LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ©njt^rigi^f !fti. Shelf .t.Ji.-;: , J UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. SCHOOL KEEPING \ HOW TO DO IT By HIRAM ORCUTT, LL. D. Author of "The Class Book of Prose anb Poetry, " Gleaning from School Life Experience," 'Teachers' Manual," and "Par- ents' Manual" (.■-^^o- V THE TEACHER IS BORN, NOT MADE /r _i N. E. PUBLISHING COMPANY 16 Hawley Street L510ZS .0& COPTKIGHT, . 1885, By the n. e. publishin^g company. Stereotyped and Printed by Alfred Mucaa & Son, Printers, Boston, Mass. To THE MANT THOUSAND MEMBERB OP The New England Bureau of Education, who have consecrated themselves to the noble work of teaching, ^\ih ICiltle Walntnz Is Respectfully Dedicated BY THE AUTHOR. PKEFAOE A DISTINGXJISHED gentleman, who had been in- vited to deliver an address at Dartmouth College on commencement week, prefaced his address by an apology for its unwarranted length. "He had not had time," he said, "to shorten it." The author of this work has no such apology to offer. He has studied conciseness and brevity on every page ; yet he flatters himself that nothing of practical impor- tance has been sacrificed. During the hours and days spent in its composition, he has lived over again the scenes of his school life. The principles advocated are those which he adopted, the facts and illustrations are drawn from his own experience and observation, and the suggestions to 3'oung teachers are made with the consciousness of their impor- tance to all who would achieve success. Chapter Y., on Physical Culture, is supplemented by a " Manual of Gymnastics," prepared by an eminent gymnast in Yale College, and adapted to school-room exercises, which will greatly aid the 6 PKEFACE. teacher in class drill. Chapter YII. , on Temperance in Schools, treats upon the importance of physiology and hygiene in their relations j.o health and life, and will be welcomed by teachers, especially in those States in which this study is made compulsory in the public schools. The design of this book is, first, to aid and en- courage those who need and would profit by the experience of others; and, secondly, to awaken an interest in the subjects treated, and to lead to a more extensive reading and study of the works of standard authors on pedagogics, which will result in a more careful preparation for the important duties of so responsible a position. If this object is ac- complished, the author will be abundantly satisfied. HIEAM OKCUTT, Boston, January, 1885. CONTENTS. I. PAGE Theory and Practice 9 II. Ho\y TO Begin 33 III. How TO Govern 56 IV. How TO Teach 109 V. Physical Culture 145 VI. Morals and Manners 186 VII. Temperance in Schools 214 SCHOOL KEEPING THEOKY AND PRACTICE. " npEACHING a Science : The Teacher an Artist," is the title of a very sug- gestive book written many years ago, and may here serve as a kind of text to a short chapter on pedagogy and didactics. Some of the principles of the science of education may be gathered from the meaning of the words from which our English verbs educate and msfriict are derived. Joseph Payne says : " The verb educare^ from which we get our word educate, differs from its primitive educere in this respect, that while the latter means to draw forth by a single [9] 10 SCHOOL KEEPING. act, the former signifies to draw forth fre- quently, repeatedly, persistently, and there- fore strongly and permanently ; and in a secondary sense to draw forth faculties, to train or educate. The Latin verb instruere, from which we derive instruct, means to place materials together, not at random, but for a purpose. Instruction, then, is the orderly placing of knowledge in the mind with a definite object." J. S. Mill wisely suggests that " whatever helps to shape the human being, to make the individual what he is, or hinder him from be- ing what he is not, is a part of his education." Dr. Holmes has expressed his view of the science of education by the use of algebraic equations : " All economical and practical wisdom is an extension or variation of 2 -f- 2 = 4. Every philosophical proposition has the more general character of a-\-b= c. We are merely operatives, empirics, aDd ego- THEORY AND PRACTICE. 11 tists until we begin to think in letters instead of figures." Youmans says : " A knowledge of the being to be trained, as it is the basis of intelligent culture, must be the first necessity of the teacher" ; and Mr. Mill adds, "What qualities of mind or modes of mental culture fit a man for being a good observer, is a question which belongs to the theory of education." Mr. Payne says of the study of the arts °. " I am persuaded — and I speak from some experience — that the elementary arts may be so taught as to become not only instruc- tion, but true education to the child." Touching the art as well as the science of education, able men have written wisely, and I can do nothing better than to allow these, also, to express their views in their own lan2;uao^e. Goethe, speaking of the relations of science and art, says : " Theory and practice always 12 SCHOOL KEEPING. act upon each other ; one can see from their works what men's opinions are, and from their opinions predict what they will do." Mr. Fletcher, who has given the subject of education much thought, writes : " The intellectual faculties can never be exercised thoroughly but by men of sound, logical training, and perfect in the art of teaching ; hence there exist so few highly gifted teach- ers." Mr. Payne insists that " the art of teach- ing has principles, laws, and processes pe- culiar to itself." James Stuart claims that "the object of all instruction is to teach people to think for themselves." Mr. Markby enforces Mr. Stuart's view, by asserting that "to teach boys how to instruct themselves, that, after all, is the great end of school work." Dr. Temple supplements the thought by THEORY AND PRACTICE. 13 saying that "the true method of education is to show the pupil a road, by pursuing which he cannot help arriving at the natural results himself. All the best cultivation of the child's mind is obtained by the child's own exertions, and the master's success may be measured by the degree in which he can bring his scholars to make such exertions absolutely without aid." Here is the key which unlocks the treas- ure house of all knowledge and art on the subject of teaching. No teacher can afford to be without it, or safely fail to avail him- self of the principles here suggested. Another important thought is suggested by Mr. Payne : " As are the teachers, so are the schools. Hence the true remedy for poor schools consists in teaching the teacher how to teach, in training the trainer, in educating the educator." Dr. Arnold, whose name always suggests 14 SCHOOL KEEPING. the ideal teacher, asserts that "in whatever it is our duty to act, those matters ^Iso it is our duty to study." As to physical training, Dr. Andrew Combe says : " I cannot regard any teacher or parent as fully and consciously qualified for his duties, unless he has made himself acquainted with the nature and general laws of the animal economy, and with the direct relation in which they stand to the principles of education." Rousseau adds; "The weaker the body is, the more it commands ; the stronger it is, the better it obeys ; hence make your pupils robust and healthy, in order to make them reasonable and wise." And the teacher must be well furnished with resources to meet the moral wants of his pupils. He must understand that the object to be gained is " to give wise direc- tion to the moral powers, to encourage vir- THEORY AXD PEACTICE. 15 tuous inclinations, sentiments, and passions, and to repress tliose that are evil ; to culti- vate habits of truthfulness, obedience, in- dustry, temperance, prudence, and respect for the rights cf others, with a view to the formation of character." What a field of action for the educator ! To be able to meet his responsibility in this regard, and to dis- charge his duty, he must first study human nature in the character of childhood. He must study " the principles on which human beings act, the motives which influence them, the objects at which they commonly aim, the passions, desires, character, and manners which appear in the 'world around him, and in his own constitution." But these are the points discussed in the science of morals. Hence the teacher must study moral phi- losophy as a preparation for this department of his work. The science and art of teach- ing children may sometimes be learned by 16 SCHOOL KEEPING. studying his own character in the light of theirs. He may become a pupil, while they are his teachers. Coleridge has beautifully expressed this thought in the following lines : — *' O'er wayward childhood wouldst thou hold firm rule, And sun thee in the light of happy faces? Love, hope, and patience, — these must be thy graces. And in thine own heart let them first keep school." Now, to explain and emphasize the thought expressed above, I will say science teaches to Jcnow, while art teaches to do. Poetry, painting, statuary, music, and architecture are illustrations of art, and the poet, painter, sculptor, musician, and architect are the artists who have created in their several de- partments. Each has exercised his skill, under the guidance of those laws and prin- ciples which underlie the subject to which THEORY AND PRACTICE. 17 he has devoted his life. Science directs all his efforts, and upon the thoroughness of his knowledge depends the degree of his success. So it must be in the art of teach- inof. The teacher is a creator as well as the poet. The educated man or woman is as really a creation as Longfellow's "Hiawa- tha," Homer's "IHad," or Virgil's "iEneid," Hence the educator who has thoroughly studied the science of teaching, and reduced it to practice in the development and cul- ture of the human body, mind, and soul, must be an artist, and the greatness and im- portance of the work he has done, when well done, is the measure of his skill and responsibility. He who writes, or paints, or carves, may gain an enviable tem-porary fame, but he who educates touches strings that will vibrate forever. The isolated mon- ument, the triumphal arch, the solemn cathe- dral, the stately ship, reflect great credit 18 SCHOOL KEEPING. upon the artist who planned and executed the work ; but the living statesman, who, un- der the forming hand of the educator, has been raised from the obscurity of an humble home to a position of honor, influence, and power in the nation, circles his teacher's head with a halo of light that will grow brighter and brighter as the ages roll on. It is a self-evident truth that the teacher must acquire in some way and in some de- gree both the science and art of teaching before he can successfully "keep school." The question is : How can this be done ? As a matter of fact, in the process of knowl- edge art ever precedes science. In educa- tion, as in music, the practice goes before investigation into the laws upon which suc- cess depends. This is doubtless a reason why so many fail. But science reacts on art, and improves it ; that is, the teacher learns how to teach by teaching. He gains THEOKY AND PRACTICE, 19 not only a knowledge of the art of teaching, but also the science of education ; and the longer he teaches the more he learns, and the more skilful he becomes. In this way a large majority of the best teachers the world has ever had have gained this power and influence. They have enjoyed the ad- vantages of no normal training except in their own school-rooms, with no instructors except their own experience and the expe- rience of others whose books they have read. But now teaching has become a profession, and, like law, medicine, and the ministry, has its own professional schools where "teach- ing to teach" is the main business in the course of instruction. These schools ofibr great advantages compared with the old way. The study of the science, in connection with the art of teaching, saves much time and avoids many blunders. When the normal graduate comes to assume the management 20 SCHOOL KEEPING. and instruction of his own school, he at once understands the nature and difficulty of his work, and is prepared to do good service from the beginning. Other things being equal, he has much the advantage over the teacher who has not studied his profession. The normal school cannot create the natural gifts which are indispensable to his success, but it will cultivate them and impart knowledge to guide him over the stormy days of his anxious pedagogic life. Hence my earnest advice to every candidate for the teacher's office is that he should avail himself of the advantages of some good normal school. To the same end every teacher should own and carefully read a well- selected professional library and some good educational paper. By these means alone can he gain a practical knowledge of the science and art of teaching j and make the most of himself. Now, as the school is THEOHY AND PRACTICE. 21 always what the teacher makes it, and he is what his own training makes him, I insist that every candidate for the teacher's posi- tion must have a complete outfit. 1. Of wa^i^ra? gifts, such as quick percep- tion, the faculty of order, love for the work (which implies a love for the society of chil- dren and youth), skill, aptness to teach and govern, patience and enthusiasm, and with all, an unblemished character. As intimated in another connection, most of these can be improved by culture, but few if any of them can be created, I will here add, without hesitation or qualification, that the person who is entirely destftute of these gifts was not born for a teacher, and will be happier and more useful in some other employ- ment. 2. The candidate must have a complete outfit of thorough knowledge of the branches to be taught, and also of kindred branches, 22 SCHOOL KEEPING. covering a wide range of subjects, so that he may properly claim to be intelligent. 3. The candidate must have a complete outfit of professional knowledge. I repeat this to make it more emphatic. If he can- not graduate from the normal school, he must acquire this knowledge and gain this discipline in some other way. 4. The candidate may now be admitted to the practice of his art to gain some ex- perience. If his outfit has been thorough and complete as indicated above, his success is assured. Still he may profit by the expe- rience of others, who, by long years of ser- vice in the school-room and in the district, have learned both the science and art of " school keeping." To fully understand the necessity of thor- ough preparation, we must comprehend the greatness, difficulty, and importance of the teacher's work. The master who has been THEORY AND PRACTICE. 23 installed in a village school, or in a rural district on the corner where four roads meet, needs more ability, culture, and genius than the governor of the state. He has to man- age more than a state or a kingdom. In the language of another : " The school is the world in miniature. It is an arena for the conflict of opposing and varying interests and passions. Here emulation has its excitement, ambition its aim, industry its reward, and sloth its punishment. Self- ishness here leads to ungenerous and dishonest behavior, and benevolence here displays its spontaneous and disinterested love. In this theatre cowardice conceals its tricks, and chuckles in secret at its mischief, whilst chivalry does its achieve- ments of daring, openly violating and apparently defying law, yet not intending to despise authority. Badly trained or wholly untrained at home, and with no 24 SCHOOL KEEPING. domestic pattern of excellence for imita- tion, boys are too often cast, a species of incipient savage and ruffian, into a school community, just as sometimes into the wider world, with a last hope that novel and exciting duties and pleasures and other circumstances may control evil passions, guide wayward propensities into some safe path, and awaken the dormant sense of honor and virtue. Hence many individuals, thus ungoverned at home in as many sepa- rate families, undirected in any path of truth and virtue, their corrupt propensities greatly developed and strengthened by in- dulgence, are all congregated into a single family to be converted or reformed, and disciplined, and governed by one man." This man, if fitted for the position he holds, is competent to be their teacher in legis- lation and statesmanship as well as in science, literature, and morals. THEORY AND PRACTICE. 25 Before passing to discuss the hows of school keeping, I will further consider the end of teaching, E. S. Hall has told us what it is not, and James Stuart and others, as I have intimated, have given us the key to the correct theory which every true teacher needs to understand before he as- sumes the duties of his office. Mr. Hall says : " The end of teaching is not to impart knowledge, it is not to fit one to make money, it is not to constitute a practical man, it is 7iot to fit a person for any one special trade, art, office, or profession." Here are four negatives, each of which has been held by multitudes as a positive truism in education. How often have we heard the argument in favor of one or the other of these theories as the chief ol)ject to be sought by parents in the training of their children. One seeks for his son opportunity for gaining a knowledge of the 26 SCHOOL KEEPING. common branches of study, as sufficient to fit him for all the duties of life ; another does not care for "book learning" for his son ; he expects him " to shift for himself," and is anxious only that he should learn the "tricks of trade," so as to be able to accumulate money, as though money making were the end of life ; the third wants his son educated,' but only in practical matters, claiming that nothing is practical which cannot be appropriated for present use ; he ignores science altogether, forgetting that every useful art, trade, or profession is founded upon science ; the fourth, having in view for his son some special occupa- tion, sends him, without discipline or gen- eral culture, to the training school suited to the purpose he has in view. From this school the boy of tender years comes home in four short months with his diploma, and is supposed by his deluded father to have THEORY AND PRACTICE. 27 become a fall-grown man, ready for the "battle of life!" It is humiliating to know that these are the prevailing views on education among the masses, even in our times and in our own country. But the real end of teaching is the devel- opment of the whole man. This implies* a sound and vigorous body, a cultivated and self-reliant mind, and a high-toned moral and religious character. Physical culture is of vital importance : for there can be no successful mental or moral culture with- out it. A "sound mind" must be in a "sound body," and a' sound body is entirely favorable to the development of a sound faith and a well-regulated conscience. As applied to mental culture, the end to be sought is the power or art of thinking ; or, as Mr. Stuart expresses it, " to teach people to think for themselves." This power is 28 SCHOOL KEEPING. acquired, and is always the result of pro- tracted mental toil. The man who has attained this art, and has gained the control over his own thoughts, feelings, and actions, is educated. He alone is fitted to apply his power to the practical duties of life. The thinker may not be found toiling with the doer on the farm, on the ocean, or in any business of life ; yet he is really the more practical man, and by far his superior. Thinl<:ers have been the masters and doers the -servants, in every department of industry and in every age. The former have made all the dis- coveries, wrought out all the inventions, and created the science of the world. The latter have been dependent upon their mas- ters for the knowledge by which they have plied their trades. The undisciplined yeoman cultivates the soil, but the thinker has created the science THEORY AND PRACTICE. 29 of agriculture. The common sailor at the helm guides the ship, but the thinker, who had spent his life in seclusion and study, invented the mariner's compass, by which alone the ship can be directed. The engineer, who runs the long railroad train with skill and safety, often knows no more than how to turn a spigot or push a lever according to rules prescribed by the master spirit of the boiler ; but the student of science, the educated man, the thinker, invented the engine and the application of steam as a motive-power. The telegraph operator, with limited knowledge, often works the keys to transmit thought, with the rapidity of lightning, from city to city and nation to nation ; but the th hiker dis- covered the laws by which the subtile fluid, electricity, has become the obedient servant and messenger of man. Shallow and noisy doers sometimes affect 30 SCHOOL KEEPING. to despise thinkers as theorists and drones in society, yet without the results of study and toil in cloistered life, they could do little or nothing. As a matter of fact, the supremacy of cultivated mind is everywhere acknowledged. The world stands in awe of thinhers. To them the multitude do homage, to them they go for light in the hour of darkness, for guidance in prosperity, and for succor in danger. They adopt their rules and believe in their predictions. Yet how few think for themselves, even in this land of schools and churches, where the means of education are so generally provided for all ! How much this fact results from a defective school system and false views of the science and art of teaching, I will not undertake to say. It remains a fact which should attract the attention and awaken the solicitude of educators everywhere. Let it not be forgotten that the end of teaching THEORY AND PRACTICE. 31 is to impart the power of thinking. So far as any teacher fails to secure this result, he toils in vain. And it should be remem- bered that the work of American educators will not be accomphshed until a nation of thinkers has been produced by the public schools established on every hilltop and in every valley, North and South, over our broad land. Then will the oligarchy of thinkers, that now exercises the mastership over the masses, be destroyed by the ele- vation of the many to the condition of the few. Allow me, in closing this chapter, to make a condensed statement as to what is embraced in an approved system of education. Mr. Joseph Payne expresses the thought under five different heads somewhat as follows : First, we must have an educator ; second, a learner ; third, material for the exercise of the learner's powers ; fourth, a method by 32 SCHOOL KEEPING. which the action of these powers may be called forth ; fifth , an end to be accom- plished. This method, or what is implied in SCHOOL KEEPING, will hcnccforth occupy our attention. HOW TO BEGIN. 33 n. HOW TO BEGIK. T AM induced to undertake the discussion of our subject from this standpoint by the solicitations of friends, and witli the Iiope of aiding tliose especially who are inex- perienced, but anxious to make the most of themselves while in the service of others. I realize how much better I should have kept school, how many blunders and trials I should have avoided, if I could have at- tended a normal school, or teachers' insti- tutes, or read professional books, giving the result of successful experience, before I was compelled to grapple with the difficul- ties of school management. But there were 34 SCHOOL KEEPING. no such advantages and opportunities fifty years ago. My early experience as a schoolmaster was peculiarly trying and hazardous. Born and bred among the hills of the Granite State, I enjoyed, at first, limited advan- tages, and had seen but little of the world. But, as fortune would have it, I was invited to keep a winter school in the town of Well- fleet, on Cape Cod, and was engaged and re-eno:ao:ed five successive winters in that town. My first journey of one hundred and fifty miles to Boston was taken in a stage-coach, and from this city my voyage across the bay was made in an old fishing schooner, on Thanksgiving day. Such a journey would be a novelty, if not a hard- ship, to the schoolmaster of to-day, but this was only a small beginning of my trials and perils. A successful examination before the "committee" introduced me to a school in HOW TO BEGrN". 35 the " Back Side " district, of one hundred pupils, among whom were a whole ship's crew, from the captain to the cook, who were to be managed, governed, and taught, without an asssistant, and with no one to advise. Here I was obliged to learn how to do by doing. In the experience of eight winters in this kind of school, and during many years afterwards, under the pressure of manifold cares and responsibilities, I learned the lessons I am about to record in this little book. I now propose to consider some of the hows of school keeping. The first is sug- gested by the nature of the case, — Hoiv to BEGIN school. The young teacher has entered the dis- trict where he is to keep school for the first time. It is Saturday night, and he is to begin his school the next Monday morning. He meets the " committee-man " at the depot, 36 SCHOOL KEEPING. and goes to his home to spend the Sabbath. From this hour he begins his school work, aiid every act and expression will tell upon his success or failure. In the next twenty- four hours he forms the acquaintance of at least one family circle ; he meets them around the hearthstone and at the family board, and sits with them in the house of worship. Now, before this Sabbath sun goes down, both parents and children have formed their estimate of the schoolmaster or schoolmistress (as the case may be), and this estimate is not likely to be changed. Hence the importance of a good beginning, of fixing favorable impressions upon first acquaintance. Monday morning comes, and the children begin to wend their way from their homes to the schoolhouse. The teacher, if he is wise, joins them with a view to form an early acquaintance with all who come in his way. HOW TO BEGIN. 37 On this little journey, in so short a time, he makes many fast friends who will stand by him both at school and at home. I would here suggest that the teacher should plan to go early to the school, so as to l)e able to meet all his pupils in an unofficial way. If on the ground a half-hour before the school is to be formally opened, he can shake the hand of all, and freely converse with them, before he assumes the control as their master. This will prove a great ad- vantage, enabling him to win his pupils to favor and confidence. To the same end, he should mingle w^ith them out of school hours, and share their sports and pleasures. This familiarity will not hinder but help him maintain good order in the school. As their companion he gains their love and co-operation. His habitual kindness wins their affections, awakens their sympathy, and makes them anxious to please him. 38 SCHOOL KEEPING. This kindness, supplemented by the firmness of the master when the hour for stiidy has come, commands their respect, and they become voluntary subjects to rightful au- thority. We will now come back to the school- room, where the teacher must begin this part of his work. How shall he open his school, and what shall he do the first half-day ? If we would learn how to perform a given piece of work in the best possible manner, we must first understand exactly what is to be accomplished. The watch-maker must know not only how to make the difierent parts of the watch, but how to adjust and regulate them, so as to secure the object he has in view, viz., to make a good twie- keeper. The wheels, springs, and pivots must be made of different material, adapting each metal to its proper use, as determined by its peculiar properties, its susceptibility HOW TO BEGIN. 39 to heat and cold, its elasticity, et cetera. The case must be substantial for the protec- tion of the delicate machinery which it encloses, as well as ornamental. Its dial, Avith its graduated face and pointers to indicate the time, must be suited to the object in view. Now for the illustration. We have only to consider the adjustment and regulation of the different parts of the watch *after they have been made. To be sure, the accuracy of the time-keeper will depend upon the skill and fidelity of the maker ^ as well as upon the care of putting the parts together. The watch-maker is Tesponsible both for the construction and organization of the watch, but the schoolmaster can only organize. His material is furnished without his order. And this is sometimes the serious difficulty which he has to encounter. His pupils are gathered promiscuously from the district 40 SCHOOL KEEPING. where he is located, from ftimilies of every grade of culture and standing. Few of them have been born right, and none have been perfectly trained. They are wheels, and springs, and pivots, to be adjusted ; but many of them seem to have been made of the wrong material, and not half finished ! The exterior (or case) is often rough and re- pulsive, and the face (or dial) dirty. It is difficult, indeed, to organize such material ; still the school must be organized, and so organized as to produce order, studiousness, systematic recitations, and the harmonious working of all its machinery. The watch will not keep time unless its perfectly con- structed parts are completely fitted to each other, lubricated with " sweet oil," and reg- ularly "wound up." The same is true of the school ; and hence everything depends upon thorough organization. This is the first work to be done, but it cannot be done HOW TO BEGIN. 41 in a half-houu, nor in a half-day. It must be begun at once, and carefully and perse- veringly prosecuted until completed ; and when completed, it should require only one " winding up " for the term. Here I will remind the teacher that every arrangement and exercise of school keeping, from the beginning to the end, is disciplinary, and if wisely planned and conducted will re- sult in an orderly and well-regulated school. Such a school is designed to give oppor- tunity for quiet study, and to wake up mind and induce self-application. In the man- agement of the school, the grand object is to prevent evil, to avo'id the necessity of pun- ishment. The question returns to us. How shall he organize his school, having these objects in view? How shall he begin his school-room work ? I do not propose to lay down a rule as to the kind of opening exercise which must 42 SCHOOL KEEPING. always be followed. I see great propriety in reading the Scriptures, singing, and prayer, as the first exercise of each day of school, and have always practised this method in my own schools. I have done this from a conviction of my own need of divine aid in the responsible position which I had as- sumed, and from the belief that such an exercise has a restraining and happy influ- ence upon the school. I never have met the least objection from any source, or any serious annoyance from bad behavior of pupils during the hour of prayer. Others have had difi*erent experience, and urge ob- jections to such an exercise. Still others have not sufficient confidence in themselves to perform this duty in full. Yet, all can read the Scriptures, repeat (with or with- out the school) the Lord's Prayer, and join in singing some familiar stanzas. I am aware that the cry of sectarianism HOW TO BEGIN. 43 is sometimes heard in certain quarters, and that in some cities the use of the Bible and religious exercises are prohibited by school authorities. Hence the question may be left to the teacher's convictions of duty, and the circumstances of each individual case. But some £:eneral exercise in which the school will all be interested should be introduced near the time of opening in the morning. This is desirable for various reasons, which will be given, in another connection, on another page. In calling the school to order on the first morning (and indeed every morning, noon, or night, at all times, when he has occasion to address the pupils), the^ teacher should speak in a ijleasant and gentle manner. We may here take note of one way and the other, for illustration. One master makes his appearance on the ground about the time the school is to open. He is an entire 44 SCHOOL KEEPING. stranger. As soon as he comes in sight the children leave their sports and run to the school-room, some through fear, others with a view the better to scan his movements and learn his peculiarities. Few teachers realize how severe the test of coming under the criticism of their pupils, and how much depends upon this first half-day. Even the children will know him thoroughly before sundown, and will report him accurately to their parents. But our young pedagogue has entered his desk, removed his hat, and, without speaking to any one, has taken his seat. His general bearing is haughty and repulsive, and he seems to have the parody of Alexander Selkirk's soliloquy in mind : — " I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute ; From the blackboard all round to the stove, I am lord of the clown and the brute." HOW TO BEGIN. 45 He now strikes his rule upon the desk, and, in an imperative tone, calls "to order." As soon as all have retired to some seat to wait further orders, he opens upon them with an announcement of definite rules and reo-ulations more numerous than the com- mands of the decalogue ; assures them these rules will all be enforced, and warns them to beware of transgressions. But enough of this for our purpose. One thing is already settled in regard to this teacher ; if he remains at the head of this school for the term, it will be l)y the "force of arms." His first act was to declare war upon his pupils, 'and they have already placed themselves in a defensive attitude. The better class will settle down in obe- dience to his laws, but they will despise their master ; the rest will take advantage of him, and annoy him every way in their power. 46 SCHOOL KEEPING. We come now to the other way and the other teacher. He has taken pains to start early and to form the acquaintance of his pupils wherever he could meet them. He has entered into all their feelings, plans, and wishes, and has formed with them a lasting friendship. They regard him as their friend, and are ready to install him as their mas- ter. When the hour for opening the school arrives, he is surrounded by his pupils, large and small, and is entertaining them in the most familiar manner. He now looks at his watch, and remarks in a gentle tone, " We will begin our school ; you may quietly take your seats." Here mark the contrast between these two teachers and their method of introducing themselves to their charge. And how dif- ferent the results, as manifest in the tone and temper of the school ! The one must govern, if at all, as a tyrant *, the other has HOW TO BEGIN. 47 established his authority on the basis of mutual confidence and love, and will prob- ably sustain it, without violence, to the end of his administration. The next business in order is to gain information in regard to the studies to be pursued ; to ascertain what work has l)een mapped out by parents or pupils for the term ; what books and apparatus have been provided, and whether anything in this line is still wanting ; how many classes must be formed, and whether the num1)er, compared with other terms, can be safely diminished ; and while this investigation is going on, the wise teacher will carefully observe the con- duct of the pupils in the different parts of the room. He has made no laws as yet. Each pupil is a law unto himself, and it miy be presumed that each fully understands how he should conduct himself; but this unre- strained and comparatively idle hour will be 48 SCHOOL KEEPING. likely to develop the real temper and pur- pose of all. Some will preserve propriety of conduct. These can always afterwards be trusted as loyal and reliable. Others, not malicious but roguish, will begin to manifest their fun, and to practise their jokes. Still others, who " don't care," who have come to school to be governed, and who pride themselves upon their smartness in breaking rules and evading punishment, will take this opportunity to try their master. The author was once organizing a large vil- lage school, where a few of this class of boys were observed to jump from the window and return to the room through the door. They had become sadly demoralized by the mis- management of the previous master ; but this little trick, which violated no visible law, was not repeated during this administration. They found that their sport was not as enjoy- able as they had anticipated. HOAV TO BEGIN. 49 The information obtained on all points will be valuable as the teacher proceeds in the organization and management of the school. Besides learning the peculiarities of his pupils in temper and habit, he will find too many difterent studies and too many different editions of books, requiring too many recitations for each day, and will make every possible effort to reduce them. But the teacher must not act rashly in this matter. Frequently parents have pro- vided the books and given express orders that they must be used in the school. In such cases, it Avill be wise to visit these parents, and to explain to them the situa- tion, and give them good reasons why chancres should be made. He can show them, and make them believe, that it w^ill be for» the interest of all parties to drop a study for the time, or to purchase a new book, in order to form fewer and larger 4 50 SCHOOL KEEPING. classes, and give more time for recitation. A world of trouble may be saved by such confidential consultations with parents rela- tive to the interests of the school. But he finds that not only books are wanting, but apparatus. There are no blackboards, or reading charts, or maps, or globes, or dic- tionary in the school-room. Here is another serious matter for consultation with parents. But this deficiency cannot safely be pressed now ; still, in time the articles may all be secured by patient and judicious manage- ment. I will here venture another sugges- tion. After explaining to all interested the desirableness of a complete outfit of "tools to work with" in every school-room, propose a small contribution by parents and pupils (ofiering your " quarter") to purchase a map or a globe. This may be made popular and successful. By and by, when the favor- able opportunity comes, get up a school HOW TO BEGIN. 51 exhibition, or a spelling match, and charge a small admittance fee, with the understanding that the avails will be appropriated to pur- chase some other needed article. By such a method not only will the o])ject be accom- plished, but new interest and enthusiasm will be awakened throughout the district in the school and its live master. But I have not yet suggested what may be done with the mischievous pupils who have manifested, so early, a willingness to annoy their teacher. They have broken no rules ; for none have yet been made. Hence there is no occasion for rebuke or punish- ment. Their conduct may be a theme for some public remarks before the school, and a word of caution may be spoken. These rogues should be "marked for future refer- ence,'' and a knowledge of their habits should guide the teacher in his arrangements for seating the pupils, and in his subsequent treatment of them. 52 SCHOOL KEEPING. In organizing, special attention should be given, (1) To the number of studies assigned to each pupil; (2) To the adaptation of these studies to the standing and work- ing ability of each ; (3) To the number of classes to be formed for daily recitation. First, no scholar should have, at the same time, more than two or three prominent stud- ies. In the school there should always be exercises in Avhich all can take part. These will consume some time, and the regular recitations still more. Hence, two or three regular studies (better two than three, as a rule, and sometimes only one) will be enough for the greatest improvement of the scholars. Secondly, the number and kind of studies assigned should depend upon the age, pre- vious attainments, and known scholarship of each. The subject and length of lessons should be measured by the capacity of the HOW TO BEGIN. 53 scholar to learn perfect lessons. The teacher will have to encounter a strong tendency to be classified upon a different principle. One -will wish to join the classes in which are some of his special friends ; another will measure his fitness to join a given class by the cu- bits of his own height ; a third will give other reasons for his preference in the choice of classes. But the master must not yield to such requests. Eight here will come a severe test of his professional skill in man- agement under difficulties. Thirdly^ few and larger classes give opportunity to awaken class pride, emu- lation, and enthusiasm. Besides, the few classes will have more time for careful recitation, which is the only condition of thoroughess in this exercise. The process of education is carried on through study and recitation ; it can be carried on in no other way ; and recitation, as I shall have 54 SCHOOL KEEPING. occasion later to say, is responsible for at least half this disciplinary work. If, now, the school has been classified upon the principles suggested, and system and regularity have been secured, the time and length of each recitation should be arranged, and with as much care as the time-table of the Grand Trunk Kailroad, otherwise there is danger of more waste of time and serious collisions than the railroad ever knew. The exact time for every school exercise should be fixed and, except for good reasons, un- changeable. This will induce study, pro- mote order, and prevent endless confusion. The final work of organization is the as- signment of seats, which is by no means unimportant. In this assignment, regard should be had to the general appearance of the school as seen by examiners and vis- itors. The teacher should aim to arrange a perfect tableau of its kind : boys and HOW TO BEGIN. 55 girls in their own departments, large and small so grouped as to present at once both uniformity and variety to the eye. This arrangement may also be consistent with convenience in calling out classes for recitation, to avoid unnecessary confusion. And there must be a separation of the rogues, to avoid future trouble, unless the master has already gained entire moral control over them. We have now reached *' the beginning of the end " in organization, but the work will need readjustment and some modifications as the school pro- curesses. 56 SCHOOL KEEPING. III. HOW TO GOVERN. ll/T ASTER, governor, disciplinarian, man- ager, teacher, educator, are terms ap- plied to the man who educates our children ; but no one of them is the appositive of school keeper. He represents and embodies them all. School keeping requires the skilful and constant service of the master^ who has rule or direction over his pupils ; of the governor, who controls with delegated authority ; of the disciplinarian , who en- forces discipline or adherence to stated rules ; of the manager, who directs or manages so as to turn to the best account all the appliances and influences within his reach ; of the teacher, whose special business is to HOW TO GOVERN. 57 impart instruction ; of the educator, who "repeatedly, persistently, and permanently draws forth," cultivates, and directs the faculties of body, mind, and soul. Now, in dealing with the methods, or "hows," of school keeping, I shall take this broad and comprehensive Adew of the subject, and shall aim not only to point out the right way to do the right things, but to show how everything the school- master does, or fails to do, every word he speaks or fails to speak, has its mfluence upon results and its bearing upon his suc- cess or failure. The master, governor, and disciplinarian must be a successful man- ager, and the skilful manager is always a good disciplinarian, for his success depends almost entirely upon his management ; and if he is an apt and skilful teacher or edu- cator, it may be counted as an additional guarantee of successful management. This 58 SCHOOL KEEPING. is indeed a broad subject. An able writer has expressed my views on this point so completely that I will quote his own words : "A lifetime of study, observation, and ex- perience cannot exhaust its possibilities. When we consider a single child, his he- reditary nature, his home education, — received, it may be, under antagonistic pa- rental influences, — his propensities, facul- ties, disposition, tastes, habits, will, his outdoor surroundings ; then multiply tbese by a hundred or a thousand, bring them together into a school ; their wills begin to cross, their dispositions to clash, their pro- pensities to project, — what complexity is here ! Who can bring order out of this chaos? Who can so mould, and guide, and govern, and direct, that these wills shall be rightly disciplined, these dispositions har- monized, and these propensities turned in the right direction? Where is the pilot HOW TO GOVERN. 59 that can steer his bark safely and surely through all these conflicting waves and cross seas, when he is liable, at any moment, to have a parental flaw strike him in his hour of need? What methods shall he adopt to round ofi* the projections and irregularities of his pupils' natures, and make all things move smoothly and harmoniously? His action upon them must be as constant, as gentle, as forcible, as unyielding, as the action of the water upon the rocks and pebbles of the sea-shore." Among the " hows " of school keeping now to be discussed are : ( 1 . ) How to express one's own personality. This first how to govern a school is an- swered by the yqyj presence of the true mas- ter or mistress. If one of nature's own, born and educated to rule, his character, as manifested to his pupils, is a controlling power. His general bearing, self-posses- 60 SCHOOL KEEPING. sion, the expression of his eye, tlie tone of his voice, liis cheerfulness, patience, evident symptitliy and knidness of heart, are power- ful aids to discipline. Whether he sits, stands, or walks in the presence of his school, he sways a sceptre which, though unseen, is constantly felt. The very atmosphere which surrounds him is pregnant with authority. Though he speaks not a word of command or rebuke, order and industry everywhere prevail. Such a master is reasonable in all his re- quirements ; just in all his demands ; decided, but never arbitrary ; unyielding, but as gen- tle as a lamb ; mild, but firm. These charac- teristics are the natural expression of himself, and they exert a moral force that cannot be resisted. "We must have a superior man," said a superintendent to me to-day ; " for this school will be just what the master makes it." Very true, but is it not equally true of every HOW TO GOVERN. 61 other school ? The fact is so generally con- ceded, that it crystallized into a proverb long ago: "As is the teacher so is the school." Hence the great importance of this point in the discussion of our subject. (2.) HoiD to gain the affections and confi- dence of ;patrons and pupils. I have briefly touched upon this subject in another chapter. I recall it here, that I may duly emphasize the importance of the teach- er's intercourse with his pupils and patrons as a means of gaining their favor and co-op- eration. In this way I hope to be able to tide the inexperienced teacher over some real difficulties in his arduous and responsi- ble work. I insist that the master should mingle freely and impartially with his pupils during the recesses at the school, and at their homes, and become intimately acquainted with every family in the district. He should visit these 62 SCHOOL KEEPING. homes early and often, not only in view of the relations he sustains to them, but for the express purpose of strengthening his own position, as a means of securing his success. How, then, shall the teacher conduct himself in his unofficial intercourse with the parents of his pupils ? He needs to know them all ; he needs their esteem and their confidence. How shall he secure these? As he moves around among his patrons, he should show no partiality, but admit the claims of all whose children are under his care to his in- terest and attention ; he should study the peculiarities of each family, and thus learn to adapt himself to their circumstances, tastes, and habits ; he should interest himself in whatever interests them, individually. The farmer, mechanic, sailor, merchant, and pro- fessional man has each his own special objects and subjects of interest, and the good house- keeper and mother has her special tastes and HOW TO GOVERN. 63 partialities. That teacher is unfortunate who has not the power to adapt himself to the varying tastes of these families, and to mani- fest a real interest and sympathy with each in whatever interests them. One will talk of flocks and herds, another of architecture, the third of navigation, the fourth of mer- chandise, the fifth of bonds, deeds, and cli- ents, or of health and sickness, and the wife and mother of her dairy, her garden, her flowers, and her children. Each is gratified to find in the teacher an attentive and inter- ested listener. And to gain the good-will and sympathy of his patrons in his own work, the teacher must share the enthusiasm of all in their various pursuits. And he may learn much from them all. But he will meet a great variety of political and religious opin- ions as he moves about in the district. One is a Kepublican, another a Democrat, a third a Mugwump ; one is radical and another is 64 SCHOOL KEEPDs^G. liberal in his religious views. Shall the teacher, whose duty it is to serve all his employers with equal fidelity, "become all things to all men," and profess agreement with each? By no means. The man or woman with no fixed opinions or convictions on these subjects is regarded as weak and unreliable ; if he has opinions and is afraid to express them, he is a coward. The teacher should, then, at jorojoer times and in a proper way, be ready to express his preferences on such subjects, but in no case should he enter into excited discussions with his pa- trons. Xo good can result from such a course, and possibly much harm. Common-sense is a safe guide in all such matters. Another point of practical importance has been raised by Mr. Jacob Abbott in his " Teacher " ; or, rather, he seems to have set- tled it, so far as his authority is final. He says : " The young teacher should take oppor- HOW TO GOTERX. bO tunity to ascertain the Dames and character of the different families in the district ; their ideas and wishes in respect to the govern- ment of the school : the kind of management adopted by one or two of the last teachers ; the difficulties they fell into, the nature of the complaints made against them, and the families with whom difficulty has usually arisen. . . . Such inquiries as these will bring to the teachers knowledge some cases of peculiarly troublesome scholars or unrea- sonable and complaining parents, and stories of their unjustifiable conduct on former oc- casions will come to him exaggerated by the jealousy of rival neighbors." But how is the teacher to obtain this information in a district where all are perfect strangers to him ? Mr. Abbott answers, "This information must, of course, be obtained in private conversation ; a good deal of it must be, from its very na- ture, hiofhlv confidential." 6Q SCHOOL KEEPING. Against such views and such advice I here enter an earnest protest. The teacher may be compelled, as he forms by degrees the acquaintance of the families from which his pupils are gathered, to learn from some confiding mother or village gossip her opinion of her neighbors and her neigh- bors' children ; but that he should be advised by a practical educator to become a gossip- hunter before he enters upon his official duties, is simply marvellous. When the information comes unsolicited, I would ad- vise him to listen with respectful attention to all the tattlers have to say, and to profit by any information they may communicate ; but I caution him not to allow such idle words to create a prejudice against any or to influence his actions toward them. It were much better for the teacher and the school that he should learn nothing from hearsay of the parents or pupils in HOW TO GOVERN. 67 his district, and that he should regard all in the most favorable light, as equally trustworthy and equally disposed to sus- tain him in the work which he has under- taken. He may then, by judicious and skilful management, transform the ill-dis- posed into helpers, and secure the good- will, good behavior, and co-operation of all interested in the school. The teacher should talk freely with par- ents in regard to the school and his own views and methods, and avail himself of every opportunity to impress upon them the great importance of careful oversight and painstaking in the education of their chil- dren. I will here repeat, the importance of o'ainins: the confidence and s^ood-will of both parents and pupils at the beginning of school cannot be overestimated. With- out these their co-operation cannot be ex- pected, and without this co-operation sue- 68 SCHOOL KEEPING. cess is impossible. This is especially im- portant at the beginning, as first impres- sions, whether favorable or mifavorable, are usually lasting. The ill-will of a single family will prove a constant annoyance to the teacher, if not a positive and serious injury to the school. To the same end, the teacher should strive earnestly to awaken an interest in the welfare of the school, as he moves about among the parents. He has them to educate as well as his pupils, and frequently they are even more in need of his instructions. (3.) How to establish and maintain authority. Authority is the corner-stone to all good government. This idea must be in the theory and practice of every parent and every master of a school. There can be no effective discipline without it. The closing sentence of Mr. Jacob Abbott's chapter on HOW TO GOVERN. 69 moral discipline, in his "Teacher," reads as follows : — "Let it be seen, then, that the constitution of your school is a monarchy, absolute and unlimited ; but let it also be seen that the one who holds the power is himself under the control of moral principle in all that he does, and he endeavors to make the same moral principle which guides him go as far as it is possible to make it go in the government of his subjects." Again he says, in another connection, "There should be through the whole course of his management the tone and manner of authority, not oi persuasion. The teacher must he a monarch, " Here not only the fact that the master's authority is supreme, but the method by which it should be established and main- tained, is suggested. These terms " mon- archy " and "monarch" grate upon republican ears and are repulsive to republican thought, 70 SCHOOL KEEPING. because we have always associated them with tyranny and oppression. Hence the effort so often made both by teachers and school boards to manage the school as a democracy, to abolish corporal punishment, and govern wholly by moral suasion, reserv- ing no right to enforce authority. Hence the frequent collisions between parents and teachers in consequence of the insubordi- nation of their children under the regulations of the school. Hence the disgraceful rebel- lions in public schools, academies, and col- leges against constituted authority. Still Mr. Abbott's theory is true. The govern- ment of a school cannot be a democracy ; it must be a monarchy, whose sole power to govern is vested in one man or woman whose authority is absolute. His will is law, and that law must be obeyed. The rules and regulations necessary to maintain an orderly school are not numer- HOW TO GOVERN. 71 ous, but they must be definite and definitely understood by every scholar to secure uni- formity and harmony of action. They should not be abruptly introduced before the school is organized, but should be the out- growth from the experience of the first few days. When a rule becomes necessary in the working of the school, such, for instance, as that there shall be no whisper- ing except at the hour assigned for irregu- larities, let that point come up for remark and consideration. Show the school its im- portance, and secure, as you easily can, an expression of approval. Then make that regulation, and from that hour enforce it ; so of every other needed rule. Make no laws that are not to be maintained, and maintained on the basis of authority. Let there be no misunderstanding on this point. But the method of governing is the theme I am now discussing. Securing obedience to 72 SCHOOL KEEPING. wholesome regulations is the main object to be gained, — by mild measm^es or severe measures, as the circumstances require. Authority must be maintained, I repeat ; and sometimes it must be enforced. Love, as I shall show, is the controlling element in the discipline of every school. That master will best establish and maintain authority who has gained the affections and confidence of his pupils. He has acquired a personal in- fluence over them, has gained their respect and good-will, and can now depend upon them voluntarily to obey his laws. Yet there must be a tone and manner of authority in the bearing of the master, in the whole course of his management. When the moral fails, the legal must be vigorously applied. In every school there should be a com- plete division of time, study hours, recita- tions, and recreations. This systematic ar- rangement has other important uses. I HOW TO GOVERN. 73 here insist upon it as a means of prevent- ing evil ; of maintaining authority without resorting to force ; of governing without friction. The time for study should be marked l)y the pointers on the clock-dial, and should be sacred to that work. All interruptions should be avoided, and quiet preserved. The time for recitation should be equally definite and equally guarded. And the time for play, and the necessary irregulari- ties, should be also provided for. The recess of fifteen minutes morning and afternoon, and occasional recesses, say of two to four minutes, are as necessary as the safety-valve on the steam boiler. They give opportunity to breathe the pure air, explode the pent- up fun, to whisper, ask questions, and leave seats, and they remove all excuse for inter- rupting the quiet of the hours devoted to other purposes. If time is allowed for 74 SCHOOL KEEPING. irregularities, they can safely be forbidden at other times. Besides, this system and order have a moral power over the school that cannot be measured. It is also of great consequence, as a means of holding the supremacy, that each pupil should have his time fully occupied and his interest in his studies thoroughly awa- kened. To secure these results, great care has been taken in the organization of the school to have just such studies and just so many as are adapted to the individual scholar and class of scholars. I do not speak of this, in this connection, in view of its great importance to the scholars' pro- gress in study, but in view of its bearings upon school government. In the school where all are busy and interested in their lessons, there is no time for mischief. Such a school may not be as quiet as the school that is ruled by force. No matter ; the noise HOW TO GOVERN. 75 will do no harm, so long as no one hears it, or is disturbed by it. The queen of the beehive would be very foolish to attempt to quiet the hum of the busy workers while they are storing their rich honey in the cells. Equally foolish is that teacher who shouts " order " to his school, when the only disor- der results naturally from the zeal of earnest pupils learning their lessons. Again, the master who has secured the love and confidence of his pupils can easily bring them to the hearty approval of what- ever he deems necessary or best for the wel- fare of the school. .He can create a pubHc opinion which will prove a powerful agency to aid in the exercise of his authority over disorder, recklessness, and rebellion ; he can make popular whatever is right and proper and expedient ; he can make unpopular whatever is wrong or of evil tendency ; and, while he holds the reins of supreme 76 SCHOOL KEEPING. authority, and retains the right and power to act independently and to enforce any measure deemed necessary for his own se- curity or the good of the school, he may so manage as to bring about the desired result through the good-will, co-operation, and active aid of his students. Indeed that is the best-governed school which seems not to be governed at all ; whose well- arranged machinery moves without friction and is self-adjusting ; whose master's hand is never seen, and his authority never felt. The earnest, well-educated, and sympa- thetic young man or woman has determined to make a success in keeping school. He has sought the acquaintance, secured the friendship, interest, and co-operation of the parents at home and the children at school ; has carefully planned and arranged everything that can have a bearing upon the result, and has skilfully appropriated every agency HOW TO GOVERN. 77 and influence that can be brought to bear to gain his object. He is now tlie master of the situation, and has only to guide and control the circumstances by which he is constantly surrounded. No syml^ol of au- thority appears, yet his school is in good order ; no word of command is given, yet careful obedience to known laws is ren- dered ; no rewards for successful scholar- ship, except the consciousness of victory over difficulties and the approval of mas- ter and friends, are offered ; yet nearly all the pupils are deeply interested in their studies, and are making rapid progress from day to day. The school so organized needs little or no aid from the teacher. Like the well-constructed, regulated, and "wound- up " clock, it runs itself, / Even in such a school, however, some- times the old habits of disorder, such as tardniess, idleness, whispering, disobedi- 78 SCHOOL KEEPING. ence, lying, stealing, and the like, will occa- sionally crop out; but the master has only to bring to bear upon them his own moral power and the power of public opinion, and they are checked at once. He always has some interesting exercise near the time for opening the school to draw in the pupils. If any are not so drawn, but fall into the habit of tardiness, he so strongly impresses the better class with the importance of punctuality, that they frown upon the offender, and he concludes to come on time. He has removed the last excuse and temp- tation to whispering by his short occasional recesses, for such purposes. Still some con- tinue to whisper. He now forms an anti- whispering society, which soon embraces nearly all the school, and thus public opin- ion, for a time at least, crushes out the evil. HOW TO GOVERN. 79 Angry words are overheard on the play- ground. This gives the teacher a text for some general remarks upon the folly and wickedness of quarrelling. The offender is not punished, but kindly rebuked and ear- nestly advised to liv^e in peace with all. His name is not called out in public, per- haps is not known to the teacher. Soon the better class begin to rebuke such offend- ers. The number who disapprove increases, and erelong public opinion becomes so strong that the most careless and vicious are led to give up the habit. A case of theft is discovered, but the thief is not known. The wise teacher embraces this opportunity to lay the crime before the pupils in a repulsive light ; and he soon has created so strono^ a feelinof in the school that the offender is ready voluntarily to confess his sin and make restitution. I have, in my own experience, met and treated several cases 80 SCHOOL KEEPING. of this kind, which resulted not only in the correction of the habit in school, but also in the reformation of the offender. There is no more powerful agency for good than an en- lightened and excited public opinion. Fortu- nate is that teacher who has learned how to employ it, to sustain his authority and con- trol his little kingdom. There is another condition of things which must be provided for in the working of every school, — a state of anarchy and confusion, which results from the breathing of bad air, weariness from study, or some other physical cause. The evil cannot well be defined. All we know, when it is upon us, is that the fiend of disorder reigns in the school. The important question is. How shall w^e manage to expel him, and restore order and industry ? No ordinary method will accomplish it. Pro- testing, supplicating, arguing, scolding, or whipping will not have the slightest tendency HOW TO GOVERN. 81 to overcome the difficulty. Any or all these remedies will aggravate rather than remove the difficulty. The enemy must be encoun- tered by " a flank movement." Divert the attention of the school by some unexpected change. Let study and recitation be sus- })ended ; tell or read some anecdote or story ; recite in concert the multiplication- table ; or let the whole school loose for just five minutes by the watch, and then call them to order, and you will find that a remarkable change has been produced in the minds and feelings of all, and they are ready to settle down to good order and quiet study. Still again, the teacher who would maintain his authority by mild measures alone must exemplify, in his daily life, a uniform good- will, earliest sympathy, and hearty generos- ity towards his pupils at all times and every- where. I have spoken of the importance and 6 82 SCHOOL KEEPING. method of gaining the affections of the pupils as a means of governing the school. I now speak of love in the teacher's own heart, felt for those intrusted to his care. This love is an active principle, and, when brought to bear upon sympathetic childhood and youth, it is all-powerful. Show the pupil, by personal attention and kindness, that you are his real friend, and that all your efforts are designed to secure his best good, and make him believe it, and you hold him subject to your will and control, anxious to gratify your wishes and to work for the good of the school. In him you have gained a true friend and loyal subject. But do not mistake . This love can never be a substitute for authority nor an obsta- cle to severity when the good of the pupil or the school demands it. Authority requires obedience, but obedience is not, like the love and faith of childhood, instinctive. This love HOW TO GOVERN. 83 is spontaneous, l)ut the habit of submission must be created under disciphne. The child must be taught obedience, and the great trouble is, many a child at home has never learned this important lesson, and he brings to school only the spirit of insubordination. The authority that must always be the con- trolling power in every well-managed school is "a power behind the throne," and is mild and gentle in its more effective aspects. When made the basis of school govern- ment, it does not require the teacher to assume sternness and severity towards his pupils, but quite the reverse as a rule. The more gentle, courteous, and kind his expressions, the more likely to secure cheer- ful obedience. When the pupil is at peace and in harmony with his master, reasons for his requirements may be given, and even persuasion may be properly used ; but if a question of obedience is pending, no rea- 84 SCHOOL KEEPING. sons and no j^ersi^aszo/i are allowable. It is then simple submission to authority. Eeasons should never be given as induce- ments to obey, and the teacher may never parley with a rebellious scholar. But habitual kindness, and even indul- gence in whatever is beneficial or harmless, do not weaken authority, but, on the con- trary, increase the power to control ; and, when authority is properly exercised, they tend to increase and strensfthen the love and confidence which the pupil cherishes for his teacher. The rule is, that the obedient scholar may be indulged in every line of conduct that is harmless to himself and the school, but must be restrained in everything that is injurious or dangerous. The teacher who attempts to gain the affections of his pupils by gratifying all their wishes, in other words, by laxity of government, will fail. They may enjoy the indulgence, but they HOW TO GOVERN. 85 mark the master's weakness, and soon learn to view his imbecility with pity and contempt. Indeed the only way to gain the lasting love and gratitude of pupils is to govern them ivith a firm and steady hand. Another principle of great importance underlies school government. All favors bestowed must reward only fidelity and submission ; none can be gained by dis- obedience. Still further, privation, incon- venience, or pain, as the case may be, must always attend or follow the act of trans- gression. This is according to the divine plan, after which family and school govern- ment should be modelled. In adopting the divine plan of government for the school, we must admit the propriety and necessity of severe as well as mild punishments. It is a system of love, and is also a system of severity, as every transgressor of the physical or moral law fully understands. 86 SCHOOL KEEPING. God not only has in exercise a loving spirit, but he is Love itself. Yet His is a govern- ment of law, of authority, and of penalty, — of painful and unavoidable penalty. It would seem safe to follow such a model ; and, if we do, we have once for all set- tled the question of corporal punishment, — of its propriety and necessity, at least in some cases. I will proceed, then, to remark, that in school government merited punishment must be certain. The certainty more than the severity of punishment makes it effec- tive. For instance, I will again revert to the natural law. The child, unconscious of his danger, plunges his fingers into the can- dle's blaze ; the suffering of pain is the penalty ; and every time this law is vio- lated the suffering must be endured. But he soon learns to keep at a distance from this shining terror, and to obey this physi- HOAV TO GOVERN. 87 cal law. This penalty, like every other, is only an expression of the love of the infinite Father. So the schoolmaster should, in the exercise of his love for his pupils, make it sure that a suitable punishment will follow every transgression of whole- some laws, when that transgression tends to injure either the individual or the school. And as far as possible let the punish- ment be the natural consequence of the fault or transgression, as the case may be. To illustrate : The scholar, carelessly or intentionally, in leaving the room at re- cess makes unnecessary noise. Call him back to his seat, and ask him pleasantly to pass out more quietly, and if he re- peats the offence, in the smallest degree, require him to return and remain while others enjoy the recess. Another goes out quietly for a fifteen minutes' recess and stays 05 • SCHOOL KEEPING. thirty minutes. The next time allow this transgressor only ten minutes ; and if he violates still again, allow him none at all. Here the privation is associated with the fault, and the habit is soon corrected. All punishments are designed to correct the evil for the benefit of the transgressor or the school, or both. They should be mild or severe as the case requires, but may never be vindictive, nor administered in anger. Promptness and firmness, but harshness and ill-temper never. In one instance a look of disapprobation corrects the evil ; in another, a word of rebuke ; in a third, the denial of some favor ; in the fourth, the infliction of slight pain ; in the fifth, severity that will draw tears. But in no case, let me say right here, may the master inflict such punishment as will endanger the health or result in any per- manent injury to the scholar. HOW TO GOVERN. 89 This punishment, as a rule, should not be delayed. It should follow the transgres- sion as speedily as possible, or it will lose its force and fail to accomplish its object. Never let the sun go down upon the anger or transgression of a pupil if you can help it. And always attend and follow punish- ment, of whatever kind or degree, with attention, Jchidness, and sympathy. This will tend to win back the offender to obe- dience and duty, and secure his permanent reform. And away with the nonsense that severe punishment, or the use of the rod, is in itself an evil to be deplored, and must be employed only as a "last resort." It is a pity that chil- dren have, at home or in school, been so neg- lected and ill-treated that such punishments ever become a necessity in school govern- ment ; but it is fortunate for the pupil and the school that this effective remedy for in- 90 SCHOOL KEEPING. subordination is at hand, and that the school has a master who understands how to apply it. Besides, the use of the rod is the time and only remedy when it may he used at all, and there can he no suhstitute. The newsboy makes a misstep and falls under the wheels of the rolhng cars, and in a moment is picked up upon the track with his foot crushed to jelly. What is to be done ? Here is a desperate case which requires a desperate remedy. But it is a deplorable necessity to amputate a human limb ; it should be done only as a " last resort." So reasons the quack who is called to treat the case. Hence he orders bathing the poor boy's head and leg in cold water to allay the burning fever ; he gives him brandy to keep up his strength, and opium to relieve the pain ; he tries every mild remedy that has been discovered. But the patient is sinking from loss of blood, and ready to die from inflam- mation which long delay has invited. The HOW TO GOVERN. 91 fact is, amputation alone can save life, and the very nature of the case admits of no delay. What a fool has this case in hand ! Yet this quack is no more foolish than the master who attempts to quell a rebellion by persuasion and moral suasion. These are appropriate agencies in school government. Love is a controlling power in discipline, ])ut th§y are all worse than wasted if applied in a case like this. Without the knife the patient will die ; without the rod the pupil is lost to authority, lost to himself, and lost to tlie school ; milder measures are effective in other cases, but not in this. Still it is true that the school which is properly managed under the moral influence of a skilful master seldom requires corporal punishment; and it might never be necessary if all the children were properly trained at home. Since it is some- times necessary as things are, it is not only the proper punishment but it is merciful and 92 SCHOOL KEEPING. hind. The appropriiite penalty for such school vices us profanity, falsehood, steal- ing, and the like must be determined by the circumstances of the case. Moral treatment judiciously and perseveringly applied will usually accomplish the object. A case to illustrate. At the hour of recess, when the boys were at their play, the master was passing and overheard profane language by one who had become excited over his game. He had made no law against swearing, but every pupil knew that it was wicked to swear, and no one would justify the practice or apol- ogize for it. What did he do about it ? In answering this question I shall indicate an approved method of treating all such offences committed in school. At a favorable time afterwards, when the day had passed pleas- antly and all seemed happy, the master asked the school to lay aside their books HOW TO GOVERN. 93 a few minutes before the time to close, and told them he had something to say to them upon an important subject; that not long since, in passing their play-ground, he had accidentally heard an oath from the lips of one of the boys present, which had caused him much grief and anxiety, — grief to learn that any one in his school could so far for- get himself and his ol)ligations to God and his playmates as to indulge in this low, sin- ful, and degrading habit ; and anxiety lest this habit was more common than he knew of; that his object in calling up the matter now was not to sino;le out the known of- fender and punish him, but to have a famil- iar talk with them on the subject, to ascer- tain how far their views agreed with his own, and whether some measures could not be taken to put a stop to such evil habits. He then made some general remarks upon the folly and wickedness of swearing, at the 94 SCHOOL KEEPING. close of which he called for an expression of opinion as to whether swearing is ever justifiable, to be decided by a standing vote. Every pupil stood up. Now he inquired how many present were not in the habit of swearing, or never used profane language. He urged them to be honest with themselves and him ; about one half of the boys rose. Next he asked all who were willing to con- fess that they did sometimes use profane language to rise. Every one of the self- convicted half stood up again. Then came the opportunity to extend his remarks, dwelling upon the evil consequences of the habit, and how easy it is to do wrong, and how noble it is to confess and forsake that wrong ; and he requested all who were resolved to swear no more to rise. All arose, and the school was dismissed. The result was, an anti-swearing society was formed, which attracted much attention and HOW TO GOVERN. 95 wrought such a change in public opinion that the habit of swearing was virtually abolished for the term. I here recall an amusing anecdote rela- tive to a voluntary association of this kind once formed by some students at Dartmouth College. The " boys " had fallen so deeply into the habit of using profane language that they were themselves shocked in view of it. Hence they resolved to sign a pledge binding themselves to refrain from the vile practice. The pledge, after setting forth the evil to be abandoned, read, "I solemnly pledge that I will not swear anywhere this side of * Mink Brook.' " (Mink Brook is a small stream crossing the main road, half a mile south of the college.) A few days later, early one morning, a classmate saw one of the mem- bers of this anti-swearing society ru7ining across the Common, and inquired of him the occasion of so great haste. He replied, "I 9 6 SCHOOL . KEEPING. am going down over ' Mink Brook to swear ; I can't stand it any longer ! " This was not a case for college discipline, only a case of conscience. But what a con- science ! It would not allow the young man to break his written pledge, but it would allow him to break his resolution to refrain from swearing, and to indulge still in the acknowledged sin ! Another illustration of the power of habit. I will here recall other cases illustratincf the principles I have laid down in regard to school government, and specify an approved method of treating them. I once called to account a scholar for whistling in his seat in study hours. " What does this mean ? " I inquired. Greatly agitated, he replied, "/ did not whistle, it whistled itself.'' I found the boy was study- ing at the time, and had no intention of thus disturbinoj the school. He had whis- HOW TO GOVERN. 97 tied so much out of school that it had be- come a second nature, and he was uncon- scious of the act until he heard the whistle. Hence there was no blame, and of course no censure, except for carelessness. A ten -year -old boy, very bright and interesting, and usually correct in his de- portment, had heard the master rebuke others for whispering, and threaten them, in a general way, with punishment if they did not stop it. Soon after he was observed upon his seat, with one eye upon his book and the other upon the master, evidently whispering. The teacher addressed him, "Charlie, are you whispering?" Answer, "Yes, sir." "Did you hear what I said about whispering and punishment for it ? " Answer, "Yes, sir." "Well, Charlie, I am very sorry you have done this ; I rather punish almost any scholar in school than you." Answer, ^^ I would much rather you 7 98 SCHOOL KEEPING. ivould,'' with a roguish smile. The master was conquered. He could only say in reply, "I will see you later, and talk with you about this matter." His mistake was in threatening punishment for an uncommitted act of disobedience. Better wait to learn the exact nature of the act, and the circum- stances attending it. Then only can he decide as to the proper penalty (if any) to be inflicted. If he has made a threat to punish a specified transgression, he must do one of two things, — punish just as he promised, or manfully withdraw his threat and confess his fault. The latter course should always be taken when he has 'made a mistake. Mark here the frankness, honesty, and shrewdness of this boy. He told the trutji, confessed his fault, and made no efibrt to excuse himself. The fact remained that he was a rogue. But roguery is much to be preferred to stupidity. I have always been HOW TO GOVERN. 99 on good terms with my roguish scholars. I have sometimes dealt with them very severely, but have never lost their confi- dence or affection in consequence. This "little man" deserved the highest commenda- tion for his truth-telling under strong temp- tations to deceive, and he deserved a gentle rebuke for disregarding the rule and wishes of his master. In my school of a hundred pupils on Cape Cod, I found many rogues, some small and some large. One of these, who would mea- sure at least six feet, one day asked per- mission to speak. ,He never did anything contrary to law, ^vithout permission, but in his very obedience he aimed to make fun, and was at times willing to annoy the master in that way. On this occasion I allowed him to speak. He left the back seat, came to the front seat and sat down beside a little six- year-old girl, and commenced conversation 100 SCHOOL KEEPING. with her. The attention of the whole school was fixed upon this tableau. I looked him fully in the face, and waited until he had fin- ished, when I said in the presence of the school, " Sweet, you see how ashamed that little girl appears." The pupils cheered, and the offender moved back to his seat discom- fited. Not another word was spoken. The school at once came to order, and the exer- cises went on quietly as before. But Sweet was cured of his little tricks. By the way, the captain of a vessel, which had recently come into the harbor for winter quarters, was present as a pupil, and Sweet was his " mate." This was the application of shame as a pun- ishment, which I regard as appropriate and effective in certain cases. But ridicule and sarcasm are seldom, if ever, to be employed. Four large boys were excused to go home an hour before the school closed, on the plea of being needed by their parents for some HOW TO GOVERN. 101 service. They left the schooihouse, but in- stead of going home they went out upon the liill, in plain sight, and commenced playing ball. The master saw them, and sent out a messenger and ordered the boys to come back to school. They returned an insulting answer and refused to come. I was not that master. If I had been, I should not have sent for them. That was a mistake. It was much easier to deal with them for the first offence than for three ofiences together. In the first instance, they had left the school upon false pretences. Hence they were not excused at all. If 'they had been mine to handle, I should have asked them privately, the next morning, to meet me at noon, when I would have talked with them kindly but firmly, and asked an apology before the school. If that had been absolutely refused, I should have informed them that they were no longer members of the school, but that 102 SCHOOL KEEPING. they could return by making a public apol- ogy and pledging propriety of conduct in the future. In the second instance, after they had refused obedience and insulted the mas- ter besides, I should have given them no attention whatever in the school after their return. If they behaved themselves prop- erly, I should not have turned them out, but should have entirely ignored their presence. No inside nor outside pressure could have induced me to allow these rebels to return without public and humiliating confession and apology. This is one of those cases which cannot be dealt with on the "sugar- plum" principle. Corporal punishment is not the remedy in this instance, but suspen- sion, which would result in expulsion, unless the offenders came to my terms and gave me satisfaction. A boy, fifteen years of age, had entered my academy from New York. On his way, HOW TO GOVERN. 103 while stopping at a hotel, he had mastered his step-father in a personal encounter. He was idle, impudent, bold, and defiant. He attempted and expected to conquer his preceptor as he had his father. He was very Ijright, and I found, before I had got through with him, that he had talents, and a heart susceptible of moral influence. But nothing was more evident than that the moral must come after his stubborn will had been subdued by severity. He was a rebel from the first, at every corner. I always treated him kindly, but he returned kindness by insult, ^and watched his oppor- tunity to gain his point. His class were at recitation. Unprovoked, he grossly in- sulted me before the class. I stepped down from the desk and commenced talkins: with him, when he dared me to lay hands on him. Such a challenge I always accepted under such circumstances, and a struggle ensued. 104 SCHOOL KEEPING. I was soon acknowledged to be his master, and he had stopped swearing at me. I now took the boy upon the stage, had him sit at my side until the recitation was over. Then I took him to my room, and had a long and very satisfactory conversation with him. I assured him that I was his friond, and had been prompted by no other feelings than friendship, in anything I had done ; that I must he master, and that he must yield to my authority and treat me with becoming respect. He agreed to all I said, spoke of his stubbornness as a great mis- fortune, and admitted the necessity of being- subdued. On leaving my room he told his classmates that I was right and he was wrong, and that he had not one word of fault to find with his preceptor. For two years afterwards, in my school, he was uniformly obedient and faithful, and for a dozen years more, until his death, he was one of my devoted friends. HOW TO GOVERN. 105 This was an extreme case, and I relate the circumstances of it to illustrate two points: viz., that severity is sometimes necessary, and that kindness should always accompany and follow severe punishment. To have reversed this process would have proved a failure to subdue the boy, and the subversion of all authority in the school. To have expelled the boy might have re- sulted in his ruin. Severity was kindness then, as it will ever prove to be if properly administered. Whether severe punishments are to be inflicted in private or public, depends entirely .upon circumstances, of which we can never know beforehand. The principles which I have advocated, and the good judgment of the master, must settle this question, one case at a time. What I have said here of the necessity and propriety of corporal punishment in some cases is in no way inconsistent with the 106 SCHOOL KEEPING. assertion I will here record, that the skilful master, under favorable circumstances, will seldom or never need to resort to severe punishments. Nor have I any words to offer except in condemnation of the severe and cruel punishments inflicted by some of the old schoolmasters. Both the degree and kind of punishment deserve unquali- fied censure. Jean Paul Richter gives an example, — John Jacob Hauberle, a Sua- bian master. He was fifty-one years and seven months employed as a schoolmaster, in which time he "administered 911,527 strokes of the cane, 124,000 of the rod, 20,989 blows with the ruler, 10,235 boxes on the ear, 7,905 tugs at the ear, 1,115,800 blows with the knuckles on the head. He threatened the rod, but did not execute, to 1,707 more children. He made 777 kneel upon round hard peas, and 631 upon a sharp-edged piece of wood, and made HOW TO GOVERN. 107 5,001 ride a wooden horse." Add to all this, "22,763 impositions (or tasks), partly in the Bible, partly in the catechism, and partly in the Psalm book." And he was fool enough to keep the record of his deeds, and give it to posterity. What a commen- tary upon the times in which this master lived, and his own inefficiency ! To say nothing of the excess of his punishments, the boxes and " tugs " on the ear, the blows on the head, kneeling upon " hard round peas and sharp-edged wood," and imposing tasks, and all this kind of treatment, can have no justification under any circum- stances. Threatening without executing, as before intimated, should never be practised. Right here let me say, the teacher may never provoke his pupils to break his rules or rebel against his authority. This is often done in various ways, but it is inexcusable. All acts of disobedience and rebellion must 108 SCHOOL KEEPING. be treated from whatever cause they arise ; but if the master has provoked them by his haughty bearing or unprofessional man- agement, he must share largely the respon- sibility. Another important point, — the teacher should improve every opportunity to com- mend the school and the individual pupil for worthy conduct and successful study. Such commendation has great power over the evil tendencies of school life. And in the midst of all these conflicts and trials, the teacher should be cool, self-possessed, and unwavering. A similar course, modified by circum- stances, may be pursued in dealing with every punishable school oflence, while the master must hold firmly the reins of gov- ernment, and be prepared to treat every mild or flao;rant case of recklessness with prompt and deserved punishment. HOW TO TEACH. 109 rv. HOW TO TEACH. T DESIRE to repeat, at each standpoint, the inseparable relation of any one de- partment of school keeping to every other. In the last chapter I dwelt somewhat at length upon " How to Govern " ; but " How to Teach " is only a branch of the same sub- ject. Indeed, good teaching is one impor- tant method of govjerning. The whole pro- cess of teaching to think and teaching to recite, of waking up mind, of encouraging industry, and of fixing and holding the atten- tion of classes has in view, as one grand object, a systematic, orderly, and well-regu- lated school, as means to an end. There must be good order to give oppor- 110 SCHOOL KEEPING. tunity for quiet study, and quiet study tends to produce good order ; and the skilful hand- ling of classes is directly instrumental in securing the same result. Hence successful teaching is successful governing as far as it goes. With this introduction I will proceed to discuss, in a summary way, the subject of this chapter. We shall understand how to teach when we have thoroughly learned the design and method of recitation. The results of a practical education are illustrated, not by the golden cup filled to the brim, but by the swelling bud developed into blossoms and ripe fruit, through the ge- nial influence of light, heat, and moisture. Education is not, as I have already said, the storing of knowledge, but the development of power, through exercise. Study and reci- tation are the chief agencies to be employed in this process of training. Study is syste- HOW TO TEACH. Ill raatic thinking, and to teach the pupil how to study is of the first importance. To do this successfully the teacher must arrange defi- nite study hours and maintain perfect order to give opportunity for quiet thought ; must assign only such studies and lessons as are adapted to the scholar's capacity ; must awaken his enthusiasm and fix and hold his attention upon a given subject ; must with- hold all unnecessary helps ; and must teach him to study thoughts and subjects, in- stead of words and books. In this way the habit is gradually formed and the foundation for successful mental culture is laid. The relative importance of recitation as a disciplinary agency is seen in its practical bearing in every department of life. The child learns to walk by walking. This act requires the exercise of his muscles, which, in time, results in growth and the develop- ment of strength. He learns to talk by 112 SCHOOL KEEPING. talking, and this is only the practise of vocal gymnastics. The mechanic learns to use his tools by using them. He could never ac- quire the ability to build a house, construct an engine, or make a watch, by reading books or hearing lectures upon the subject. He must practise again and again what he has learned from the master workman, be- fore he can become efficient and skilful. The musician gains a wonderful ability to use the voice and instrument only by years of earnest and persistent recitation. The orator, whose eloquence sways the multitude as the wind the nodding forest, has gained his power also by jpractice. And the im- portant art of easy and graceful conversa- tion and elegant composition is acquired only by conversing and composing. Indeed, the whole process of physical, intellectual, and moral culture depends upon this same principle, — the exercise of the muscle or HOW TO TEACH. 113 faculty to be developed; the repetition of some act of a muscle or faculty, as a means of acquiring ability and skill in the use of it. Hence the gymnast, by constant drill, not only develops symmetry and beauty of form, but agility and precision of move- ment that is wonderful. The student, by constant and systematic thinking, learns to think, and the good man's character is moulded and matured by the practice of virtue. Well-conducted school recitations induce study. Without them, studying, as a habit, must be fitful and superficial. The same re- sult follows looseness and irregularity in con- ducting recitation. Let it be understood by the class that the teacher has adopted the in- excusable practice of occupying the hour in a display of his own knowledge of the lesson, or will be sure not to call upon a given section of the class except on certain days, and but 8 114 SCHOOL KEEPING. little attention will be given to the lessons of those days. Prof. H always began to call up the freshman class in chemistry at one end of the front seat. He never called more than one third of the " boys " at any recitation, but passed on with the second third the second day, and finished the last section the third day, and then returned to repeat the routine. Hence it was soon understood that, two days out of three, there was no danger of being called to recite. But one day the professor forgot himself, and began at the other end of the class, and called "Hoskins." At first he did not rise, and was called a second time, when he jumped up in great confusion, and said, " Excuse me ; I did not expect to recite to-day, and have not studied my lesson." This case serves to illustrate. Another advantage of personal and accu- rate recitation is to give distinctness and vividness to acquired knowledge ; to fix it HOW TO TEACH. 115 in the memory, and render it available for future use. No lesson is thoroughly learned until it is recited. By recitation the thoughts which were crude and half-formed are made sound and ripe ; those that were seen in the distance are brought near ; those that were doubtful are made certain. In this way the mind is furnished and invig- orated for the service of practical life. Again, recitation bears an important rela- tion to instruction, and it is necessary for the teacher to understand both this relation and the distinction between them. Recita- tion, like study, is exclusively the scholar's work, while instruction belongs to the teacher. Study is the art of acquiring, the exercise of the mind in search of knowledge. Recitation is the art of expression ; and it is quite as important to gain the power of accurate expression as to gain the knowl- edge itself. Instruction has a much higher 116 SCHOOL KEEPING. mission to perform than merely to impart knowledge ; it must also inspire thought, induce and direct study, and impart enthu- siasm. Instruction, if it is properly given, aids the pupil in self-application. Eecitation fails of its object as far it fails to cultivate the habit of correct expession. And the teacher must ever bear in mind that mental discipline is the primary object of study, instruction, and recitation. We come now to methods of conducting: recitation. "Method," says Payne, "is a special mode of administering an art, and an art is a practical display of science." This is true as applied to education. The teach- er's mode of exhibiting the notions of his art, is his method, good or bad, as it may be. 'Now a good method of recitation or in- struction must be in accordance with nature. And if the teacher is to deal with children, or indeed with pupils of higher grade, he HOW TO TEACH. 117 will learn his most important normal lesson in childhood's home. Let him go to the play-house and the play-ground, where the children, free and unrestrained, exhibit the only known example of perpetual motion. In this school of nature the child is con- stantly learning and reciting in the most effectual manner. Kindergarten is only the nursery transplanted and reduced to system. Let us examine this point more carefully. What is the child doing in his wild round of daily sport and pleasure ? I answer. He is studying and reciting "from morn till night." His lessons are the toys, the animals, the things, the objects by which he is sur- rounded. These constantly engross his at- tention and awaken his interest. His mind is alive to everything his eyes behold, his ears hear, and his fingers touch. But this is not all. He recites all these lessons to his brother, or sister, or mother ; or, if he can- 118 SCHOOL KEEPING. not gain their attention, he directs his dis- course to some animal or inanimate object. This is the beginning, in Nature's school, of a "liberal education." "Nature," says Payne, "furnishes knowledge by object lessons, and trains the active powers by making them act. She makes the pupil learn to do by doing. She gives him no grammar, no compendiums of abstract principles. Action ! action ! is her maxim of training ; and things ! things ! are the objects of her lessons." When the object fails, the picture attracts the child's attention, and serves his purpose. He hails with delight the monthly visits of /St. JV^ichoIas, because the interesting stories it contains are forcibly illustrated by pictures. He knows the objects by sight, and the pictures which represent them. He never deals in abstractions. With the fact and the reasons, so far as he can understand them, he is satisfied, and all his acquired HOW TO TEACH. 119 knowledge he continues to rehearse with enthusiasm. So far the child has dealt only with objects and pictures. With them he is familiar. He has learned to speak their names and to describe their qualities and action. Now he is to be introduced to the school, and the question is, how is he to be taught there? I answer. If the child's interest is to be preserved, if his school is to be made a source of pleasure and not of pain, if his education is to be prosecuted in the natural and most effective way, his school must be modelled after the home. He must still enjoy much freedom ; must never be con- fined to the school-room, with nothing to do. The unlettered child in the nursery and play- house teaches us how many blunders are made and how much harm has been done by false methods of conducting primary recita- tions at school. 120 SCHOOL KEEPING. These recitations should embrace original accounts of his out-of-door sports and ad^cn- tures, and when not otherwise occupied he should be allowed to draw and write on the slate or black-board, under the teachers direction; and at all times and everywhere, he should be treated and taught as a child. And even when introduced to books, the child's recitation should be conducted after the same model, — having the play-house in view. As I have elsewhere expressed it, "The thing before the sign ; words before the alphabet; facts first, analysis afterwards, and the meaning always understood." Here, then, we are naturally introduced to what is termed the word system. We may first obseiwe that the child, up to this point, has learned to distinguish not only objects and pictures, huisil^o loords, and to speak these words as representing the object he sees or has in mind. He has HOW TO TEACH- 121 already learned the name by sound. He is now to learn it by sight also ; and if he has learned all the words in a given sentence by sight, he can read that sentence correctly, and understand it. This is just what I would teach the child to do. For example, a sim- ple sentence like the following, containing short and familiar words, may be selected and printed upon the black-board : " Mary and Jane are two bright little girls, about ten years old." Now the class of children are called up to read, not their "A, B, Cs," of which they know nothing and care as little, but a luord lesson, whose sound and meaning they already understand. They do not yet know them by sight. This is the third step in the process of object teaching, namely, (1) The object, Mary; (2) The picture of a little girl called Mary; and (3) The ivord "Mary." 122 SCHOOL KEEPING. The class all know the object and the picture, and now the word is to be learned hy sight. Let " Mary " be printed below, by itself, at the beginning of a new line, and let the class be drilled upon that word until it is as easily recognized as the person or picture. Next print " and " after Mary, and exercise the class upon "Mary and" in the same way. Then print " Jane " after "and," making the phrase "Mary and Jane," for a repetition drill. In this way continue to annex to the clause, one word at a time, " are " and " two " and "bright," until the sentence is completed, making each form of the partial sentence a separate review lesson, dwelling upon each word separately, and then reading the whole line in its order as far as it goes. This pro- cess is recommended when there is a black- board in the school-room, but no reading- chart for children. If there is no black- board, use slates for the same purpose. The HOW TO TEACH. 123 reader need not smile at this "if" ; for there are many such school-rooms in our rural dis- tricts. I once heard the objection made by a " committee-man " to having a black-board in his school-room, that "it would take the attention of the scholars from their studies." But every school should have reading-charts, by the use of which this exercise can be easily and successfully conducted. In this way sentence after sentence will be rapidly learned and read with ease and fluency. From the black-board and the chart the class should be taken to the primary reader, and continue to recite words recognized at sight, and fully illustrated by objects and pictures, and clearly defined. I would have this method continued until the child becomes a ready and intelligent reader in books adapted to his age, before the analysis of the word (or spelling) is undertaken. The child should also be required to print and write and 124 SCHOOL KEEPING. define these words as a part of every recita- tion. Another feature of a well-conducted reci- tation for children is a rehearsal of the story or item of history which the class has just read. In this process, spelling is taken up by the child as a matter of interest, and learned much more accurately and rapidly than in the old way. Punctuation and use of capitals become a part of each recitation, and the pupil progresses understandingly and with increasing interest from stage to stage in the process of his education. This brings us to another important result of this system of instruction. By reciting the words and thoughts of others found in books, under proper instruction, the pupil not only acquires the power of accurate expression, but also the power of thought. He learns to think for himself, and to express his thoughts in his own language, — to . think HOW TO TEACH. 125 accurately, compare readily, and speak grace- fully. When this power is fully attained, the scholar is quite liberally educated. If what I have said of the relative impor- tance of school recitations in securing these practical results is true, each pupil in every class must recite at every session, to secure the full benefit of the school. It must fol- low, therefore, that classes in the common school, academy, or college should never be large ; should always be so small that each member can share in every exercise. One of my college professors could easily handle a class of thirty in a single hour, but, as a rule, a class of ten Is sufficiently large for an hour's drill. I admit that, in many cases, the evil of large classes cannot be avoided, but it is nevertheless a serious evil. Wherever large classes, instead of smaller ones, are approved, there is conclusive evidence of professional quackery. Any arrangement of 126 SCHOOL KEEPING. classes which renders a daily personal drill upon the lesson impossible is a fruitful source of indolence and superficial scholar- ship, and must result in irreparable loss to the scholar. Nor can the Socratic method of conduct- ing recitations be approved, as a rule. Questioning should never take the place of recitation, for obvious reasons. It is useful sometimes, in connection with recita- tion, to direct the class to special thoughts or topics which have been overlooked, and, in examinations and reviews, to ascertain the scholar's standing. It requires much skill and care to question a class properly when it is allowable. No leading question can be tolerated either in the court or school-room. I will here illustrate this unpardonable method of conducting recita- tion, by an actual example, once reported by a visitor to one of the public schools in HOW TO TEACH. 127 Massachusetts. The scholar was before his teacher, with "Colburn's First Lessons" in his hand, and was called upon to read the following example : " A man being asked how many sheep he had, said that he had them in two pastures ; in one pasture he had eight; and that three fourths of these was just one third of what he had in the other ; how many were there in the other ? " In other words : three fourths of eight is one third of what number? The boy paused, looked wise, scratched his head, but said not a word. " Well, my boy," said the teacher, " one fourth of eight is two, is n't it?" "Yes, sir," replied the boy. " Well, if two is one fourth, three fourths will be three times as many, won't it?" "Yes, sir," was the answer. "And thre? times two are six?" "Yes, sir." "Well, if six is one third, three thirds will be three times six, won't it ? " 128 SCHOOL KEEPING. " Yes, sir." " And then three times six are how many ? " No answer. " Why, eighteen," said the teacher. And the boy answered again, "Yes, sir." This, I admit, is an extreme case, and occurred more than thirty years ago. Still, it is a sample of the kind of teaching that may be witnessed to-day in many schools in our New England c Wherever you find the teacher taking any part in reciting, you will find a relic of this old barbarism in peda- gogy. This is what I wish to impress upon my readers, that the scholar must do all the reciting. Hence leading questions may never be asked. Another important point here suggests it- self. Whether a question or a topic is to be presented, it should be put to the class and not to the individual, and should be put before the individual is called up. This is important as a means of fixing and hold- HOW TO TEACH. 129 ing the attention of all, and of giving each the full benefit of the class drill. And the hour of recitation gives oppor- tunity for the cultivation of accuracy of thought and expression, which are of the ut- most importance in life. An anecdote will illustrate the result of loose methods of teaching and reciting. A father sent his son, who had graduated from a public school, to a neighbor's house to borrow a barrel, in which he proposed to confine his puppy. The boy had no written order, and hence must rely upon the inspiration of the mo- ment for language to express the idea and make known his errand. On his arrival he presented himself to the neighbor, and in his embarrassment in being obliged to de- liver a little extempore speech, he said, ''Mr. B.^ father ivants to borrow an empty barrel of flour to maize our dog a hen-coop.'' To secure the advantage contemplated, 130 SCHOOL KEEPING. much care must be taken in recitation : (1) To have the exact thoughts in mind; (2) To have it clothed in due form of lan- guage ; and (3) To have it presented to the pupil by the best method. Xor is this all that is required. The teacher must see to it that the answer to the question is accurate, logi- cal, and given in appropriate language. If any scholar fails to confine himself to the question or the subject, to arrange his thoughts in the proper order, or to express himself in suitable language, he should be required to repeat again and again, until the fault is fully corrected. Verbal recitations are of great importance, and serve a purpose which can be reached in no other way, but they should be inter- spersed with wi'itten recitations to gain an additional advantage. These bring the scholar at once under criticism in penman- ship, spelling, use of capitals, punctuation, HOW TO TEACH. 131 grammar, and composition, none of which can be acquired in any other way. Spelling is of no use whatever except in composition, nor can the scholar learn to spell words cor- rectly when writing them unless he has much practice. Hence spelling should be taught mainly by writing. The art of composition, which includes correct grammar and the coiTCct use of capital letters and punctua- tion marks, is learned only by composing. Every pupil should, therefore, have some daily exercise to be expressed in writing, and be constantly drilled in this department, that he may become a " ready writer " as well as a sound scholar. Still again I will call attention to the hour of recitation, for the purpose of repeat- ing the declaration that it must be sacred to this special purpose, and that it belongs to the class only. The teacher has no right to spend any part of it in talking, reciting, or 132 SCHOOL KEEPING. lecturing. There is a time to talk, explain, and lecture, but it is not while the class should be reciting. Lecturing bears the same relation to edu- cation as reading and travelling, and is, in the same sense, valuable for the scholar. In the school-room it must be confined to its own limited sphere. Its object is twofold, viz., to impart instruction, and to cultivate in the scholar the important habit of listening. To make the most of the lecture hour, the pupils should always be provided with note-book and pencil, and should eagerly record every important point and thought in the discourse. This will serve to fix the attention, and aid the memory in storing information. These are valuable results, but still more important is the habit of listening. That this habit is not formed in our families and schools, we have abundant evidence in the inattention and heedlessness of the public assembly. HOW TO TEACH. 133 Many " hear but do not understand," because they have never learned to listen to a pub- lic speaker. Hence they return from the church or lecture-room without being able to tell so much as the text of the sermon, or the subject of the lecture. Of course they do not know the drift or substance of the discourse. It should be a special object in every school, to train the scholars to the habit of successful listening. How shall this be done? I answer, let the teacher, when- ever he gives a lecture before the school, require them to take notes, as suggested, and afterwards to recite the subject-matter of the discourse. In this way they will gain the power to follow the speaker with interest and protit. But while questioning and lecturing are useful incidentally, they must not set aside or interfere with independent topical recitation. This is the true method, as it throws the scholar upon his own resources, 134 SCHOOL KEEPING. compels him to study, and enables him to acquire the power of accurate expression. Any method of instruction that ignores self- exertion and self-instruction is false and ruinous in its results. Thinking and reciting (I cannot repeat it too often) are the only means of educating. Hence to deprive the scholar of daily recitations is to rob him of an " inalienable right." But " I will get my les- son, I will keep up with my class," says the scholar, as he asks to be excused for the day or the week, to attend a circus or visit friends. "You will not recite them," answers the teacher, in urging punctuality at school. " Admitting that you will study your lessons faithfully, which is very doubtful, you will then lose, at least, one half the benefit of the school by your absence. Had you not better delay your pleasure-seeking and your visiting to vacation, the time allotted to rec- reations?" HOW TO TEACH. 135 Another thought of. practical importance. The memory should never be made the de- pository of words or sy7nhols. Thoughts should be treasured there. I have known teachers in high positions to require the re- cital, verbatim, of such studies as history, Butler's analogy, and geometry. The result was, and always is, the pupils become un- thinking parrots, never scholars. They had, in many cases, perfect recitations, but really little or no knowledge of the subject of the lesson. On the other hand, I have known teachers who would never allow scholars (with the exception of captions, definitions, and fixed rules of 'syntax) to repeat the lan- guage of the book, but required them to give the thoughts (in their logical connection) in their oum language, subject to constant criticism by the teacher and the class. This last is the approved method. The author of 136 SCHOOL KEEPING. "My country, 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty," early acquired the habit of thinking and composing on his feet or in the saddle. He composed this masterly national hymn and most of his other productions (as he told me) while walking or riding. This ability is acquired only by practice, yet it is very important for every scholar, as a means of gaining confidence and self- possession when called upon to' testify in courts of justice or to speak in public. To cultivate this habit the pupil should be re- quired to stand in the presence of the class when reciting. Trained in this way, he will not be embarrassed when he rises to speak in lyceum or other assembly, as the case may be. As I have elsewhere suggested, I here repeat the caution that the teacher adopt some method of recitation which will make it impossible for the scholar to know before- hand what part of the lesson will be assigned HOW TO TEACH. 137 to him. He should know exactly the limits of the assigned lesson, and the hour for reci- tation, that he may be fully prepared, but he should not know in what order the names of the class are written upon the teacher's cards, or what topic or question will come to him. This uncertainty will compel him to prepare himself thoroughly upon the whole subject every time. Silent as well as vocal recitations have a place and importance in every school. Fig- ures, diagrams, drawings, and paintings all come under this head. The scholar should be required to exercise great care in the execution of these lessons upon slate, black- board, and paper. If an example in arith- metic or algebra is wrought upon the board, or a page is written in the copy-book, or a map of some country is drawn, see that it is well drawn, or require that the work 1)e repeated. Free-hand drawing should be 138 SCHOOL KEEPING. taught and practised in every school, and especially map-drawing in connection with the study of geography, as extensively as circumstances will allow\ Many teachers regard the school as a kind of grist-mill, into whose " hopper " the grist is poured and all ground out together. In organizing classes, assigning lessons, and hearing recitations they have no regard to the different capacity, attainments, and dis- positions of the scholars. They classify according to age, assign the same lessons to all, and when they have heard the lesson recited they suppose their work is done. This is a great mistake. Each class and each member requires special treatment. Each mind must worh if it is to be educated. Even genius can gain no practical power without the toil of self-culture. Hence the easy scholar must have assigned additional and more difficult lessons, and receive less HOW TO TEACH. 139 assistance than the dull scholar, if he is to be equally benefited. When the studies of the classes are properly assigned and the school is in per- fect working order, special attention must still be given to individual peculiarities. I will here specify to the young teacher. Stimulate and press the indifierent ; encour- age and aid the timid and distrustful ; put upon the idle and self-sufficient a constant and severe pressure ; expose their ignorance, and make them feel the necessity of hard study, if they would stand well in their classes. By these means stimulus and in- struction can be so adapted to individual peculiarities that all will be successfully educated. If each scholar is to cultivate the habit of self-reliance and independent thought and action, he must do his own work. He may be assisted so far as necessary to save him 140 SCHOOL KEEPING. from discouragement and failure, while he is doing his best to master the difficulties in his way, but '^^ never remove a difficulty which the scholar has the ])Ower to overcome.'^ This ought to be written in letters of gold over the desk of every school-room in the land. But how shall the recitation be made at- tractive and interesting? This is indispensa- ble to the attainment of the object in view ; yet how many fail to secure it. In answer- ing this question briefly, I will first suggest, the teacher's success in makinsr the recitation attractive and interesting depends both upon what he is and what he does. If he is an enthusiast in education, his enthusiasm has become contagious, and is manifested in the deep interest felt by the scholars in their studies. This interest on their part shows itself in the recitation-room, and will greatly aid the teacher in making the recitation at- tractive. But, after all, the recitation must HOW TO TEACH. 141 be made interesting by the teacher's skill in conducting it. This is the severest test of his a])ihty. He must make special prepara- tion for every recitation ; must not only master every point in the lesson, but study variety and seek to bring forward new illus- trations from day to day ; and he must in- spire his class by his own earnestness. Now, if the teacher is all that he ought to be, he will accomplish this easily. When he possesses the necessary qualifications, enthu- siasm is the crowning excellence. This in- spiration speaks out in his voice, glows in his countenance, flashes from his eye, streams from his fingers, 'and infuses itself, like leaven, through the whole school. As the result, order prevails, fidelity is assured, earnestnesss is awakened, and sure progress is made at every step. One more suggestion of great importance in this connection. So teach that every les- 142 SCHOOL KEEPING. son may b-scome to the scholar a practical lesson in life. If you have taught spelling thoroughly, your pupils will be able to spell accurately when writing a letter or a compo- sition. If you have taught grammar to any purpose, they will be able ''to speak and write correctly," with the proper use of capi- tals and punctuation marks. If you have taught arithmetic and book-keeping as they should be taught, they will be able to apply their principles to business transactions whenever called upon to do so ; to measure a pile of wood or a stack of hay, and estimate its value in cords or tons ; to make out a bill of goods by items, and give the exact amount ; to write and indorse a note ; to draw a check or draft ; to cast interest ; to estimate discount, with all its variations under different circumstances. There can be no other object in studying these branches (except the discipline they afford) but to HOW TO TEACH. 143 enable the scholar to become an intelligent business man or woman. Yet I knew a graduate from college, a principal of a first-class New England academy, who did not understand what a patron meant who asked him " to draw on him for the amount of his bill " ; a pitiable illustration of the inefficiency of some of our public schools. Definite, practical knowledge of every sub- ject taught should be insisted on. The recitation should not only be correct, but thoroughly understood by the scholar, not only as matter of fact, but in its application. Showing the lack of such instruction, the following case, recently reported in a Boston daily paper, is in point : — "A school-girl was asked on returning home one evening what she had learned. She replied emphatically, ' Angle, two times many on the pond.' The puzzled family, who failed to understand the meaning of the 144 SCHOOL KEEPING. lesson, were not able to receive any further elucidation. It was, ' Angle, two times many on the pond,' and only that. Fi- nally, the mother, who was slightly anxious, sought the teacher for information, and found that the children had been receiving a lesson in simple geometry, and that they had been taught to say in concert, 'An angle is two lines meeting at a point.' It was this truth that had left the impression on the child's brain of 'Angle, two times many on a pond.'" This reveals more than the stupidity of the girl, if she was stupid, viz., the inaccu- racy of both editor and teacher. The editor says, "It was tliis truth that had left the im- pression on the child's brain." What truth? That " an angle is two lines meeting at a point." This is not the true definition of an angle. The two lines w^hich do not meet at a point are as really an angle as those that so meet. It is the inclination of two lines meeting at a point that measures the angle. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 145 PHYSICAL CULTUKE. npHIE most important and most neglected part of education is the training of the senses and faculties of the body. In order to insure entire success this training must begin in infancy, under wise and skilful man- agement. Exercise is the law of growth, whether applied to childhood or youth, and, if we would secure systematic and healthful development, this exersise must be regular and moderate in degree, voluntary, and in the open air. But in this connection I have to deal w^ith physical culture only in the school, and will here remark, it is not enough that the teacher sends out into the world young men and women with well-disciplined minds. They should have strong, healthy 10 146 SCHOOL KEEPING. bodies as well. Each organ and system should have full and ample development. The eye should be trained to accurate vis- ion and to careful and discriminating obser- vation. How many, for the lack of proper training of the senses, " have eyes but see not" ! They live in a world of infinite vari- ety and beauty, but they see nothing except such gross objects as are forced upon their attention. The changing aspect of the heav- ens, with its light and shade, with its gor- geous sunset and electric blaze flashing from the gathering cloud, attracts their attention only so far as the sunshine or storm is likely to affect their pleasure or their business. The floral display of blooming spring and the matchless colors of fading autumn have few charms for them. They see not the par- adise of flowers that decks the earth they tread upon, nor the glittering splendor of the heavens over their heads. Hence it is PHYSICAL CULTURE. 147 that nature has no charms for the untrained eye. What a loss of pleasure to human life, in consequence of this voluntary blind- ness ! Well may these exclaim with " the blind old bard," — " Seasons return ; but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of eve, or morn." And not only pleasure but utility requires the training of the senses. Observation is an important source of education. The immediate knowledge of the external world comes to the mind throus^h the senses of sight more than all the other senses. Indeed every other sense is pow^erless in dealing with distant obje(^ts and their relations to each other. The cultivated eye alone sees these objects as they are, and traces their relations to the universe of matter. Accu- rate observation has created the science of the material world. How many " have ears but hear not," for 148 SCHOOL KEEPING. the want of physical culture ! They hear the peals of thunder, the sound of the falling cat- aract, the moaning of the wind, and all the jargon and rattle of the busy world. But they hear not the sweet music of nature ; they comprehend not the harmony of the trained human voice that gives eloquence its power and song its charms ; they feel not the emotions awakened through the trained ear by the touch of the master's fingers upon the organ's keys. And the other senses, taste, touch, and smell, are capable of wonderful improve- ment, as seen in the experience of every-day life. One sense, under culture, assumes the office of another. The hardness and soft- ness of bodies are really discoverable only by the sense of touch, yet we soon learn to determine this quality by the appearance. They looJc hard or soft. The physician learns to distinguish medicines by smell as PHYSICAL CULTURE. 149 well as taste. The grocer, to determine whether his cask is full or empty, does not look into the " bmig-hole" to see, but listens to the sound produced by a stroke upon its side. The remarkable attainments of the blind and deaf furnish other examples illus- trating this subject. The blind child reads with his fingers ; the deaf-mute hears with his eyes. We have account of one blind man who discovered the blindness of a horse by the peculiar sound of his feet in walking ; and another, who detected that one eye was blind by the touch, discovering the differ- ence in temperature. And often we notice the deaf catching' the words of a speaker by watching the motion of his lips and the changes of his countenance. When both sight and hearing are lost, touch and smell come to their relief. Laura Bridgman, whose fame is world-wide, has from childhood been deprived of all her 150 SCHOOL KEEPING. senses except touch (or tact), and yet she has been taught to read, converse, and write rapidly with her fingers, to distinguish the quahties of color and sound, and to know her friends. She once discovered the pres- ence of her mother, who had come a lonof journey to visit her, by handling her shawl, with which she was familiar. Now from this susceptibility of the senses to extensive cultivation, contributing so largely to the happiness and usefulness of man, may be argued the importance of special attention to this branch of physical culture. Early attention should be given by every teacher to the training of the senses of his pupils. Especially should they be taught accurately to distinguish colors and shades, and to measure distance and magnitude by the eye. It is also the duty of the teacher to direct and control the physical circumstances aflfect- PHYSICAL CULTURE. 151 ing his pupils while under his special care. He should see to it that they suffer no harm from neglect or mismanagement ; that the conditions of school drill are regulated by the laws of health ; that no injurious or dangerous punishments are inflicted ; that a full supply of fresh air, light, and heat is always provided ; that unnatural postures are not allowed ; that excessive study is guarded against with great care. Still fur- ther, the teacher should encourage recreation and useful exercises as a means of physical development. Under this head come school gymnastics. Every muscle of the body, as well as every faculty of the mind, must be developed by exercise. Gymnastics, if prop- erly conducted, afl^brd a systematic and uni- form development of the whole body. Again, school gymnastics preserve and restore health. In my own experience, as principal of a ladies' seminary for twenty- 152 SCHOOL KEEPING. six years, I relied upon this exercise more than all other means for the healthful con- dition of the school ; nor was I disappointed in the result. Seldom was severe sickness found in the family. During one year, it is remembered, from September to Sep- tember, with some hundred boarders, no case of illness occurred requiring the aid of a physician. This is only the natural result. Gymnastics secure the healthful flow of the blood, and impart vitality and vigor to every organ, enabling it to perform its own functions, and life flows on in unin- terrupted harmony. And when disease has disturbed this harmony and brought pain and debility to every part of the system, health and vigor are often restored by this remedy alone. Still again, free gymnastics afford a charm- ing method of physical recreation to relieve the weary mind from the effects of toil and PHYSICAL CULTURE. 153 the burdened atmosphere of the school-room ; tend to correct awkwardness of manner and to cultivate gracefulness, by giving ready control of the muscles, a natural and digni- fied carriage to the body, and an easy and graceful movement to the limbs ; greatly aid in school government, by securing unquali- fied obedience to the will and command of one master, and thus creating the habit of submission, self-control, self-government, and self-application, — indispensable in every well-regulated school ; and finally, correct the ruinous habit of ''tight lacing." Girls and young ladies cannot practise gymnastics in the fashionable dreSs which binds the mus- cles about the waist so firmly that free cir- culation and free respiration are impossible. The loose garb of the gymnast for the time releases the prisoner from her perilous bondage, and restores her natural freedom. Many in this way have been taught the folly 154 SCHOOL KEEPING. and sinfulness of this fashionable method of suicide. Every teacher should do all in his power to hasten the day when "/ree air, free dress f and free gymnastics, ^^ the birthright of every child and youth in the land, shall be restored. Then the educational millennium will have dawned upon the nation with the hope of a glorious future. WitR so much as to the theory and utility of gymnastics as a school exercise, I will complete this chapter, in compliance with the earnest and expressed wish of many teachers, by reproducing exercises for practice, which were first prepared by Prof. F. G. Welch, M. D., of Yale College, and afterwards pub- lished, by permission, in pamphlet form, for use in her classes, by Miss Mary F. Orcutt, for six years teacher of gymnastics in Tilden Ladies' Seminary. Most of these exercises can be used in any school-room, and many of them without apparatus and music. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 155 GYMNASTICS. THE DIO LEWIS SYSTEM. General Principles. — Position. — Free Gymnastics — Various Movements. — Bean Bag, Wand, Dumb- Bell, Ring, and Club Exercises. I CLAIM no originality here, so far as the sj'stem goes. For obvious reasons, I have scrupulously kept to the system. Most gladly do I accord the credit of its invention to Dr. Dio Lewis, as one eminently deserving all praise, as one who has done more for the cause of physical culture, and the physical welfare of men and women, than any other person. Thousands venerate his name, and will continue to do so through coming generations. I trust my own suggestions and additions may prove acceptable. My position as instructor in three of our first colleges, principal of a normal institute for physical culture, and in teaching thousands of both sexes, not only gives me the right, but enables me to assert and suggest many things from experience. 156 SCHOOL KEEPING, GENERAii Principles. Position. — Heels together; toes out, so that the feet may form a right angle; head erect; shoulders and hips drawn back; chest forward; hands natu- rally at sides, unless otherwise specified. Tmie. — The system of numbering in those exer- cises intended to accompany music, viz., Free Gym- nastics, Wands, Dumb-Bells, Eings, and Clubs (with the exception of the Free Gymnastics, Short- hand, and the Anvil Chorus in the Dumb-Bell exercise), is this: Each number extends through what may be called one strain of 4-4 music, or eight accented and eight unaccented beats, or what in marching would be eight steps with the left foot and eight steps with the right; and time is kept by counting the numerals from one to eight for the heavy beats, and for the light beats the syllable "and." FREE GYMKASTICS. The exercises under this head are performed without apparatus, and are arranged in three series of equal length, and a chorus, so that when a class shall have become sufficiently proficient, each of the three series may be performed at the same time, by different portions of the class, and the chorus by the class all together. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 157 The hands are to be firmly clinched, unless on the hips or otherwise specified. All thrusts are from the chest, unless otherwise specified. First Series. — Hand Movements. 1. Thrust right hand down from the chest twice; left twice; alternate twice; simultaneous twice. 2. Repeat No. 1, thrusting out at side. 3. Eepeat No. 1, thrusting up. 4. Repeat No. 1, thrusting in front. 5. Right hand down once; left once; drumbeat (right a little in advance of left) once ; simultaneous once; same, out at sides. 6. Repeat No. 5, thrusting up and in front. 7. Right hand down once; left once; clap hands; same, out at sides. 8. Repeat No. 7, thrusting up and in front. Foot Movements. 9. Hands on hips; divide a circle about the body, with a radius of from two to three feet, into eight equal parts, by stepping forward, diagonal forward, at side, diagonal back, etc., with right foot, keeping left knee straight and the feet at right angles, ex- cept last two steps, bending right knee each step. 10. Repeat No. 9 with left foot. 11. Same movement, alternating right and left. 158 SCHOOL KEEPING. 12. Charge diagonal forward with right foot, ad- vancing with three steps, bending right knee, left straight; same on the left side; same diagonal back on right side ; same left. 13. Repeat No. 12. Feet movements always per- formed quite slowly, with very slow time. " Music in the Air" is best. Body Movements. 14. Hands on hips ; twist upper body half round to right, then to left, alternately, stopping in front on unaccented beats. 15. Bend upper body to right and left. 16. Bend forward and back. 17. Bend body to right, back, left, front; then reverse, bending to left, back, right, front ; re- peat, becoming erect only on last beat. Head Movements. 18. Same as 14, except that the head alone is moved. 19. Same as 15, except that the head alone is moved. 20. Same as 16, except that the head alone is moved. 21. Same as 17, except that the head alone is moved. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 159 Micellaneous Mo vemen ts . 22. Arms extended in front, thumbs up, raise hands about a foot, and bring forcibly to shoulders. 23. Arms horizontal in front ; raise right hand to perpendicular over head twice ; left twice ; alter- nate twice, and simultaneous twice. 24. Thrust hands down, out at sides, up, in front, twisting the arms at each thrust ; repeat. 25. Kepeat No. 24. 26. Thrust hands to floor, not bending knees; then over head, rising on toes, opening hands at each thrust. 27. Hands at sides open; swing them over head, clapping them ; at same time stepping right foot to left, and left foot to right, alternately. 28. Stamp left foot, tlien right ; then charge diagonal forward with right ; bend and straighten right knee, at same tinie throwing arms back from horizontal in front. 29. Repeat No. 28 on left side. Second Series. —Hand Movements. 1. Thrust right hand down and up alternately. 2. Kepeat No. 1 with left hand. 3. Alternate, right going down as left goes up, and vice versa. 160 SCHOOL KEEPING. 4. Simultaneous, both down, then both up, etc. 5. Thrust right hand to right and left alter- nately, twisting body when thrusting to left. 6. Thrust left hand to left, and right twisting to right. 7. Thrust both hands alternately to right and left, twisting body. 8. Thrust both hands to right four times, to left four times. Foot Movements. 9. Hands on hips; kick diagonal forward with right foot, three times, stamping floor on fourth beat; same with left. 10. Kick diagonal back three times with right foot, same with left. 11. Kepeat No. 9. 12. Repeat No. 10. Arm Movements. 13. Hands down at sides; raise 'stiff right arm forward over head four times ; left four times. 14. Alternate four times; simultaneous four times. 15. Raise stiff right arm sideways over head four times ; left four times. 16. Alternate four times; simultaneous four times. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 161 17. Arms extended in front; swing them back horizontally. Shoulder Movements. 18. Hands at sides; raise right shoulder four times; left four times. 19. Alternate four times; simultaneous four times. . Miscellaneous Movements. 20. Hands down at sides; open hands and spread fingers four times; out at sides four times. 21. Hands up; open four times; in front four times. 22. Mowing movement from right to left, and left to right. 23. Hands on hips; throw elbows back. 24. Bend body down diagonal to right, and thrust right and left hands down alternately as near the floor as possible, four beats; same, bending diago- nally to left side. 25. Eepeat :N'o. 24. 26. Swing arms around in front, clasping shoul- ders, right hand above, then left above alternately. 27. Hands on hips, stamp left foot, then right foot, charge diagonal forward with right, sway the body, bending right and left knees alternately. 28. Repeat JN^o. 27, diagonal forward on the left side. 11 162 SCHOOL KEEPING. 29. Kepeat diagonal back on the right side. 30. Kepeat diagonal back on the left. Third SY.niT:s. — Attitudes and Percussion. 1. Hands on hips; stamp left foot, then right; charge diagonal forward with right foot; inflate the lungs. 2. Kemaining in the attitude, percuss the upper part of the chest. 3. Eepeat No. 1, diagonal forward left. 4. Repeat No. 2. 5. Repeat No. 1, diagonal back, right side, 6. Percuss the lower part of the chest. 7. Repeat No. 1, diagonal back, left side. 8. Repeat No. 7. Hand Movements. 9. Hands clasped behind the back; raise and- thrust down. 10. Hands down at sides, thumbs out; twist hands half round, four beats; hands out at sides, thumbs back, twist hands half round. 11. Hands above the head, thumbs in, twist hands half round; hands in front, thumbs out, twist hands haK round. 12. Palms together in front, slide right and left hand forward alternately, elbows straight. PHYSICAL CULTUKE. 163 Shoulder Movements. 13. Hands down at sides; describe forward circle with right shoulder four times; left four times. 14. Alternate four times; simultaneous four times. 15. Kepeat No. 13, making backward circle. 16. Repeat No. 14, making backward circle. Arm Movements. 17. Fists in armpits; thrust right hand down four times; left four times. 18. Alternate four times; simultaneous four times. 19. Fists upon the shoulders; thrust right hand up four times , left four times. 20. Alternate four times; simultaneous four times. 21. Right hand down from armpit, and left up from shoulder four times; left down from armpit, and right up from shoulder four times. 22. Alternately right down and left up, and left down and right up, one strain. 23. Simultaneous, both down, then both up, one strain. 24. Hands down at sides; raise right hand to horizontal in front four times; left four times. 164 SCHOOL KEEPING. 25. Alternate four times ; simultaneous four times. 26. Hands over head -, sway body to right and left alternately. Attitudes. 27. Hands on hips, stamp left foot, then right; charge diagonal forward with right, looking over left shoulder. 28. Eepeat IS'o. 27, diagonal forward left foot. 29. Eepeat ]^o. 27, diagonal back right. 30. Repeat Ko. 27, diagonal back left. Chorus. Music — Yankee Doodle (always). 1. Repeat No. 1, first series. 2. Clap hands. 3. Percuss chest. 4. Hop on right foot, eight times; left, eight times. 5. Repeat No. 2; first series. 6. Clap hands. 7. Percuss chest. 8. Leap right and left foot alternately eight times, both together eight times. 9. Repeat No. 3, first series. 10. Clap hands. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 165 11. Percuss chest. 12. Leap right and left foot alternately in front, and back (long step), one strain. 13. Kepeat Ko. 4, first series. 14. Clap hands. 15. Percuss chest. 16. Crossing feet one strain. wa:n^b exercises. In these exercises the hands are placed upon the hips, unless occupied in holding the wand. The wand is held at the right shoulder. Pirst sig- nal, pass the wand over in front, grasping it with the left hand, so that the wand becomes horizontal in front of the body. Second signal, raise the wand until the arms become horizontal in front of the body; place the handg'so as to divide the wand into three equal parts. Third signal, bring the hands back to sides. 1. Raise the wand to chin four times; keeping elbows high, last time carry it above the head; bring wand from above the head to chin four times. 2. Bring wand from above the head to the floor four times without bending knees or elbows; to back of the neck four times. 166 SCHOOL KEEPING. 3. Bring wand from above the head to chin, and back of the neck, alternately, four times each. 4. Wand above the head; on first heavy beat, carry right hand to right end of wand; second, carry left to left end; then carry wand back of the head to hips six times, keeping elbows straight. 5. Carry wand from above the head to front as near the floor as possible, and back of the head to hips, four times each. G. Carry wand from above the head to right and left sides alternately, bringing it to a perpendicular position; elbows straight. Do this on half time. 7. First heavy beat, let go of the wand with the left hand, placing end of wand upon the floor, between the feet; second, place it diagonally for- ward on the right side, the length of the arm; charge the right foot to the wand six times; keep- ing right arm and left leg straight, and wand per- pendicular and still. 8. Vice versa on left side. 9. Repeat No. 7, with longer charge, and the charging foot remaining stationary, the knee bends and straightens. 10. Vice versa on left side; turning the left-hand thumb down on first beat; bring wand into position for No. 11. 11. Arms horizontal in front, wand perpendicu- lar, bring hands to chest eight times, elbows high. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 167 12. Arms and wand same postion, bring wand to right shoulder and left, alternately, four times each. 13. Hands upon front of chest; point the wand diagonally forward, right and left alternately, forty- five degrees. 14. Pointing wand diagonally forward, right and left first strain, and diagonally backward second strain, charge diagonally forward right, diagonally forward left, diagonally backward left, diagonally backward right, diagonally forward left, diagonally forward right, diagonally backward right, diago- nally backward left; four strains in all, first two wand points forward, last two wand points back. Move on half time. 15. Wand horizontal over head, right hand front, left back; reverse, twist half time through half a strain 16. Wand the same, right face; bend over, bringing the wand to a perpendicular on right side, right hand up, four times. 17. Same movement on left side. 18. Same movement, alternately, right and left. 19. First heavy beat, place left end of wand upon the floor at the feet; second, place it directly in front, the length of the arm; charge right foot to the wand three times, left three times. 168 SCHOOL KEEPING. 20. Charge right foot backward four times ; left four times. 21. Right foot forward and back, same step, four times; left same. 22. Kest first half of strain; last half charge right foot forward, same time left back, left for- ward, right back, etc. 23. Face the front, carry the wand from perpen- dicular in front of right shoulder, left hand up, to perpendicular in front of left shoulder, right hand up, four times; fourth time carry it from front to back of left, then carry it from back of left to back of right four times, fourth time from back of right to front of right. 24. Carry wand around the body from front of right to front of left, back of left, back of right, front of right, repeat, then reverse. 25. Carry the wand from front of right to back of left four times; from front of left to back of right four times. 26. Eight face; place left end of wand upon the floor, charge with right foot to the right side, back to the left side behind the left leg, same in front of left leg; vice versa left. 27. Same movement as No. 26, right and left alternately. 2S. Face the front, wand in front of chest, right PHYSICAL CULTURE. 169 hand down, bring left down, right down, etc., four beats; same movement, wand behind the centre of the back. 29. Wand back of centre of head, charge diago- nally forward right foot, raising right end of wand forty-five degrees, then diagonally forward left, rais- ing left end of wand forty-five degrees. This is done the first half of strain, during the last half charge, in same manner, only turn the body more sidewise, keeping wand straight over head. 30. Wand down horizontal in front, on first beat thrust perpendicular on right side, next beat same on left, so on through half strain. Last half in same manner, only charge right and left every time the wand is raised horizontally left. 31. First half of strain same as first half of last exercise ; last half throw wand horizontally over the head on every charge. dumb-beLl exercises. In the attitudes of these exercises the bells are first brought to the chest, and then, unless otherwise specified, are placed upon the hips. EiRST Series. — First Set. 1. Bells down at sides, and in same horizontal line, palms front, turn out ends in four times. Atti- 170 SCHOOL KEEPING. tude. — Charge right foot diagonally forward, look- ing over right shoulder; head, shoulders, hips, and left heel, in diagonal line. 2. Elbows on hips, bells forward and in line, turn out ends in four times. Attitude. — Charge left foot diagonally forward, look over left shoulder. 3. Bells extended at sides and parallel, palms up, turn four times. Attitude. — Charge light foot diago- nally back, and look over right shoulder. 4. Bells extended up, palms front, turn four times. Attitude. — Charge left foot diagonally back, and look over left shoulder. Second Set. 5. Bells at chest, thrust down, out at sides, up, and in front. Attitude. — Twist body to the right, knees straight, bells extended up over head. 6. Repeat ISTo. 5, except twist body to the left. 7. Bells down at sides, bring right hand to arm- pit twice, left twice, alternate twice, and both twice. 8. Bells on shoulders, thrust riglit up, left up both twice. Attitude. — Stand on toes, bells over head and parallel. Third Set. 9. Bells extended in front, palms up, turn four times. Attitude. — Charge right foot diagonally forward, and look at left bell, which is extended. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 171 10. Right bell up, palm in front, left bell out at side, palm up, turn four times. Attitude. — Charo-e left foot diagonally forward, and look at right bell, which is extended. 11. Left bell up, right bell out at side, turn four times. Attitude. — Charge right foot diagonally back, both bells over head. 12. Arms obliquely up at sides, palms up, turn four times. Attitude. —Charge left foot diagonally back, both bells over head. Fourth Set. 13. Bells on chest, thrust right hand down, then up, then left down and up. Attitude. — Twist body to the right, thrust right arm obliquely up, left ob- liquely down, palms up. 14. Thrust right down, left up, left down, right up, then both down, both up.. Attitude. — Same as attitude :N'o. 13, except twisting to left, etc. 15. Thrust right in front, left front, both front twice. Attitude. — Long side charge with right foot, left resting on toe, bells above the head, 'arms, head, shoulders, hips, and left heel in same oblique plane, bells parallel. 16. Bells out in front and vertical, swing both ninety degrees to right and back, left and back, re- peat. Attitude. — Same as attitude No. 15, except on left side, etc. 17. Wing. 172 SCHOOL KEEPING. 17. Bells in front, bring forcibly to chest four times. Attitude — Arms folded, bells on chest, bend body back. Second Series. — -Fir si Set. 18. Stamp left foot, then right, charge at the side with right foot, right arm obliquely up, palm up, left obliquely down, palm down, bend and straighten right knee twice; vice versa on left side. 19. Bells down and parallel at sides, swing right bell up, forward over head twice, left twice, alter- nate twice, simultaneous twice. 20. Side charge to right, right bell up, left on shoulder, sway the body as in No. 18; vice versa on left side. 21. Bells down at side, swing right bell up side- ways over head twice, left twice, alternate twice, simultaneous twice. 22. Side charge to right, both bells over head, sway the body twice; vice versa left. Second Set. 23. Hands clasping bells together, describe cir- cle over head from right to left, and from left to right, alternating. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 173 Third Set. 24. Stamp left, then right, long diagonal charge to right; position as in attitude of No. 15, bring bells to shoulder and thrust up; vice versa left. 25. Bells vertical and parallel under ohm, throw elbows back horizontally. Fourth Set. 26. Stamp left foot, then right, place right diago- nally forward, a little, swing bells forward, over head; back ninety degrees, then touch floor; vice versa on left side. 27. Stamp left foot, then right, charge directly side wise right, right bell upon hip, left at side; swing left up over head. 28. Same, charging sidewise with left foot. 29. Bells extended in front and vertical, swing arms back horizontally. Fifth Set. 30. Stamp left foot, then right, charge diagonally forward right, bells over head, bring to shoulder and return ; vice versa left. 31. Elbows on hips, arms vertical at sides, twist four beats, then from chest thrust forward alter- nately two beats, and simultaneously two beats. 174 SCHOOL KEEPING. 32. Charge diagonally ])ackward with right foot, bells as in No. 30; vice versa left. Sixth Set. 33. Grasp armful horizontally with right arm twice, left twice, alternate twice, simultaneous twice. 34. Twist body to right, then left, swinging bells over head. 35. Thrust bells to floor, then thrust them up, standing on toes. 36. Bells on shoulders, thrust right out at side, palms up twice ; left twice, alternate twice, simul- taneous twice. 37. Bells from shoulder to chest, thrust forward, raise over head, return to front, touch floor, back to front, etc. Seventh Set. 38. French sword. Stamp left, then right, then mark time two beats with right, then charge right two beats, right arm extended, left in curve over head. 39. Same on other side with left, eight beats ; alternate eight beats. Eighth Set. * 40. Thrust left bell diagonally backward up forty- five degrees, right bell upon hip, advance right foot PHYSICAL CULTURE. 175 diagonally forward with four stamps, turning left bell each step ; vice versa left. 41. First strain charge diagonally forward right and left alternately, thrusting left and right bells diagonally back ; second strain charge at side right and left alternately, arms in same position as in Xo. 18, two beats, then arms as in i^o. 22, two beats. Mnth Set. 42. Bells on chest, thrust right bell forward, swing right arm back in horizontal plane, half strain ; same left. 43. Alternately eight beats, turn body to right, right arm extended, swingd ear round to left; then, left arm extended, swing round to right; continue eight times. Tenth Set. 41. Side charge to right, right arm extended, bell vertical, left bell swung vertically over in circle twice, bending right and left knee, alternately ; vice versa left. Anvil Chorus. 1. Left bell in front, right back of the neck, swing right bell over head to front, striking left bell, left swings down and back to position behind the neck, right remaining in front*; repeat same, 176 SCHOOL KEEPINa. swinging over left bell ; same, swinging right bell down by side, striking left from under instead of over ; same, left. Eepeat over one strain, under- neath one strain. 2. Anvil twice over, twice under; charge diago- nally forward right and left twice each, swinging bells up from sides, striking them over head. 3. Repeat No. 1. 4. Repeat No. 2, except charging diagonally backward. 5. Repeat No. 1. 6. Swinging arms in horizontal plane, striking bells front and back twice each, then swing in per- pendicular plane, striking bells twice overhead, and once down behind the body. 7. Repeat No. 1. 8. Same movement as No. 44, of second series, striking bells together. 9. Repeat No. 1. 10. Same movement as No.^S, alternately. First, strike over one strain, then under one strain, then for the first four beats of each exercise, twice over and twice under, the other four taken in performing the four charges. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 177 RING EXERCISES. These exercises are performed by couples. Part- ners stand at commencement about three feet apart, facing each other, gentlemen holding a ring in each hand. FiKST Series. — First Set. 1. On first beat the ring in right hand is pre- sented in a vertical plane, and grasped by right hand of partner; second, right toes are placed together; third, left feet step back, and left hands are placed upon hips, ring is turned into a horizon- tal plane, turn the ring the other side up and back the remainder of the number. 2. Same movement, except left for right, and vice versa. 3. Same as No. 1, ^except both hands hold rings. 4. Same as No. 3, except left toes are together. Second Set. 5. First, turn back to back; second, place left feet together; third, charge out with right, turn rings through number. 6. First, place right feet together; second, charge out with left, turn rings. 12 178 SCHOOL KEEPING. 7. First, turn face to face; second, raise arms above the head, bend down and touch rings to floor, not bending knees, twice; arms above the head, bring them down to sides alternately two beats, simultaneous two beats. Third Set. 8. First, turn back to back; second, left face, place hands on shoulders, thrust up, out at sides, down twice each. 9. Thrust up, out, down, once each through eight beats. Fourth Set. 10. First, left face; second, turn face to face; third, place left foot inside of left of partner; fourth, right foot back and right hand to right shoulder, left to partner's right shoulder, pull back and forth. 11. Same with right feet together, etc. 12. Eest first half of strain; last half, right foot and hand forward same time, left back, left forward, right back, etc. Fifth Set. 13. First, back to back, charge diagonal forward right and left alternately. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 179 Sixth Set. 14. First, face to face; second, right foot inside right of partner's; third, left feet step back, lady sways down towards gentleman, then back to posi- tion; gentleman sways down towards lady, etc. Rings over head, arms stiff. 15. Same with left feet together. Seventh Set. 16. First back to back, charge up and down the hall alternately, twice each, alternately right feet at same time, left same. 17. First, face to face, charge same as Xo. 16. 18. First, back to back; second, right face; third, step about two feet apart, raise outside arms and inside arms alternately and simultaneously, change on five. Secois'D ^-rj-es. — First Set. 19. First, left face; second, turn face to face; third, spring apart, placing right feet pointing toward each other, left back at right angles with right, right hands grasping rings, charge with right feet to right side of partner, stopping suddenly at horizontal plane when coming to position. 20. Same, using right for left, and left for right. 180 SCHOOL KEEPING. 21. Same, holding rings in both hands, and charging right and left alternately, right foot to left side of partner, left to right. Second Set. 22. First, approach; second, turnback to back; third, place left feet together; fourth, step out with right, touch shoulders, arms horizontal. 23. Same, using right for left, and left for right. Third Set. 24. First, face to face; second, left face, swing up outside and inside arras alternately, turn face and body each time. 25. First, back to back, swing over outside and inside arms alternately, twice each, simultaneously three times. 26. First, turn face to face with outside arms; second, back to back with outside arms; same with inside arms, etc. Fourth Set. 27. First, left face; second, left feet together; third, swing hands over head and step forward with right foot, bend and straighten right knees. 28. Same movement with right feet together. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 181 Fifth Set. 29. First, face to face, step alternately rii^ht feet diagonally forward to left of partner, and left feet to right. QUABTETS. 1. First signal, join hands with neighboring couple, by presenting hand holding ring; second signal, all face the stage; third signal, outside couple pass under the raised ring of the other couple, bringing rings to shoulders. 2. Stamp left foot, then right, charge with right opposite nose; sink rest of strain, hands arching over head; same with left foot. 3. Throw up end hands twice, side hands twice; then alternately, then simultaneously. 4. Charge ends, charge sides, repeat; charge front, right foot and left, repeat. When you charge ends, throw end hands up straight; when sides, side hands up; when in front, all hands up together. SHOETHAND. Remarks. — Free Gymnastics. —Wands. — Dumb-Bells. — Anvil Chorus. — Rings. In teaching my normal classes, where there is much mental as well as physical work both for pupils and teacher, experience has led me to invent 182 SCHOOL KEEPING. and adopt the following Shorthand, which I have found of great importance and convenience. It saves much trouble, is interesting to the pupil, is easily learned and readily retained. Herein is the whole system in a nutshell, and I feel assured that every person who studies Gymnastics will find it useful. TREE GYMNASTICS. First Series. No. of Strains. 1. Hands 4 2. Feet 6 3. Body 4 4. Head 4 5. 17 Dumb -Bells 1 Ko.of Strains. 6. Clubs 1 7. Twisted thrusts 2 8. Touching floor 1 9. Steps with clapping hands 1 10. Swayiog, swinging arms. 2 Second Series. 1. Hand movements, down and up 4 2. Hand movements, at sides, 4 3. Kicks 4 4. Raising arms 4 5. Swing back arms 1 6. Raising shoulders 2 7. Open hands 2 8. Mowing movement 1 9. Elbows back 1 10. Sawing movement 2 11. Warming bauds 1 12. Charges and ewaying. ... 4 Third Series. 1. Attitudes and percussion. 8 2. Clasped thrusts 1 3. Twisting hands 2 4. Palm slide 1 5. Rolling shoulders forward, 2 6. Rolling shoulders back- ward 2 7. Thrusting from armpits, 2 8. Thrusting from shoul- ders 2 9. fomMnation 3 10. No. 1 Clubs 2 11 . Mast movement 1 12. Attitudes 4 PHYSICAL CULTURE. 183 WANDS. Mrst Set. No. of Counts. Signals 4 Up to chin 4 Down to chin 4 Down to floor 4 Buck of neck 4 Forward and back of neck. . . 8 Right and left hand out 2, back 6 8 Forward and back 8 Sidewise 8 Second Set. Diagonal charges, right and left 16 Diagonal swaying, right and left 16 Thrust to chin 8 Shoulder arms 8 Ready for charges 8 Third Set. Charges Fourth Set. Turning over head 4 Indian Canoe 12 Fifth Set. No. of Counts. Short steps 24 Resting and hopping 8 Sixth S«t. Rotary 24 Seventh Set. Long side steps 24 Eighth Set. Turning in front 4 Turning in back 4 Mnth Set. Diagonal charges, wand ob- lique 4 Diagonal charges, wand over head 4 Tenth Set. Inverted thrusts 4 Diagonal charges, wand ob- lique 4 Inverted thrusts 4 Diagonal charges, thrusts over head 4 DUMB-BELLS. First Series. First Set. 1. Bells at side. Attitude, diagonally forward, right 2. Forearms in front. Atti- tude, diagonally for- ward, left 3. Arms extended at side. Attitude, diagonally back, right 8 4. Arras extended overhead. Attitude, diagonally back, left 8 184 SCHOOL KEEPING. Second Set. No of Counts. 5. Thrusts all around, twist to right 8 6. Thrusts all round, twist tcvleft 8 7. Bells to the armpits sing- ly, alternately and sim- ultaneously 8 8. Bells from shoulders. At- titud :., on toes 8 Third Set. 9. Arms horizontal in front. Attitude, diagonally forward, right, left bell extended 10. Right arm perpendicular, left horizontal. Atti- tude, diagonally for- ward, left, right bell extended No. of Counts. 11. Left arm perpendicular, right horizontal. Atti- tude, diagonally back, right, both bells ex- tended 8 12. Bells half way. Atti- tude, diagonally back, left, both bells ex- tended 8 Fourth Set. 13. Kingle thrusts, twist to right 8 14. Alternate and simultane- ous thrusts, twist to left 8 15. Forward thrusts, long side charge to right ... 8 16. Swaying bells, long side charge to left 8 17. Wing 8 18. Waking up 8 Second Series. First Set. 1. First charge 8 2. First exercise 8 3. Second charge 8 4. Second exercise 8 5. Third charge 8 Second Set. 6. Bells clasped Third Set. 7. Long diagonals 8. Bells vertical in front. Fourth Set. 9. Floor charges 10. Side charges 11. Ar.ms back from horizon- tal Fifth Set. 12. Short diagonals, forward and back 13. Power's exercise between, Sixth Set. 14. Armful 15. Swing bells and twist body 16. Sitting charge 17. Shoulders 18. Front floor charge Seventh Set. 19. French sword 16 Eighth Set. 20. Stamping and stepping . . ninth Set. 21. Twisting body and swing- ing bells, or No. 42 22. Anvil. Tenth Set. PHYSICAL CULTURE. 185 Antil Chohus, or Third Series. ^0. of Counts. 1 Anvil over 8 2. AnvH under 8 3. Anvil, two over and two under 4 4. Forward diagonals 4 5 Anvil 4 6 Backward diagonals 4 7. Anvil 3 No. of Counts. 8. Striking bells 4 9. Anvil 4 10. Regular anvil to right. . . . 4 11. Anvil 4 12. Regular anvil to left 4 13. Anvil 4 14. Regular anvil, alternately, 5 15. Anvil, changes all round. EINGS. First Series. First Set. 1. Right hand, right foot ... 8 2. Left hand, left foot 8 3. Both hands, right foot... 8 4. Both hands, left foot 8 Second Set. 5. Turn, left feet together, step out right 8 6. With right feet together, step out left 8 Third Set. 7. Turn, rings down to floor, right and left side 4 8. Swinging rings, alternate- ly and simultaneously'. 4 Fourth Set. 9. Turn, tifeuble and single thrusts Fifth Set. 10. Turn, pulling 11. Resting and hopping .... Sixth Set. 12. Diagonal charges Seventh Set. 13. Sinking Fighth Set 14. Side charges mnth Set. 15. Side arching 16 Second Series. Tenth Set. 16. Long steps 24 17. Eleventh Set. Shoulders 16 Twelfth Set. Picture frame 8 Toilet 8 Hopping 8 Thirteenth Set. 21. Temptation and Resist- ance .. 3? Fourteenth Set. 9.9.. Arching .. 16 Fifteenth Set. 9-^ .. 8 Sixteenth Set. 24. Quartets .. 8 186 SCHOOL KEEPING. VI. MOKALS AKD MANNERS. " 4 SERMON and a book of etiquette," says a handbook on habits of good society, "have most erroneously been taken as the antipodes of literature. The one is a neces- sary appendix of the other. The missionary of the South Sea Islands would tell you that it is useless to teach the savage religion with- out the addition of a few rules of courtesy." Again, "Let us call no society good till we have sounded both its morals and its man- ners." Here the fact is recognized that morals cannot be divorced from manners with- out destroying the life of both. The state of society in which either morals or manners have been neglected is either low, vulgar, or MORALS AND MANNERS. 187 dangerous, as the case may be. Hence we see the propriety of connecting morals and manners in this chapter, and the importance of teaching both in the school. I propose now to discuss briefly the im- portance and method of moral culture. By moral training I mean rehgious training ; for there is no morality that is not founded in religion. I do not mean dogmatic or sec- tarian religion. Such training should have no place in the free schools of a free country, where all religious sects are tolerated. Morals, as defined by Worcester, is " The practise of the duties of life ; obedience to the moral law ; morality." This moral law is found in the Scriptures. Hence the Bible should be authority for all moral instruction. Whether used as a text-book or not in our schools, it should be the source from which all moral and religious instruction should be drawn. The Decalogue, in the Old Testa- 188 SCHOOL KEEPING. ment, and the moral lessons of the Great Teacher of our race, in the New, contain the important truths which should be taught our children in the family and in the school. They recognize God's existence and attri- butes ; our relations and duties to Him, and to our fellow-beimgs, and the great truth of man's immortality. These are the acknowl- edged truths of Christianity, and should never be excluded from any school-room. The object of education is not merely nor mainly to learn the art of reading, writing, and arithmetic ; to learn how to buy and sell commodities, and the facts of history, phi- losophy, and ethics. These are important, but the real end of education is to build up character. But character, if it is to become a blessing to the individual or the world, must be founded upon moral and religious truth. And as the formation of character is a process covering the whole period of child- MORALS AND MANNERS. 189 hood and youth, it cannot be properly exchided from the school. Teachers as well as parents " should impress upon the minds of those committed to their care and instruc- tion, the principles of piety and justice, and a sacred regard for truth ; love of their coun- try, humanity, and universal benevolence ; sobriety, industry, and frugality; chastity, moderation, and temperance ; and should also point out to them the evil tendency of the opposite vices." This is the language of the statutes of our own Commonwealth. But how should morality be taught in our schools? This is a practical and important question. Some suggestions may aid the young teacher in this delicate and important work. First, the teacher must exemplify, in his own life, a character that is above reproach or suspicion. The silent influence of example is more potent than instruction. To meet this requirement fully, the teacher 190 SCHOOL KEEPING. must be a consistent and practical Christian, and free from every degrading habit. He has no more right, as an example for children, to smoke or chew tobacco or drink intoxicat- ing liquors as a beverage, than he has to lie, or steal, or swear. He must be a model of excellence himself, if he would impress moral instructions upon his pupils. Sec- ondly, I have, in another connection, sug- gested the propriety of opening the school each day with a short devotional exercise. I here repeat the recommendation, in view of its moral and religious influence upon the school. This exercise should be brief, ap- propriate, and marked by its devotional spirit. A recent writer upon moral train- ing has suggested the following form : "When the hands of the clock indicate that the time for opening has come, let the pupils be in their seats ; and, when there is absolute stillness in the room, not be- M0EAL8 AND MANNERS. 191 fore, let the teacher take the Bible rever- ently in his hands and read, slowly, half a dozen verses. Then let him repeat, slowly and devoutly, the prayer with which all are familiar, and then let the children sing two stanzas of some familiar hymn. It may take less than five minutes for all of this ; but if it is done, as it should be, in a subdued and devout spirit, it will have an efi'ect upon all the subsequent work of the day. Moreover, it will lead the children to respect and ven- erate all the counsels the teacher may give." Thirdly, the teacher should draw a moral precept from every lesson, and impress it upon the class, whether it be lanorua^e, history, mathematics, or science that is recited, from day to day. Every subject has its moral aspect which may be turned to good account before a class. The organs of speech and language itself are a divine gift to man, history is the scripture of Prov- 13 192 SCHOOL KEEPING. idence ; science reveals a part of God's everlasting truth, and figures "do not lie." Hence we may find ample material for in- structive moral lessons in the routine of school exercises. Fourthly, the teacher should mark the current events of the school-room, and of the busy world as revealed in the news- papers, and impress upon his pupils a moral lesson drawn from each. A child has told a falsehood. At some suitable time let the sinfulness and evil conse- quences of lying be explained before the school, and, if possible, get an expression of disapproval and condemnation of such conduct. Another pupil has told the truth, under the pressure of strong motives to tell a lie. Let the heroism and nobleness of such an act be highly commended. A murder has been committed in some low groggery in city or town. Here you have MORALS AND MANNERS. 193 a fruitful subject for half a dozen little (Monday morning) talks before the school, in which you will dwell upon the temptations and influences that have been brought to bear upon that unfortunate man since he was an innocent boy in the home and in the school, to change his character and make him a murderer. Group the vices in which he has indulged, lying, stealing, swearing, drinking, and show the influence they have had upon him in forming his now ruined character, and expose the nature of the traffic in alcoholic drinks, so fearfully in- strumental in exciting the passions and fos- tering the crimes that curse society. Now a noble act of heroism and self-denial for the good of others has been achieved, and the facts have been published to the world. Here is another delightful theme for a familiar lecture before the school which cannot fail to do good. 194 SCHOOL KEEPING. These are some of the ways which I recommend to impart moral and religious instruction in school, and they suggest other methods which the teacher can adopt at discretion. Their object is to prevent the evil, to encourage the good, and in so doing, to build up a character worthy of true manhood. And, as before intimated, this moral training has an important bearing upon school government, and is the true method to be adopted in the management of the school. Now, I insist that it is as really impor- tant to the end in view, that the teacher in- struct his pupils in manners as in morals. A strong additional reason is found in the fact that the subject has been, and is, so generally neglected in the family and in the school. Our public school should be a school of good manners, and hence every teacher should be a gentleman or a lady MORALS AND MANNERS. 195 ill the truest sense oi these terms. This should be one test of qualifications in every examination by school boards. For the aid of teachers who desire to join in this noble work of reform in our schools, I will here append some principles and precepts of good behavior, compiled from the most reliable sources, — such as have been adopted by the cultivated and refined in difierent ages. There are some indispensable requisites for those who would appear to advantage in society. First among these is education; not necessarily the education of the univer- sity and the boardi«g-school, but such as secures the development of the mental powers, and imparts so much culture and information as is necessary to enable its possessor to comprehend and apply his knowledge in conversation upon a wide range of subjects. 196 SCHOOL KEEPING. No less important to the end in view is the cultivation of the taste. This requires an acquaintance with art, some knowledge of music, painting, architecture, etc. ; at least, so much should be known as the names and correct pronunciation of the more cel- ebrated artists, composers, architects, and sculptors, and the several schools to which they belong. A cultivated taste gives power to discriminate, and to enjoy the works of art, and the intelligence gained upon these subjects furnishes material for conversation. Again, the faculty of reason plays an im- portant part in good society. It not only has a high moral value, but it enables one to aro^ue as well as to listen to the aro^u- ments of others. While the laws of civility do not allow excited disputation in the social circle, they do allow discussion in which all may engage in a pleasant way. In this all should be qualified to take part. MORALS AND MANNERS. 197 And to these requisites must be added the art of fluent and graceful conversation. This requires an accurate knowledge of our own language ; yet no part of education in our schools is so much neglected. The Latin, Greek, French, and German are fre- quently studied by those who do not thor- oughly know even the rudiments of the English language. These may be studied as a means of acquiring good English, but 7iever to the neglect of it. As the best society is that in which the best thoughts are interchanged in the best manner, it fol- lows that proper regard must be had to the art of expression. This art requires some practical knowledge of rhetoric, which may be attained in the school, or by the faithful study of English literature. I will here remark, due respect for moral and religious character is a distinguishing mark of good breeding. The vile scoffer has 198 SCHOOL KEEPING. no place in refined society. Though party politics and sectarian religion may never fur- nish topics for disputation in social circles, yet no man should sit still and hear sacred things blasphemed, or his friend's character assailed. The reprobate who will indulge in such improprieties on such occasions should be cast out. Well-ascertained rules of social intercourse are as necessary to regulate society as laws are to govern the state. These are the rules which are defined by urbanity^ civility ^polite- ness, good manners, good breeding, good behavior. Eegulated by these, persons are able to render themselves agreeable in all the relations of life. But let it not be for- gotten that the basis of good manners impure morality. A bad man may be easy and pol- ished in his manners, but he cannot be refined. Here I will introduce some general pre- MORALS AND MANNERS. 199 cepts upon our subject. Cheerfulness is an essential element of good breeding, as it tends to elevate its possessor and make others happy. A polite person is quiet and unob- trusive ; hence loud laughter, stamping with the feet, and any bustling conduct in com- pany are inconsistent with politeness. Kind- ness, charity, and forbearance should regu- late all our expressions in regard to the frail- ties and faults of our fellow-men ; therefore gossip, and ridicule, and detraction cannot be indulged under the rules of urbanity, but rather, a charitable construction of known defects of our neighbors should always be given. True gentility treats no person with contempt, malice, or envy, and is especially kind to the lowly, the infirm, and the aged. Politeness springs from modesty, unselfish- ness, and generosity ; hence etiquette is only the outward form of politeness, and too often its mere counterfeit. Its essence consists in 200 SCHOOL KEEPING. SO conducting ourselves in word and manner, that others may not be offended but pleased with us. Let us see how this view of politeness applies to the " etiquette of the weed," under the rules which have been given to limit the indulgence of the smoker. Here are some of them : " One must never smoke or even ask to smoke in the company of ladies." "One must never smoke in a public place where ladies are or might be, nor in the streets.^' "One must never smoke in a close carriage, in a theatre, or in a church." "One must never smoke when anybody shows objection to it." Now, if true politeness requires these restrictions in this use of the weed, where on earth and when can the gentleman indulge in this filthy habit? I answer, he may smoke (if he must) in "some vast wilderness" where civilized man cannot be found. He may smoke in the second-class "smokiijof-car " MOKALS AND MANNEKS. 201 where no ladies ever go ; or in the open tobacco-field or goat-pen, where he will find the only animals, except man, w^hich ever use the weed ; or in the pest-house when he wishes to ward off a contagion, the pesti- lence or plague. He may take his own time, provided he confines himself to the places not prohibited by the rules of civility, and exchanges his clothing before he returns to civilized society. But the teacher should not have quite so much liberty as other "gentlemen," for he cannot smoke at all, without setting a bad example to his own pupils. The precept "that the true gentle- man will seek to avoid giving offence to any- body," is a little hard on a multitude, both young and older, who claim to be gentlemen, and yet every day walk the streets puffing tobacco smoke in the faces of all who come in their way. I will here submit this ques- tion, and will pass on to other examples. 202 SCHOOL KEEPING. Everything offensive to those with whom we associate must be avoided, under the rules of politeness. Hence "sniffling, snuff- ing, spitting, and the like may never be indulged in society. Coughing, sneezing, clearing of the throat, and such other noisy habits as cannot be avoided, should be done quietly.^' "Truthfulness, gracefulness, con- siderateness, unselfishness, are essential to the breeding of a true gentleman ; much more so to the breeding of a true lady." I do not see why more is required of the lady, thouo'h I admit that " her tact is readier, her instincts finer, and her sympathies tenderer than those of man." The true lady is the light of her home, and the very personifica- tion of etiquette in conducting its hospi- tality. Her domestic appointments are always in order, but " she never makes her servants, her dinner arrangements, her nur- sery, or her household affairs a subject of MORALS AND MANNERS. 203 conv^ersation." "Good breeding may be ranked with the fine arts in its refining and elevating influence uj^on character." Personal cleanliness is nearly related to gentility and moral purity. Hence it is urged, under the rules of good breeding, as of great importance. Under the same rules, a man's dress must be neat, clean, simple, and appropriate. " A man so attired will pass muster anywhere." Fashion is a des- pot, whose slaves are women more than men. A man of sense and modesty follows fashion only so far as not to make himself peculiar by opposing it. The love of dress is natural in WQjnan, but, if she is sensible, it does not engross every other taste. " It is only the coquette's heart that Addison describes as stuffed with 'aflame-colored hood.'" Indif- ference and inattention to dress is a defect and not a virtue. The love of dress is to be commended so long as good taste, con- 204 SCHOOL KEEPING. sistency, and practicability are kept in view ; but uncontrolled and stimulated by personal vanity, it becomes first a temptation and then a curse. Extravagance in dress begets extravagance in fashion, which absorbs every thought and consumes every element of true womanhood. That person, man or woman, is the most properly attired whose dress is so neat, simple, and appropriate as to attract no attention or remark. A well-bred person may be recognized by his hearing. "He never lolls or lounges, or supports his arms or legs upon the furniture, or puts his feet upon the rounds of chairs ; he never throws his arms over the railing of the pew, or leans against it slouchingly while at church. He sits upright, with his feet upon the floor, in a quiet manner." Awk- wardness of attitude, whether in man or woman, furnishes the same evidence of vul- garity as awkwardness of speech. If a per- MORALS AND MANNERS. 205 son is to be identified in company, it should be done by words ; never by pointing with the finger. "We should always give the preference to a person of greater age, or higher position, in stepping into a carriage or through a doorway." In a carriage, the gentleman should take the least desirable seat, and give the best to the lady. A very elderly gentleman alone may accept the best seat to the exclusion of the lady. A lady may not enter into con- versation with a gentleman, without an introduction, but if addressed she should answer politely. A gentleman in walking with a lady should give her the wall. Never stare at any person on the street or else- where. Two persons w^alking upon the sidewalk, meeting a third person, the nearer of the two should fall back to let him pass. Conversation is also made a mark of good breeding. All alBfectation, use of 206 SCHOOL KEEPING. foreign words, mannerisms, exaggerations, slang, and loudness betray a lack of social culture. Scandal is the most censurable of all conversational vulgarities. To interrupt a person who is speaking is rude in the extreme. On the other hand, to listen with attention, and as far as may be with in- terest, is evidence of politeness. Always look (but never stare) at the person who addresses you. All equivocations, coarse joking, twitting, whispering, talking for others to hear, in society, are vulgar and unpardonable in any one who claims to be well informed. Conversation throusfh cor- respondence comes also under the laws of good breeding. All proper communications should be promptly answered, and in a form, style, and neatness indicating good taste and culture. Read no letter, book, or paper in company, without permission. To illustrate the importance of instruc- MOEALS AND MANNERS. 207 tion in the family and school upon good man- ners, and to show the extent to which this subject has been neglected, the following anecdote has been told by a recent writer for one of our religious papers. An aged cler- gyman had been invited to dine at a gen- tleman's house, who had known him in his younger days. The clergyman was more careless of his dress than even poverty would excuse. And when he came to the table, his ignorance of the customs of re- fined society became painfully apparent. The circumstance I will relate in the author's own words : — " With the fruity some finger-bowls were ])rought in, and, after eying the one by his plate a moment, he raised it to his lips and drank off the water. ' Excuse me, ma'am,' he said, touching it with his withered fingers, 'I never saw such pretty cups be- fore. What do 3^ou call them ? I would like to buy one for my little girl.' 208 SCHOOL KEEPING. " ^ They are plain ruby bowls ; I think that is what they are called,' said the hostess, sipping from her own. * Do not buy one ; I have a very pretty one I should love to send to your daughter, if you will be kind enough to accept it.' "There was not the moving of an eyelash. The host glanced at his wife with loving pride, and followed her example. Even Master Tom, aged six, who was ready to laugh on all possible occasions, and was always making inopportune remarks, gravely drank from his finger-bowl, and slipped down from his chair without a word, and I heard him say afterward to his sister, * Does n't mamma have lovely thoughts ! She's going to give to him that pretty big cup, that 's just like a finger-bowl with a handle to it. Oh, I hope he '11 never know what those bowls are used for ! ' " Mark here, not only the ignorance of the MORALS AND MANNERS. 209 guest, but the conduct of the host and his wife, and even the little boy, at the table. How beautifully they illustrated their own good breeding by the manner in which they treated their simple friend. Children must have the requisite instruc- tion, if we expect them to become fitted for good society, and so many fail to receive it at home, they should have it at school. I will call attention only to the more jTromi- nent table and school habits, which are in violation of the rules of good society. One writer says : " As soon as you are seated at the table, place your napkin across your knees, and put your roll, or bread, on the left side of your plate. As soon as you are helped, begin to eat." Others have regarded it civil to wait until all are served. Perhaps circumstances should control this matter, and make both rules proper. " Never pass the plate to which you have been 210 SCHOOL KEEPING. helped (if a servant is in attendance) un- less the lady requests you to do so." "To make a noise with the mouth or lips while eatinsr or drinkinsr, to cou2fh or sneeze with- es G ' O out covering the face with the napkin, is inexpressibly vulgar." " The knife or spoon must never be carried to the mouth, unless the nature of the food absolutely requires it." The bread must be broken and not cut; the salt placed at the side of the plate, and the plate never tilted. Quiet and gen- tleness should be observed in all movements at the table, and greediness and haste avoided. "Never take the choicest piece, nor take up one piece and lay it down in favor of another." "In sending the plate to be helped a second time, hold the knife and fork in the left hand." "Finger-bowls con- taining water placed before each person, at dessert, should be used by dipping the fingers, and afterwards wiping them on the MORALS AND MANNERS. 211 napkin." " Never soil the tablecloth, nor handle idly anything upon the table." These suggestions seem only trifles, but they are essential to good breeding, nevertheless. Rules of good behavior at school are pe- culiarly appropriate in this chapter, as the teacher is especially responsible for the conduct and improvement of his pupils. I once visited the school of one of my own graduates, in which I observed, with much satisfaction, one peculiar arrangement and requirement. The teacher had provided in one corner of the school-room a wash-stand, bowl, pitcher, and towel ; and after every exercise which required the pupils to soil their fingers (such as using chalk at the black-board), or when any pupil came in with a dirty face, he was sent to wash him- self clean. This seemed to me to be a very wise arrangement, not only in view of its usefulness in preventing the soiling of books, 212 SCHOOL KEEPING. but also in cultivating the habit of personal cleanliness. Clean hands and a clean face are desirable for their own sake, and they strongly suggest a clean, tidy dress, clean nails, neatly combed hair, and blacked shoes, — all of which are essential to good manners, and good morals as well. At recess, the girls should be allowed to go out and return before the boys are excused, and all should be required to move in an orderly and quiet manner. In entering the school in the morn- ing, each pupil should be taught to recog- nize the teacher in some appropriate way. They should never be let loose, at once, in the school-room, but marched out in order. When pupils are spoken to on the street they should reply politely, with a bow, removing or touching the hat. " Kindness and civility to strangers is one of the most charming traits of civihzation." Good breeding will not allow whispering in company ; this alone, if re- MORALS AND MANNERS. 213 garded, would break up the habit of whisper- ing in school. In addressing the teacher with any request, the "please, sir," or "please, ma'am," should never be omitted. The rules of good society will not alloAV pupils to in- dulge in rudeness to their playmates, to call them hard names, or nicknames. These rules require them to be respectful to the aged and the unfortunate. Marking, cutting, or in any way defacing the seats, walls, or furniture of the school-room is exceedingly vulgar and unbecoming. It is not becom- ing for a pupil to " tell tales " in or out of school, but he should, when questioned by the teacher, tell th-e simple truth. It is a false view of honor, which so often prompts even the good and trustworthy in school to refuse to expose the vicious in their reckless conduct. When school chil- dren learn and practise the rules that govern good society, they grow up to become ladies and gentlemen. 214 SCHOOL KEEPING. VII. , TEMPEKANCE IK SCHOOLS. ^HE grand object of education is so to train the children that they will be fitted for the practical duties of manhood and womanhood. Hence the school has to provide for physical, mental, and moral cul- ture, as a sound mind in a sound body, and a keen sense of moral obligation, are the necessary qualifications for life. But this is not all. Kefined manners and correct habits are essential to the end in view. The man or woman of extensive learning and approved character may be practically shut out from good society for lack of refinement, and the cultivated gentleman or lady may be de- TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 215 spised and pitied on account of gross immo- X'alities. As I have stated, in another con- nection, education consists in character- building, and is complete only when the citizen is highly cultivated and furnished for every good work. The work of the school, therefore, is not finished until its instruc- tions and training have fortified the children against the vicious habits of society. Now, it must be admitted that no knowledcre in the whole range of the prescribed school studies is so important for the future wel- fare of these children, as a knowledge of their own physical being. Hence I hail wkh joy and gratitude the recent efforts of wise and good men and women to introduce into our public schools the study of physiology and hygiene, for the purpose of instructing our youth in the efiects and influence of intoxicatinof beveraofes on the human system. This fact furnishes new evi- 216 SCHOOL KEEPING, dence of progress in education, and the favor with which the suggestion has been received by the public is, in the highest degree, en- couraging and assuring. Already five States of our Union have passed compulsory acts for the introduction of this study into their public schools; viz., Yermont, New Hampshire, Michigan, New York, and Rhode Island ; and the subject has already occupied the attention of the Massa- chusetts Legislature, and its active approval of such a bill is now being urged by such writers as Presidents Hopkins, Seelye, and Warren, Hon. T. W. Bicknell, Miss Alice M. Guernsey, and the managers of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Miss Guernsey, the most prominent in the prep- aration of the text-book mentioned later, thus speaks of the provisions of this statute : "The law provides for teaching the im- portance of fresh air and healthful food ; of TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 217 proper clothing and cleanliness of person ; the necessity of both rest and exercise ; the mighty power of heredity, peopling to-day our almshouses, homes for idiots, and in- sane asylums with the descendants of drink- ing men and women, often of ' moderate drinkers,' so called ; not only these, and similar lessons, important as they are, but the blasting, destroying effects of alcohol upon the entire physical organization, the paralyzing, impure influence of tobacco, es- pecially upon youth, the soul-benumbing, will-destroying action of opium and chloral upon the human system, — all these must be taught the childi'en in our schools when we secure the passage of this law." President Hopkins says, "You are right in seeking to enlist the intelligence and sym- pathies of the young in favor of temperance. The history of the past would seem to show that this is our only hope. This can be gen- 218 SCHOOL KEEPING. erally and effectively done only by instruc- tion and training in the schools of the State. But that this should be done is so plainly for the interest of the State, both pecuniarily and morally, and so fit in itself, that I can- not suppose anything more than a bare pres- entation of the subject will be needed to secure from our Legislature the passage of laws in furtherance of this end similar to those already passed by several other States." President Seelye says : " The movement in behalf of ' Scientific Temperance Instruc- tion ' meets my most cordial approval. The physiological effects of alcoholic drinks upon the human body are now so clearly known and are so wofully destructive that they ought to be taught to every child. No topic is more worthy a required place in our public schools." President Warren says: "Ordinarily, and TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 219 on general principles, I hold it wise to teach the young the knowledge of the good rather than a knowledge of the evil, to make them acquainted with the blessings of virtue rather than with the misery and curse of vice. But when the rum-shops are becom- ing ten or a hundred times more numerous than the bakeries, when rum capital is bent on mastering and ruling every municipal government, when the victims of drink, who should be the strength and glory of our land, are going down by the hundred thousand into pauperism, insanity, and death, surely it is time to begin with childhood and to see if it be not possible to train up a generation which shall be not merely forewarned of its own peril, but also fired with a holy and unquenchable zeal to put an utter end to the poisoning of man by his fellow-man for pelf. I earnestly hope that the legislators of en- lightened Massachusetts will hasten to au- 220 SCHOOL KEEPING. tliorize and require the introduction into the public schools of suitable instruction on this subject." Mr. Bicknell says : " The teachers of America are nobly endeavoring to teach good manners, pure morals, and upright living, and they welcome scientific temperance liter- ature as valuable aids in establishing correct principles and virtuous habits in our youth. Could the public schools and the Sunday schools of America make our children armor- proof against the seductive temptations of tobacco and alcohol, the cost of their sup- port, however large that may be, would represent but a tithe of their value. Let the good work go on, through address, printed page, and home and school instruc- tion, till the last drunkard's grave is filled, and every child is on the high road to a temperate and holy manhood or woman- hood." TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 221 The following, from Hon. J. W. Patter- son, Superintendent of Public Instruction in Xew Hampshire, where this law is in operation, is in point : — " Not only clo ' evil communications cor- rupt good manners,' but virtuous commu- nications develop good habits. Much of the drunkenness, debauchery, and slow sui- cide by self-administered poisons spring from ignorance of the natural effects of fash- ionable drugs. The youth, who acquire the knowledoe which this law is desiofned to give, will be armed within against temp- tations, to which the uninformed become a prey. Our only .hope for anything like general success to the cause of temperance is through the young. Here we must work, if we would disband our army of 6,000 drunkards. Here Christianity and patriot- ism may tind their most hopeful field of labor." 222 SCHOOL KEEPING. The acts passed in the States mentioned are substantially alike, as in the language of the New York bill : — "The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows : — "Section 1. Provision shall be made by the proper local authorities for instructing all pupils in all schools supported by public money or under control of the State, in physiology and hygiene, with special refer- ence to the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimu- lants, and narcotics upon the human system. "Sect. 2. No certificate shall be granted to any person to teach in the public schools of New York, after Jan. 1, 1885, who has not passed a satisfactory examination in physiology and hygiene, with special refer- ence to the effect of alcoholic drinks, stimu- lants, and narcotics on the human system." Suitable text-books have already been pro- TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 223 vided, of which "The Temperance Physiol- ogy," published by A. S. Barnes & Co., of New York, is a good specimen. With such an auspicious beginning, it is confidently ex- pected that erelong every vState will have a similar provision on its statute book. Then the children of the nation, forewarned by a practical knowledge of the nature and effects of stimulants and the narcotic poisons upon health and life, will be forearmed against the fearful consequences of indulging in their use. The hopefulness of such a measure, in its practical bearing upon the future of these children and youth, is seen in the fact that the use of intoxicating liquors and narcotics is entirely unnatural. Children, unless they have inherited the taste from drunken par- ents, loathe these poisons. To form the habit of drinking, smoking, or chewing costs a painful effort. Nausea, headache, and 224 SCHOOL KEEPING. faintness are the first consequences, and it is only by repeated and persevering trials that nature is overcome. Now, if they can be instructed as to the nature and effects of these poisons, and the extreme danger of in- dulgence, they will have a strong additional motive to refrain from their use. Without this information they will be likely to form the habit and to continue indulgence, until, as a tyrant, it has gained entire control over them, and they have become powerless in their efforts to reform. Besides, from no other source would this information be received at the time when it would be so impressive and long retained in memory. This shows, also, the wisdom and importance of this measure. He who cavils or objects to introducing this study into our schools, and yet claims to be a believer in total abstinence, must be wanting in sincerity or intelligence upon this subject. TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 225 This law, which may be already found on the statute book of the five States named, is based, not upon assumed, but demonstrated facts in regard to the "efiects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics upon the human system." These facts relate princi- pally to the three rank poisons especially treated in the text-books on physiology and hygiene that are to be used in the schools under the law, and which are italicized in the following stanza of the poet : — " I group, saj's Hitchcock (for they do agree In being poisons, as 'tis phiin to see), — I group together and reject the sum Of alcohol, tobacco, opium." First, the facts in regard to the efiects of alcohol, as established by the best medical authority. Dr. Palmer, of Michigan Uni- versity, says : " Medical winters admit that by far the most disastrous and frequent cause of poisoning in all our communities is the 15 226 SCHOOL KEEPING. use of alcohol." Dr. Edmands, of England, writes : " The effects of no other common poison are more direct and certain than those of alcohol." Dr. Alden, of Massachusetts, asserts : " On every organ they touch alco- holic drinks act as a poison ; there is no such thing as their temiperate use. They are al- ways an enemy to the human body. They produce weakness, not strength ; sickness, not health ; death, not life." Not only has medical testimony proved, but the observa- tion of every intelligent person in any com- munity has verified the truth that alcohol, as a poison, is a fruitful source of disease, insanity, and death. Second^ the facts in regard to the effects of tobacco. It is a powerful narcotic and contains a substance called nicotine^ which is such a rank poison that a single drop upon a cat's tongue will produce death in a short time. A single cigar contains enough of TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 227 this poison, if extracted and administered pure, to kill two strong men. A cigarette contains still more poison than a common cigar, and results in more serious conse- quences to the smoker. Says Dr. Carlyon : "Tobacco is a very powerful narcotic poison ; its fumes possess the power of stupefying all the senses and all the faculties, by slow but enduring intoxi- cation, into dull obliviousness." Dr. Corson enumerates some of the direct results of excessive smoking as they came under his observation: "giddiness, sickness, vomiting, dyspepsia, diseased liver, congestion of the brain, apoplexy, palsy, mania, loss of mem- ory, deafness, nervousness, and cowardice." Smoking, like drinking, first conquers and then makes slaves of its victims, even unto death, as a rule. Third, the facts in regard to the efiects of opium. Opium eating is a vice much more 228 SCHOOL KEEPING. extensive than is generally supposed, since it is much less easily detected than alcoholic intoxication. In many instances, where law and custom have made the use of alcoholic beverages disreputable, the use of opium has been substituted. Its effects are most mani- fest upon the nervous and digestive systems. Loss of appetite, vomiting, pain in the stomach, emaciation, weakness, trembling gait, mental hallucinations and sluggishness, and a kind of delirium tremens are the symp- toms. To understand the terrible effects of using this poison we have only to follow the innocent boy and the wretched man who has written the " Confessions of an English Opium-Eater " through his remarkable and suffering career. Left an orphan when but seven years old, he lived in seclusion and enjoyed but limited advantages at school, yet he distinguished himself as a scholar, and gained position with such able writers TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 229 as Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, who were among his associates. At eighteen years of age, by the advice of a college com- panion, he took opium " to dull the pain of rheumatism," and thus began the formation of the habit which proved such a curse through his life. At this time DeQuincey says, "I was necessarily ignorant of the whole art and mystery of opium eating." Fortunate would it have been for him, could he have been taught, during his early school days, the nature and eJffects of this narcotic, but it was too late after the habit had been formed. For twenty-five years his life was one desperate struggle with a foe more terri- ble than death, and though he gained a par- tial victory, yet he was left " agitated, writh- ing, throbbing, palpitating, shattered." No language can' express his agony, or describe the paralyzing effects of this drug upon his otherwise brilliant intellect. This is only 230 SCHOOL KEEPING. one case of thousands of its kind, but it serves to illustrate. I speak of stimulants and narcotics used as a beverage and luxury. As deadly poi- sons they have their place and uses. To learn when and how they may be used is one lesson in this school study. Alcohol is useful in the arts. It dissolves gums, resins, and oils ; aids in extracting perfumes and medicines from leaves, roots, barks, and seeds ; preserves dead flesh from decay ; and produces the smokeless flame of the spirit-lamp. Opium, like alcohol, with its various com- pounds, is useful as a medicine, but neither can be taken with safety, except under the prescription of a skilful physician . But what can be said of the usefulness of tobacco? Does it help digestion, relieve the aching head or nerves, preserve the teeth, or ward off" contagion ? TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 231 "Physicians say, 'tis common- sense abused — There 's no disease for which it need be used ; It is a poison 5 and to sum the whole, It ruins health, life, property, and soul. Is this the case? then let me ask each one, What ought? what can? and what must now be done? One thing is needful, and alone but one ; Its use abandon, and the work is done." Another view of our subject favors instruc- tion in our schools as to the effects of stimu- lants and narcotics on the human system. It is not enough to save the children from the physical consequences of debasing habits for their own sake. They must be saved to the state as sober, virtuous, and intelligent citi- zens, whose influence and efibrts will pro- mote the public good. To this end they must have correct views and principles as well as correct habits ; must learn the moral aspect of the temperance question, and gain moral courage to act according to their con- 232 SCHOOL KEEPING. victions. Hence among the lessons taught them in school, in connection with this sub- ject, should be the following : — (1.) That the misuse and abuse of these poisons have turned multitudes of citizens into jpaujpers, whom the community has to support. " Nine tenths of all the paupers graduate from the dram shop." (2.) That the use of these poisons has turned other thousands of citizens into crimi- nals, and the community is compelled to build prisons and sustain courts, to care for and punish them. "Four fifths of all the crime of the country is the result of the dram shops." (3.) That large numbers of those who might otherwise become good citizens are turned into Iwiatics and idiots by the use of these poisons. "Three fifths of the lunacy and idiocy of the country come directly or indirectly from intemperance." TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 233 (4.) That there are two thousand seven hundred and eighty-six dram shops in the city of Boston (five for each school-house and twelve for each church), legalized by the vote of a majority of more than ten thousand citizens to make paupers, crimi- nals, lunatics, and idiots. Nor is Boston an exception among the large cities in this regard. Other thousands, both licensed and unlicensed, all over the nation, are carrying on the traffic, with the same alarming and painful results. (5.) That while only $85,000,000 are annually spent in the United States for public education, 11,500,000,000 are spent for alcoholic drinks and tobacco ! Now what we propose to do is to give the children in the schools of the State and, erelong, the schools of the nation, these facts and figures, and to draw from them moral lessons for their instruction and en- 234 SCHOOL KEEPING. couragement in the ways of sobriety and virtue, and for their guide in life. I agree with President Warren, whose words I have already quoted, that, " on gen- eral principles, it is wise to make the young acquainted with the blessings of virtue rather than with the misery and curse of vice," and I also agree with him, in view of the fact that "rum-shops are becoming ten or a hundred times more numerous than the bakeries, that rum-capital is bent on master- ing and ruling every municipal government, and that victims of drink, who should be the strength and glory of our land, are going down, by the hundred thousand, into pauper- ism, insanity, and death," I agree with him, I repeat, in urging that " it is time to begin with childhood, and to see if it is not possible to train up a generation which shall be fore- warned of its own peril, and fired with an unquenchable zeal to put an utter end to the TEMPEKANCE IN SCHOOLS. 235 poisoning of man by his fellow-man." We cannot, if we would, conceal from our chil- dren and youth " the misery and curse of vice." We should aim, therefore, to set these facts before them in their true light, to enable them to understand the causes of the evil, as well as " the blessings of virtue." A generation of children so taught, and graduated from the public schools to become citizens, would have strength to maintain their own integrity, power, and a disposition to revolutionize public opinion on these subjects, and to stay the tide of iniquity that has rolled in upon us like a surging flood. At least it is worjth our while to try the experiment, since all other measures have failed. There are also incidental advantages con- nected with the introduction of this new study into our schools, which should not be overlooked. First, it will open the whole 236 SCHOOL KEEPING. subject of physiology and hygiene to the careful study of all who are in the course of public education. Not only will the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics upon the human system be studied, but also the facts and laws relating to health and life generally. This will include a knowl- edge of the functions of the body, and the conditions of their healthy action ; the use of appropriate nourishment, and the regulation of surrounding circumstances ; the wearing of proper clothing and the breathing of pure air; and regular and sufficient exercise. It is of vital importance to know what it is proper to eat, and when to eat. Food must not only be nutritious and properly cooked, but it must be taken with regularity and thor- oughly masticated ; and, to secure its diges- tion, both exercise and rest are essential. Proper clothing is also an important element of hygiene. This must be regulated to suit TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 237 the seasons and the degree of exposure to which the person may be liable, so as to avoid extremes of cold, heat, and moisture. It must be fitted so as not to expose the delicate parts of the body, or to restrict the action of the vital organs. The necessity of pure air is also an indispensable condition of health. To secure this and avoid the effluvia exhaled from standing pools, and the poison generated in unventilated rooms, the laws touching this subject must be thoroughly understood. I specify these conditions of health and sickness, because they will all be met and naturally dealt with in the school-room, when the study of physiology and hygiene has been intro- duced. No matter if their introduction interferes with other studies. These are the most important of all for the future wel- fare of our children, and of the State whose duty it is to educate them. No matter if 238 SCHOOL KEEPING. teachers are now poorly prepared to give the necessary instruction. Under the re- quirements of the law they will soon bring themselves up to the necessary standard, or give place to those who are already qualified. This suggests the second incidental ad- vantage resulting from this new step in the educational progress of our times. Teachers, as a body, have been and are very deficient in this branch of study, and hence are not qualified properly to care for the health of their pupils. Not an hour of any school day of the year when there is not an oppor- tunity for the teacher to direct and control the circumstances which preserve the health or induce the sickness of his pupils. To compel him to qualify himself to discharge this duty is the first business of the law. It will result in great advantage to the teachers themselves as well as to their pupils. Many, doubtless, break down under the TEMPERANCE IN SCHOOLS. 239 pressure of labor and care, solely for the want of a knowledge of the laws of their being. With this knowledge they will be able to save their own as well as the health and life of their pupils. Teachers should, therefore, hail with pleas- ure this new legal measure for the ad- vancement of the cause of education. They should at once signify their approval, and use their influence and efforts to help on the good cause. If any fail to do this, they will fall behind, and soon drop out of the service. Among the aids which teachers, who desire to prepare themselves to give instruction upon physiology and hygiene as required by the law of the several States alluded to in this chapter, will need, is Dr. A. F. Blaisdell's elementary text-book, entitled " Our Bodies, and How we Live," published by Lee & Shepard, Boston. How the author handles 240 SCHOOL KEEPING. the subject will be seen by the following tabular analysis : — I. Muscles. 1. Effect of alcohol on the muscles. II. Food and Drink. 1. Artificial drinks. 2. Tea, coffee, and cocoa. 3. Effect of drinking tea and coffee. 4. Alcohol described. 5. Principal drinks that contain alcohol. 6. Alcohol as a food. 7. Alcohol and work. III. Digestion. 1. Indigestion due to alcohol. 2. Effect of alcohol on the stomach-digestion, 3. Effect of alcohol on the liver. ly. The Blood and its Circulation. 1. Effect of alcohol on the circulation. 2. How alcohol gets into the blood. 3. Effect of alcohol upon the heart. V. Breathing. 1. Effect of alcohol upon the lungs. 2. Alcohol and the bodily heat. yi. The Nervous System. 1. General remarks on stimulants and nar- cotics. CONCLUDING EEMARKS. 241 2. General effect of alcohol on the nervous system. 3. Alcoholic excess and the nervous system. 4. Final result of alcoholic excess. 5. Inherited craving for alcohol. 6. Tobacco and its moderate use. 7. Excessive use of tobacco. 8. Effect of tobacco upon young people. 9. Opium. 10. Practical points about opium. 11. Chloral. 12. Other narcotics. "The schoolmaster is abroad," and he was abroad fifty years ago. But how dijfferent his advantages, opportunities, and methods, then and now! Then he had no special train- ing for his work, and little or no system in his arrangements and instruction. " There in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule, The village master taught his little school. A man severe he was, and stern to view ; I knew him well, and every truant knew." 16 242 SCHOOL KEEPING. That he was " skilled to rule " as a tyrant^ the quotation I have made from Jean Paul Richter, on another page, will abundantly prove. Mark the change in the arrangements, management, and government of the school of to-day. It is "as from a state of barbar- ism to civilization." Then " teaching to teach " was not known ; now the whole process of instruction has been reduced to system, and both the science and art of education are studied in prepara- tion for the work of the school-room. Great, also, has been the change in the results of the teaching of to-day compared with fifty years ago. There has been steady improvement in the public schools during this period, as during the two hun- dred years of their history, notwithstanding Dr. E. E. Hale's statement to the contrary. The masters of fifty years ago did as well CONCLUDING REMARKS. 243 as the circumstances would allow, but their successors have continued to improve upon their methods, and better results have been realized. No one has seen the growth, Ijut it is a reality. The tree that stands upon the old homestead was, fifty years ago, a mere sapling ; now it is a sturdy elm. Only by comparing the two trees can one realize how great a change has been wrought. So it is with the schools of then and now. The teacher of to-day has his trials and re- sponsibilities as did the teacher of fifty years ago ; indeed his responsibilities are greater. He lives amid the stirring scenes of this remarkable age, when he must have in hand the special work which Avill settle the destiny of this great Eepublic. Illit- eracy, the nation's curse, must be removed, and the citizens of the next generation, who should now be in our schools, must be edu- cated and fitted to carry an intelligent ballot. 244 SCHOOL KEEPING. Drunkenness and debauchery are sapping the life and consuming the wealth of the nation. The cause of tliese evile must be removed, or all is lost. To the school-teacher really, if not mainly, we must look for relief and safety. With the increased responsi- bility comes encouragement for well doing. Tiae glory of such labors is great. The true teacher of to-day is not only moulding the lives of children who are to become the men and women of the immediate future, but in doing this he is also influencing the intelli- gence, character, and progress of generations yet to come. BICKNELL'S Educational i Publications, STANDARD EDUCATIONAL WORKS^ BOOKS AND PERIODICALS. A COMPLETE OUTFIT FOE TEACHING. The Best Educational Literature for all Classes of Teachers and School Officers. 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