop, by Dacier, Par. 1111. ~ Anab. by Larcher, Par. 1778. 2 vols. 12. (Fuhrmann, p. 218).— English, Anab. by Spelman, Lond. 1742. 8.— Cyrop.by Ashley (Am. ed. Phil. 1810. 8). 3. Other works illustrative ; Fischer's Kommentar ueber die Cyrop. (ed. Kui- ncel) Lpz. 1800. 8.— Creuzer de Xenophonte historico, Lips. 1799. S.—Rennell, Illustrations of the Expeditions of Cyrus and Retreat of the Ten thousand. Lond. 1814. 4. § 243. Ctesias lived in the same period, B. C. about 400. He was a native of Cnidus in Caria, and a physician by profession. He wrote a work on the Assyrian and Persian history (^IIsqo-ixwv) in 23 books, and also one book on India ('IvSixav). He employed the Ionic dialect, and his style is commended by the ancient grammarians. The credi- bility of his accounts has been often questioned, yet there are many considerations that weigh in favor of it. The loss of his works is much to be regretted. We have some fragments of both, however, preserved in Photius. 1. Ctesias is at variance in many points with both Herodotus and Xenophon. His history of India abounds with fables, some of which are supposed to have arisen from ascribing an actual existence to such hieroglyphical and emblematic figures as are still found on the ruins of Persepolis.— SU7I HISTORY OV UREKK LITKR ATUK K. 4. Wo niny remark here, as we may nol have a better opportunity, that Biog- was a department of composition almost wholly overlooked by the earlier is, in tfie period between Augustus and Constantine it received more attention. The Kws "/' Plutarch, already descrihed (§ 248), are altogether the most valuable productions in Grecian biography. Besides these and the l,!r,s<>l Philostratus just named, we have also the Lives of Diogenes Laerlius, of which an account has been L'ivcn before (s s 183). We may mention as belong- ing i,. tlie same period, the Lives of Moses and some of the Patriarchs, by Philo, a of Alexandria. The biographical piecesof Porphyry (§ 199) may also be named again. After Constantine we have the Lives of Eunapius, in the 4th century, and among the Byzantine writers we find a numerous class denominated biographers f§ 239). 5. Eunapius was a native of Sardis: he studied in Athens, and traveled in Egypt, and afterwards officiated in Lydia as a pagan priest. His work, entitled Bloi qnHooitpwv xal oo ^ T h s omancc, Lmm****u written Column* a SloMan lawyer and poet of the ^ <**»* ™ ofEurope, and received with ,„ „„. , hlVillrU - olaes, W» iranslalcl from *»"££*™£2 e » tern orlgln ln a Persian taie of cut*, nilillotli. Lai. vol. i. l>. lie. 2. On and Didys have usually been published together The ^ition was printed, Milan^TJ -The best J^gJ-g; ££ ^^a^mp. Madame Daew r's (Par. 1680. 4), and c .°? ia ™}"* "• t £ th xtalianT French and These works were translated in the 1 16th .century ^ into ^ the ™{* ^^^ German. A Russian version was published, mosc. nu o. ^. * cited, p. 112. « SCO Before taking leave of the department of Greek historians we would Lpz. 1811. 4 vols. 8. rians is given in Priestley's Lectures on History, Lect. 20-24, ^ X— Writers on Medicine and Natural History. § 261." The science of Medicine is founded ess entiaRy S^S^Kn experience, and is one of those which were but very imperte ^7 ™ d ^*°J * ancient times. Indeed from the nature of the case it could not be brought ro perfection until later periods. The same is true to a conaderaWe exten ., o^ Natural History and Physics in general Yet these science s ^er e pu among the Greeks not without some zeal and success. But their success nine caTby no means be compared with that, which they enjoyed so peculiarly and happily in literature and the fine arts. ,„v,nllv to the curing of it first the practice of medicine was limited almost wholly to ,he ™rmg o external wounds. The great renown, which ^^^^/"fXv^d Parity descendants called the Asclepiades obtained, is a proof of the novelty and i raruy of the healing art in those times, in which in fact it was cons idercd as a muacu lous gift from the gods. The Asclepiades ^established several school > in mecu cine, of which those at Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidus were the most celebrateQ. « was not until a later period that the Greeks became M * M ** d T^ n *°™?e Hippocrates was the first, who investigated the science systematically or wrote upon the subject. There isahrief collection otrulesof A, a «fc ascribed to the Asclepiades, entitled' A^™J^ iyuiva naqayyil^axa. Pound in J. C d'Aretln, Beytnege zur Gesch. der Lit. vo . l. Scha.ll, Hist. Liu. Gr. vol. iii- p. 11. § 262. After Hippocrates, the physicians of the same period between Solon and Augustus, seem to have in a great measure abandoned the gu glance o e periencland plunged into the labyrinths of speculation The ™J S l oi the the Dogmaticwas now established, which attempted to unite the ineones MEDICINE AND NATURAL HISTORY. 277 philosophers with the principles of Hippocrates. The sons of Hippocrates are named among its founders. The most distinguished of this school were Diodes of Carystus in Eubosa, and Praxagoras of Cos. Of the medical writings of the former we have a few fragments. The fragments of Diodes are published in C. G. Kuehn, De Medicis Graecis &c. Lips. 1820. 4.— Cf. Scluell, lil. 402. § 263. It was by the physicians at Alexandria that the actual dissection of the human body was first attempted. Among the earlier physicians of the Alex- andrine school the most distinguished were Herophilus and Erasistratus, who lived under the first Ptolemies, and were each the head of a class of followers. Among the adherents of the former soon arose the Empiric school, founded by Philinus of Cos, and Serapion of Alexandria. To this school most of the phy- sicians of the period before the fall of Corinth attached themselves. They pro- fessed to follow the lessons of experience (ittneiQia). It was towards the close of this era, that the medical art of the Greeks was in- troducedamong the Romans, by Archagathus ; it had been at first chiefly practiced by Greek slaves. The physician, that seems to have acquired the highest celeb- rity at Rome, was Asclepiades of Bithynia, B. C. about 100. He may be assigned to the Empiric school, although he professed to have peculiar notions of his own; One of the most illustrious of the Empirics was Dioscorides, who will be no- ticed below. We may mention also Apollonius of Citium, and Xcnocrates of Aphrodisium, as of some eminence. C. F. II. Becfc, De Schola medicorum Alexandria. Lips. 1810. 4.— Schce.ll, iii. 404, v. 325.— The re- mains of Asclepiades of B. were published by Gumpert, Asclep, Bith. Fragmenta. Vimar. 1794. 8.— The work of Xenocrates (on the nourishment furnished by aquatic productions) by Coray, Par. 1814. 8. § 264. A new school of medicine arose in this same period, B. C. about 90, called the Methodic, founded by Themison of Laodicea, who was a disciple of Asclepiades, and fixed himself as a physician at Rome. The system was ma- tured by Soranus of Ephesus, who practiced at Rome under Trajan and Hadrian with brilliant success, and has left several works. To this school belonged Cri- ton, also celebrated in the time of Trajan, and Moschion, the reputed author of a work on Diseases still extant. Within the limits of the same period, another medical sect was originated, the Eclectic, which is generally ascribed to Archigenes, another physician in the time of Trajan. Arelccus, whose works will be noticed below, was an eminent advo- cate of this school. Rufus of Ephesus was an eminent physician not assigned to any of the sects; his works are still considered valuable. But the name which is most important, not only in the space between Augustus and Constantine, but in fact in the whole history of the Greek physicians, is that of Galen. With tran- scendant genius he broke from the restraints imposed by the different medical sects, and built a system for himself upon the ruins of them all, and became and continued for many centuries the oracle of the art. The works of Soranus are in Ant. Cocchi, cited below, § 269.— That of Moschion, separately, F, O- Dewcz, Vienn. 1793. 8.— Those of Rnfus, by W. Clinch, Lond. 1726. i.—Schctll, v. 338. § 265. During the long period from Constantine to the capture of Constanti- nople, no progress was made in the science. Alexandria continued for a long time the chief seat for the theory and science of medicine, while Rome and Con- stantinople furnished ample fields for its practice. Most of those, who attempted to write on the subject, contented themselves with commenting upon the works of Galen or some author of times previous to their own. They formed what is call- ed the School of Galen, although they professed to be Eclectic, and to draw their principles from all the- different sects. There are but few names which are spe- cially deserving of mention. Oribasius in the time of Julian is the first writer of any note ; he has been called the ape of Galen, on account of borrowing so much from him ; among his works was a medical compilation from preceding writers, made by order of Julian, and called ' EpSopvr.orrupipioi;, from its com- prising 70 books, 8 or 9 of which yet remain in Greek, and several others in Latin only. Alexander, of Tralles in Lydia, flourished in the reign of Justinian, and after much travel practiced in Rome with great celebrity ; his Therapeutics, Bip- ilov 6cqantvTiy.bv in 12 books, is extant. We will add only the name of Constan- tine, surnamed the African, a native of Carthage. He studied among the Ara- 278 HISTORY Of GREEK LITERATURE. hmns Chaldeans and Persians both medicine and astronomy with the kindred t$££ 1 S to the west after an absence of nearly forty years, he was suentis. lveuuMii^ re tired in a religious habit to Saleruum in V i 1 i Miilhisdcaili towards the cose of the 11th century, in. !&SB%££S ^rkimlKbian medicine, and contributed much to the high celebrity, which that school attained. .' . i ,.,,,„,., „„ nnhlislipd Bas. 1557. 3 vols. 8. but not complete. The works of the Latirj Lwguaga.-rScA«»Jl, vli. a". SB. 6 266 » Physics or iVatorol iSfcfenee formed a prominent object of many of the first Greek Philosophers, and furnished subjects for some of the earliest di- dactic poems Tie study of philosophy in laterj»eriods usually implied some Stion to these branches. Lt for want of sufficient observation, and of the necessaiVhelps, many errors were adopted and long retained in the Grecian schools. 6 267 The merit of first treating these topics systematically and scientifically is uinveVsa lyascribed to Aristotle. Alexander is said to have aided his studies n nTur ^histo y with a princely liberality. Theophrastus, the disciple and suc- cessor o * A riHe, pursued the same studies with considerable success While Aristotie if called the father of Zoology, Theophrastus must be acknowledged to stand iii the same relation to Mineralogy and Botany. Con- The Alexandrine scholars the subjects of natural science seem to have obmmed but comparatively little attention. This could not have been owing So y to wan"F encouragement, because the Ptolemies are said to have ex- pended considerable sums in procuring collections of what was curious in he Fhree kingdoms of nature. Anligonus of Carystus is the principal Alexandime vrfter ofwhTm we have! remains pertaining to this department, and his work ^chiefly a collection of marvelous stories and not a description of natural ob- je Nor under the Roman supremacy from the fall of Corinth even to the time pf Constantine do we find any manifest advancement. The chief wnteis were SKA was distinguished as abotanist tt*^)»™to»& Man > and JElim, who compiled a considerable work on the history of animals. The superstition and love of the marvelous, which prevailed both in this and in the preceding pe- rt^"!** ahindrance to the rea, progress of natural science We may refer as eV t ence o thei influence to the works of Mdompu. In the former, and Artemzdorvs m the latter. Melampus we on the Art of divination in several branches, and also a work on P, ■o.nosnc.^ f ^'£ «*™*« in the moon, which is yet in manuscript in the library of Vienna.-Artermdorus left a work on the Interpretation of dreams, > Ov^oxQtrrA, which, with all its absurdity, is of some value m U us- .Uttal mythology and the symbolical and allegorical figures of ancient scuipture , it was published by J. G. Reiff, Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8.-Cf. Schcell, iii. 393 ss. v. 277 ss. § 268. Under the Emperors of Constantinople all ^T^rSe time the studv of nature were in a state of almost utter neglect; in the whole time we dono" meet with a single name of.any eminence, nor one work of special value. We find a treatise of Epiphamus, mqi rm fafexa Aieoy, 0» «« " stones Tn the breast plate of the Jewish High Priest; and another Ifcv > Eyx* 1 Q''i< ,C03V > Of anatomical manipu- lations, in 9 books (originally 15) ; HiqI /gsi'a? rfv Jv hv&Qantov owpaTi fioQitav, Chi the use of the different parts of the human body, in 17 books, regarded as his chef- d'oeuvre, and containing a demonstration of divine wisdom and design ; Ti/vrj laTQixij, The healing Art, cited also in the middle ages under the title of Tegnum, Microtegnum or Michrotechnum, a work which was adopted in all the schools and familiarity with it made a prerequisite for admission to practice ; and ©tQanev- rix}} fiidoSog, Therapeutics, in 14 books, called in the middle ages, Megalotechnum. We may mention another work which is rather curious ; entitled Ilenl tmv tSiwv ptfttliuv fQatp)], a systematic enumeration of his own writings, with incidents of his life, composed when advanced in a,ge.—Schasll, \, 345 ss. 2. There have been many editions of Galen's works in Latin ; Schozll speaks ARISTOTLE. THEOPHR ASTTJS. ANTIGONUS. 281 of 22. — There have been two of the Greek text alone; Andre , might be ranked in this department. But it is of little value.— Schall, V. 379. § 278. Before leaving the history of Greek Literature, we ought to remark, that we find in the Greek language two classes of writings, which have not been noticed in the preceding glance, and which ought not to be overlooked, although they are not commonly included in the range of classical studies. The first of the classes, to which we here refer, comprises those writings, which may perhaps properly be termed Hebrew-Grecian; being published in the language of the Greeks, but of a Hebrew origin and character. These are the Septuagint version, and the Greek Apocrypha, of the Old Testament. These writings breathe a moral spirit quite at variance with that of pagan literature, and it cannot be doubted, that they exerted some influence, when made known to the scholars of Alexandria. Indeed it has been thought, that their influence is apparent in the style of some of the pagan writers of the age. (Cf. § G8. 3). The most marvelous stories have been reported as to the manner, in which the proper literature of the Hebrews, composed of their Canonical Books and called by us the Old Testament, was first presented to the Greeksin their native tongue. The true account is, probably, that the Jews of Alexandria, who had lost the use of their national language, procured for their own benefit a Greek translation of these Books, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. about 280. This transla- tion received the sanction of their Sanhedrim, consisting like that at Jerusalem, of 70 or 72 members, and was from this circumstance called the Septuagint. This version enjoyed a high reputation both among Greeks and Jews for many years, but in some of the most interesting parts it fell far short of the spirit and force of the original, and attempts were made at a later period to give to the Grecian reader, in a more elegant dress, this body of sacred history and poetry. For an account of the Septuagint, and of other Greek versions, we refer, to Home's Introi. to Crit. Study of the Scriptures, P. I. Ch. V. Sect. 1. § 2. § 279. The books termed the Apocrypha Qxno-/.Qv