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The
otton Textile Worker's
Handbook
A CONVENIENT REFERENCE BOOK
For All Persons Interested In
he Spinning of Cotton Yarns, the Weaving of
Cotton Fabrics, and the Yarn and Cloth
Calculations Incidental
Thereto
BY
International Correspondence Schools
SCRANTON, PA.
2d Edition, 7th Thousand, 2d Impression
scranton, pa.
International Textbook Company
<^^„^'
ft'"
Copyright, 1913, 1920, by
International Textbook Company
Copyright in Great Britain
All Rights Reserved
^o
-^o??
m 2.
Press of
International Textbook Company
Scranton, Pa.
77368
©CU566650
/
PREFACE
In this work, the publishers have not attempted
to produce a condensed cyclopedia covering the
ottensive field of cotton manufacturing, but they
have aimed to present a useful reference book
convenient to carry in the pocket — a pocketbook
in truth — and containing information, especially
rules, tables, etc., often used and required by
superintendents, overseers, fixers, and, in fact, all
persons engaged or interested in the great cotton
textile manufacturing industry and its many
ramifications.
The intention has been to select from a vast
amount of material only that which is most likely
to be of use in connection with daily work or to
which reference will be made most frequently.
The treatment of many subjects is of necessity
brief, but these matters have been covered to the
full extent of the available space, and the text
relating thereto includes that which is most
valuable for frequent reference. The material
on yarn calculations, cloth calculations, and
draft calculations presents, in each case, a fin-
ished treatise that, it is hoped, will prove of
great value. Many tables are included and a
iii
IV
PREFACE
great number of these, such as, for instance, the
cotton-yarn numbering table, the cotton-roving
numbering table, and the many tables indicating
the production of various machines under a
wide range of conditions, should prove of daily
use. Other tables and much information and
data relative to the timing, setting, and adjust-
ment of textile machinery will be of importance
on many occasions. Great care has been taken
to insure the accuracy of the large number of
rules included, and these will be found entirely
trustworthy.
This handbook has been prepared by, and
-under the supervision of, Mr. C. J. Brickett,
Principal of our School of Textiles.
International Correspondence Schools
January, 1920
INDEX
Adjusting dobby knives,
266
shuttle-feeler thread cut-
ter, 290
the binders, 260
the lug strap, 259
the protector motion, 260
Adjustment of filling-
changing mechanism,
287
Advantages of metallic
rolls, 145
Albert twill, Filling-flush,
312.
twill", Warp-flush, 312
All-seed cotton, 95
Allowance for size, 54
Allowances made in calcu-
lating production and
draft of metallic rolls,
83
on calculated production
of ring frames, 202
American cotton, 94
cotton. Drawing-roll set-
tings for, 147
Amsterdam system of num-
bering woolen yarns, 25
Angle of twills, 310
Angled draft, 308
Angular measure, 338
Apothecaries' weight, 335
Artificial silk, 23
Automatic feeder, 106
looms, 273
stop-motions, 245
Average counts of cloth, 58
counts of cloth. Rule to
find, 58, 67
counts. Rule to find, 45
Average number of yarn be-
ing spun. Rule to find,
205
numbers, 45
yards per pound, denier
system, 20
Avoirdupois weight. Table
of, 334
Back knife plate, 123
rolls, 72
Backing oH, 208
Bale breaker, 105
Banging off, 261
Basket weaves, 319
weaves, Fancy, irregular,
and twilled, 320
Bat-wing pick, 248
Beam warpers, Production
of, 233
warping, 230
Beamed yarns, 42
Beams, Loom, 42
Bearings, Table of dis-'
tances between, 349
Beater, 108
Beating up, 245, 249
Bedford-cord weaves, 332
cords. Piques and, 328
Belt fastenings, 353
Rule to find length of
crossed, 356
Rule to find length of
open, 356
Belts, 352
Care of, 352
Horsepower transmitted
by, 357
Length of, 356
Quarter-turn, 354
INDEX
Benders cotton, 95
Bier, 52
Binders, Adjusting the, 260
Bloom, 100
Bobbins, 195
Sizes of, 195
Bonnet, 'Doffer, 125
Licker, 122
Bex chains. Building, 269
looms, 267
motions. Timing of, 272
Boxes, Leveling the, 272
Break draft, 80
Breaker, Bale, 105
picker, 108
Breaking weight of Ameri-
can cotton warp yarns,
Average, 34
weight of cotton warp
yarn, 33
Broken crow weave. Fill-
ing-flush, 312
crow weave, Warp-fltish,
313
Brown Egyptian cotton, 95
Brush gauge, 168
Builder gear on mule. Rule
to find, 216
Building box chains, 269
C
Cabled yarns, 219
Calculating draft of com-
mon rolls, 78
Calculation of colored
mixes, 117
Calculations, Card-clothing,
128
Cloth, 48
Comber, 166
Draft, 71
Fly-frame, 178
for filling yarn, 54
for ring frames, 198
for slashers, 237
for twisters, 219
for warp yarn, 52
Harness, 50
Loom, 250
Mechanical, 347
Ply-yarn, 35
Yarn, 1
Cam looms, 256
Campbell twill, 313
Cam-shaft gears on looms.
Rule for finding, 256
Cams on more than 2-har-
ness work, Setting, 256
Rule to find throw of
harness, 247
Setting selvage, 257
Shedding by, 245
Timing cbmber, 170
Card clothing, 126
-clothing calculations; 128
clothing. Crown of, 128
clothing, English counts
of, 132
clothing, English method
of numbering, 131
clothing, Rule to find
points per square foot
in, 129
Draft of, 135
production, 136
Revolving-top flat, 120
slivers. Weights of cot-
ton, 137
tooth. Crown of, 126
tooth. Knee of, 126
waste, 136
Carded warp yarns, Rule
to find standard break-
ing weight of, 34
Carding, Objects of, 120
Cards, Care of, 137
Cotton, 120
Management of, 141
Setting, 138
Weight and horsepower
of, 136
Care of belts, 352
of cards, 137
of combers, 171
of cotton-harness warp
stop-motion, 290
of pickers, 119
of shuttle. Position and,
288
of steel-harness warp
stop-inotion, 291
Carriage, Mule, 205
Cassimere twill, 312
Cellulose, 93
INDEX
Cellulose silk, 23
Center draft, 307
Chain draft, 264
drafts, 304
Chains, Pegging harness,
264
Building box, 269
Change gear, 362
gears, Fly-frame, 183
Changing counts on mule,
214
Check weaves, 323
Circle, 342
Pitch, 363
Rule to find circumfer-
ence and area of, 343
Circular pitch, 363
Circumferential speed of
pulleys, 351
Classification of cotton, 98
Classifying cotton, 100
Cloth, Average counts of,
58
calculations, 48
calculations. Short rules
for, 67
Counts of, 48
Cover on, 258
measure, 337
Rule to find average
counts of, 58, 67
Rule to find weight of,
in ounces per yard, 56
Rule to find yards per
pound of, 56, 57
samples, Figuring partic-
ulars from, 57
Slasher, 236
Thin places in, 261
Weight of, 56
Weight of cotton, 48
Weight of woolen, 49
Weight of worsted, 49
Width of, 57
Yards per pound of, 57
Clothing, Card, 126
cylinder and doffer, 132
flats, 132
Open-set, 131
Plain-set, 131
Points per square foot in
rib-set, 130
Clothing, Points per square
foot in twill-set, 131
Rib-set, 128
Twilled, 128
Cohoes system of number-
ing woolen yarns, 25
Coiler head, 125
Colored mixes. Calculation
of, 117
Combed warp yarns. Rule
to find standard break-
ing weight of, 35
Comber, 161
calculations, 166
cushion-plate settings, 168
cylinders. Setting and
timing, 170
Double-nip, 163
feed-roll setting, 168
gauge, 168
settings, 167
Single-nip, 161
timings, 169
waste, 173
waste. Percentage of, 174
Combers, Care of, 171
Setting of, 167
Timing of, 168
Combination weaves, 322
Combing, 155
Combs, Setting top, 171
Common rolls, 142
rolls. Calculating draft
of, 78
rolls. Drafting with, 72
rolls. Weighting of
single-boss, 149
Compound levers, 266
-sizing test, 19
Condenser, 109
Cone, 345
or pyramid, Rui'e to find
volume of, 345
or pyramid. Rule to find
volume of frustum of,
346
pick, 248
Constant dividend, 363
factor, 362
for builder change gear
on mule. Rule to find,
217 .
INDEX
Constant for twist on fly
frames, Rule to find, 181
for twist on mule, Rule
to find, 209
for twist on ring frames,
Rule to find, 200
of gearing. Rule to find,
363
Rule to find draft, 88
Constants, 88, 362
for equivalent cotton
counts, 27
for finding loom produc-
tion, 253
Twist, 28
Contraction, 53
in leno and lappet fab-
rics, 64
Rule to estimate warp, 69
Warp, 53
Corkscrew twills, 321
weaves, 321
Cost of ply yarns. Rule to
find, 40
Cotton, 92
Allan-seed, 95
American, 94
Benders. 95
Brown Egyptian, 95
cards, 120
cards, Speed calculations
for, 133
characteristics. Table of,
96
classification, Govern-
ment, 99
Classification of, 98
Classifying, 100
cloth. Weight of, 48
designing, 302
duck, Weight of, 49
fiber. Measurements of,
93
fiber. Strength of. 93
fiber, Structure of, 92
Grades of American, 98
Gulf, or New Orleans, 94
-harness warp stop-mo-
tion. Care of, 290
Memphis, 95
mill. Organization of, 294
-mill planning, 294
Cotton mixing, 103
mixing, Rule to find
number of sections
a 104
Oklahoma, 95
Peelers, 95
-roving numbering table,
13 ,
Sea-island, 94
Specific gravity of, 93
Texas, 95
Uplands, 95
warp yarn, Breaking
weight of, 33
World's production of,
101
weaving, 245
yarn and roving, Table
of dividends for num-
bering, 16
-yarn numbering table, 5
-yarn preparation, 92
-yarn preparation, Proc-
esses and objects of,
102
yarns. Table of length
for, 2
yarns. Table of weight
for, 2
Counter faller, 208
Countershafts, 347
Effect of, on speed, 351
Rules to find diameter
of, 348
Counts, 1
Average, 45
Constants for equivalent
cotton, 27
Denier and dram equiva-
lent, 23
Equivalent, 26
of card clothing, English,
132
of cloth, 48
of cloth. Average, 58
of cloth. Rule to find
average, 67
of cotton yarn. Methods
of finding, 16
of filling, 61
of filling. Rule to find
average, 68
INDEX
ISL
Counts of filling to preserve
weight of cloth, Rule
to find, 67
of filling to preserve
yards per pound. Rule
to find, 61
of warp yarn, 58
of yarn on a beam. Rule
to find, 43
of yarn to be folded with
another to produce a
given count. Rule to
find, 37
on mule, Changing, 214
Rule to find average, 45
Rule to find, when weight
and length are given, 1
Short methods of finding
equivalent, 27
Cover on cloth, 258
Covering of top rolls, 142
Cradle gauge, 168
Crossed belt, Rule to find
length of, 356
Crow twill. Filling-flush,
312
twill. Warp-flush, 312
Crown of card clothing, 128
of card tooth, 126
Cubic measure, 338
Curved twills, 314
Cushion-plate settings,
Comber, 168
Cut mark, 323
system of numbering
woolen yarns, 24
Weight of, 60
Cutting, 322
Filling, 262
picks, 329
Cycles of mangle gear.
Rule to find, 365
Cylinder, 344
and doffer, Clothing, 132
5ule to find surface area
of, 344
Rule to find volume of,
345
Timing dobby, 267
Cylinders, Setting and
timing comber, 170
D
Dead roll, 137
weighting, 148
Delivery rolls, 73
Denier, 17
and dram equivalent
counts, 23
of raw silk yarns, Rule
to find, 21
system, Average yards
per pound, 20 _
-system conversion table,
19
system of numbering silk
yarns, 17
Dent, 51
Dents per inch in reed>
Rule to find, 55
Derivatives, Satin, 319
Design, Elements of tex-
tile, 302
Designing, Cotton, 302
Diameter, 342
Diameters of shafts. Rules
to find, 348
of English and American
standard wire, 127
Diametral pitch, 364
Diamond weaves, 316
Dimensions of fly frames,
189
of ring spinning frames,
196
of twisters, 226
Distance between bearings.
Table of, 349
between hangers, 349
Dividend, Constant, 363
Dividends for numbering
cotton yarn and roving,.
Table of, 16
Dobbies, 262
Double-index, 264
Double-lift, 264
Single-index, 264
Single-lift, 264
Dobby cylinder, Timing,
267
knives, Adiusting, 266
Timing a, 265
Doff^er bonnet, 125
Clothing cylinder and, 132
INDEX
Dofifer, Speed of, 135
Double-boss rolls, 142
filling-fork arrangement,
285
-index dobbies, 264
-lift dobbies, 264
-nip comber, 163
satins, 318
-section pickers, 109
-threaded worms, 364
Doubling, 72, 90
Draft, Angled, 308
Break, 80
calculations, 71
Center, 307
Chain, 264
constant. Rule to find, 88
Drawing-in, 50, 303
gear, 183
gear on mule, Rule to
find, 214
gear. Rule to find, 87, 89,
184
gears, 86
Harness, 304
Irregular point, 307
Methods of finding, 74
of card, 135
of intermediate and fin-
isher pickers, 116
of metallic rolls. Allow-
ances made in calculat-
ing production and, 83
of metallic rolls. Increase
in, 86
Point, 307
Rule to find, 78, 87, 88, 89,
91
section, 309
Skip, 308
Straight, 306
Drafting, 71
Objects of, 71
with common rolls, 72
Drafts, Chain, 304
Irregular reed, 62
Resular point, 307
Satin, 308
Standard types of draw-
ing-in, 306
Dram system of numbering
silk yarns, 21
Draw of mule, 207
Drawing frames, 150
frames, Gearing of, 153
frames, Management ofl
155
frames, Production of
154
-in draft, SO, 303
-in drafts. Standard type^]
of, 306 \
-roll settings for Ameri'
can cotton, 147
rolls, 142
rolls. Setting of, 145
Draws in a cop, Rule tc|
find number of, 217
Driven and driving pul
leys. Rules for finding
diameters and revolu
tions of, 350
gear. Rule to find speec
of. 361
gears. Driving and, 77
Dry measure, 336
twisters, 219
Dual function of straddl
bug, 285
Duck, Weight of cotton, 4!
Early picking, 259
Eccentricity of lay, 249
Egyptian cotton. Brown, 9!
Elements of textile design
302
English counts of care
clothing, 132
method of numbering
card clothing, 131
Ends, 48
in cloth. Rule to find, 5;
in pattern. Rule to find
47
in warp, 60
of each color, counts, oi
material, in warp. Rule
to find number of, 61
on a beam. Rule to find
43
Selvage, 52
Entwining twill. Fancy
314
INDEX
Entwining twills, 313
;qually-flush weaves, 310
equivalent cotton counts,
Constants for, 27
counts, 26
counts, Denier and dram,
23
counts. Short methods of
finding, 27
Ivener motion, 110
^xtra-filling spot weaves,
328
-warp fabrics. Harness
and chain drafts for,
327
-warp spot weaves, 325
F
'actor. Constant, 362
""ancy basket weaves, 320
entwining twill, 314
filling patterns, 65
twills, 313
warp patterns, 61
warps, 46
"astenings. Belt, 353
"eed-roll, Setting and tim-
ing, 170
-roll setting, Coinber, 168
-rolls, 72
"eeder. Automatic, 106
^eeler filling-changing de-
vice, 283
filling-changing mecha-
nism, Setting of, 289
Shuttle, 277
Feet of lum^ber. Rules to
find, 347
Figuring particulars from
cloth samples, 57
Fillet, 128
Filleting, 128
Rule to find length of, 133
Filling, 46
-changing device. Feeler,
283
-changing mechanism, 273
-changing mechanism. Ad-
justment of, 287
-changing mechanism.
Setting of feeler, 289
Filling corkscrew weaves,
321
Counts of, 61
cutting, 262
-flush Albert twill, 312
-flush broken crow weave,
312
-flush crow twill, 312
-flush prunelle twill, 312
-flush satin weaves, 317
-flush weaves, 310
-fork arrangement,
Double, 285
Kinky, 262
Knocking off, 261
motion, 280
patterns, Fancy, 65
-rib weaves, 321
Rule to find average
counts of, 68
Rule to find weight of, 56
spinning frames. Produc-
tion of, 204
-spot weaves, 324
stop-motion. Timing the,
260
Wadding, 328
Weight of, 56
yarn, 46
yarn, Calculations for, 54
yarn. Rule to find hanks
of, 70
yarn. Rule to find weight
of, 70
yarn. Travelers for, 194
Finger gauge, 168
Finisher pickers. Draft of
intermediate and, 116
pickers, Intermediate and,
110
Fixing Northrop looms, 287
Flat strippings, 124
Flats, Clothing, 132
Speed of, 135
Floor space for cotton mill
machinery. Table of
machines and, 300
Fluid measure. Apotheca-
ries', 336
Fly-frame bobbins, Rule to
•find speed of. 181
frame calculations, 178
INDEX
Fly-frame change gears, 183
frame, Rule to find pro-
duction of, 185
frames, 175
frames. Dimensions of,
189
frames. Production of,
186
frames, Rule to find con-
stant for twist on, 181
frames, Speed of, 188
frames, Standard sizes
of, 189
frames, Twist constants
for, 188
Flying, Shuttles, 261
Folded yarns of different
counts, 37
yarns of the same counts.
35
Frames, Fly, 175
Drawing, 150
Front knife plate, 125
rolls, 73
Frustum of pramid or cone,
Rule to find volume of,
346
G
Gauge box, 109
Brush, 168
Comber, 168
Cradle, 168
Finger, 168
of spinning frames, 197
Quadrant, 168
Step, 168
Gear blank. Rule to find
diameter of, 364
Change, 362
Draft, 183
Lay, 183
Rule to find take-up
change, 251
Taper, 183
Tension. 183
Traverse, 183
Twist, 183
Gearing, 361
of drawing frames, 153
of measuring motion, 114
of rolls, 75
Gears, Draft, 86
Driving and driven, 77
Mangle, 365
Grades of American cotton,
98
Gravity spindle, 195
Grinder, Traverse, 138
Grinding, 137
rolls, 137
Ground weave, 325
Gulf, or New Orleans, cot-
ton, 94
Gum, 22
H
Hangers, Distance be-
tween, 349
Hank, 1
of roving. Rule to find,
91
of roving. Rule to find
average, 185
Hanks of filling yarn.
Rule to find, 70
of warp yarn. Rule to
find. 70
per spindle on ring
frames. Rule to find,
202
Harness calculations, 50
cams, Rule to find throw
of, 247
chains. Pegging, 264
and chain drafts for ex-
tra-warp fabrics, 327
draft, 304
Rule to find number of
heddles on, 50
Harnesses, 48
Head shaft, 347
Headstock, Mule, 205
Heddles on a harness. Rule
to find number of, 50
Hemp yarns, System of
numbering, 25
Heptagon, 342
Herring-bone stripes, 314
Hexagon, 342
Honeycomb weaves, 322
Hopper, 278
Horsepower of belt. Rule
to find, 357
INDEX
Horsepower of mules, 218
transmitted by belts, 357
transmitted by ropes,
Rule to find, 359
Inside taper, 132
Intermediate and finisher
pickers, 110
and finisher pickers.
Draft of, 116
Irregular basket weaves,
320
point draft, 307
reed drafts, 62
J
Jute yarns. System of num-
bering, 25
K
Kinky filling, 262
Knee of card tooth, 126
Knife plate. Back, 123
plate. Front, 125
Knive^ Adjusting dobby,
266
Mote, 122
Knocking off filling, 261
li
Lap, 108
Lappet fabrics. Contrac-
tion in leno and, 64
Laps, Weight of, 119
Late picking, 259
Lay, Eccentricity of, 249
gear, 183
gear. Rule to find, 185
Leather detaching roll.
Setting and timing, 170
Left-hand twist, 28
Length of belts, 356
of open belt. Rule to
find, 356
of staple, lOO
of warp. Rule to find, 44
of warp that can be
placed on a beam. Rule
to find, 44
of yarn, Rule to find,
when weight and counts
are known, 2
Lengths of yarns. Stand-
ard, 24
Leno and lappet fabrics.
Contraction in, 64
Let-off motions, 245
Leveling the boxes, 272
Lever, Rule to find weights
supported by, 367
weighting, 148
Levers, 366
Licker bonnet, 122
screen, 122
Speed of, 135
Licking, 119
Line, Pitch, 363
shafts, 347
shafts, Rules to find
diameter of, 348
Linear measure, 336
Linen yarns. System of
numbering, 24
Liquid measure, 335
Little Falls system cf
numbering woolen
yarns, 25
Long measure, 336
Loom beams, 42
calculations, 250
production, Constants for
finding, 253
Rule to find production
of, 252
The Northrop, 273
Looms, Automatic, 273
Box, 267
Cam, 256
Plain, 245
Short method of finding
production of, 253
Loose-boss rolls, 142
Lug strap, Adjusting the,
259
Lumber, Mensuration of,
347
Rules to find feet of, 347
M
Machines and floor space
for cotton mill ma-
chinery. Table of, 300
Main shaft. Rules to find
diameter of, 348
INDEX
Management of cards, 141
of drawing frames, 155
Mangle gear, Rule to find
cycles of, 365
gears, 365
Mayo twill, 313
Measure, Angular, 338
Apothecaries' fluid, 336
Cloth, 337
Cubic, 338 .
Dry, 336
Linear, or long, 336
Liquid, 335
Square, 337
Surveyor's, 337
Measuring motion, 112
motion, Gearing of, 114
Measurements of cotton
fiber, 93
Measures, Miscellaneous,
339
of time, 338
Weights and, 334
Mechanical calculations,
347
Mechanism, Filling-chang-
ing, 273
Memphis cotton, 95
Mensuration, 339
of lumber, 347
Metallic rolls, 82, 144
rolls, Advantages of, 145
rolls. Allowances made
in calculating produc-
tion and draft of, 83
rolls. Increase in draft
of, 86
rolls. Weighting of
single-boss, 149
Metric system of yarn
numbering, 25
system, Rule to convert
standard counts to, 26
system. Rule to convert,
to standard counts, 26
Mixes, Calculation of col-
ored, 117
Mixing, Cotton, 103
Mixings, Size, 243
Money, Table of United
States, 334
Mote knives, 122
Motion, Adjusting the pro-
tector, 260
Evener, 110
Filling, 280
Measuring, 112
Parallel, 248
Timing the picking, 259
Motions, Let-off, 245
Selvage, 256
Take-up, 245
Timing of box, 272
Mule carriage, 205
Draw of, 207
headstock, 205
Rule to find twist on, 208
spinning, 205
Stretch of, 207
Mules, Horsepower of, 218
Production of, 215
N
Needle-ground wire, 127
New Hampshire system of
numbering woolen
yarns, 25
New Orleans cotton, Gulf,
or, 94
Nippers, Setting and tim-
ing, 171
Nogg, 128
Northrop loom, 273
looms. Fixing, 287
looms, _ Shuttle for, 278
Numbering ply yarns, 35
Numbers, Average, 45
O
Octagon, 342
Off color of cotton, 100
Oklahoma cotton, 95
Open-set clothing, 131
Opener, 107
Organization of cotton mill,
294
Organize, 17
Parallel motion, 248
Parallelogram, Rule to find
area of, 341
Pattern of warp, 47
Rule to find ends in, 47
INDEX
XV
Patterns, Fancy filling, 65
Fancy warp, 61
Peelers cotton, 95
Pegging harness chains, 264
plan, 305
Pentagon, 342
Percentage of comber
waste, 174
of size, 54
Perimeter, 342
Pick, Bat-wing, 248
Cone, 248
Shoe, 248
Sley and, 57
Picker, Breaker, 108
Pickers, Care of, 119
Draft of intermediate and
finisher, 116
Double section, 109
Intermediate and fin-
isher, 110
Single section, 109
Starting, 260
Picking, 245, 247
Early, 259
Late, 259
motion. Timing the, 259
Picks, 48
Cutting, 329
Pique weaves, 328
Piques and Bedford cords,
328 ^
Pitch circle, 363
Circular, 363
Diametra,], 364
line, 363
Plain looms, 245
selvage motion, 256
-set cJothing, 131
weave, 302
Plan, Pegging, 305
Planning, Cotton-mill, 294
Plow-ground wire, 127
Ply-yarn calculations, 35
yarns, 35
yarns composed of more
than two threads, Z7
yarns, Cost of, 40
yarns, Numbering, 35
yarns of different counts,
Z7
Ply yarns of different ma-
terials, 41
yarns of spun silk, 40
yarns of the same counts,
35
yarns, Rule to find cost
of, 40
Point draft, 307
draft. Irregular, 307
drafts. Regular, 307
Pointed twills, 314
Points per square foot in
rib-set clothing, 130
per square foot in twill-
set clothing, 131
Polygon, Rule to find area
of regular, 342
Position and care of
shuttle, 288
of warp line, 258
Prism, Rule to find sur-
face area of, 343
Rule to find volume of,
344
Processes and objects of
cotton yarn preparation,
102
Production, Card, 136
Loom, 254
of beam warpers, 233
of drawing frames, 154
of filling spinning frames,
204
of fly frame. Rule to
' find, 185
of fly frames, 186
of loom. Rule to find, 252
of looms, Short method
of finding, 253
of mule. Rule to find, 212
of mules, 215
of ribbon-laix machine,
160
of single-nip comber, 165
of slashers, 240
of sliyer-lap machine, 158
of spinning frames, Rule
to find, 203
of spoolers, 229
of twisters, 224
of twisters. Rule to find,
223
INDEX
Production of warp spin-
ning frames, 203
Table of loom, 254
Protector motion, Adjust-
ing the, 260
Prunelle twill, 310
twill. Filling-flush, 312
twill. Warp-flush, 312
Pyramid or cone, Rule to
find volume, 345
or cone. Rule to find
volume of frustum of,
346
Pulleys, Driven and driv-
ing, 350
Quadrant gauge, 168
Quadrilaterals, 340
Quarter-turn belts, 354
R
Raw-silk yarns, Rule to
find denier, yards, or
weight of, 21
-silk yarns. System of
numbering, 17
Recipe for top-roll varnish,
144
Rectangle, 340
Reed, 48, 60
drafts, Irregular, 62
Rule to find dents per
inch in, 55
Sley of, 51
Width at, 54
Width in, 60
Reeds, 51
Reel. Wrap, 4
Regular point drafts, 307
twills, 310
twills. Rule for making,
310
twist, 28
Regulating the shed, 258
Repeat of weave, 303
Representation of weave,
303
Resultant counts of three
or more sinele yarns,
Rule to find, 38
Resultant counts when
more than one end of
the different counts are
folded, Rule to find, 38
counts when two yarns
of different numbers
are folded. Rule to find,
39
Revolving-top flat card, 120
Rhomboid, 340
Rhombus, 340
Rib-set clothing, 128
-set clothing, Points per
square foot in, 130
Rib weaves, 320
Ribbon-lap machine, 156
-lap machine. Production
of, 160
Ribs, 51
Right-hand twist, 28
Rim pulley on mule, Rule
to find diameter of, 210
Ring frames, Allowances
on calculated produc-
tion of, 202
frames. Calculations for,
198
frames. Rule _ to find
hanks per spindle on,
202
spinning, 190
spinning frames, Dimen-
sions of, 196
twister, 219
Roll, Dead, 137,
Setting and timing
leather detaching, 170
Setting steel detaching,
170
Rolls, Advantages of me-
tallic, 145
Back, or feed, 72
Calculating draft of com-
mon, 78
Common, 142
Covering of top, 142
Delivery, or front, 7Z
Double-boss, 142
Drafting with common, 72
Drawing, 142
Gearing of, 75
Grinding, 137
INDEX
Rolls, Loose-boss, 142
Metallic, 82, 144
Scouring, 149
Setting of drawing, 145
Shell, 142
Single-boss, 142
Solid-boss, 142
Varnishing of top, 144
Weighting of single-boss,
149
Weighting of top, 147
Rope transmission, 358
Ropes, Rule to find horse-
power transmitted by,
359
Roving, 2
Rule to find average
hank of, 185
Rule to find hank of, 91
Rule to find twist in,- 180
Size of, 12
Sizing, 188
Sizing yarn and, 2
Table of dividends for
numbering cotton yarn
and, 16
Rule for finding cam-shaft
gears on looms, 256
for making regular twills,
310
to convert metric system
counts to standard sys-
tem, 26
to convert silk yarns
numbered by denier
system to equivalent
counts in dram system,
23
to convert silk yarns
numbered by dram sys-
tem to denier system,
23
to convert standard-sys-
tem counts to metric
system, 26
to estimate warp con-
traction, 69
to find area of circle, 343
to find area of parallelo-
gram, 341
to find area of regular
polygon, 342
Rule to find area of trape-
zium, 341
to find area of trapezoid,
341
to find average counts, 45
to find average counts of
cloth, 58, 67
to find average counts of
filling, 68
to find average hank of
roving, 185
to find average number
of yarn being spun, 205
to find builder gear on
mule, 216
to find circumference of
circle, 343
to find constant for
builder change gear on.
mule, 217
to find constant for twist
on fly frames, 181
to find constant for twist
on mule, 209
to find constant for twist
on ring frames, 200
to find constant of gear-
ing, 363
to find constant of take-
up motion, 252
to find cost of ply yarns,
40
to find counts of filling
to preserve weight of
cloth, 67
to find counts of filling
to preserve yards per
pound, 61
to find cpunts of one
system equivalent to
that of another, 26
to find counts of yarn on
a beam, 43
to find counts of yarn to
be folded with another
to produce a given
count, 39
to find counts when
weight and length are
given, 1
to find cycles of mangle
gear, 365
INDEX
Rule to find diameter of
countershafts, 348
to find diameter of driven
pulley, 350
to find diameter of driv-
ing pulley, 350
to find diameter of gear
blank, 364
to find diameter of line
shafts, 348
to find diameter of main
shaft, 348
to find diameter of rim
pulley on mule, 210
to find denier of raw-silk
yarns, 21
to find dents per inch in
reed, 55
to find draft, 78, 87, 88,
89, 91
to find draft constant, 88
to find draft gear, 87, 89,
184
to find draft gear on
mule, 214
to find dramage of thrown
silk yarns, 22
to find ends in cloth, 53
to find ends in pattern,
47
to find ends on a beam, 43
to find feet of lumber,
347
to find hank of roving, 91
to find hanks of filling
yarn, 70
to find hanks of warp
yarn, 70
to find hanks per spindle
on ring frames, 202
to find horsepower of
belt, 357
to find horsepower trans-
mitted by ropes, 359
to find lay gear, 185
to find length of crossed
belt, 356
to find length of filleting,
133
to find length of one side
of square equal in area
to given circle, 343
Rule to find length of open
belt, 356
to find length of warp, 44
to find length of warp
that can be placed on a
beam, 44
to find length of yarn
when weight and counts
are known, 2
to find number of draws
in a cop, 217
to find number of ends of
each color, counts, or
material in warp, 61
to find number of heddles
on a harness, 50
to find _ number of sec-
tions in a cotton mix-
ing, 104 _
to find points per square
foot in card clothing,
129
to find production of fly
frame, 185
to find production of
loom, 252
to find production of
mule, 212
to find production of
spinning frames, 203
to find production of
twisters, 223
to find required width of
belt. 357
to find resultant counts
of three or more single
yarns, 38
to find resultant counts
when more than one
end of the different
counts are folded, 38
to find resultant counts
when two yarns of dif-
ferent numbers are
folded, 37
to find revolutions of
driven pulley, 350
to find revolutions of
driving pulley, 350
to find speed gear on
mule, 210
INDEX
iule to find speed of
driven gear, 361
to find speed of driven
pulley, 351
to find speed of fly-frame
bobbins, 181
to find speed of traveler,
199
to find speed of worm-
gear, 364
to find standard breaking
weight of carded warp
yarns, 34
to find standard breaking
weight of combed warp
yarns, 35
to find surface area of
cylinder, 344
to find surface area of
prism, 343
to find surface area of
sphere, 346
to find surface velocity
of pulley, 351
to find take-up change
gear, 251
to find teeth on gear, 364
to find tension gear, 184
to find throw of harness
cams, 247
to find traverse gear of
spooler, 229
to find traverse of
spoolers, 230
to find twist gear, 184
to find twist gear ^n
ring frames, 200
to find twist in roving,
180
to find twist on mule, 208
to find twist on ring
frames, 20O
to find twist on spinning
frame, 199
to find twist to be in-
serted in yarns, 28
to find volume of cone or
pyramid, 345
to find volume of cylin-
der, 345
to find volume of frustum
of pyramid or cone, 346
Rule to find volume of
prism, 344
to find volume of sphere,
346
to find weight of cloth, 56
to find weight of cloth in
ounces per yard, 56
to find weight of filling,
56
to find weight of filling
yarn, 70
to find weight of raw-
silk yarns, 21
to find weight of single
yarns in ply yarn, 39
to find weight of sliver,
91
to find weight of thrown-
silk yarns, 22
to find weight of warp
yarn, 70
to find weight of warp
yarn per cut, 53
to find weigTit of yarn on
a beam, 44
to find weight of yarn
when length and counts
are known, 2
to find weight supported
by lever, 367
to find width of warp in
reed, 55
to find yards per pound
of cloth, 56, 57
to find yards per pound
of raw-silk yarns, 21
to find yards per pound
of thrown-silk yarns, 22
Rules for cloth calcula-
tions, Short, 67
to find area of triangle,
340
Run system of numbering
woolen yarns, 24
Samples, Figuring particu-
lars from cloth, 57
Satin and miscellaneous
weaves, 317
derivatives, 319
drafts, 308
INDEX
Satin weaves. Filling-flush,
317
weaves, Warp-flush, 317
Satins, Double, 318
Five-, 6-, 7-, 8-, 9-, 10-,
11-, and 12-end, 318
Schappe silk yarns, 23
Scouring rolls, 149
Screen, Licker, 122
Sea-island cotton, 94
Section draft, 309
Self weighting, 147
Selvage cams, Setting, 257
ends, 52
motion, Plain, 256
motion, Tape, 257
motions, 256
Sericin, 22
Setting and timing comber
cylinders, 170
and timing feed-roll, 170
and timing leather de-
taching roll, 170
and timing nippers, 171
and timing Whitin high-
speed comber, 169
cams on more than 2-
harness work, 256
cards, 138
Comber feed- roll, 168
of combers, 167
of drawing rolls, 145
of feeler filling-changing
mechanism, 289
selvage cams, 257
steel detaching roll, 170
top combs, 171
Settings, Comber, 167
Comber cushion-plate, 168
Spooler, 228
Shafts and shafting, 347
Shed, 48, 245
Regulating the, 258
Shedding by cams, 245
Timing the, 258
Shell rolls, 142
Shoe pick, 248
Short methods of finding
equivalent counts, 27
rule to find weight of
single yarns in ply
yarn, 40
Short rules for cloth calcu-
lations, 67
Shuttle feeler, 277
-feeler thread cutter, 284
-feeler thread cutter. Ad-
justing, 290
for Northrop looms, 278
Position and care of, 288
Shuttles flying, 261
Side-ground wire, 127
Silk, Artificial, 23
Cellulose, 23
Ply yarns of spun, 40
yarns, 17
yarns, Denier system of
numbering, 17
yarns. Dram system of
numbering, 21
yarns, Schappe, 23
yarns. Sizing raw, 17
yarns. Spun, 17
yarns, System of num-
bering raw, 17
yarns. Thrown, 17
Single-boss rolls, 142
-end stripes, 323
-index dobbies, 264
-lift dobbies, 264
-nip comber, 161
-nip comber, Production
of, 165
-section pickers, 109
-threaded worms, 364
yarns, 1
Size, 240
Allowance for, 54
mixings, 243
of roving, 12
Percentage of, 54
Sizes of bobbins, 195
of spools, 227
of travelers, 192
Sizing, 3
materials, Weight of, 243
raw silk yarns, 17
roving, 188
test. Compound-, 19
yarn and roving, 2
Skein, 3
Skip drafts, 308
twills, 314
Slasher, 234
INDEX
Slasher cloth, 236 ^
Slashers, Calculations for,
237
Production of, 240
Slashing, 234
Objects of, 234
Sley, 48
and pick, 57
of reed, 51
Sliver-lap machine, 156
-lap machine, Production
of, 158
Rule to find weight of, 91
Slivers, Weights of cotton-
card, 137
Slubber, 175
Solid-boss rolls, 142
Specific gravity of cotton,
93
Speed calculations for cot-
ton cards, 133
Effect of countershafts
on, 351
gear on mule. Rule to
find, 210
of doffer, 135
of driven gear, Rule to
find, 361
of flats, 135
of fly-frame bobbins,
Rule to find, 181
of fly frames, 188
of licker, 135
of pulleys. Circumferen-
tial, 351
of traveler. Rule to find,
199
of worm-gear. Rule to
find, 364
Sphere, Rule to find sur-
face area and volume
of, 346
Spindle, Gravity, 195
spring, 262
Spindles, 195
Spinnerets, 24
Spinning frame, Rule to
find twist on, 199
frames. Gauge of, 197
frames, Rule to find pro-
duction of, 203
Mule, 205
Spinning, Ring, 190
Splitting, 119
Spooler, Rule to find tra-
verse gear of, 229
settings, 228 _ .
Spoolers, Production of,
229
Rule to find traverse of,
230
Spooling, 226
Spools, Sizes of, 227
Spot weaves, 324
weaves. Extra-filling, 328
weaves. Extra-warp, 325
Square, 340
equal in area to given
circle, Rule to find
length of one side of,
343
measure, 337
Spring, Spindle, 262
Spun silk. Ply yarns of,
40
silk yarns, 17
Standard lengths of yarns,
.24
sizes of fly frames, 189
twills, 312
types of drawing-in
drafts, 306
Staple, 100
Length of, 100
Strength of, 100
Starting pickers, 360
Steel detaching roll. Set-
ting, 170
-harness warp stop-mo-
tion. Care of, 291
gauge, 168
Stop-motioii, Timing the
filling, 260
-motions. Automatic, 245
-motions, Warp, 286
Straddle bug. Dual func-
tion of, 285
Straight draft, 306
Strength of cotton fiber,
93
of staple, 100
Stretch of mule, 207
Stripe weaves, 322
Stripes, Herring-bone, 314
INDEX
Stripes, Single-end, 323
Stripping, 137
Strippings, Flat, 124
Structure of cotton fiber, 92
Surveyor's measure, 337
T
Table, Cotton-roving num-
bering, 13
Cotton-yarn numbering, 5
Denier system conver-
sion, 19
of allowances on calcu-
lated production of
ring frames, 202
of angular measure, 338
of apothecaries' fluid
measure, 336
of apothecaries' weight,
335
of avoirdupois weight, 334
of cloth measure, 337
of comber settiiigs, 167
of comber timings, 169
of constants for finding
loom production, 253
of cotton characteristics,
96
of cubic measure, 338
of dimensions of ring
spinning frames, 196
of dimensions of twist-
ers, 226
of distance between bear-
ings, 349
of dividends for number-
ing cotton yarn and
roving, 16
of dry measure, 336
of fluid measure, 336
of length for cotton
yarns, 2
of linear measure, 336
of liquid measure, 335
of long measure, 336
of loom production, 254
of machines and floor
space for cotton mill
machinery, 300
of measures of time, 338
of miscellaneous mea-
sures, 339
Table of production of
beam warpers, 223
of production of drawing
frames, 154
of production of filling
spinning frames, 204
of production of fly
frames, 186
of production of mules,
215
of production of ribbon-
lap machine, 160
of production of single-
nip comber, 165
of production of sliver-
lap machine, 158
of production of spoolers,
229
of production of twisters,
224
of production of warp
spinning frames, 203
of sizes of bobbins, 195
of sizes of spools, 227
of sizes of travelers, 192
of square measure, 337
of standard sizes of fly
frames, 189
of surveyor's measure,
337
of travelers for filling
yarn, 194
of travelers for warp
yarn, 193
of troy weight, 335
of twist constants for fly
frames, 188
of United States money,
334
of weight for cotton
yarns, 2
of weights of cotton card
slivers, 137
of weight of sizing ma-
terials, 243
Twist, 29
Tail-ends, 132
Take-up change gear. Rule
to find, 251
-up motion, Rule to find
constant of, 252
-up motions, 245-
INDEX
Tape selvage motion, 257
Taper gear, 183 '
Inside, 132
Teeth on gear, Rule to
find number of, 364
Temples, 245
Tension gear, 183
gear, Rule to find, 184
Tester; Yarn, 33
Texas cotton, 95
Textile design, Elements
of 302
Thin places in cloth, 261
Thread cutter, Adjusting
shuttle-feeler, 290
cutter. Shuttle-feeler, 284
Three-harness twill, 310
Thrown-silk yarns, 17
-silk yarns, Rule to find
dramage of, 22
-silk yarns, Rule to find
weight of, 22
Time, Measures of, 338
Timing a dobby, 265
comber cams, 170
dobby cylinder, 267
of box motions, 272
of combers, 168
the filling stop-motion,
260
the picking motion, 259
the shedding, 258
Timings, Comber, 169
Tinges, 100
Top combs. Setting, 171
-ground wire, 127
-roll varnish. Recipe for,
144
rolls, Covering of, 142
rolls, Weighting of, 147
Tops 128
Tram, 17
Transmission, Rope, 358
Trapezium, Rule to find
area of. 341
Trapezoid, Rule to find
area of, 341
Traveler, Rule to find
speed of, 199
Travelers, 193
for filling yarn, 194
for warp yarn, 193
Travelers, Sizes of, 192
Traverse gear, 183
gear of spooler, Rule to
find,, 229
grinder, 138
of spoolers, Rule to find,
230
Triangle, Rules to find
area of, 340
Troy weight, 335
Twill angle, Method of
finding, 311
Campbell, 313
Cassimere, 312
Fancy entwining, 314
Mayo, 313
Prunelle, 310
-set clothing. Points per
square foot in, 131
Three-harness, 310
Venetian, 313
Twilled basket weaves, 320
clothing, 128
weaves, 309
Twills, Angle of, 310
Corkscrew, 321
Curved, 314
Entwining, 313
Fancy, 313
Pointed, 314
Regular, 310
Skip, 314
Standard, 312
Twist, 188
constants, 28
constants for fly frames,
188
gear, 183
gear on ring frames.
Rule to find, 200
gear. Rule to find, 184
in roving. Rule to find,
_ 180
in yarns, 28
Left-hand, 28
on mule, Rule to find, 208
on mule. Rule to find
constant for, 209
on ring frames, Rule to
find. 200
on ring frames. Rule to
find constant for, 200
INDEX
Twist on spinning frame,
Rule to find, 199
Regular, 28
Right-hand, 28
table, 29
to be inserted in yarns,
Rule to find, 28
Twister, Ring, 219
Twisters, Calculations for,
219
Dimensions of, 226
Dry, 219
Production of, 224
Rule to find production
of, 223
Wet, 219
Twisting, 219
Types of drawing-in drafts,
Standard, 306
U
United States money.
Table of, 334
Uplands cotton, 95
V
Varnishing of top rolls. 144
Velocity of pulley. Rule
to find surface, 351
Venetian twill, 313
Viscose, 24
W
Wadding filling, 328
Warp, 46
contraction, 53
contraction. Rule to es-
timate, 69
corkscrew weaves, 321
Ends in, 60
-flush Albert twill, 312
-flush broken crow
weave, 313
-flush crow twill, 312
-flush prunelle twill, 312
-flush satin weaves, 317
-flush weaves, 310
in reed. Rule to find
width of, 55
line, Position of, 258
Pattern of, 47
patterns. Fancy, 61
preparation, 226
Warp-rib weave, 320
Rule to find length of, 44
spinning frames, Produc-
tion of, 203
-spot weaves, 324
stop-motion, Care of cot-
ton-harness, 290
stop-motion, Care of
steel-harness, 291
stop-motions, 286
stop-motions, General
care of, 292
that can be placed on a
beam, Rule to find
length of, 44
yarn, 46
yarn, Breaking weight
of cotton, diZ
yarn, Calculations for, 52
yarn, Counts of, 58
yarn per cut. Rule to
find weight of, 53
yarn, Rule to find hanks
of, 70
yarn. Rule to find weight
of, 70
yarn. Travelers for, 193
yarn. Weight of, 60
yarns. Average breaking
weight of American cot-
ton, 34
Warper, 230
Warping, Beam, 230
Warps, Fancy, 46
Waste, Card, 136
Comber, 173
Weave, Ground, 325
Plain, 302
Repeat of, 303
Representation of, 303
Weaves, Basket, 319
Bedford cord, 332
Check, m
Combination, 322
Corkscrew, 321
Diamond, 316
Equally-flush, 310
Filling-corkscrew, 321
Filling-flush, 310
Filling-rib, Z2l
Filling-spot, 324
Honeycomb, 322
INDEX
Weaves, Pique, 328
Rib, 320
Satin and miscellaneous,
317
Spot, 324
Stripe, 322
Twilled, 309
Warp-corkscrew, 321
Warp-flush, 310
Warp-rib, 320
Warp-spot, 324
Weaving, Cotton, 245
Weight and horsepower of
cards, 136
Apothecaries', 335
Avoirdupois, 334
of cloth, 56
of cloth, Rule to find, 56
of cloth, Rule to find
counts of filling to pre-
serve, 67
of cotton cloth, 48
of cotton duck, 49
of cut, 60
of filling, Rule to find, 56
of filling yarn, Rule to
find, 70
of laps, 119
of single yarns in ply
yarn, Rule to find, 39,
40 _
of sizing materials, 243
of sliver. Rule to find, 91
of warp yarn, 60
of warp yarn per cut.
Rule to find, 53
of warp yarn, Rule to
find, 70
of woolen cloth, 49
of worsted cloth, 49
of yarn on a beam. Rule
to find, 44
of yarn. Rule to find,
when length and counts
are known, 2
supported by lever. Rule
to find, 367
Troy, 335
Weighting of single-boss
common rolls, 149
of single-boss metallic
rolls, 149
Weighting of top rolls, 147
Weights and measures, 334
of cotton card slivers, 137
Wet twisters, 219
Whitin high-speed comber.
Setting and timing, 169
Width at reed, 54
in reed, 60
of belt. Rule to find re-
quired, 357
of cloth, 57
of warp in reed, Rule to
find, 55
Winding faller, 208
Wire, Diameters of Eng-
lish and American
standard, 127
Needle-ground, 127
Plow-ground, 127
Side-ground, 127
Top-ground, 127
Woolen cloth. Weight of,
49
yarns, Amsterdam sys-
tem of numbering, 25
yarns, Cohoes system of
numbering, -25
yarns, Cut system of
numbering, 24
yarns. Little Falls sys-
tem of numbering, 25
yarns, New Hampshire
system of numbering,
25
yarns, Run system of
numbering, 24
World's production of cot-
ton, 101
Worm-gear, Rule to find
speed of, 364
Worms and worm-gears,
364
Worsted cloth. Weight of,
49
Wrap reel, 4
Yards per pound of cloth,
Rule to find, 56, 57
per pound of raw-silk
yarns. Rule to find, 21
INDEX
Yards per pound of thrown-
silk yarns. Rule to find,
22
per pound, Rule to find
counts of filling to pre-
serve, 61
Yarn, 2
and roving, Sizing, 2
and roving. Table of
dividends for number-
ing cotton, 16
being spun. Rule to find
average number of, 205
Breaking weight of cot-
ton warp, 33
calculations, 1
Calculations for filling, 54
Calculations for warp, 52
Counts' of warp, 58
Filling, 46
Methods of finding counts
of cotton, 16
numbering, ■ Metric sys-
tem of, 25
-numbering systems, 24
on a beam, Rule to find
counts of, 43
on a beam, Rule to find
weight of, 44
tester, 33
Warp. 46
Weight of warp, 60
Yarns, Amsterdam system
of numbering woolen, 25
Average breaking weight
of American cotton
warp, 34
Beamed, 42
Cabled, 219
Cohoes system of num-
bering woolen, 25
composed of more than
two threads. Ply, 37
Cost of ply, 40
Cut system of number-
ing woolen, 24
Denier system of num-
bering silk, 17
Dram system of number-
ing silk, 21
Little Falls system of
numbering woolen, 25
Yarns, New Hampshire sys-
tem of numbering
woolen, 25
Numbering ply, 35
of different counts.
Folded, 37
of different counts, Ply,
37
of different materials.
Ply, 41
of the same counts.
Folded, 35
of the same counts. Ply,
35
Ply, 35
Rule to find denier of
raw-silk, 21
Rule to find, dramage of
thrown-silk, 22
Rule to find standard
breaking weight of
carded warp, 34
Rule to find standard
breaking weight of
combed warp, 35
Rule to find weight of
raw-silk, 21
Rule to find weight of
thrown-silk, 22
Rule to find yards per
pound of raw-silk, 21
Rule to find yards per
pound of thrown-silk, 22
Run system of number-
ing woolen, 24
Schappe silk, 23
Silk, 17
Single, 1
Sizing raw-silk, 17
Spun-silk, 17
Standard lengths of, 24
System of numbering
hemp, 25
System of numbering
jute, 25
System of numbering
linen, 24
System of numbering
raw-silk. 17
Thrown-silk, l7
Twist in, 28
The
Cotton Textile Worker's
Handbook
YARN CALCULATIONS
SINGLE YARNS
The word counts, when used in connection with yam, refers
to the number, or size, of a yam as determined by the relation
that exists between the length and the weight of a given quan-
tity of that yarn. Thus, in the almost universally-adopted
system of numbering cotton yam, the counts of any given yam
are determined by the number of times that a standard length
of 840 yd., known as a hank, is contained in the number of yards
of that yarn required to weigh 1 lb. The length of the hank,
840 yd., is always constant; for instance, a cotton yarn may be
of fine, medium, or coarse counts, but a hank of that yarn
always contains 840 yd.
The method of numbering is that of calling a yam that con-
tains 1 hank, or 840 yd., in 1 lb. a No. 1 yarn. If the yarn
contains 2 hanks, or 1,680 yd., in 1 lb., it is known as a No. 2
yarn; if it contains 3 hanks, or 2,520 yd., in 1 lb., it is known as
a, No. 3 yarn. Thus the number of hanks that it takes to weigh
1 lb. determines the counts of the yam.
The counts of a yam are generally indicated by placing a
letter 5 after the figure representing the number of the yam.
Thus, 26s shows the counts of a yam and indicates that the
yam contains 26 hanks (26X840 yd.) in 1 lb.
Rule. — To find the counts of a yarn when the length and weight
are given, divide the total length of yarn, expressed in yards,
by the. weight, expressed in pounds, times the standard length.
2 YARN CALCULATIONS
Example. — If 168,000 yd. of yam weighs 5 lb., what are
the counts?
Solution. —
168,000 (length of yarn, in yards)
= 40s, counts
5 (weight, in pounds) X 840 (standard)
Rule. — To find the weight of yarn when the length and counts
are known, divide the length, in yards, by the counts times the
standard length.
Example. — ^What is the weight of 42,000 yd. of liumber 5s
yam?
42,000 (length, in yards)
Solution. = 10 lb.
(5 counts) X 840 (standard)
Rule. — To find the length of yarn when the weight and counts
are known, multiply the weight, in pounds, counts, and standard
length together.
Example. — What is the length of yam contained in a bundle
that weighs 8 lb., the counts of the yam being 26s?
Solution. — 8 (weight, in lb.) X 26 (counts) X 840 (standard)
= 174,720 yd.
In yarn calculations it is frequently of advantage to sub-
divide the standard length of the hank, 840 yd., and the stand-
ard weight of 1 lb. Hence, two tables are used, as follows:
Table of Length
1§ yards (yd.) = 1 thread, or circtimference of wrap reel
120 yards = 80 threads = 1 skein, or lea
840 yards = 560 threads = 7 skeins, or leas = 1 hank
Table of Weight
27.34 grains (gr.) = 1 dram (dr.)
437.5 grains = 16 drams = 1 ounce (oz.)
7,000 grains = 256 drams = 16 ounces = 1 pound (lb.)
SIZING YARN AND ROVING
A. yarn is a thread composed of fibers uniformly disposed
throughout its structure and having a certain amount of twist
for the purpose of enhancing its strength. Roving, however,
although its size is determined in a similar manner to that of
yam, is a term used to designate a loosely-twisted strand of
YARN CALCULATIONS 3
fibers, the latter lying more or less parallel with each other,
in which form the cotton is placed at various processes previous
to the actual spinning of the yam. In order that the yam and
roving may be kept of the correct size, it is generally the custom
to weigh a certain length of the product of each machine, at
least once a day, and by this means ascertain whether the
roving or yam is being kept at the required weight. This
process is known as sizing, and is a matter that should always
be carefully attended to.
From the rules and explanations previously given it will be
plain that if 840 yd. (1 hank) were always the length weighed,
in order to learn the counts of the yam, it would simply be
Fig. 1
necessary to divide the weight, expressed in pounds, into 1 lb.,
or if expressed in grains, into 7,000 (the number of grains in
1 lb.). It will readily be seen that to measure ofi 840 yd. of
yam would not only require considerable time, but would also
produce an unnecessary waste of material. To overcome
these difficulties, when sizing yam, it is customary to measure
off one skein (120 yd.) or one-seventh of 840 yd.; to weigh this
amount; and divide its weight in grains into one-seventh of
7,000, or 1,000. The result obtained in this manner will be the
same as if 840 yd. were taken and the weight, in grains, divided
Into 7,000.
4J
YARN CALCULATIONS
When sizing yarns, a wrap reel is used to measure the yarn.
As its name indicates, this instrument consists of a reel, gen-
erally 1| yd. in circumference. The yam is wound on this reel
and a finger indicates on a disk the number of yards reeled.
Fig. 1 shows an ordinary type of wrap reel, and Fig. 2 shows
yam and roving scales. These scales are suitable for weighing
by tenths of grains.
Example. — 120 yd. of yam is reeled and found to weigh
40 gr.; vihat are the counts?
Solution. — 1,000 ^40= 25s
Fig. 2
The size of cotton roving is determined in a similar manner
and indicated on the same basis as is the size of cotton yarn,
although, when sizing roving, a shorter length is used. It is
customary in this case to measure off one-seventieth of 840 yd.,
or 12 yd., and divide the weight, in grains, of this length of
roving into one-seventieth of 7,000, or 100.
Ex.'^MPLE.- — 12 yd. of roving is found to weigh 20 gr.; what
are the counts?
Solution. — 100 -=- 20 = 5-hank roving
To avoid calculation when sizing yarns, a table showing the
weight by grains and tenths of grains of 120 yd., or 1 skein, of
yam is ordinarily employed. The accompanying cotton-yam
numbering table is a well-arranged and complete table for this
purpose.
YARN CALCULATIONS
COTTON-YARN NUMBERING TABLE
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt,
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
5
200.0
9.1
109.9
13.2
75.8
17.3
57.80
5.1
196.1
9.2
108.7
13.3
75.2
17.4
57.47
5.2
192.3
9.3
107.5
13.4
74.6
17.5
57.14
5.3
188.7
9.4
106.4
13.5
74.1
17.6
56.82
5.4
185.2
9.5
105.3
13.6
73.5
17.7
56..50
5.5
181.8
9.6
104.2
13.7
73.0
17.8
56.18
^ 5.6
178.6
9.7
103.1
13.8
72.5
17.9
55.87
■ 5.7
175.4
9.8
102.0
13.9
71.9
18
55.56
5.8
172.4
9.9
101.0
14
71.4
18.1
55.25
5.9
169.5
10
100.0
14.1
70.9
18.2
54.95
6
166.7
10.1
99.0
14.2
70.4
18.3
54.64
6.1
164.0
10.2
98.0
14.3
69.9
18.4
54.35
6.2
161.3
10.3
97.1
14.4
69.4
18.5
54.05
6.3
158.7
10.4
96.1
14.5
69.0
18.6
53.76
6.4
156.2
10.5
95.2
14.6
68.5
18.7
53.48
6.5
153.8
10.6
94.3
14.7
68.0
18.8
53.19
6.6
151.5
10.7
93.5
14.8
67.6
18.9
52.91
6.7
149.3
10.8
92.6
14.9
67.1
19
52.63
6.8
147.1
10.9
91.7
15
66.67
19.1
52.36
6.9
144.9
11
90.9
15.1
66.23
19.2
52.08
. 7
142.9
11.1
90.1
15.2
65.79
19.3
51.81
7.1
140.8
11.2
89.3
15.3
65.36
19.4
51.55
■' 7.2
138.9
11.3
88.5
15.4
64.94
19.5
51.28
7.3
137.0
11.4
87.7
15.5
64.52
19.6
51.02
7.4
135.1
11.5
87.0
15.6
64.10
19.7
50.76
7.5
133.3
11.6
86.2
15.7
63.69
19.8
50.51
7.6
131.6
11.7
85.5
15.8
63.29
19.9
50.25
7.7
129.9
11.8
84.7
15.9
62.89
20
50.00
7.8
128.2
11.9
84.0
16
62.50
20.1
49.75
7.9
126.6
12
83.3
16.1
62.11
20.2
49.50
8
125
12.1
82.6
16.2
61.73
20.3
49.26
8.1
123.5
12.2
82.0
16.3
61.35
20.4
49.02
8.2
122
12.3
81.3
16.4
60.98
20.5
48.78
. 8.3
120.5
12.4
80.6
16.5
60.61
20.6
48.54
8.4
119.0
12.5
80.0
16.6
60.24
20.7
48.31
8.5
117.6
12.6
79.4
16.7
59.88
20.8
48.08
8.6
116.3
12.7
78.7
16.8
59.52
20.9
47.85
8.7
114.9
12.8
78.1
16.9
59.17
21
47.62
8.8
113.6
12.9
77.5
17
58.82
21.1
47.39
8.9
112.4
13
76.9
17.1
58.48
21.2
47.17
9
111.1
13.1
76.3
17.2
58.14
21.3
46.95
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
21.4
46.73
25.5
39.22
29.6
33.78
33.7
29.67
. 21.5
46.51
25.6
39.06
29.7
33.67
33.8
29.59
21.6
46.30
25.7
38.91
29.8
33.56
33.9
29.50
21.7
46.08
25.8
38.76
29.9
33.44
34
29.41
21.8
45.87
25.9
38.61
30
33.33
34.1
29.33
21.9
45.66
26
38.46
30.1
33.22
34.2
29.24
22
45.45
26.1
38.31
30.2
33.11
34.3
29.15
22.1
45.25
26.2
38.17
30.3
33.00
34.4
29.07
22.2
45.05
26.3
38.02
30.4
32.89
34.5
28.99
22.3
44.84
26.4
37.88
30.5
32.79
34.6
28.90
22.4
44.64
26.5
37.74
30.6
32.68
34.7
28.82
22.5
44.44
26.6
37.59
30.7
32.57
34.8
28.74
22.6
44.25
26.7
37.45
30.8
32.47
34.9
28.65
22.7
44.05
26.8
37.31
30.9
32.36
35
28.57
22.8
43.86
26.9
37.17
31
32.26
35.1
28.49
22.9
43.67
27
37.04
31.1
32.15
35.2
28.41
23
43.48
27.1
36.90
31.2
32.05
35.3
28.33
23.1
43.29
27.2
36.76
31.3
31.95
35.4
28.25
23.2
43.10
27.3
36.63
31.4
31.85
35.5
28.17
23.3
42.92
27.4
36.50
31.5
31.75
35.6
28.09
23.4
42.74
27.5
36.36
31.6
31.65
35.7
28.01
23.5
42.55
27.6
36.23
31.7
31.55
35.8
27.93
23.6
42.37
27.7
36.10
31.8
31.45
35.9
27.86
23.7
42.19
27.8
35.97
31.9
31.35
36
27.78
23.8
42.02
27.9
35.84
32
31.25
36.1
27.70
23.9
41.84
28
35.71
32.1
31.15
36.2
27.62
24
41.67
28.1
35.59
32.2
31.06
36.3
27.55
24.1
41.49
28.2
35.46
32.3
30.96
36.4
27.47
24.2
41.32
28.3
35.34
32.4
30.86
36.5
27.40
24.3
41.15
28.4
35.21
32.5
30.77
36.6
27.32
24.4
40.98
28.5
35.09
32.6
30.67
36.7
27.25
24.5
40.82
28.6
34.97
32.7
30.58
36.8
27.17
24.6
40.65
28.7
34.84
32.8
30.49
36.9
27.10
24.7
40.49
28.8
34.72
32.9
30.40
37
27.03
24.8
40.32
28.9
34.60
33
30.30
37.1
26.95
24.9
40.16
29
34.48
33.1
30.21
37.2
26.88
25
40.00
29.1
34.36
33.2
30.12
37.3
26.81
25.1
39.84
29.2
34.25
33.3
30.03
37.4
26.74
25.2
39.68
29.3
34.13
33.4
29.94
37.5
26.67
25.3
39.53
29.4
34.01
33.5
29.85
37.6
26.60
25.4
39.37
29.5
33.90
33.6
29.76
37.7
26.53
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
37.8
26.46
41.9
23.87
46
21.74
50.1
19.96
37.9
26.39
42
23.81
46.1
21.69
50.2
19.92
38
26.32
42.1
23.75
46.2
21.65
50.3
19.88
38.1
26.25
42.2
23.70
46.3
21.60
50.4
19.84
38.2
26.18
42.3
23.64
46.4
21.55
50.5
19.80
38.3
26.11
42.4
23.58
46.5
21.51
50.6
19.76
38.4
26.04
42.5
23.53
46.6
21.46
50.7
19.72
38.5
25.97
42.6
23.47
46.7
21.41
50.8
19.69
38.6
25.91
42.7
23.42
46.8
21.37
50.9
19.65
38.7
25.84
42.8
23.36
46.9
21.32
51
19.61
38.8
25.77
42.9
23.31
47
21.28
51.1
19.57
38.9
25.71
43
23.26
47.1
21.23
51.2
19.53
39
25.64
43.1
23.20
47.2
21.19
51.3
19.49
39.1
25.58
43.2
23.15
47.3
21.14
51.4
19.46
39.2
25.51
43.3
23.09
47.4
21.10
51.5
19.42
39.3
25.45
43.4
23.04
47.5
21.05
51.6
19.38
39.4
25.38
43.5
22.99
47.6
21.01
51.7
19.34
39.5
25.32
43.6
22.94
47.7
20.96
51.8
19.31
39.6
25.25
43.7
22.88
47.8
20.92
51.9
19.27
39.7
25.19
43.8
22.83
47.9
20.88
52
19.23
39.8
25.13
43.9
22.78
48
20.83
52.1
19.19
39.9
25.06
44
22.73
48.1
20.79
52.2
19.16.
40
25.00
44.1
22.68
48.2
20.75
52.3
19.12
40.1
24.94
44.2
22.62
48.3
20.70
52.4
19.08
40.2
24.88
44.3
22.57
48.4
20.66
52.5
19.05
40.3
24.81
44.4
22.52
48.5
20.62
52.6
19.01
40.4
24.75
44.5
22.47
48.6
20.58
52.7
18.98
40.5
24.69
44.6
22.42
48.7
20.53
52.8
18.94
40.6
24.63
44.7
22.37
48.8
20.49
52.9
18.90
40.7
24.57
44.8
22.32
48.9
20.45
53
18.87
40.8
24.51
44.9
22.27
49
20.41
53.1
18.83
40.9
24.45
45
22.22
49.1
20.37
53.2
18.80
41
24.39
45.1
22.17
49.2
20.33
53.3
18.76
41.1
24.33
45.2
22.12
49.3
20.28
53.4
18.73
41.2
24.27
45.3
22.08
49.4
20.24
53.5
18.69
41.3
24.21
45.4
22.03
49.5
20.20
53.6
18.66
41.4
24.15
45.5
21.98
49.6
20.16
53.7
18.62
41.5
24.10
45.6
21.93
49.7
20.12
53.8
18.59
41.6
24.04
45.7
21.88
49.8
20.08
53.9
18.55
41.7
23.98
45.8
21.83
49.9
20.04
54
18.52
41.8
23.92
45.9
21.79
50
20.00
54.1
18.48
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
Wt.
in Gr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
54.2
18.45
58.3
17.15
62.4
16.03
66.5
15.04
54.3
18.42
58.4
17.12
62.5
16.00
66.6
15.02
54.4
18.38
58.5
17.09
62.6
15.97
66.7
14.99
54.5
18.35
58.6
17.06
62.7
15.95
66.8
14.97
54.6
18.32
58.7
17.04
62.8
15.92
66.9
14.95
54.7
18.28
58.8
17.01
62.9
15.90
67
14.93
54.8
18.25
58.9
16.98
63
15.87
67.1
14.90
54.9
18.21
59
16.95
63.1
15.85
67.2
14.88
55
18.18
59.1
16.92
63.2
15.82
67.3
14.86
55.1
18.15
59.2
16.89
63.3
15.80
67.4
14.84
55.2
18.12
59.3
16.86
63.4
15.77
67.5
14.81
55.3
18.08
59.4
16.84
63.5
15.75
67.6
14.79
55.4
18.05
59.5
16.81
63.6
15.72
67.7
14.77
55.5
18.02
59.6
16.78
63.7
15.70
67.8
14.75
55.6
17.99
59.7
16.75
63.8
15.67
67.9
14.73
55.7
17.95
59.8
16.72
63.9
15.65
68
14.71
55.8
17.92
59.9
16.69
64
15.63
68.1
14.68
55.9
17.89
60
16.67
64.1
15.60
68.2
14.66
56
17.86
60.1
16.64
64.2
15.58
68.3
14.64
56.1
17.83
60.2
16.61
64.3
15.55
68.4
14.62
56.2
17.79
60.3
16.58
64.4
15.53
68.5
14.60
56.3
17.76
60.4
16.56
64.5
15.50
68.6
14.58
56.4
17.73
60.5
16.53
64.6
15.48
68.7
14.56
56.5
17.70
60.6
16.50
64.7
15.46
68.8
14.53
56.6
17.67
60.7
16.47
64.8
15.43
68.9
14.51
56.7
17.64
60.8
16.45
64.9
15.41
69
14.49
56.8
17.61
60.9
16.42
65
15.38
69.1
14.47
56.9
17.57
61
16.39
65.1
15.36
69.2
14.45
57
17.54
61.1
16.37
65.2
15.34
69.3
14.43
57.1
17.51
61.2
16.34
65.3
15.31
69.4
14.41
57.2
17.48
61.3
16.31
65.4
15.29
69.5
14.39
57.3
17.45
61.4
16.29
65.5
15.27
69.6
14.37
57.4
17.42
61.5
16.26
65.6
15.24
69.7
14.35
57.5
17.39
61.6
16.23
65.7
15.22
69.8
14.33
57.6
17.36
61.7
16.21
65.8
15.20
69.9
14.31
57.7
17.33
61.8
16.18
65.9
15.17
70
14.29
57.8
17.30
61.9
16.16
66
15.15
70.1
14.27
57.9
17.27
62
16.13
66.1
15.13
70.2
14.25
58
17.24
62.1
16.10
66.2
15.11
70.3
14.22
58.1
17.21
62.2
16.08
66.3
15.08
70.4
14.20
58.2
17.18
62.3
16.05
66.4
15.06
70.5
14.18
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
in Gr.
C'nts
of
Yam
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
70.6
14.16
74.7
13.39
78.8
12.69
82.9
12.06
70.7
14.14
74.8
13.37
78.9
12.67
83
12.05
70.8
14.12
74.9
13.35
79
12.66
83.1
12.03
70.9
14.10
75
13.33
79.1
12.64
83.2
12.02
71
14.08
75.1
13.32
79.2
12.63
83.3
12.00
71.1
14.06
75.2
13.30
79.3
12.61
83.4
11.99
71.2
14.04
75.3
13.28
79.4
12.59
83.5
11.98
71.3
14.03
75.4
13.26
79.5
12.58
83.6
11.96
71.4
14.01
75.5
13.25
79.6
12.56
83.7
11.95
71.5
13.99
75.6
13.23
79.7
12.55
83.8
11.93
71.6
13.97
75.7
13.21
79.8
12.53
83.9
11.92
71.7
13.95
75.8
13.19
79.9
12.52
84
11.90
71.8
13.93
75.9
13.18
80
12.50
84.1
11.89
71.9
13.91
76
13.16
80.1
12.48
84.2
11.88
72
13.89
76.1
13.14
80.2
12.47
84.3
11.86
72.1
13.87
76.2
13.12
80.3
12.45
84.4
11.85
72.2
13.85
76.3
13.11
80.4
12.44
84.5
11.83
72.3
13.83
76.4
13.09
80.5
12.42
84.6
11.82
72.4
13.81
76.5
13.07
80.6
12.41
84.7
11.81
72.5
13.79
76.6
13.05
80.7
12.39
84.8
11.79
72.6
13.77
76.7
13.04
80.8
12.38
84.9
11.78
72.7
13.76
76.8
13.02
80.9
12.36
85
11.76
72.8
13.74
76.9
13.00
81
12.35
85.1
11.75
72.9
13.72
77
12.99
81.1
12.33
85.2
11.74
73
13.70
77.1
12.97
81.2
12.32
85.3
11.72
73.1
13.68
77.2
12.95
81.3
12.30
85.4
11.71
73.2
13.66
77.3
12.94
81.4
12.29
85.5
11.70
73.3
13.64
77.4
12.92
81.5
12.27
85.6
11.68
73.4
13.62
77.5
12.90
81.6
12.25
85.7
11.67
73.5
13.61
77.6
12.89
81.7
12.24
85.8
11.66
73.6
13.59
77.7
12.87
81.8
12.22
85.9
11.64
73.7
13.57
77.8
12.85
81.9
12.21
86
11.63
73.8
13.55
77.9
12.84
82
12.20
86.1
11.61
73.9
13.53
78
12.82
82.1
12.18
86.2
11.60
74
13,51
78.1
12.80
82.2
12.17
86.3
11.59
74.1
13.50
78.2
12.79
82.3
12.15
86.4
11.57
74.2
13.48
78.3
12.77
82.4
12.14
86.5
11.56
74.3
13.46
78.4
12.76
82.5
12.12
86.6
11.55
74.4
13.44
78.5
12.74
82.6
12.11
86.7
11.53
74.5
13.42
78.6
12.72
82.7
12.09
86.8
11.52
74.6
13.40
78.7
12.71
82.8
12.08
86.9
11.51
10
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
87
11.49
91.1
10.98
95.2
10.50
99.3
10.07
87.1
11.48
91.2
10.96
95.3
10.49
99.4
10.06
87.2
11.47
91.3
10.95
95.4
10.48
99.5
10.05
87.3
11.45
91.4
10.94
95.5
10.47
99.6
10.04
87.4
11.44
91.5
10.93
95.6
10.46
99.7
10.03
87.5
11.43
91.6
10.92
95.7
10.45
99.8
10.02
87.6
11.42
91.7
10.91
95.8
10.44
99.9
10.01
87.7
11.40
91.8
10.89
95.9
10.43
100
10.00
87.8
11.39
91.9
10.88
96
10.42
100.2
9.98
87.9
11.38
92
10.87
96.1
10.41
100.4
9.96
88
11.36
92.1
10.86
96.2
10.40
100.6
9.94
88.1
11.35
92.2
10.85
96.3
10.38
100.8
9.92
88.2
11.34
92.3
10.83
96.4
10.37
101
9.90
88.3
11.33
92.4
10.82
96.5
10.36
101.2
9.88
88.4
11.31
92.5
10.81
96.6
10.35
101.4
9.86
88.5
11.30
92.6
10.80
96.7
10.34
101.6
9.84
88.6
11.29
92.7
10.79
96.8
10.33
101.8
9.82
88.7
11.27
92.8
10.78
96.9
10.32
102
9.80
88.8
11.26
92.9
10.76
97
10.31
102.2
9.78
88.9
11.25
93
10.75
97.1
10.30
102.4
9.77
89
11.24
93.1
10.74
97.2
10.29
102.6
9.75
89.1
11.22
93.2
10.73
97.3
10.28
102.8
9.73
89.2
11.21
93.3
10.72
97.4
10.27
103
9.71
89.3
11.20
93.4
10.71
97.5
10.26
103.2
9.69
89.4
11.19
93.5
10.70
97.6
10.25
103.4
9.67
89.5
11.17
93.6
10.68
97.7
10.24
103.6
9.65
89.6
11.16
93.7
10.67
97.8
10.22
103.8
9.63
89.7
11.15
93.8
10.66
97.9
10.21
104
9.62
89.8
11.14
93.9
10.65
98
10.20
104.2
9.60
89.9
11.12
94
10.64
98.1
10.19
104.4
9.58
90
11.11
94.1
10.63
98.2
10.18
104.6
9.56
90.1
11.10
94.2
10.62
89.3
10.17
104.8
9.54
90.2
11.09
94.3
10.60
98.4
10.16
105
9.52
90.3
11.07
94.4
10.59
98.5
10.15
105.2
9.51
90.4
11.06
94.5
10.58
98.6
10.14
105.4
9.49
90.5
11.05
94.6
10.57
98.7
10.13
105.6
9.47
90.6
11.04
94.7
10.56
98.8
10.12
105.8
9.45
90.7
11.03
94.8
10.55
98.9
10.11
106
9.43
90.8
11.01
94.9
10.54
99
10.10
106.2
9.42
90.9
11.00
95
10.53
99.1
10.09
106.4
9.40
91
10.99
95.1
10.52
99.2
10.08
106.6
9.38
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
n
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yam
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
106.8
9.36
115
8.70
128
7.81
148.5
6.73
107
9.35
115.2
8.68
128.5
7.78
149
6.71
107.2
9.33
115.4
8.67
129
7.75
149.5
6.69
107.4
9.31
115.6
8.65
129.5
7.72
150
6.67
107.6
9.29
115.8
8.64
130
7.69
151
6.62
107.8
9.28
116
8.62
130.5
7.66
152
6.58
J 08
9.26
116.2
8.61
131
7.63
153
6.54
108.2
9.24
116.4
8.59
131.5
7.60
154
6.49
108.4
9.23
116.6
8.58
132
7.58
155
6.45
108.6
9.21
116.8
8.56
132.5
7.55
156
6.41
108.8
9.19
117
8.55
133
7.52
157
6.37
109
9.17
117.2
8.53
133.5
7.49
158
6.33
109.2
9.16
117.4
8.52
134
7.46
159
6.29
109.4
9.14
117.6
8.50
134.5
7.43
160
6.25
109.6
9.12
117.8
8.49
135
7.41
161
6.21
109.8
9.11
118
8.47
135.5
7.38
162
6.17
110
9.09
118.2
8.46
136
7.35
163
6.13
110.2
9.07
118.4
8.45
136.5
7.33
164
6.10
110.4
9.06
118.6
8.43
137
7 30
165
6.06
110.6
9.04
118.8
8.42
137.5
7 27
166
6.02
110.8
9.03
119
8.40
138
7.25
167
5.99
111
9.01
119.2
8.39
138.5
7.22
168
5.95
111.2
8.99
119.4
8.38
139
7.19
169
5.92
111.4
8.98
119.6
8.36
139.5
7.17
170
5.88
111.6
8.96
119.8
8.35
140
7.14
171
5.85
111.8
8.94
120
8.33
140.5
7.12
172
5.81
112
8.93
120.5
8.30
141
7.09
173
5.78
112.2
8.91
121
8.26
141.5
7.07
174
5.75
112.4
8.90
121.5
8.23
142
7.04
175
5.71
112.6
8.88
122
8.20
142.5
7.02
176
5.68
112.8
8.87
122.5
8.16
143
6.99
177 ,
5.65
113
8.85
123
8.13
143.5
6.97
178
5.62
113.2
8.83
123.5
8.10
144
6.94
179
5.59
113.4
8.82
124
8.06
144.5
6.92
180
5.56
113.6
8.80
124.5
8.03
145
6.90
181
5.52
113.8
8.79
125
8.00
145.5
6.87
182
5.49
114
8.77
125.5
7.97
146
6.85
183
5.46
114.2
8.76
126
7.94
146.5
6.83
184
5.43
114.4
8.74
126.5
7.91
147
6.80
185
5.41
114.6
8.73
127
7.87
147.5
6.78
186
5.38
114.8
8.71
127.5
7.84
148
6.76
187
5.35
12
YARN CALCULATIONS
Tabi-e — (Continued)
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
Wt.
inGr.
C'nts
of
Yarn
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd.
of 120
Yd,
of 120
Yd,
188
5.32
238
4.20
300
3.33
455
2,20
189
5.29
240
4.17
305
3.28
460
2,17
190
5.26
242
4.13
310
3.23
465
2.15
191
5.24
244
4.10
315
3.17
470
2,13
192
5.21
246
4.07
320
3.13
475
2,11
193
5.18
248
4.03
325
3.08
480
2,08
194
5.15
250
4.00
330
3.03
485
2.06
195
5.13
252
3.97
335
2.99
490
2.04
196
5.10
254
3.94
340
2.94
495
2.02
197
5.08
256
3.91
345
2.90
500
2.00
198
5.05
258
3.88
350
2.86
510
1.96
199
5.03
260
3.85
355
2.82
520
1.92
200
5.00
262
3.82
360
2.78
530
1.89
202
4.95
264
3.79
365
2.74
540
1.85
204
4.90
266
3.76
370
2.70
550
1.82
206
4.85
268
3.73
375
2.67
560
1.79
208
4.81
270
3.70
380
2.63
570
1,75
210
4.76
272
3.68
385
2.60
580
1,72
212
4.72
274
3.65
390
2.56
590
1,69
214
4.67
276
3.62
395
2.53
600
1,67
216
4.63
278
3.60
400
2.50
620
1,61
218
4.59
280
3.57
405
2.47
640
1,56
220
4.55
282
3.55
410
2.44
660
1,52
222
4.50
284
3.52
415
2.41
680
1,47
224
4.46
286
3.50
420
2,38
700
1,43
226
4.42
288
3.47
425
2.35
725
1,38
228
4.39
290
3.45
430
2.33
750
1.33
230
4.35
292
3.42
435
2.30
775
1.29
232
4.31
294
3.40
440
2.27
800
1.25
234
4.27
296
3.38
445
2.25
850
1.17
236
4.24
298
3.36
450
2.22
900
1.11
The size of roving is indicated in a somewhat different
manner from the counts of yam. Thus, if five times 840 yd.
of roving weighs 1 lb. it is known as 6-hank roving, indicating
that 5 hanks weigh 1 lb.
The following cotton-roving numbering table gives the hank
roving as determined by the weight in grains and tenths of
grains of 12 yd.
YARN CALCULATIONS
COTTON-ROVING NUMBERING TABLE
13
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr,
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov,
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
3
33.33
7.1
14.08
11.2
8.93
15.3
6.54
3.1
32.26
7.2
13.89
11.3
8.85
15.4
6.49
3.2
31.25
7.3
13.70
11.4
8.77
15.5
6.45
3.3
30.30
7.4
13.51
11.5
8.70
15.6
6.41
3.4
29.41
7.5
13.33
11.6
8.62
15.7
6.37
3.5
28.57
7.6
13.16
11.7
8.55
15.8
6.33
3.6
27.78
7.7
12.99
11.8
8.47
15.9
6.29
3.7
27.03
7.8
12.82
11.9
8.40
16
6.25
3.8
26.32
7.9
12.66
12
8.33
16.1
6.21
3.9
25.64
8
12.50
12.1
8.26
16.2
6.17
4
25.00
8.1
12.35
12.2
8.20
16.3
6.13
4.1
24.39
8.2
12.20
12.3
8.13
16.4
6.10
4.2
23.81
8.3
12.05
12.4
8.06
16.5
6.06
4.3
23.26
8.4
11.90
12.5
8.00
16.6
6.02
4.4
22.73
8.5
11.76
12.6
7.94
16.7
5.99
4.5
22.22
8.6
11.63
12.7
7.87
16.8
5.95
4.6
21.74
8.7
11.49
12.8
7.81
16.9
5.92
4.7
21.28
8.8
11.36
12.9
7.75
17
5.88
4.8
20.83
8.9
11.24
13
7.69
17.1
5.85
4.9
20.41
9
11.11
13.1
7.63
17.2
5.81
5
20.00
9.1
10.99
13.2
7.58
17.3
5.78
5.1
19.61
9.2
10.87
13.3
7.52
17.4
5.75
5.2
19.23
9.3
10.75
13.4
7.46
17.5
5.71
5.3
18.87
9.4
10.64
13.5
7.41
17.6
5.68
5.4
18.52
9.5
10.53
13.6
7.35
17.7
5.65
5.5
18.18
9.6
10.42
13.7
7.30
17.8
5.62
5.6
17.86
9.7
10.31
13.8
7.25
17.9
5.59
5.7
17.54
9.8
10.20
13.9
7.19
18
5.56
5.8
17.24
9.9
10.10
14
7.14
18.1
5.52
5.9
16.95
10
10.00
14.1
7.09
18.2
5.49
6
16.67
10.1
9.90
14.2
7.04
18.3
5.46
6.1
16.39
10.2
9.80
14.3
6.99
18.4
5.43
6.2
15.13
10.3
9.71
14.4
6.94
18.5
5.41
6.3
15.87
10.4
9.62
14.5
6.90
18.6
5.38
6.4
15.63
10.5
9.52
14.6
6.85
18.7
5.35
6.5
15.38
10.6
9.43
14.7
6.80
18.8
5.32
6.6
15.15
10.7
9.35
14.8
6.76
18.9
5.29
6.7
14.93
10.8
9.26
14.9
6.71
19
5.26
6.8
14.71
10.9
9.17
15
6.67
19.1
5.24
6.9
14.49
11
9.09
15.1
6.62
19.2
5.21
7
14.29
11.1
9.01
15.2
6.58
19.3
5.18
14
YARN CALCULATIONS
Tab le — (Continued)
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
19.4
5.15
23.5
4.26
27.6
3.62
33.4
2.99
19.5
5.13
23.6
4.24
27.7
3.61
33.6
2.98
19.6
5.10
23.7
4.22
27.8
3.60
33.8
2.96
19.7
5.08
23.8
4.20
27.9
3.58
34
2.94
19.8
5.05
23.9
4.18
28
3.57
34.2
2.92
19.9
5.03
24
4.17
28.1
3.56
34.4
2.91
20
5.00
24.1
4.15
28.2
3.55
34.6
2.89
20.1
4.98
24.2
4.13
28.3
3.53
34.8
2.87
20.2
4.95
24.3
4.12
28.4
3.52
35
2.86
20.3
4.93
24.4
4.10
28.5
3.51
35.2
2.84
20.4
4.90
24.5
4.08
28.6
3.50
35.4
2.82 ,
20.5
4.88
24.6
4.07
28.7
3.48
35.6
2.81
20.6
4.85
24.7
4.05
28.8
3.47
35.8
2.79
20.7
4.83
24.8
4.03
28.9
3.46
36
2.78
20.8
4.81
24.9
4.02
29
3.45
36.2
2.76
20.9
4.78
25
4.00
29.1
3.44
36.4
2.75
21
4.76
25.1
3.98
29.2
3.42
36.6
2.73
21.1
4.74
25.2
3.97
29.3
3.41
36.8
2.72
21.2
4.72
25.3
3.95
29.4
3.40
37
2.70
21.3
4.69
25.4
3.94
29.5
3.39
37.2
2.69
21.4
4.67
25.5
3.92
29.6
3.38
37.4
2.67
21.5
4.65
25.6
3.91
29.7
3.37
37.6
2.66
21.6
4.63
25.7
3.89
29.8
3.36
37.8
2.65
21.7
4.61
25.8
3.88
29.9
3.34
38
2.63
21.8
4.59
25.9
3.86
30
3.33
38.2
2.62
21.9
4.57
26
3.85
30.2
3.31
38.4
2.60
22
4.55
26.1
3.83
30.4
3.29
38.6
2.59
22.1
4.52
26.2
3.82
30.6
3.27
38.8
2.58
22.2
4.50
26.3
3.80
30.8
3.25
39
2.56
22.3
4.48
26.4
3.79
31
3.23
39.2
2.55
22.4
4.46
26.5
3.77
31.2
3.21
39.4
2.54
22.5
4.44
26.6
3.76
31.4
3.18
39.6
2.53
22.6
4.42
26.7
3.75
31.6
3.16
39.8
2.51
22.7
4.41
26.8
3.73
31.8
3.14
40
2.50
22.8
4.39
26.9
3.72
32
3.13
40.2
2.49
22.9
4.37
27
3.70
32.2
3.11
40.4
2.48
23
4.35
27.1
3.69
32.4
3.09
40.6
2.46
23.1
4.33
27.2
3.68
32.6
3.07
40.8
2.45
23.2
4.31
27.3
3.66
32.8
3.05
41
2.44
23.3
4.29
27.4
3.65
33
3.03
41.2
2.43
23.4
4.27
27.5
3.64
33.2
3.01
41.4
2.42
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
15
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
Wt.
inGr.
Hank
of
Rov.
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
of 12
Yd.
41.6
2.40
56
1.79
76
1.32
128
.78
41.8
2.39
56.5
1.77
77
1.30
130
.77
42
2.38
57
1.75
78
1.28
132
.76
42.2
2.37
57.5
1.74
79
1.27
134
.75
42.4
2.36
58
1.72
80
1.25
136
.74
42.6
2.35
58.5
1.71
81
1.23
138
.72
42.8
2.34
59
1.69
82
1.22
140
.71
43
2.33
59.5
1.68
83
1.20
145
.69
43.2
2.31
60
1.67
84
1.19
150
.67
43:4
2.30
60.5
1.65
85
1.18
155
.65
43.6
2.29
61
1.64
86
1.16
160
.63
43.8
2.28
61.5
1.63
87
1.15
165
.61
44
2.27
62
1.61
88
1.14
170
.59
44.2
2.26
62.5
1.60
89
1.12
175
.57
44.4
2.25
63
1.59
90
1.11
180
.56
44.6
2.24
63.5
1.57
91
1.10
185
.54
44.8
2.23
64
1.56
92
1.09
190
.53
45
2.22
64.5
1.55
93
1.08
195
.51
45.5
2.20
65
1.54
94
1.06
200
.50
46
2.17
65.5
1.53
95
1.05
210
.48
46.5
2.15
66
1.52
96
1.04
220
.45
47
2.13
66.5
1.50
97
1.03
230
.43
47.5
2.11
67
1.49
98
1.02
240
.42
48
2.08
67.5
1.48
99
1.01
250
.40
48.5
2.06
68
1.47
100
1.00
260
.38
49
2.04
68.5
1.46
102
.98
270
.37
49.5
2.02
69
1.45
104
.96
280
.36
50
2.00
69.5
1.44
106
.94
290
.34
50.5
1.98
70
1.43
108
.93
300
.33
51
1.96
70.5
1.42
110
.91
320
.31
51.5
1.94
71
1.41
112
.89
340
.29
52
1.92
71.5
1.40
114
.88
360
.28
52.5
. 1.90
72
1.39
116
.86
380
.26
53
1.89
72.5
1.38
118
.85
400
.25
53.5
1.87
73
1.37
120
.83
425
.24
54
1.85
73.5
1.36
122
.82
450
.22
54.5
1.83
74
1.35
124
.81
475
.21
55
1.82
74.5
1.34
126
.79
500
.20
55.5
1.80
75
1.33
16
YARN CALCULATIONS
If other than 120 yd. is weighed in the case of yam or 12 yd.
in the case of roving, the preceding tables are not appUcable.
The following table of dividends for numbering cotton
yam and roving, however, shows various numbers that are
used as dividends when various lengths of yam or roving, are
weighed. For instance, the weight in grains of 30 yd. of yarn
or roving divided into 250 gives as a quotient the counts of the
yarn or hank of the roving.
TABLE OF DIVIDENDS FOR NUMBERING COTTON
YARN AND ROVING
Divide
Divide
Yards
Weight in
Yards
Weight in
Weighed
Grains
Weighed
Grains
Into
Into
1
81
15
125
2
16f
20
1661
3
25
30
250
4
33^
40
333 i
6
50
60
500
8
661
120
1,000
10
83 §
240
2,000
12
100
480
4,000
Other Methods of Finding Counts of Cotton Yam. — The
following numbered paragraphs give various methods of find-
ing the counts of cotton yarn:
1. Multiply number of yards weighed by 8| and divide by
weight in grains.
2. Multiply number of yards weighed by 25 and divide by
3 times the weight in grains.
3. Add two ciphers (multiply by 100) to the number of
yards weighed and divide by 12 times the weight in grains.
4. Divide the number of yards weighed by .12 times the
weight in grains.
5. Multiply the number of inches that are required to
weigh 1 gr. by .2315.
6. Divide the number of inches of yarn that are required
to weigh 1 gr. by 4.32.
YARN CALCULATIONS 17
SILK YARNS
The use, in cotton mills, of silk yarns in connection
with cotton yarns in the production of high-grade and
fancy fabrics is constantly increasing. These yarns fre-
quently are used for filling in fabrics woven with combed
and mercerized cotton warps, such as fine shirtings. In
addition, silk yarns are used in many cotton fabrics as
ornamental, or figuring, threads in both warp and filling.
Several methods of designating the size, or counts, of
silk yarns are employed in the United States. Raw silk,
as imported into this country, is numbered in accordance
with the so-called "denier" system. Thrown silks, that is,
silk yarns prepared by the reeling, doubling, twisting,
etc. of raw silk, are prepared in various ways for many
different purposes. Those intended for warp yarn are
known as organzine; those to be used as filling yarn are
called tram. Thrown silks usually are designated accord-
ing to size by a method known as the "dram" system,
but sometimes the denier system is employed. Spun silk
yarns, produced by carding and spinning processes from
waste silk, and pierced, tangled, broken, and inferior
cocoons of the silk worm, are numbered in a manner
exactly similar to that employed in the case of cotton
yarns. That is, the size of these yarns is indicated by
the number of hanks, each 840 yds. in length, that are
required to weigh 1 lb.
The Denier System. — The denier system of designating
the size, or counts, of raw silks is based upon a skein of
yarn having a fixed length of 450 meters, and upon a
standard weight of 5 centigrams. The skein of yarn for
weighing usually is wound upon a reel having a cir-
cumferential dimension of 112J centimeters, thus requir-
ing 400 revolutions of the reel to produce a skein of yarn
containing the required length of 450 meters. If this
skein of yarn weighed 5 centigrams (.05 gram) it would
be a 1-denier silk; if the skein weighed 10 centigrams,
the yarn would be a 2-denier silk, etc. Practically, of
course, a silk yarn as fine as 1 denier in size is impos-
18 YARN CALCULATIONS
sible, since the individual filaments of silk as unwound
from the cocoon of the silkworm vary in size from
2 deniers to 4 deniers, or even coarser. The filament
from the cocoon is said to have an average size of about
2| deniers, so that if six of these filaments are reeled
together to produce a commercial raw silk yarn, the size
of that yarn will be about 131 deniers. The counting of
the cocoon filaments in raw silks to determine the
denier, however, may be considered only as corroborating
more accurate tests. It should never be accepted as a
certain indication of the denier, since the cocoon filament
not only varies in size in different varieties of silk but
also at different seasons of the year, and under other
conditions. An 8/10-denier silk, made from, perhaps, three
cocoons, is about the finest silk used in actual practice.
Raw silk is irregular, or uneven, in size to a consid-
erable extent on account of the natural variation in the
size of the silk filaments produced by the silkworm.
While careful reeling reduces this variation to a con-
siderable degree, raw silk yarns do not possess the
degree of uniformity in size and number of yards to the
pound that is characteristic of drawn and spun yarns,
such as cotton yarns. Therefore, the denier of a raw
silk yarn is always expressed by covering three deniers,
as, for instance, a 13/15-denier silk yarn, a 14/16-denier
silk, a 15/17-denier yarn, etc. These expressions mean,
in the first instance, that the silk varies in size from
13i to Hi deniers; in the second case, the possible varia-
tion is from 14| to 151 deniers; and, in the last example,
the size varies from 15i to 161 deniers. In making cal-
culations the average denier of raw silk yarns should be
considered. Thus, a 13/15-denier silk should be figured
as a 14-denier yarn, that is, as a silk 450 meters of
■which will weigh 70 centigrams (14X5=70).
Because of the variation in the size of raw silks a
single test to determine the denier of the yarn is unre-
liable and extremely unlikely to indicate the average
denier of the silk in any one bale. It is customary,
therefore, in determining the size of raw silks, to draw
YARN CALCULATIONS 19
10 skeins from each bale, taking the skeins from differ-
ent parts of the bale. From each of these skeins, three
reelings are made and, to their absolutely dry weight,
11 per cent, is added for normal moisture regain. The
average denier of these reelings is the denier of that
bale of silk and the variation in the weight of the
reelings indicates the variation in the size of the silk
in that particular bale, or the uniformity in size, or
otherwise, of the silk.
In addition to the foregoing test, a sizing test in,
which long reelings are made serves to indicate more
accurately the yardage per given weight of raw silks,
although it does not so clearly show the variation in
the size of the silk in a single bale. This is known as
the compound-sizing test and consists of making 20 reel-
ings of 4,500 meters each from skeins drawn from different
parts of each bale. Since the varying inequalities in
size are overrun by long reelings, this test is very reli-
able in giving the correct average size and average
number of yards per pound of the silk in a bale.
In making calculations relative to raw silks in
accordance with the denier system, the following metric
conversion table will be found useful:
DENIER SYSTEM CONVERSION TABLE
Standard length
of reeling =450 meters=492.13 yards
Standard weight,
or "denier" =5 centigrams=. 771618 grain
One meter =39.3704 inches=1.093623 yards
One gram =20 "denier" weights (.05 gram each)
One gram '=15.43236 grains
One ounce =567 (practically) "denier" weights
One ounce =437.5 grains
One pound =9,072 (practically) "denier" weights
One pound =7,000 grains
One pound =453.592 grams
20
YARN CALCULATIONS
Since the standard length for reeling is equal to 492.13
yd. and the standard weight, or "denier," is equal to
,771618 gr., the length per pound (7,000 gr.) of a theo-
AVERAGE YARDS PER POUND, DENIER SYSTEM
Yards per
Yards per
Denier
of
Silk
Average
Denier
Pound
(Calcu-
lated
Denier
of
Silk
Average
Denier
Pound
(Calcu-
lated
Average)
Average)
9/11
10
446,453
34/36
35
127,558
10/12
11
405,866
35/37
36
124,015
11/13
12
372,044
36/38
37
120,663
12/14
13
343,425
37/39
38
117,488
13/15
14
318,895
38/40
39
114,475
14/16
15
297,635
39/41
40
111,613
15/17
16
279,033
40/42
41
108,891
16/18
17
262,619
41/43
42
106,298
17/19
18
248,029
42/44
43
103,826
18/20
19
234,975
43/45
44
101,467
19/21
20
223,226
44/46
45
99,212
20/22
21
212,597
45/47
46
97,055
21/23
22
202,933
46/48
47
94,990
22/24
23
194,110
47/49
48
93,011
23/25
24
186,022
48/50
49
91,113
24/26
25
178,581
49/51
50
89,291
25/27
28
171,713
50/52
51
87,540
26/28
27
165,353
51/53
52
85,856
27/29
28
159,447
52/54
53
84,236
28/30
29
153,949
53/55
54
82,676
29/31
30
148,818
54/56
55
81,173
30/32
31
144,017
55/57
56
79,724
31/33
32
139,517
56/58
57
78,325
32/34
33
135,289
57/59
58
76,975
33/35
34
131,310
58/60
59
75,670
retical 1-denier silk would be as indicated by the following
calculation:
492.13 (yd.)X7,000 (gr. per lb.)
^^,^^„ , 3 — -. — r =4,464,527.7 or, prac-
.771618 (gr. per denier)
tically, 4,464,528 yd.
The following rules, therefore, may be used in connec-
YARN CALCULATIONS 21
tion with the denier system, and are especially adapted to
cotton-mill practice.
Rule. — To find the denier of raw silk yarns, divide
4,464,528 by the yards per pound of the silk.
Example. — If 600 yd. of raw silk weighs 21 grains,
what is the size of the silk?
Solution. —
600(yd.)X7 00gr.perlb.) ^ ^^
21 (gr.)
4,464,528-^200,000 (yd. per lb.)=22.32-denier silk
Rule. — To find the yards per pound of raw silk yarns,
divide 4,464,528 by the average denier of the silk.
Example. — How many yards are contained in one
pound of 14/16 denier raw silk?
Solution. — The average size of the silk in this case
can be assumed to be 15-denier. Then,
4,464,528^15=297,635.2 yd. per lb.
Rule. — To find the weight in pounds of raw silk, divide
4)464,528 by the denier of the silk and divide the quotient
thus^ obtained into the total number of yards.
Example. — What is the weight in pounds of 557,066
yards of 20-denier silk?
Solution.— 4,464,528^20=223,226.4 yd. per lb.
892,912-^557,066=21 lb.
The Dram System.— The dram system of designating
the size of thrown silk yarns is based upon a standard
length, or reeling, of 1,000 yards and the size of the
silk is determined by the weight in drams of this length
of yarn. For instance, if 1,000 yards of thrown silk
weigh 4 drams, the yarn is a 4-dram silk, etc. A
l,C00-yd. reeling is always made except in cases where
the silk is very coarse and a reeling of this length
would result in a bulky skein and cause excessive
waste in sizing the yarn. Under these circumstances,
500 yards or 250 yards are reeled and the weight in
drams of these lengths multiplied by two or four, as the
case may be, in order to obtain the true size of the silk.
Since one pound contains 256 drams, one pound of
one-dram silk will contain 256 times 1,000 yards, or
22 YARN CALCULATIONS
256,000 yards. Therefore, the following rules, especially
arranged for use in cotton mills, are applicable to
thrown silks numbered by the dram system.
Rule. — To find the drainage of thrown silk yarns, divide
2^6,000 by the yards per pound of the silk.
Example. — If 32,000 yards of thrown silk are required
to weigh one pound, what is the dramage of the yarn?
Solution. — 256,000^32,000=8-dram silk
Rule. — To find the yards per pound of thrown silk
yarns, divide 256,000 by the dramage of the silk.
Example. — How many yards of yarn are there in one
pound of 2j-dram silk?
Solution. — 256,000-^21=102,400 yd.
Rule. — To find the weight in pounds of thrown silk,
divide 256,000 by the dramage of the silk and divide the
quotient thus obtained into the total number of yards.
Example. — What is the weight in pounds of 819,200
yards of 5-dram silk?
Solution. — 256,000^5 = 51,200 yd. per lb.
819,200^-51,200=16 lb.
It will be noted that both the denier system and the
dram system of numbering silk yarns diifer materially in
principle from the systems employed in numbering cotton,
woolen, worsted, spun silk, etc., since in the former
cases the higher the number of the yarn the coarser it is,
and, in the latter systems, the higher the counts the finer
the yarn and the greater the number of yards per pound
that it contains.
In both the denier and the dram systems the weight
of the silk is taken "in the gum," that is, the natural gum,
or sericin, of the silk fiber is not removed by any
"boiling-off" process, nor is any compensation made for
the removal of the gum in calculations for finding the size
of the yarns. For this reason, silk yarns that have been
boiled off and, also, dyed will be finer and contain a
greater number of yards per pound than the indicated
size of the yarn warrants. The exact amount of this
change in the true counts and yards per pound of
boiled-off silks depends upon the variety of the silk and
YARN CALCULATIONS 23
the extent to which the boiling-oflf process is carried as
well as its nature, but will average fully 25 per cent, in
the case of dyed thrown silk.
The size of silks is sometimes designated in accordance
with the number of yards per ounce. Thus, a 20,000-yd,
silk is one 20,000 yards of which weigh one ounce.
Schappe, or spun waste, silk yarns imported from
Continental European countries, are usually numbered
with a standard hank, or skein, length of 500 meters and
a standard weight of h kilogram. This is practically
equal to 496 yd. per pound.
Denier and Dram Equivalent Counts.— Since a one-
denier silk contains 4,464,528 yd. per lb. and a one-dram
silk has 256,000 yd. per lb., the constant for converting
the counts of one system into the equivalent counts of the
other system is equal to 4,464,528-^256,000, or 17.44, and
the following rules apply:
Rule. — To convert a silk yarn, numbered by the denier
system, to equivalent counts in the dram system, divide
the deniers by I7-44-
Example. — What is the equivalent in the dram system
of a 24/26-denier silk?
Solution. — Considering the average size of the silk to
be 25 deniers,
25^17.44=1.433-dram silk
Rule. — To convert a silk yarn, numbered by the dram
system, to equivalent counts in the denier system, mul-
tiply the dramage by 17.44.
Example. — What is the equivalent in the denier system
of a 2-dram silk?
Solution. — 2Xl7.44=34.88-denier silk
Artificial Silk. — ^Artiiicial silk is produced by a com-
bination of various chemical and mechanical processes.
These operations, and the basic materials employed in
them, vary according to the desired nature of the finished
product, there being several varieties of artificial silk.
Cellulose artificial silk, which is produced in large
quantities, involves, in its manufacture, the chemical
treatment of some form of cellulose, such as cotton or
24 YARN CALCULATIONS
wood. The latter is generally employed, and is utilized
in the form of sulphite wood pulp which is chemically and
mechanically treated so as to form a viscous solution,
that is technically called viscose. This viscose is forced
under pressure through very fine orifices, called "spin-
nerets," into a solution that coagulates it into a con-
tinuous strand of a gelatinous nature. Further treatment
of a cleansing and finishing nature produces the artificial
silk of commerce.
Artificial silk is numbered by the denier system as in
the case of raw silk, and is seven or eight times coarser
in size than natural silk. These yarns are produced in
sizes from about 60 deniers to 600 deniers. The finer
sizes are not often obtainable, being imported from
Europe. The coarser sizes are in more frequent use, the
300-denier and 500-denier silks being quite often employed
and regularly produced.
OTHER YARN-NUMBERING SYSTEMS
Yarns made of materials other than cotton are num-
bered in a similar manner to cotton yarns, with the one
exception that the standard length is different. The
accompanying table gives the standard lengths used for
various yarns and as in each case higher numbers indicate
finer yarns, as in the cotton system, the same rules used
in cotton-yarn numbering may be applied, the standard
length only being altered as given in the table.
STANDARD LENGTHS OF YARNS
Yarns
Cotton
Spun silk
Worsted
Woolen (run system).
Woolen (cut system).
Linen
Standard Length
Yards
840
840
560
1,600
300
300
YARN CALCULATIONS 25
The run system is the standard American method of
numbering woolen yarns; the cut system is used prin-
cipally in Philadelphia and vicinity. Woolen yarn is also
numbered in some districts by stating the weight in grains
of a fixed length. In the "New Hampshire" system this
length is 50 yd.; in the "Little Falls" system, 25 yd.; in
the "Amsterdam" system, 122 yd., and in the "Cohoes"
system, 6i yd. A length of 20 yd. also is occasionally
used in connection with the system of expressing the
weight in grains.
The size of coarse Jute, flax, or hemp yarns is deter-
mined by the weight in pounds of a standard length of
14,400 yd., known as a spindle. Thus, if 14,400 yd.
weighs 4 lb., the yarn would be known as a 4-lb. yarn; if
it weighs 5 lb. it is a 5-lb. yarn, etc. In this system and
in the woolen grain systems, it will be noted that higher
numbers indicate coarser yarns.
METRIC SYSTEM OF YARN NUMBERING
From time to time there has been considerable agita-
tion relative to the adoption of one system and the
unification of the methods of indicating the degree of
fineness of yarns produced from the various fibers used
in the textile industry of the whole world. The chief
objection is that, from long usage, the methods at
present adopted are too well developed for a single cor-
poration or a single country to take on itself such a
reform, without being assured that its neighbors and
competitors will simultaneously and unanimously do the
same thing.
The method usually advocated is that of numbering all
classes of yarns by what is known as the metric system,
in which 1 meter of No. 1 yarn weighs 1 gram, the meter
being the unit of length in the metric system and the
gram the unit of weight. The equivalents of the meter
and the gram are as follows:
1 yard = .914 meter, 1 pound = 453.59 grams
26 YARN CALCULATIONS
To find the number of yarn in any present standard
system that corresponds to the number of yarn in the
metric standard system:
Rule. — Multiply the counts, given in the metric system, by
453-59 (gt'ams in i lb.) mid divide by the standard number
of yards to the pound in the present system multiplied by
.914 (meter in i yard).
Example. — A cotton yarn numbered according to the
metric system is marked 40s. Find the counts in the
present system.
c, 40X453.59 -, ^,, .
Solution.— 840X 914 ^^^•^^^^- '^"^•
To find the number of yarn in the metric standard
system that corresponds to the number of yarn in any
present standard system:
Rule. — Multiply the counts, given in the present system,
by the present standard number of yards to the pound
and by .914 (,m,eters in J yd.) and divide by 453.59 {grams
in I pound).
Example. — A worsted yarn numbered according to the
present system is marked 46s. Find the counts in the
metric system.
„ 46X560X.914 ., „„^ .
Solution. — t^ttt, = ol.907s. Ans.
453.59
EQUIVALENT COUNTS
Often it becomes necessary to place the counts of one
yarn in the system of another. That is, it may be neces-
sary to learn what the counts of a certain cotton yarn
■would be if it were numbered similarly to a worsted
thread. When two, three, or more threads made from
different raw stock and numbered according to different
methods are placed in the same system, they are said to
be reduced to equivalent counts.
Rule. — To find the counts of one system that is equiva-
lent to that of another, multiply the given counts by the
number of yards in the standard length of the specified
YARN CALCULATIONS
27
system and divide by the number of yards in the standard
length of the system required.
Example 1. — Find the equivalent of a 40s cotton in
worsted counts.
Solution.— 840X40=33,600
33,600^560=60s, worsted
Explanation. — Since there are 840 yd. of yarn in 1 lb.
of Is cotton, there will be 40X840, or 33,600, yd. in 1 lb.
of 40s. The question then is to find the worsted counts
of a yarn containing 33,600 yd. to the pound. Since
length divided by (standard multiplied by weight) equals
counts, then 33,600-^(560X1) must equal the counts.
Example 2. — Find the equivalent of a 16s cotton yarn
in the woolen run system.
Solution.— 840X16 = 13,440
13, 440^1,600=8. 4-run, woolen
SHORT METHODS OF FINDING EQUIVALENT
COUNTS
The accompanying table of multipliers, divisors, and
dividends may be used for finding quickly the equivalent
cotton counts of any yarn the counts of which are ex-
CONSTANTS FOR EQUIVALENT COTTON COUNTS
Yarn-Numbering System
Multiplier
Divisor
Dividend
Linen
.357 or t\
.667 or §
.59 or f
.019 or tIk
1.905 or fa
.357 or fj
2.8
1.5
1.7
52.5
.525
2.8
Worsted
Schappe Silk (496 yd.)
Silk (yards per ounce system)
Woolen (run system)
Woolen (cut system)
Woolen (New Ham-pshire
system)
416.67
Woolen (Little Falls system)
Woolen (Amsterdam system)
Woolen (Cohoes system) ....
Woolen (20 yd. grain system)
Silk (denier system)
Silk (dram system)
Coarse jute, fia:i, and hemp .
208.33
104.17
52.083
166.7
5,315
304.8
17.14
28 YARN CALCULATIONS
pressed in some other system. For instance, multiplying
the counts of a worsted yarn by .667 (§), or dividing the
counts by 1.5 i.f), gives the equivalent cotton counts of
the yarn. In a similar way, the counts of a silk yarn,
numbered by the denier system, if divided into 5,315
gives as a quotient the equivalent cotton counts.
TWIST IN YARNS
To impart to yarn the required strength it is necessary
to insert a certain amount of twist. Warp yarn requires
more twist than filling yarn, because it must withstand
a greater strain during the weaving process. The turns
of twist per inch vary with different mills and in various
kinds of yarn, but all systems are based on the follow-
ing rule:
Rtile. — To find the twist to be inserted in any counts of
yarns multiply the square root of the counts by the
standard, or constant, adopted.
In American mills, the twist constant adopted for ring-
spun warp yarn is usually 4.75, and for filling yarn 3.75.
Other constants frequently employed are shown in the
accompanying twist table, which also shows the turns of
twist per inch to be inserted in various counts of yarn.
Occasionally a twist constant of 4.50 is used for ring-
spun warp yarn and sometimes extra-twist mule-spun
warp yarn is produced with a constant of 4.00. For the
production of yarns for special purposes, twist constants
are varied as the case may demand.
Twist may be imparted to a yarn in either a right-hand
or a left-hand direction. There is some confusion as to
■what constitutes a right-hand or a left-hand twist, but
the general custom is to follow the universal machine-
shop practice in this matter, that is, a right-hand twist
in a yarn lies in the same direction as a right-hand
thread on a bolt or screw, etc. Right-hand twist is often
spoken of as "regular" twist.
YARN CALCULATIONS
29
TWIST
TABLE
Ring-
Counts,
or
Number,
of Yam
Ordinary
Ring-
Spun
Warp
Yam
Spun
Filling
and
Mule-
Spun
Warp
Yarn
Mule-
Spun
Filling
Yarn
Hosiery
Yam
Square
Root of
Counts
Twist
Constant
4.75
3.75
3.25
2.50
1
4.75
3.75
3.25
2.5
1.00
2
6.7
5.3
4.6
3.5
1.41
3
8.2
6.5
5.6
4.3
1.73
4
9.5
7.5
6.5
5.0
2.00
5
10.6
8.4
7.3
5.6
2.24
6
11.6
9.2
8.0
6.1
2.45
7
12.6
9.9
8.6
6.6
2.65
8
13.4
10.6
9.2
7.1
2.83
9
14.3
11.3
9.8
7.5
3.00
10
15.0
11.9
10.3
7.9
3.16
11
15.8
12.5
10.8
8.3
3.32
12
16.4
13.0
11.2
8.7
3.46
13
17.2
13.5
11.7
9.0
3.61
14
17.8
14.0
12.2
9.4
3.74
15
18.4
14.5
12.6
9.7
3.87
16
19.0
15.0
13.0
10.0
4.00
17
19.6
15.5
13.4
10.3
4.12
18
20.1
15.9
13.8
10.6
4.24
19
20.7
16.4
14.2
10.9
4.36
20
21.2
16.8
14.5
11.2
4.47
21
21.8
17.2
14.9
11.5
4.58
22
22.3
17.6
15.3
11.7
4.69
23
22.8
18.0
15.6
12.0
4.80
24
23.3
18.4
15.9
12.3
4.90
25
23.8
18.8
16.3
12.5
5.00
26
24.2
19.1
16.6
12.8
5.10
27
24.7
19.5
16.9
13.0
5.20
28
25.1
19.8
17.2
13.2
5.29
29
25.6
20.2
17.5
13.5
5.39
30
26.0
20.6
17.8
13.7
5.48
31
26.5
20.9
18.1
13.9
5.57
32
26.9
21.2
18.4
14.2
5.66
33
27.3
21.5
18.7
14.4
5.74
34
27.7
21.9
18.9
14.6
5.83
35
28.1
22.2
19.2
14.8
5.92
36
28.5
22.5
19.5
15.0
6.00
37
28.9
22.8
19.8
15.2
6.08
30
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
Ring-
Counts,
Ordinary
Ring-
Spun
Warp
Yarn
Spun
Filling
Mule-
Square
Root of
or
and
Spun
Hosiery
Number,
of Yam
Mule-
Spun
Warp
Filling
Yarn
Yarn
Counts
Yarn
Twist
Constant
4.75
3.75
3.25
2.50
38
29.3
23.1
20.0
15.4
6.16
39
29.7
23.4
20.3
15.6
6.25
40
30.0
23.7
20.5 .
15.8
6.32
41
30.4
24.0
20.8
16.0
6.40
42
30.8
24.3
21.1
16.2
6.48
43
31.2
24.6
21.3
16.4
6.56
44
31.5
24.9
21.5
16.6
6.63
45
31.9
25.2
21.8
16.8
6.71
46
32.2
25.4
22.0
17.0
6.78
47
32.6
25.7
22.3
17.2
6.86
48
32.9
26.0
22.5
17.3
6.93
49
33.3
26.3
22.8
17.5
7.00
50
33.6
26.5
23.0
17.7
7.07
51
33.9
26.8
23.2
17.9
7.14
52
34.2
27.0
23.4
18.0
7.21
53
34.6
27.3
23.7
18.2
7.28
54
34.9
27.6
23.9
18.4
7.35
55
35.2
27.8
24.1
18.6
7.42
56
35.5
28.1
24.3
18.7
7.48
57
35.9
28.3
24.5
18.9
7.55
58
36.2
28.6
24.8
19.1
7.62
59
36.5
28.8
25.0
19.2
7.68
60
36.8
29.1
25.2
19.4
7.75
61
37.1
29.3
25.4
19.5
7.81
62
37.4
29.5
25.6
19.7
7.87
63
37.7
29.8
25.8
19.9
7.94
64
38.0
30.0
26.0
20.0
8.00
65
38.3
30.2
26.2
20.2
8.06
66
38.6
30.5
26.4
20.3
8.12
67
38.9
30.7
26.6
20.5
8.19
68
39.2
30.9
26.8
20.6
8.25
69
39.5
31.2
27.0
20.8
8.31 .
70
39.8
31.4
27.2
20.9
8.37
71
40.0
31.6
27.4
21.1
8.43
72
40.3
31.8
27.6
21.2
8.49
73
40.6
32.0
27.8
21.4
8.54
74
40.9
32.3
28.0
21.5
8.60
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
31
Ring-
Counts,
or
Number,
of Yarn
Ordinary
Ring-
Spun
Warp
Yarn
Spun
Filling
and
Mule-
Spun
Warp
Yam
Mule-
Spun
Filling
Yarn
Hosiery
Yam
Square
Root of
Counts
Twist
Constant
4.75
3.75
3.25
?.50
75
41.1
32.5
28.1
21.7
8.66
76
41.4
32.7
28.3
21.8
8.72
77
41.7
32.9
28.5
22.0
8.78
78
41.9
33.1
28.7
22.1
8.83
79
42.2
33.3
28.9
22.2
8.89
80
42.5
33.5
29.1
22.4
8.94
81
42.8
33.8
29.3
22.5
9.00
82
43.0
34.0
29.4
22.7
9.06
83
43.3
34.2
29.6
22.8
9.11
84
43.6
34.4
29.8
22.9
9.17
85 ■
43.8
34.6
30.0
23.1
9.22
86
44.0
34.8
30.1
23.2
9.27
87
44.3
35.0
30.3
23.3
9.33
88
44.6
35.2
30.5
23.5
9.38
89
44.8
35.4
30.6
23.6
9.43
90
45.1
35.6
30.8
23.7
9.49
91
45.3
35.8
31.0
23.9
9.54
92
45.6
36.0
31.2
24.0
9.59
93
45.8
36.2
31.3
24.1
9.64
94
46.1
36.4
31.5
24.3
9.70
95
46.3
36.6
31.7
24.4
9.75
96
46.6
36.8
31.9
24.5
9.80
97
46.8
37.0
32.0
24.6
9.85
98
47.0
37.1
32.2
24.8
9.90
99
47.3
37.3
32.3
24.9
9.95
100
47.5
37.5
32.5
25.0
10.00
101
47.7
37.7
32.7
25.1
10.05
102
48.0
37.9
32.8
25.3
10.10
103
48.2
38.1
33.0
25.4
10.15
104
48.5
38.3
33.2
25.5
10.20
106
48.7
38.4
33.3
25.6
10.25
106
48.9
38.6
33.5
25.8
10.30
107
49.1
38.8
33.6
25.9
10.34
108
49.4
39.0
33.8
26.0
10.39
109
49.6
39.2
33.9
26.1
10.44
110
49.8
39.4
34.1
26.2
10.49
111
50.1
39.5
34.3
26.4
10.54
.32
YARN CALCULATIONS
Table — (Continued)
Ring-
Counts,
Ordinary
Ring-
Spun
Warp
Yam
Spun
FilUng
Mule-
Square
Root of
Counts
or
Number,
of Yarn
and
Mule-
Spun
Warp
Spun
Filling
Yam
Hosiery
Yarn
Yarn
Twist
Constant
4.75
3.75
3.25
2.50
112
50.3
39.7
34.4
26.5
10.58
113
50.5
39.9
34.5
26.6
10.63
114
50.7
40.1
34.7
26.7
10.68
115
50.9
40.2
34.8
26.8
10.72
116
51.2
40.4
35.0
26.9
10.77
117
51.4
40.6
35.2
27.1
10.82
118
51.6
40.7
35.3
27.2
10.86
119
51.8
40.9
35.5
27.3
10.91
120
52.0
41.1
35.6
27.4
10.95
121
52.3
41.3
35.8
27.5
11.00
122
52.5
41.4
35.9
27.6
11.05
123
52.7
41.6
36.0
27.7
11.09
124
52.9
41.8
36.2
27.9
11.14
125
53.1
41.9
36.3
28.0
11.18
126
53.3
42.1
36.5
28.1
11.23
127
53.5
42.3
36.6
28.2
11.27
128
53.7
42.4
36.8
28.3
11.31
129
54.0
42.6
36.9
28.4
11.36
130
54.2
42.8
37.1
28.5
11,40
131
54.4
42.9
37.2
28.6
11.45
132
54.6
43.1
37.3
28.7
11.49
133
54.8
43.2
37.5
28.8
11.53
134
55.0
43.4
37.6
29.0
11.58
135
55.2
43.6
37.8
29.1
11.62
136
55.4
43.7
37.9
29.2
11.66
137
55.6
43.9
38.0
29.3
11.70
138
55.8
44.1
38.2
29.4
11.75
139
56.0
44.2
38.3
29.5
11.79
140
56.2
44.4
38.4
29.6
11.83
141
56.4
44.5
38.6
29.7
11.87
142
56.6
44.7
38.7
29.8
11.92
143
56.8
44.9
38.9
29.9
11.96
144
57.0
45.0
39.0
30.0
12.00
145
57.2
45.2
39.1
30.1
12.04
146
57.4
45.3
39.3
30.2
12.08
147
57.6
45.5
39.4
30.3
12.12
148
57.8
45.6
39.6
30.4
12.17
YARN CALCULATIONS
33
BREAKING WEIGHT OF COTTON WARP
YARN
The strength of warp yarn is of great importance and these
yams should be frequently tested to determine whether the
proper standard of strength for the various counts is being
maintained. An instrument for determining the strength of a
yarn is shown in the accompanying illustration. In testing
the strength of the yam, it is the
custom to wrap, or reel, one skein
of 120 yd. of yarn, the reel being
1| yd. in circumference, and place
this skein on the hooks o, & of the
tester. By turning the handle
until the yam breaks, the niunber
of pounds required to break the
skein is registered on the dial.
To obtain fairly accurate results,
skeins from ionr or five bobbins
should be reeled and broken and
the results averaged. Care should
be taken to operate the tester at
as nearly a uniform speed as
possible or the results will be
erroneous; a power-driven tester
gives more reliable results than
one operated by hand. The skeins
of yarn should be carefully straight-
ened out when placed on the tester
and no twisted or tangled skeins
should be broken. The results
obtained by this machine are
averages only and do not show whether a yarn is evenly spun and
has a uniform strength throughout; only a single-thread test can
do that. Single-thread tests, however, are difficult to make and
of little value unless an exhaustive number of tests are made.
"When finding a standard breaking weight for carded warp
yams, the following rule may be employed.
34
YARN CALCULATIONS
Rule. — Divide the courds of the yarn into 1,800, and to the
quotient thus obtained add 3 lb. The result is a fair average
breaking weight in pounds of a standard skein of yarn.
AVERAGE BREAKING WEIGHT OF AMERICAN COTTON
WARP YARNS
Counts
of
Yarn
Carded
Warp
Yarn
Combed
Warp
Yarn
Counts
of
Yarn
Carded
Yarn
Combed
Warp
Yarn
Counts
of
Yarn
Combed
Warp
Yarn
6
303.0
414.0
36
53.0
66.4
66
34.9
7
26C.0
354.0
37
51.6
64.6
67
34.3
8
22S.0
310.0
38
50.4
62.8
68
33.8
9
203.0
275.0
39
43 2
61.1
69
33.2
10
1S3.0
2-17.0
40
43.0
59.5
70
32.7
11
167.0
224.0
41
46.9
58.0
71
32.2
12
153.0
205.0
42
45.9
58.5
72
31.7
13
142.0
189.0
43
44.9
55.1
73
31.2
14
132.0
17G.0
44
43.9
53.8
74
30.8
15
123.0
164.0
45
43.0
52.6
75
30.3
16
116.0
153.0
46
42.1
51.3
76
29.9
17
109.0
144.0
47
41.3
50.2
77
29.5
18
103.0
136.0
48
40.5
49.1
78
29.1
19
97.7
123.0
49
39.7
48.0
79
28.6
20
93.0
122.0
50
39.0
47.0
80
28.2
21
88.7
116.0
51
38.3
46.0
82
27.5
22
S4.8
111.0
52
37.6
45.1
84
26.8
23
81.3
106.0
53
37.0
44.2
86
26.1
24
7S.0
101.0
54
36.3
43.3
88
25.4
25
75.0
97.0
55
35.7
42.5
90
24.8
26
72.2
93.2
56
35.1
41.6
92
24.2
27
69.7
8D.6
57
34.6
40.9
94
23.6
28
67.3
£G.3
58
34.0
40.1
96
23.0
29
65.1
83.2
59
33.5
39.4
98
22.5
30
63.0
£3.3
60
33.0
38.7
100
22.0
31
61.1
77.6
61
32.5
38.0
104
21.0
32
59.3
75.1
62
32.0
37.3
108
20.1
33
57.5
72.8
63
31.6
36.7
112
19.3
34
55.9
70.5
64
31.1
36.1
116
18.6
35
54.4
63.4
65
30.7
35.5
120
17.8
When it is desired to find a standard breaking weight for
combed warp yams the following rule may be used:
YARN CALCULATIONS 35
Rule. — Divide the counts of the yarn into 2,500, and from the
quotient thus obtained subtract 3 lb.
The accompanying table, worked out by the preceding rules,
gives fair average breaking weights in pounds for standard
skeins of 120 yd., wrapped on a reel IJ yd. in circumference.
PLY YARNS
Method of Numbering. — Often two or more threads are
twisted together to form one coarser thread. Such yams are
commonly known as ply yarns, also sometimes called folded,
or twisted, yarns. The method of numbering cotton ply yarns
is that of giving the counts of the single yarns that are folded
and placing before these counts the number that indicates the
number of threads folded; thus, 2/40s indicates that two
threads of 40s single yarn are folded together, the folded yarn
being equal, in weight, to a single 20s yam. During the pro-
cess of twisting a slight contraction takes place. Consequently,
to make the resultant counts 20s, the single yarns that are folded
must necessarily be slightly finer than, or spun on the light side
of, 40s. However, this contraction will not be considered in
the rules and examples to be given, since it is so slight as not to
be a matter of mathematics.
PLY- YARN CALCULATIONS
Folded Yarns of the Same Counts. — It is not customary in
mills to fold yams of different counts, since, unless novelty or
special yams are required, single yams of equal counts m.ake the
best double, or ply, yams. Consequently, when yams of the
same counts are folded, in order to find the counts of the result-
ing ply yam, it is simply necessary to divide the counts of the
yams folded by the number of threads that constitute the ply
yam. For example, if three threads of 90s cotton are folded
to form a ply yarn, the resultant yam will be equivalent in
weight to a single 30s (90 -J- 3 = 30) . The counts of the ply yam
and the counts of the single yam that equal it in weight should
be carefully distinguished; thus, the above yam is equal in
weight to a single 30s, but is spoken of as a 3/90s, or 3-ply 90s.
26 YARN CALCULATIONS
The method of finding the counts, weight, and length of
ply yarns is similar to that explained in connection with single
yarns, with the exception that the counts of the ply yam do not
indicate the actual counts of the thread but instead indicate the
counts of the single yams folded. Consequently, when figuring
to find these particulars, the actual weight of the ply yam must
be taken into consideration, and, on this account, the counts of
the single yam that the ply yarn equals are considered and not
the counts of the single yarns that are folded.
Example 1.— What is the weight of 642,000 yd. of 2-ply
40s cotton yam?
642,000
Solution. — = 38.211b.
20X840
Explanation. — To make a 2-ply 40s, two ends of 40s are
twisted together; consequently, a yard of the ply yarn will
weigh just twice as much as a yard of one of the single yams
folded, which will make the ply yam equal in weight to a 20s
single yam. Therefore, 20, which is the actual counts of the
ply yam, is used in the calculation. Since length divided by
(counts multiplied by standard) equals weight, then 642,000 -r-
(20X840) must equal the weight of the yam.
Example 2.— What is the length of 20 lb. of 2-ply 36s
cotton?
Solution. — 20X 18X 840 = 302,400 yd.
Explanation. — ^A 2-ply 36s is composed of two threads of 36s
folded together; consequently, the weight of a yard of the ply
yarn must be just twice that of a yard of one of the ends folded
to make the ply yam. This will make the ply yam equal in
weight to an 18s single yam, and 18s must be used as the counts
of the ply yam in the calculation. Since weight times counts
times standard equals length, then 20 X 18X840 must equal the
number of yards in 20 lb. of 2-ply 36s.
Example 3. — What are the counts of a 2-ply cotton yam,
352,800 yd. of which weighs 10 lb.?
352,800
Solution. — =42s, or 2-ply 84s
10X840
Explanation. — Since length divided by (weight times
standard) equals counts, then 352,800-^(10X840) must give
YARN CALCULATIONS 37
the actual counts of the ply yam; that is, this result gives the
counts of the ply yam considered as a single yam, but since
two single yams are folded and each of these is just half as
heavy as the folded yam, then two ends of 84s must be folded
to make the ply yam, which, consequently, wiU be known as a
2-ply 84s.
Folded Yams of Different Counts. — ^Although not a common
practice, in some cases, especially when it is desired to make a
fancy yam, two yarns of different counts are folded and some-
times two yarns of different materials.
Suppose, for illustration, that it is desired to find the resultant
counts of a 40s cotton folded with a 203 cotton. Take as a
basis 840 yd. of each yarn; then 840 yd. of the 40s weighs :^ lb. ;
840 yd. of the 20s weighs^ lb. Consequently, after these yams
are folded, there will be 840 yd. of a ply yam the weight of
whichis5ny+5V = A lb.
The example now resolves itself into the following: What
are the counts of a yarn 840 yd. of which weighs £s lb? Since
length divided by (weight times standard) equals c ounts, then,
840
= 13.33s, counts of the ply yam.
AX840
This example has been worked out to some length in order
that the method of ntunbering ply yams may be thoroughly
understood. A shorter method, hov/ever, is as follows :
Rule — To find the resultant count when two threads of different
numbers are folded, multiply the two counts together and divide the
result thus obtained by the sum of the counts.
Example. — Same as previous example.
40X20
Solution. — = 13.33s, counts
40+20
Ply Yarns Composed of More Than Two Threads. — In many
cases it will be necessary to find the counts of a ply yarn made
from more than two single threads, when a somewhat different
process must be folllowed. For example, suppose that three
single threads — 24s, 36s, and 72s, respectively — are folded to
form a ply yam and it is required to ascertain the counts of the
resultant yarn. This may be done by following the rule pre-
viously given and performing two operations as follows:
38 YARN CALCULATIONS
First find the counts of the yam that would result from
folding the 24s with the 38s as follows:
24X36
= 14.4s
24+36
The example then resolves itself into the following: What
are the counts of a ply yam made from one thread of 14.4s and
one of 72s?
14.4X72
= 12s
14.4+72
A somewhat shorter method than this may be applied to 3
or more ply yarns made from different counts.
Rule. — Take the highest counts and divide it by itself and by
each of the other counts. Add the results thus obtained and
divide this result into the highest counts.
Note. — ^Although it is common practice to use the highest
counts as a dividend, this is not absolutely esssential, as any
counts, or in fact any number, may be used as the dividend
and the correct answer obtained.
ExAMPi-E. — Same as given previously.
Solution. — 72 -=-72 = 1
72 --36 = 2
72 :-24 = 3
6
72^6 = 12s
Rule. — To find the resultant counts when more than one end of
the different counts are folded, divide the highest counts by itself
and by each of the other counts. Multiply the result in each case
by the number of ends oftliat counts. Add the results thus obtained
and divide this result into the highest counts.
Example. — 4 ends of 80s and 3 ends of 60s are folded to
form a ply yam; what are the resultant counts?
Solution.— 80-^80=1; 1 X4 = 4
80^60=U; 11X3 = 4
8
80-4-8= 10s, resultant counts
When dealing with ply yams it often becomes necessary to
find the counts of a yam to be folded with another to produce
a given counts.
YARN CALCULATIONS 39
Rule. — Multiply the two counts together and divide by iheir
difference.
Example. — ^What counts must be fofded with a 50s to pro-
duce a ply yam equal in v/eight to a 30s?
50X30
Solution. — = 75s
50-30
Proof. — ^What are the counts of a ply yam made by twisting
a 50s with a 75s?
50X75
= 30s
50+75
Another calculation is that of finding the required weight of
each thread folded in order to produce a required weight of the
ply yam.
Rule. — Find the counts resulting from folding the two or more
threads; then, as the counts of one thread is to the resultant counts
so is the total weight to the weight required of that thread.
Example. — It is desired to produce 100 lb. of a ply yam com-
posed of an 80s and a 32s twisted together; what will be the
required weight of the 80s and also of the 32s?
80X32
Solution, — = 22.85s, resultant counts
80+32
32:22.85-100:*
100X22.8.S
x = = 71.40 lb. of 32s
32
80:22.85 = 100::x;
100X22.85
x= = 28.56 lb. of 80s
80
In a case similar to the example given above, after the weight
of one thread has been obtained, it is of course only necessary
to subtract that weight from the total weight in order to obtain
the weight of the other thread; or, in case more than two
threads are folded, then the weight of one of these threads may
always be obtained by subtracting the combined weight of the
other threads from the total weight of the ply yam.
Note. — In the previous example the weight of the 80s yam
plus the weight of the 32s yam should equal the weight of
the ply yam, but owing to the use of decimals, examples of
this kind seldom give exact results. Thus, 71.40 lb. +28.56 lb.
= 99.96 lb.; whereas the total weight should be 100 lb. -
40 YARN CALCULATIONS
Althougti the preceding rule states the logical method of
solving examples of this character, a short-cut method of finding
the weight of the single yams in any given weight of ply yam
is as follows:
Rule. — Divide any count by itself and 6y each of the other
counts; add the quotients thus obtained and divide their sum into
the total weight of the ply yarn. The final result is the weight of
that component yarn the counts of which was used as a dividend.
Calculation of Cost of Ply Yarns — If the price of each yam is
given and it is required to find the price per pound of the resul-
tant yam, it becomes necessary to multiply the weight of each
count of yam by its price, add the results, and divide by the
total weight. The answer will be the price per pound of the
ply yam.
Example. — If in the example previously given, the 80s yam
is worth 72c per pound and the 32s is worth 480 per pound, what
■will be the cost per pound of the ply yam?
Solution. —
71.40 lb. of 32s at 48c per lb. = $34.27, cost of the 32s yam
28.56 lb. of 80s at 72c per lb. = $20.56, cost of the 80s yam
- $34.27+$20.56 = $54.83, total cost of ply yam
$54.83-;- 100 = 54.8c per lb., cost of the ply yam
Another rule for finding the price of 2-ply yams when the
threads to be twisted together are of different values and dif-
ferent counts is as follows:
Rule. — Multiply the highest counts by the price of the lowest
counts and the lowest counts by the price of the highest. Add the
results thus obtained and divide this result by the sum of the
counts. The answer will be the price of the ply yarn.
Example. — ^A 32s yam costs 42c per pound and a 16s yam
costs 18c per pound; what will be the cost per pound of a ply
yarn restdting from twisting these two?
Solution. — 32x$.18 = $5.76; 16X$.42 = $6.72
$5.76-f$6.72 = $12.48; 32-f 16 = 48
$12.48-^48 = 26c.
PLY YARNS OF SPUN SILK
The numbering of ply yams made from spun silk will be found
to differ somewhat from the methods previously explained.
YARN CALCULATIONS 41
Thus, when numbering silk ply yarns, the counts resulting after
folding the yams is given and this number is followed by the
number that indicates how many threads are folded.
For example, 60/2 spun silk indicates that two threads of
I2O3 have been folded together. Thus, it will be seen that the
actual counts of the ply yam are given instead of the counts
of the single yam, as is the case in cotton, woolen, and worsted
ply yams .
Example 1.— What is the weight of 642,000 yd. of a 40s
2-ply sun silk?
642,000
Solution.— =19.107 lb.
40X840
Explanation. — 40s 2-ply spun silk is equal in weight to a
single thread of 40s. Consequently, 40 should be considered
as the counts of the ply yam when finding weight or length.
Since length divided by (counts times standard) equals weight,
the solution given must be correct.
Example 2. — What is the length of 20 lb. of a 30s 2-ply
spun silk?
Solution.— 840X30X20 = 504,000 yd.
Explanation. — A 30s 2-ply spun silk is equal in weight to
a single 30s; consequently, 30 should be considered as the
counts of the ply yarn. Since standard times counts times
weight equals length, 840X30X20 must equal the length of
the yarn. •
Example 3. — What are the counts of a 2-ply silk yam if
352,800 yd. weighs 10 lb.?
352,800
Solution. — = 42s 2-ply
10X840
Explanation. — The counts of the 2-ply yam would be
indicated as follows: 42/2 spun silk, which shows that two
ends of 84s have been twisted to make the ply yam.
PLY YARNS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS
In all cases where threads of different materials are twisted
together, in order to perform any of the calculations previously
explained, it becomes necessary first to place these counts in
the same system of numbering yarnd.
42 YARN CALCULATIONS
Example. — A 36s cotton and a 48s worsted are twisted to
form a ply yam; what are the counts of the resultant yam?
Solution. — It is first necessary to ascertain in which system
the resultant yarn should be placed. In this case the counts
of the ply yam will be found in both the worsted and cotton
systems. In the first case, then, to find the worsted counts
of the ply yam resulting from twisting these two yams it is
necessary to find the equivalent counts of the 36s cotton in
the worsted system.
36X840
= 54s
560
The 36s cotton is found to equal a 54s worsted, so that the
question resolves itself into the following: What are the counts
-of a ply yam resuJting from twisting a 54s worsted and a 48s
worsted?
54X48
■ — = 25.41, worsted counts of the ply yam
54+48
Since in this example it is also required to find the counts
of the ply yam in the cotton system, it is therefore necessary
first to find the equivalent counts of the 48s worsted in cotton.
48X560
= 32s
840
Having placed the 48s worsted in the cotton system, treat
the worsted as if it were cotton and. find the counts of a ply
yam that will result from folding a 32s and a 36s cotton.
32 X 36
= 16.94, cotton counts of the ply yam
32+36
Prom this it is seen that if a 36s cotton and a 48s worsted
are twisted together, the counts of the resultant ply yarn will
be either 25.41s worsted or 16.94s cotton.
BEAMED YARNS
Warp yam before being woven into cloth is placed on what
are known as loom beams, a large number of ends of the same
length being placed on one beam. The calculations necessary
in connection with the yam on a beam will be found to be
similar to those used in connection with the length, weight.
YARN CALCULATIONS 43
and counts of single ends, the difference being that in the
previous cases only a single end was dealt with and in the case
of beamed yams a large number of ends must be taken into
consideration. Thus, for example, if each end on a beam is
1,000 yd. long and there are 2,000 ends, then there must be
2,000X 1,000 = 2,000,000 yd. of yam. This point should always
be taken into consideration when dealing with yam placed on
a beam.
Rule. — To find the counts of the yarn on a beam containing
only one size oj yarn, the weight, length, and nnmher of ends
being given, multiply the length, expressed in yards,' by the num-
ber of ends on the beam, and divide the result thus obtained by
the weight, expressed in pounds, times the standard number of
yards to the pound.
Example. — ^A warp beam contains 2,400 ends of cotton each
200 yd. long. The weight of this yam is 15 lb.; what are the
counts?
200X2,400
Solution. — ■ -= 38.095s
15X840
Explanation. — Since there are 2,400 ends and each end is
200 yd. long, there must be 2,400X200 = 480,000 yd. in all.
The question then resolves itself into finding the counts of a
yarn 480,000 yd. of which weighs 15 lb. Since length, in
yards, divided by (weight, in pounds, times standard) always
equals counts, 480,000 divided by (15X840) must give the
counts.
In some cases the weight given will be found to include
not only the weight of the yam but also that of the beam on
which the yam is placed. When this occurs, it is necessary first
to deduct the weight of the beam from the weight given, in
order to obtain the true weight of the yam.
Rule. — To find the number of ends on a beam when weight,
length of the warp, and size of the yarn are known, multiply the
weight, in pounds, by the standard number and by the size of the
yarn. Divide the result thus obtained by the length of the warp,
in yards.
Example 1. — A cotton warp is 1,200 yd. long and weighs
200 lb. exclusive of the beam. If the warp is composed of
20s yam, how many ends does it contain?
44 YARN CALCULATIONS
200X840X20 ^ ^^^ ,
Solution. — = 2,800 ends
1,200
Rule. — 20 find the weight of yarn on a beam when length,
number of ends, and counts are given, multiply the length, expressed
in yards, by the number of ends on the beam, avd divide the result
thus obtained by the standard number of yards times the counts
of the yarn.
Example. — ^A beam contains 2,400 ends of 20s cotton, the
warp being 500 yd. long; find the weight of the yarn.
500X2,400
Solution.— = 71.428 lb.
840X20
Explanation. — By multiplying the length of the warp by
the total number of ends on the beam the total length of
yarn on the beam is obtained; and since the length, expressed
in yards, divided by the standard times the counts equals the
weight, in pounds (2,400X500) -^ (840X20), will give the weight
of the yarn on the beam.
Rule. — To find the length of a warp when weight, number of
ends, and size of the yarn are known, multiply the weight of the
warp, in pounds, by the standard number and by the size of the
yarn, and divide the result thus obtained by the number of ends
in the warp.
Example. — A cotton warp contains 2,400 ends of 18s yarn
and weighs 200 lb. ; how long is it?
200X840X18
Solution.— = = 1 ,260 yd.
2,400
Rule. — To find the length of warp that can be placed on a
beam, find the weight of yarn that the beam will contain, by
weighing a beam of the same size when filled with yarn and
deducting the weight of the beam itself. Then apply the rule
previously given.
Example 2. — A certain size beam when filled with yarn
weighs 140 lb., the beam itself weighing 50 lb. What length
of a warp composed of 1,800 ends of 20s cotton can be placed
on it?
Solution. — 140 - 50 = 90 lb . of yam
90X840X20
= 840 vd.
1,800
yarn calculations 45
avera<;e numbers
In case different counts of yams are placed on the same
beam, as very frequently occurs, it will be found necessary
to first find the average number, or average counts, of the
different yarns before making other calculations. By the term
average number, or average counts, is meant a count of yam that
will give the same weight, provided that the same number of
ends and the same length occur in both cases. Thus, if 400
ends of 10s and 800 ends of 20s weigh a certain number of
pounds, then 1.200 (400+800) ends of the average counts
will weigh the same, provided that the ends are the same length
In both cases.
Rule. — To find the average counts of the ends on a beam when
the ends are of different counts, divide the total number of ends
of each count by its own count. Add these results together and
divide the result thus obtained into the total number of ends in
the warp.
Example. — There are placed on the same beam 1,800 ends
of 60s cotton and 800 ends of 40s cotton; what are the average
counts?
Solution.— 1800^ 60 = 30
800 4- 40 = 20
2 6 5
2,600-r-50 = 52s, average counts
In case more than two different counts are placed on the
same beam, the same rule will be fovmd to apply.
Example. — ^What are the average counts in case 200 ends
of 20s, 1,000 ends of 40s, and 900 ends of 45s are placed on the
same beam?
Solution. — 200-^ 20 = 10
1000-T-40 = 25
900 -^ 45 = 2J)
2 100 55
2,100-5-55 = 38.18s, average counts
In cases where the order of arranging the different counts of
yam in the warp is given, the total number of ends in the warp
not being known, the same rule will be found to apply by
46 YARN CALCULATIONS
considering the number of ends in the arrangement, or pattern,
as the total number of ends.
Example. — A warp is arranged 48 ends of 36s and 2 ends of
10s; find the average number.
Solution. — 48-^ 36 = 1.3 33
_2 4- 10 = ^2
5 1.5 3 3
504-1.533 = 32.615s, average number
If the yam is of different materials, such as cotton and worsted,
then it is necessary first to place the different counts in the
same system before applying the rule for finding the average
number.
Example. — ^There are placed on a beam 2,000 ends of 40s
cotton and 450 ends of 45s worsted; what are the average
counts in the cotton system?
Solution. — ^First find the equivalent cotton counts of 45s
worsted.
45X560
= 30s cotton
840
This example then resolves itself into finding the average
counts of 2,000 ends of 40s and 450 ends of 30s.
20004-40 = 50
450 H- 30 = 15
2450 65
2,450 -i- 65 = 37.69s, average counts
FANCY WARPS
When more than one color of yam is placed on the same
beam, it frequently becomes necessary to find the total number
of ends of each color and the weight of each particular yam.
In order fully to understand the explanations given in this
connection it will be necessary first to consider a few terms
that will frequently be met with. The yam that is placed on
the loom beam is known as the warp, or warp yarn. It is
this yam that forms the threads running lengthwise in the cloth
and is thus distinguished from the yam running across the
cloth, which is known as the filling. In case the warp yam is
composed of difierent colors or different counts, the order in
YARN CALCULATIONS 47
which the different counts or colors are placed on the beam
is known as the pattern of the warp. Thus, if the warp is
arranged 4 ends of black, 4 ends of white, 4 ends of black,
4 ends of white,- and so on across the cloth, the warp pattern
is said to be 4 black, 4 white.
To find the number of ends of each color of yam on a beam
when the warp pattern and total number of ends are given,
apply the following rule:
Rule. — As the number of ends in one pattern is to the number
of ends of any one color in the pattern, so is the total number of
ends in the warp to the total number of ends of that color.
Example. — The yam on a beam is arranged 16 ends black,
8 ends white, 16 ends black, 8 ends gray, how many ends of
each color are there if there are 2,400 ends on the beam?
Solution. — 1 6 ends black
S ends white
1 6 ends black
8 ends gray
4 8 = total number of ends in one pattern.
There are 32 ends of black in one pattern.
Therefore, 48 : 32 = 2,400 : x
32X2,400
x = =1,600 ends of black
48
There are 8 ends of white in one pattern.
Therefore, 48 : 8 = 2,400 : x
8X2,400
X = — = 400 ends of white
48
There are 8 ends of gray in one pattern.
Therefore, 48 : 8 = 2,400 : jc
8X2,400
X — = 400 ends of gray
48
If it is desired to find the weight of the ends of each color,
after having obtained the total number of ends of each color,
apply the rule tor finding weight when length, counts, and
number of ends are given.
CLOTH CALCULATIONS
CLOTH CALCULATIONS
Definitions. — ^After the warp yam has been wound on the
loom beam, the separate ends are drawn through the harnesses
and afterwards through the reed. The warp is then ready to
be placed in the loom. The harnesses are attached to mechan-
isms that raise and lower them; and, since some of the harnesses
are up while others are down, a division of the warp yam
must necessarily take place. It is through the space formed
by this division that the filling passes. This division of the
ends is known as the shed, and as the harnesses change posi-
tions, according to the weave desired, several different sheds
are obtained. By this manner of interlacing, the cloth is
formed.
The threads of a cloth that run lengthwise of the piece, or
the warp, are always spoken of as the ends, while those that
run from side to side are known as the picks. A cloth is said
to have a certain sley, which means that it contains so many ends
per inch. It is also spoken of as being such a pick cloth, by
which it is meant that the cloth has so many picks per inch.
Thus, regular print cloth is said to be 64-sley and 64-pick,
which means that the cloth contains 64 ends and 64 picks per
inch; this is known as the counts of the cloth. When cloth
contains the same number of ends per inch as picks it is spoken
of as being so many square. Thus, the print cloth just referred
to is known as 64 square.
When specifying the counts of a cloth in writing, the number
of ends per inch is always placed first and is followed by the
multiplication sign after which the number of picks per inch
is placed. Thus, if a cloth contains 80 ends and 60 picks per
inch, it is written 80X60 and, in speaking of the counts of
this cloth, it is said to be eighty by sixty.
In speaking of the weight of cotton cloth, the number of
yards in a pound is considered and the cloth is said to be a
so many yard cloth. Thus, ordinary print cloth is spoken of
as being a 7-yard cloth, which means that it takes 7 yd. of the
cloth to weigh 1 lb. This method differs very materially from
that in practice in the woolen and worsted trades, where a
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 49
cloth is said to be a so many ounce cloth; that is, if a piece of
cloth weighs 12 oz. to the yard it is said to be a 12-ounce cloth.
This method of expressing the weight of woolen and worsted
fabrics is also sometimes used for heavy cotton goods, such as
duck. A second method of expressing the weight of duck
fabrics is to consider the weight of a square yard; that is, a
piece of duck weighing 7 oz. to the square yard, is spoken of
as 7-ounce duck.
A third method that is largely used in connection with sail
ducks is arranged, or taken, from a standard duck, known as
a No. 3 duck that weighs 16 oz., or 1 lb. for 1 yd. of cloth
22 in. wide. For each ounce variation in the weight per yard,
22 in. wide, the number is altered by 1 . Thus a No. 4 duck
will weigh 15 oz., a No. 5 duck will weigh 14 oz; a No. 2 duck
will weigh 17 oz.; and a No. 1 duck will weigh 18 oz. Duck
fabrics heavier than the above are indicated thus: No. 1/0
duck tAW weigh 19 oz.; No. 2/0 duck will weigh 20 oz.; No. 3/0
duck will weigh 21 oz.; and so on.
A linear yard is considered by the first method irrespective
of width. A square yard is considered by the second method,
and the weights of all other widths must be expressed in propor-
tion to 36 in.; that is, a piece of duck 1 yd. long, 27 in. wide,
weighing 5^ oz., would be spoken of as a 7-ounce duck because
(Six 36) ^27 = 7 oz. per sq. yd. A duck 1 yd. long, 22 in.
wide, is considered by the third method, and the weights of
all other widths must be expressed in proportion to 22 in.
in exactly the same manner as shown in the square-yard
method.
The other specifications necessary in reproducing a piece of
cloth are the width, the counts of the warp yarn, and the
counts of the filling. In giving these specifications they are
shown as follows: 48X52 -36" -4. 15 yd. -18s warp -223
filling. The counts of the warp and filling are sometimes
written in the following form: 18s/22s. These specifications
show that the cloth is 48-sley, 52-pick, 36 in. wide, 4.15 yd.
to the pound, the warp being 18s, and the filling 22s.
so
CLOTH CALCULATIONS
HARNESS CALCULATIONS
The harnesses consist of small wires, or in many cases,
strong threads, known as heddles, near the center of which
eyes are formed, through which the warp ends are drawn.
Whenever a new warp is drawn in, it becomes necessary to
find the number of heddles that must be placed on each har-
ness, in order that there may be sufficient heddles for all the
warp ends on the beam. In order to perform such a calcula-
tion, the manner of drawing in the ends must be known.
This is learned by consulting the drawing-in draft, which
shows through which harness each end in one repeat of the
draft is drawn.
The accompanying illustration shows a drawing-in draft,
since it indicates through which harness the separate ends are
« '^ tS ,£ .« .d £'< < <
.
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
I
1
4th ZfaniMs
3rd
ist
drawn. Each figure indicates through which harness one
particular end is drawn; thus, the first end is drawn through the
first harness; the second end through the second harness; the
third end through the first harness; and so on through the 10
ends that constitute one repeat of the draft.
The necessary nvunber of heddles on any harness may be
found by the following rule:
Rule. — Find the number of repeats of the drawing-in draft in
the warp by dividing the total number of ends in the warp by the
number of ends in one repeat. Multiply the result by the number
of heddles required on any harness for one repeat. The result
will be the total number of heddles required on that harness.
Example. — If a warp contains 2,400 ends and is drawn in
according to the draft shown in the illustration, how many
heddles should be placed on each harness?
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 51
Solution. — 2400-5-10= 240 repeats of the pattern.
240X 3= 720 heddles on first harness
240X 4= 960 heddles on second harness
2 4 OX 2= 4 8 heddles on third harness
2 4 OX 1 = 240 heddles on fourth harness
2400
The drawing-in draft indicates that there are 3 ends drawn
on the first harness, 4 ends on the second harness, 2 ends on
the third harness, and 1 end on the fourth harness, in each
repeat; hence, 240 repeats times 3 equals 720 heddles on first
harness and so on. In all cases, a few extra heddles should
be added to each harness in order to meet all additional
requirements, for selvages, etc.
REEDS
The reed through which the ends are drawn after being
drawn through the harnesses, plays a very important part,
not only in the weaving, but also in all calculations connected
with cloth. Reeds are made of thin, flat pieces of steel wire
set into top and bottom pieces known as rihs.
The space between two adjoining wires in the reed is known
as a dent, and it is the number of these dents that the reed
contains in an inch that determines the counts of the reed.
Thus, for example, if a certain reed has 40 dents per inch, it
is known as a 40s reed. In many cases, however, reeds are
numbered by giving the ntmiber of dents in a certain number of
inches. For example, a reed maj' be numbered 1,200-30,
which indicates that it contains 1,200 dents in 30 in. It will
be seen that in both of these cases the counts of the reed are the
same.
Reeds are also sometimes spoken of as being such a sley;
thus, a reed may be said to be a 64-sley, which means that,
with the ends of a warp drawn in two per dent, the cloth will
contain 64 ends per inch. This does not indicate that there
are 32 dents per inch in the reed, since on account of the con-
traction that takes place during weaving, the yam at the reed
is slightly wider than it is after it becomes a part of the cloth
52 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
and, for this reason, the number of dents per inch is slightly
less.v
The first method, however, is the one generally used and
ntimerous mills that previously used the other systems have
adopted this method of ordering reeds with the required number
of dents per inch.
Reeds as sent out by the manufacturers are always marked
by one of the methods indicated above; that is, either accord-
ing to the number of dents per inch or the number of dents
in so many inches. However, reeds are sold by the bier.
The bier, as applied to reeds, means 20 dents; consequently,
when the price per reed is quoted at so much per bier, it means
so much for every 20 dents.
CALCULATIONS FOR WARP YARN
The first calculation necessary when dealing with cloth is
to find the total number of ends in the warp when the width
of the cloth and the ends per inch, or sley of the cloth, are given.
It should be noted that at the sides of all cloths additional ends
are placed in order to strengthen the fabric. These ends are
known as the selvage ends, and it is always necessary to consider
these. . They are generally ends like those of the body of the
warp, where such ends are all alike, or like those forming the
plain portion of a fancy cloth containing several varieties or
counts of warp yam. However, they are usually reedeil with
twice as many ends per dent as similar ends in the body of the
warp; thus, if a warp is drawn in two per dent, for about J in.
in width at each side the ends will be drawn in four per dent.
Selvage ends are also drawn double, or two ends per heddle,
wTien drawing them through the harnesses. In some cases,
however, where an especially strong selvage is required, ply
yams are used for selvage ends. Selvages are seldom over \ in.
in width, and generally speaking, from 12 to 20 additional ends
on each side will be found to be sufficient to allow for the
selvages.
The total ends in a cloth when the width and sley are given,
may be found by the following rule:
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 53
Rule. — Multiply the sley by the width and to the result thus
obtained add a certain number of ends for selvages.
Example. — Find the total number of ends in a cloth 36 in.
wide, and containing 48 ends per inch.
Solution. — 48 X 36 = 1,728 ends. Considering that 32
ends, or 16 double ends, are required at each side for selvages,
then 16 X 2 = 32 extra ends to be added, making 1,728+32
= 1,760 ends in cloth.
Contraction. — It is essential to take into account the con-
traction of the warp that occurs during weaving. This con-
traction affects both the length and width of the cloth; in con-
nection with the warp yam it is only necessary to consider the
contraction in the length.
Since, in the interlacing of the filling with the warp, the
two series of yams necessarily bend around each other to a
certain extent, it naturally follows that a piece of cloth will
not be quite as long as the warp from which it is made. This
difference between the length of the warp yam and the cloth
made from it is known as the contraction.
The factors that will tend to affect the amount of contrac-
tion that takes place are: The tension on the yam during
weaving; the comparative counts of the warp and filling, since,
if the warp is very much coarser than the filling, the filling
will do most of the bending, while the warp yam will lie in a
comparatively straight line; the class of weave, or, in other
words, the manner of interlacing the warp and filling, since
the warp yam will not contract so much in a weave where it
interlaces with the filHng only once in five picks as it will in a
weave where it interlaces at every pick. Weaves in which the
warp yams are drawn entirely out of a straight Une, such as
lenos, wiU contract the warp yam much more than will weaves
in which the warp yams lie in a comparatively straight line.
In practice, the actual percentage of contraction can be
readily obtained by comparing the length of cut at the slasher
with the length of cut after weaving.
The weight of warp yam contained in a cut of any length
may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the number of ends in the cloth by the length of
the warp yarn in the cut before weaving, and divide by the standard
54 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
number of yards per hank multiplied by the counts of the warp
yarn.
Example. — ^A cloth 36 in. wide having 48 ends per inch con-
tains with the ends for selvages, 1,760 ends. Assuming that
this cloth is woven 50 yd. long from 53 yd. of warp; what is the
weight of the warp yam when the counts are 18s? .
1,760X53
Solution. — =6.169 lb. of warp yam
840X18
Allowance for Size. — One point that must be noted is that,
before weaving, size is placed on the warp yam, which adds
to its weight. The American custom of sizing yarn differs
considerably from that in Europe, where size is often added for
the purpose of weighting the cloth. In America, the prin-
cipal use of size is to strengthen the warp yarn so that it wii.l
withstand the strain and chafing that take place during weav-
ing, and, for this purpose, the amount of si7.e added is very
much smaller than that used when sizing for weight.
If the percentage of size added were calculated from the
weight of the cloth, the result would not be correct, since the
size is added only to the warp yam and not to the filling.
Therefore, this additional weight of size must be added to the
weight of the unsized warp yam. Generally, it will be found
that from 4% to 10% will cover all cases in America. If
the warp yam in 50 yd. of cloth weighs 6.169 lb. and 6% of
size is added ajt the slasher, then the weight of the sized warp
yam in 50 yd. of cloth will be 6.169X1.06 = 6.54 lb.» nearly.
CALCULATIONS FOR FILLING YARN
Width at Reed. — ^When figuring the amount of filling that a
cut of cloth contains, practically the same particulars are
considered that affect the contraction of the warp. Thus, if
a cloth is 36 in. ■wide, the space that the warp yam occupies
in the reed, or, as it is known, the width at the reed, will be
in excess of this width. Consequently, to find the exact
length of each pick of filling, it is necessary to consider the
width at the reed and not the width of the cloth. To find
the width at the reed it is first necessary to ascertain the
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 55
number of dents per inch in the reed or, in other words, the
counts of the reed.
The dents per inch in a reed to produce a cloth of a given
sley may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Subtract 1 from the sley of the cloth, divide the result
by the number of ends per dent, and multiply the result thus
obtained by .95.
Example. — If a cloth is 48 sley and is reeded 2 ends per dent,
what counts of reed will be necessary to give this sley?
Solution. —
48-1 = 47
4 7 -^ 2 = 2 3.5
2 3.5 X .9 5 = 2 2.3 2 5, or say 22 dents per inch
Explanation. — By always subtracting 1 from the sley of
the cloth a sliding scale is obtained, which to a certain extent
offsets the diiference in the contraction of different counts of
yam. Thus, if the sley is 50 and 1 is subtracted, 2% is deducted
whereas if the sley is 100 and 1 is subtracted, only 1% is
deducted. Since there are 2 ends per dent, the sley m.ust be
divided by this number in order to obtain the dents that are
occupied by 1 in. of the warp as measured in the cloth. A
safe estimate of the contraction that takes place when running
medium counts of yams is 5%; therefore, the result obtained
by dividing by 2 is multiplied by .95 in order to obtain the
dents per inch. This percentage can be varied, however, to
suit various circumstances.
In many cases, also, the warp ends are drawn more than two
per dent ttiroughout the reed. Under such circumstances it
is always necessary to divide the result obtained by subtract-
ing 1 from the sley by the number of ends to each dent.
The width occupied by the warp yam in the reed, including
selvages, may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Subtract the number of extra ends added for selvages
from the total number of ends in the warp. Divide this result
by the number of ends per dent and divide the result thus obtained
by the number of dents per inch in the reed.
Example. — If a cloth contains 1,760 ends, including 32
extra ends added for selvages, and the ends are drawn 2 per
dent in a 22s reed, what is the width at the reed?
56 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
Solution. —
1,760-32 = 1,728 ends
1 ,728 ^ 2 = 864 dents required for the warp
■ 864-f-22 = 39.27 in., width at reed
Explanation. — The 1,728 ends give the desired width in
reed when drawn 2 ends per dent throughout. The 16 extra ends
that are required for each selvage, or 32 extra ends in all, are
simply drawn extra in the dents of the reed at each side of the
fabric, making these dents contain 4 ends instead of 2 ends,
as in the body of the warp.
Finding the Weight of FiUing. — The weight of filling con-
tained in a cloth of any length may be found by the following
rule:
Rule. — Multiply the width in the reed, in inches, by the num-
ber of picks per incli. Multiply this result by the length of the
cloth, in yards, and divide the result thus obtained by the number
of yards to the hank multiplied by the counts of filling.
Example. — ^What is the weight of filling yarn in 50 yd. of
cloth that is 39.27 in. wide in the reed and contains 52 picks
per inch of 22s yam?
39.27X52X50
Solution. — ■ = 5.525 lb. of filling
840 X 22s
WEIGHT OF CLOTH
From the weights of warp and filling obtained the yards per
pound can be ascertained by the following rules:
Rule. — Add together the weights of warp and filling to find
the weight of cut; then divide the length of cut by this weight, and
the result will be the yards per pound.
- Example. — The weight of sized warp yam is 6.54 lb.; the
weight of filling is 5.525 lb.; the length of cut is 50 yd. Find
the number of yards per pound.
Solution.— Weight of 50-yd. cut is 6.54+5.525 = 12.065 lb.
50-^ 12.065 = 4.15 yd. per lb., nearly.
If it is desired to express the weight in ounces per yard instead
of yards per pound the following rules apply:
Rule I. — Multiply.the weight of cloth, in pounds, by 16 (pz. in
1 lb.) and divide by the length of cloth.
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 57
Example. — If 50 yd. of cloth weigh 12.065 lb.; what is the
weight in ounces per yard?
12.065X16
Solution. — = 3.86 oz. per yd.
50
Rule II. — Divide 16 {ounces per pound) hy the yards per
pound.
Example. — A cloth weighs 4.15 yd. per pound; what is the
weight expressed in ounces per yard?
Solution. — 16 -r- 4. 15 = 3.86 oz. per yd.
FIGURING PARTICULARS FROM CLOTH
SAMPLES
When a small sample of cloth is given from which to produce
a similar cloth, the particulars that must be learned from it
are the sley, pick, number of yards per pound, width of the
goods, and the counts of warp and filling yarns.
Sley and Pick. — In ordinary cases, the best method for finding
the sley is to use a pick glass, or, in some cases, to cut out a
small piece of cloth, say 1 or 2 in. square, pulling out the threads
one by one and counting them and in this manner obtaining
the number of ends per inch in the cloth. The same methods
may be adopted to find the picks per inch.
Yards per Pound. — The yards per pound can be found by
weighing a small sample and applying the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply 7.0Q0 hy the number of square inches weiqhed
and divide the result thus obtained hy the product of the weight,
in grains, of the piece weighed, the width of the cloth, and 36 {the
number of inches in 1 yd.) .
Example. — ^A piece of cloth 3 in. square is found to weigh
9 gr. ; what are the yards per pound if the cloth is 28 in. wide?
Solution. — A piece of cloth 3 in. square contains 9 sq. in.
7,000X9
= 6.94, say 7 yd. per lb.
9X28X36
Width of Cloth. — The width of cloth is usually specified,
the designer being furnished with only a small sample of the
fabric. As a matter of fact, the selling agents of the mill,
who usually submit the cloth sample, in most cases, also submit
58 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
the sley, pick, yards per pound, and width of cloth, leaving
the matter of counts of warp yam and counts of filling for the
designer to determine.
When not specified, the former items may be determined
as explained, but the counts of the yams must always be
ascertained. For instance, specifications are given for a
standard print cloth as follows: 64X64 — 28 in. — 7 yd. With
such specifications as these, the first step in determining the
proper counts of warp and filling yams is to find the average
counts of the cloth.
Average Counts, — The average counts of the warp and filling
yams in a fabric can be found by applying the following rule:
Rule. — Add the sley and pick together and multiply the sum
by 7,000 {gr. per lb.) and by the number of square inches weighed.
Divide this result by the product of the yards per hank {840) , the
inches per yard {36) , and the weight in grains of sample weighed.
Example. — A piece of cloth 3 in. square is found to weigh
9 gr., and contains 64 ends and 64 picks per inch. What is
the average number of warp and filling in the fabric?
Solution. — ^A piece of cloth 3 in. square contains 9 sq. in.
(64+64) X 7,000X9 __ ^ , ,
=29.63 average counts of cloth
840X36X9
In this solution the contraction in length and width that takes
place during weaving has not been considered, so that the
actual average number of warp and filling is somewhat coarser
than the result obtained. In all cases the warp length is greater
than the cloth length, and the width in reed is greater than the
vridth of cloth. No definite allowance can be made for this con-
traction, because there are several factors that make it impos-
sible to formulate a definite rule to suit all classes of fabrics.
Counts of Warp Yam. — ^rom the average number, the
counts of the warp yam to use is usually determined according
to the class of fabric under consideration. Ordinarily the warp
yam is a little coarser than the filling. However, in fabrics
having a warp face, the warp yam is usually of finer counts
than the filling, and in the case of filling-faced cloths the fill-
ing is usually of finer counts than the warp. The counts of the
warp are often decided on from the average number, that is,
in cases where the counts of the warp and filling yams are
CLOTH CALCULATIONS SO
nearly equal, and then the counts of filling are found to pre-
serve the yards per pound, as will be explained later.
Another method, and perhaps the one most often used, to
determine the counts of warp required to reproduce a fabric is
to test the warp yam in the sample under consideration by
comparing it with a known counts of yam. This is accom-
plished by taking a number of warp threads, say 10, from
the cloth sample, then take 10 threads of known counts of
yarn of approximately the same counts as in the cloth sample,
or as near as judgment v/ill allow; these threads need not be over
3 in. long. Now loop them together as shown in (a) in the
accompanying illustration and twist as shown in (ft). By
careful examination of the two series of ends either by the
naked eye or by means of a magnifying or pick glass it can be
/O Threae/s of ^ /O Threads of
/^g»y/7 Cou/rfs ) ( l/nknoyyn Counts
(aj
Known Cdunfs t/nAnovirn Counts
ascertained whether both are of approximately the same size
or not. Assuming in this case that the counts taken are 32s
and that the unknown yam is found by the above comparison
to be coarser than the known counts, then untwist the ends and
take out one thread from the unknown series and twist them
together again and so on until it is determined that both series
are of the same size when twisted together. If the known yam
was found to be coarser than the unknown, one thread at a
time would be removed from the known counts until both
series are of approximately the same size. Assuming that the
above comparison shows that both series are of equal size
when 9 threads of the tmknown yarn balance 10 threads of
the known yam, the imknown must be coarser than the
known in the ratio of 10 to 9. Then 10:9 = 32 : x; = and x will
equal 28.8s counts of warp yam. The general custom in cotton
nulls is to use the nearest cotmts of warp yam that is being
60 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
produced in that mill, so in this case it will be assumed that
30s warp yam is selected for the cloth sample vmder consideration.
The preceding method is commonly used in actual practice
in cotton mills and gives accurate results when the test is per-
formed by an experienced person. Of course, a definite length
of warp yam may be unravelled from the sample, weighed^
and the counts found in this manner. Even in such cases,
however, it is customary to use a counts of yam for the warp
that the mill is ordinarily spinning, if this is possible.
Ends in Warp. — ^Having decided on the counts of warp yam
to use, it is necessary to find the number of ends in the warp.
Example. — ^How many ends in a piece of cloth 28 in. wide,
and containing 64 ends per inch ?
Solution. — 64 X 28 = 1 ,792 ends
Considering that 28 ends, or 14 double ends, are reqviired at
each side for selvages, then 14X2=28 extra ends are to be
added, making 1,792 + 28 = 1,820 ends in warp. (See rule at
top of page 46.)
Weight of Warp Yam. — The weight of warp yam required
to produce 50 yd. of cloth is found as follows:
Example. — ^What weight of 30s warp yarn will be required
for 50 yd. of cloth if 52.5 yd. of warp yam are necessary and the
warp contains 1,820 ends?
1,820X52.5
Solution. — —=3.79 lb. of unsized warp yam
840X30
(See rule at bottom of page 46.) It will be assumed in this
case that 4% of size is added to the warp yarUo Then the
sized warp yarn will weigh 3.79X1.04 = 3.94 lb.
Reed. — The ntunber of the reed is calculated according to
the rule at top of page 48 as follows:
64-1 = 63
63-^2 = 31.5
31.5 X. 95 = 29.925, say 30 dents per inch
Width in Reed. — ^According to the rule at bottom of page 48,
the width in reed may be found as follows:
1,792-=- 2 (ends per dent) =896 dents
896-^30 = 29.866, say 30 in. in reed
Weight of Cut. — The weight of 50 yd. of cloth can be found
by dividing the length of cloth by the yards per pound. Thus,
CLOTH CALCULATIONS .61
50 -i- 7 = 7. 14 lb. Since the weight of the warp yam is 3.94 lb.,
7.14-3.94 = 3.20 lb. of filling is required to produce 50 yd. of
cloth.
Counts of Filling. — The counts of filling to preserve the yards
per pound can now be found by applying the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the width in reed, in inches, by the number
of picks per inch and by the length of cloth, in yards. Divide
this result by the number of yards per hank and the weight of
filling.
Example. — ^What are the counts of filling required to pre-
serve the yards per pound when the width at reed is 30 in.,
the length of cloth 50 yd., the picks per inch 64, and the weight
of filUng 3.20 lb.?
30X64 VSO
Solution. — ^^ — = 35.7, say 36s filling
840X3.20
Summary. — The maniifacturing data relative to the fabric
dealt with in the preceding calculations may be stimmarized
as follows:
Sley and pick 64X64
Width of cloth 28 in.
Weight of cloth 7 yd. per lb.
Length of cut ■ 50 yd.
Counts of warp 30s
Ends in warp , 1,820
Weight of warp 3.79 lb.
Reed 30 dents per in.
Width at reed 30 in.
Weight of filling 3.20 lb.
Counts of filling 36s.
FANCY WARP PATTERNS
When the number of ends of each color, counts, or material
in the warp of a fabric that contains a warp~ pattern must be
ascertained, the following rule is applicable.
Rule. — Divide the number of ends in the warp, exclusive of
selvage ends, by the number of ends in one repeat of the warp
pattern. This result and the number of ends of each color, etc.,
in the warp pattern should be multiplied.
62 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
Example. — The warp pattern of a striped gingham is
arranged 12 white, 4 orange, 12 white, 4 blue ends; how many
ends of each color will be required for a warp containing
2,040 ends?
Solution. — Assuming that 48 ends of white yam are to be
used for selvages (12 double ends at each side of the fabric),
the ends in the body of the warp inside selvages will be 2,040
— 48 = 1,992 ends. In one repeat of this warp pattern there are
24 white ends, 4 orange ends, and 4 blue ends, a total of 32
ends per pattern. The repeats of the pattern in the warp
are, therefore, 1,992 -f- 32 = 62 repeats and 8 ends over. In a
case of this kind the 8 ends over full repeats of the pattern
would be considered to be white ends as are also the selvage
ends. The calculation of the ends of each color in the warp is,
therefore, as follows:
62X24+8+48 = 1,5 4 4 ends of white
62 X 4 =248 ends of orange
62X 4 =248 ends of blue
2 4 ends in warp
Note. — ^After the 12 double ends are drawn in for one
selvage, 10 single white ends should be drawn through the
harnesses. This will divide the 8 extra white ends and the
first 12 white ends in the pattern, so as to allow 10 white
ends to lie adjacent to each selvage. The pattern will then be
balanced, as it should be in all fabrics that contain a warp
pattern.
If desired, the weight of each color, kind, or counts of warp
yam may be found in the usual manner.
IRREGULAR REED DRAFTS
When the warp ends are drawn through the reed in an irregu-
lar manner, as is often the case, a method slightly different
from that previously described must be followed. Suppose,
for instance, that a fabric contains the following warp pattern:
40 ends of white, 40 ends of blue, 40 ends of white, and 20
ends of blue. Assume, also, that the 40 ends of blue occupy
exactly one-half as much space in the fabric as 40 ends of white
and that the 20 ends of blue occupy a space equal to one-fourth
of the space occupied l)y 40 ends of v/hite. It is apparent,
in this case, that the blue ends are reeded vnth twice the number
of ends per dent as the white ends, or, if the white ends are
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 63
reeded 2 ends per dent, then the blue ends must be drawn
4 ends per dent. Thus, the arrangement of this pattern is
as follows:
4 (white) -H 2 (ends per dent) = 20 dents
4 (blue) -r-4 (ends per dent) = 10 dents
4 (white) -f- 2 (ends per dent) =20 dents
2 (blue) 4-4 (ends per dent) = 5 dents
14 ends 5 5 dents
Since* 40 ends of white are found to occupy exactly | in.
in the fabric, it will be assumed that this fabric will be repro-
duced with a reed that would give an 80-sley fabric if the
ends were evenly reeded throughout the width of the cloth.
If it is also assumed that the fabric is to be woven 30 in. wide,
including selvages, the total number of dents is as follov/s:
80 (sley)X30 (inches wide)
— ; , ^-- ^ ^ = 1,200 dents
2 (ends per dent)
If 14 double ends or 28 single ends are allowed on each side
for selvages, making 28 double ends or 56 single ends in all,
and the selvages are drawn 2 double ends or 4 single ends per
dent, 7 dents on each side or 14 dents in all will be occupied
by the selvages. This will leave 1,200—14 = 1,186 dents for
the warp ends forming the body of the cloth. Then, 1,186
-;-53 (dents per pattern) =21 patterns and 31 dents over. The
31 dents over full patterns will accommodate 40 ends of white
(20 dents), 40 ends of blue (10 dents), and leave one extra
dent which would best be filled with 2 white ends. The
pattern, therefore, may be balanced in the cloth as follows:
Ends
Dents
28
7
20
10
•21 times 2,9 4 1,15 5
14 white double ends, 2 double ends per dent.
20 white ends, 2 ends per dent
40 blue ends, 4 per dent
40 white ends, 2 per dent
20 blue ends, 4 per dent
40 white ends, 2 per dent
40 blue ends, 4 per dent 40 10
22 T/hite ends, 2 per dent 22 11
14 white double ends, 2 double ends per dent . 2 S 7
Total 3078 1200
64 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
Since there are 60 blue ends per pattern, 21 patterns, and 40
blue ends ^.dditional, there are 60X21+40=1 ,300 blue ends, and
as the total number of ends is 3,078, there are 3,078-1,300
= 1,778 white ends.
CONTRACTION IN LENO AND LAPPET
FABRICS
The doup ends in leno fabrics and the lappet ends in
cloths constructed on the lappet principle are greatly deflected
from a straight line and hence, are much longer than the
ground ends that form the body of the cloth; the amount of
contraction in the weaving of these ends must, therefore, be
accurately determined. The best method of ascertaining the
relative length of doup ends or lappet ends as compared with
the ground ends of a fabric is to remove from a sample of the
cloth one or more of the doup ends or the lappet ends, as the
case may be, and then compare the length of the end or ends
removed with the length of the cloth sample. For instance,
suppose that several doup ends are removed from a sample of
leno fabric 9 in. in length, and are found to be exactly 11 in.
long. In this case, it is evident that whatever the length of
cloth to be woven, the doup ends must be longer than the cloth
length in the ratio of 11 to 9. For example, if 100 yd. of cloth
must be woven, the length of the doup ends must be
100X11
= 1221 yd.
9
In some leno fabrics, the ground ends, around which the
doup ends are crossed, are deflected from a straight line as weU
as the doup ends. In such cases they should be treated exactly
like doup ends, as previously explained.
As a further illustration of this principle, assume that several
lappet ends are removed from a piece of cloth 4| in. long and
are found to measure 28i in. In this instance, whatever length
of cloth is taken, the lappet ends must exceed the cloth length
in the ratio of 28i to 4|. Thus, for 100 yd. of cloth, the length
100X281
of each lappet end Vvill be = 633^ yd. If two or more
42
sets of doup ends are used in a fabric each set interlacing
i
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 65
differently, or if two or more sets of lappet ends are employed
in the fabric, each set having a different trailer pattern; then
each set must be considered separately when finding the length
of yam reqtiired. In all cases where two or more systems of
warp yam are used, the warp length required of each system
may be ascertained in the manner explained.
FANCY FILLING PATTERNS
To ascertain the weight of each color, kind, or material of
filling yam, the method of procedure is very similar to that
employed for finding similar data relating to warp yams.
The ntunber of picks of each color or kind of filling in one repeat
of the filling pattern is ascertained first, and then the picks per
inch or relative proportion, of each color or kind, etc., is found,
after which the weight of each may be determined in the
ordinary manner.
Example. — The filling pattern of a gingham fabric is
arranged 12 picks of white, 4 picks of orange, 12 picks of white
and 4 picks of blue. If the width in reed is 30 in., counts of
filling yam 36s, and picks per inch 68, what weight of each color
of filling yam will be required to weave 100 yd. of cloth?
Solution. — In one repeat of the filling pattern there are 24
picks of white, 4 picks of orange, and 4 picks of blue, making a
total of 32 picks in the pattern. In the filling, therefore, §f of
the yam is white, #^ is orange and ^2 blue. Applying the rule
given on page 49 , the total weight of the filhng yarn in 100 yd.
of cloth is found as follows:
30X68X100
= 6.746 lb.
840X36
Then the weight required of each color of filling will be
6.746 XM = 5 . 6 lb. white
6.746X^= . 8 4 3 lb. orange
6.746X^= ■ 8 4 3 l b. blue.
6.7461b.
The example may be solved to find the weight of each color
in one operation as follows:
66' CLOTH CALCULATIONS
30X68X100X24 ^ _ ,^ ,.
= 5.06 lb. white
840X36X32
30X68X100X4
= .843 lb. orange
' 840X36X32
30X68X100X4 ^^^ ,^ ^^
= .843 lb. blue
840X36X32
5.06 + .843 + .843 = 6.746 lb. weight of filUng
In some fabrics the filling yam is not only of different colors,
kinds, or materials, but also of different counts; and, in some
cases, there may be more picks of certain kinds of filling yam
in a given space than of other kinds. In such cases the calcula-
tions for finding the weight of each kind or color of filling yam in
a given length of cloth must of necessity dift'er from those
already dealt with. For illustration, suppose that in a certain
fabric the filKng pattern is arranged 12 picks of blue, 24 picks
of white, 12 picks of tan and 24 picks of white. It will be
assumed, also, that a 50-yd. cut of cloth is to be produced and
the width in the reed is 30 in. On examination of the fabric it
is found that the counts of the different kinds of filling yam and
the space occupied by each in one repeat of the filling pattern
are as follows:
Counts Space Occupied
1 2 blue 36s i in.
2 4 white 24s J in.
1 2 tan 40s | in.
2 4 white 24s \ in.
7 2 picks in pattern \\ in.
The average picks in 1 in. of each color may be found by
simple proportion. There are 48 picks of white in 1\ in.,
48X1
which equals = 38.4 picks of white filling per inch. 1 here
12X1
are 12 picks of blue filling in Ij in., which equals = 9.6
picks of blue filling per inch. There are also 9.6 picks of tan
filling per inch.
The weight of each color of filling yam can now be found by
applying the rule on page 53, thus:
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 67
38.4X30X50
= 2.857 lb. of 24s filling (white)
840X24
9.6X30X50
= .476 lb. of 36s filling (blue)
840X36
9.6X30X50
= .428 lb. of 40s filling (tan)
840X40
MISCELLANEOUS SHORT RULES FOR
CLOTH CALCULATIONS
Average Counts of Cloth. — The average number of yarn in a
cloth of ordinary construction may be found by the following
rule:
Rule. — Add the sley and the pick together; multiply this
result by the width and the result thus obtained by the yards per
pound and divide this result by 760. The answer will be the
average number of the yarns.
In this rule the standard 760 has been used instead of the
ordinary standard 840, in order to make allowances for the
contraction in length and width during weaving and for the
size placed on the warp yam. This constant will be found
applicable to usual cases, but may be varied at will to suit any
special range of fabrics.
Example. — It is desired to find the average number of a
cloth containing 60 ends and 66 picks per inch, the cloth being
30 in. wide and weighing 5 yd. per lb.
Solution.— 60+66 = 126; 126X30 = 3,780
3,780X5 = 18,900; 18,900 4- 760 = 24.8s, average ntunber
Counts of Filling to Preserve Weight of Cloth. — ^Another rule
that wiU be found accurate for cloths of ordinary construction
is to find the counts of filling required to preserve the weight of
the cloth when the average number of the yams in the cloth and
the counts of the warp are known.
Rule. — Add the sley and the pick together and divide by the
average number. Divide the sley by the counts of the warp.
Subtract the result obtained in the second instance from the result
obtained in the first and divide the result thus obtained into the
68 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
picks per inch. The answer will be the counts of the filling
required.
Example. — ^With the particulars the same as in the preceding
example and taking 22s as the counts of the warp, find the
counts of filling required to be used to preserve the weight of the
cloth.
Solution.— 60+66 = 126; 126-^24.8 = 5.08
60 H- 22 = 2.72; 5.08-2.72 = 2.36
66 ^2.36 = 27.96s, counts of filling required to preserve
weight.
Average Counts of Filling. — ^When the filling contains differ-
ent counts of yam, the average counts of the filling may be
found by the same method used to find the counts of filling
required to produce cloth of a given weight. Then, with
the counts of one of the kinds of filling known, find the counts
of the other filling required to produce cloth of the given
weight.
Rule. — Divide the total number of picks in the pattern by the
average counts of the filling. Also divide the number of picks of
the known counts of filling by its counts. Subtract the result
obtained in the second instance from the result obtained in the
first, and divide the difference into the number of picks of the
unknown counts.
Example. — A piece of cloth, 64X64, is 27 in. wide, and has
the warp and filling arranged 46 ends of fine and 3 ends of
cord. The coimts of the fine yam in the warp are 30s and of
the cord 10s. If the cloth weighs 6.4 yd. to the pound, what
counts of fine filling must be used to preserve the yards per
pound?
Solution. — First find the average counts of the warp.
46-5-30=1.53
3-^10= .30
49 1.83
49 -^ 1.83 = 27s, nearly, average counts of warp.
Next find the average counts of warp and filling.
64+64 = 128
128X27X6.4
= 29.1 03s, average counts of warp and filhng.
760
CLOTH CALCULATIONS 69
Next find the average counts of filling.
64+64 = 128; 128-^29.103=4.398
64-^27 = 2.37; 4.398-2.37 = 2.028
64 -^ 2.008 = 31 .558s, average counts of filling
The question nov/ is to find the counts of the cord and the
fine yam in the filling to preserve the yards per pound, the
average counts of the filling and the arrangement of the yam
in the filling being known. In cases of this kind it would be
unlikely that a mill would employ different counts of cord in
both warp and filling, consequently it would be safe to assume
the counts of the cord in the filling to be the same as that in the
warp, after which it wotdd only be necessary to find the counts
of the fine filling.
49 -T- 31 .558 = 1.552
_34-10 = .300
46 1.252
46 ^- 1.252 = 36.741s, counts of fine filling
Warp Contraction. — The percentage to allow for warp con-
traction during weaving may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the number of picks per inch by 3 and divide
by the counts of the fdUng. The result will be the percentage to
allow for contraction.
Example. — The number of picks per inch in a certain cloth
is 60, the counts of the filling are 36s; what will be the length
of the cloth made from 100 yd. of warp yam?
60X3
Solution. — = 5, percentage to allow for contraction.
36
5% of 100 = 5; 100 yd. -5 yd. = 95 yd. of cloth.
This rule, when taking into consideration the points pre-
viously mentioned, is comparatively accurate for counts of
filling from 25s to 50s and for picks from 40 to 80 per in. and
will serve as a basis when finding the contraction of any warp.
By varying the constant 3 to suit special circumstances rules
can be formulated to suit requirements; or if the usual rate of
contraction in a certain mill on certain goods is found, it will not
be difficult to form a good idea of the contraction in other
cloths.
70 CLOTH CALCULATIONS
Weight of Warp Yam. — The weight in ounces of warp yam
per yard of cloth may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Mzdiiply the counts of the yarn by 105 and divide into
twice the number of ends in the warp.
Example. — ^A cotton warp contains 2,100 ends of 30s yam;
what is the weight per yard?
2,100X2
Solution. — = If oz.
105X30
Weight of Filling Yarn. — The weight in ounces of filling yam
per yard of cloth may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the width by the picks per inch and by 2 and
divide by 106 times the counts of the yarn.
Example. — ^What is the weight of filling in a yard of cloth
28 in. wide if it contains 75 picks per inch of 40s cotton yam?
28X75X2
Solution. — = 1 oz.
105X40
Hanks of Warp Yarn. — The hanks of warp yam per cut of
cloth may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Muttiply the ends in the warp by the length of the warp
yarn before weaving and divide by Slfi.
Example. — ^A cloth contains 1,680 warp ends and 55 yd. of
warp are required to produce a 50-yd. cut of cloth. How many
hanks of warp yam are required?
1,680X55 , ,
Solution. — =110 hanks
840
Hanks of Filling Yarn. — The hanks of filling yam per cut of
cloth may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the width in the reed, in inches, by the number
of picks per inch. Multiply this result by the length of the cloth,
in yards, and divide the result thus obtained by the number of yards
to the hank.
Example. — It is desired to learn how much filling there will
be in a 50-yd. cut of cloth reeded 26| in. wide and containing
90 picks per inch.
Solution.— 26| X 00 = 2.400
2,400X50
= 142.85 hanks
840
DRAFT CALCULATIONS 71
DRAFT CALCULATIONS
In the mantifacture of cotton yams a principle is adopted
that must be considered in connection with abnost every pro-
cess from the opening of the raw cotton to and including the
spinning of the yam — ^that known as drafting. In the cotton-
mill business the term drafting refers to the principle of attenu-
ating, or drawing out, a comparatively large mass of cotton
fibers into a thinner but longer mass. This may be done by
means of air-currents, by which the fibers are separated one
from the other and carried along by a current of air and depos-
ited on rotating screens delivering the sheet of cotton at a higher
speed than that at which it is fed into the machine; it may be
performed by rapidly-rotating cylinders and rolls covered with
wire teeth, which elongate the mass of fibers even to the extent
of separation, depositing them again at a given rate on a con-
denser, or doffer; or it may be, and most frequently is, per-
formed by means of revolving rolls. It is to the principles of
drafting by means of successive pairs of revolving rolls that
most frequent reference will be made.
Objects of Drafting. — In attenuating, or drawing out, a
mass of cotton, there are three principal objects: the first is to
reduce the lap, sliver, or roving to a less weight per yard , that is,
attenuating it gradually to the desired degree of fineness; the
second object is that of arranging and improving the arrange-
ment of the fibers in a parallel order so that they may lie side
by side and overlap one another; the third object is that of
evening the strand of fibers to eliminate thick or thin places,
which is done by a combination of drafting and doubling. The
use of successive pairs of drawing rolls is largely adopted to
arrive at these results. This principle is made use of in most
cotton-yam-preparation machines by having carefully con-
structed and adjusted rolls, the rear ones holding the mass of
fibers and running at a slow speed, the forward ones tightly
gripping a portion of the fibers and revolving at a greater speed.
This arrangement is duplicated again and again, until in some
machines there are as many as four pairs of rolls successively
acting on the fibers. The qui ckly- rotating pair of rolls draws
72 DRAFT CALCULATIONS
the fibers away from the slowly-rotating rolls, and as the fibers
are gripped by their fore ends and pulled forwards, the loose
rear ends trail behind and tend to become straightened out as
they are drawn from the portion held by the slowly-rotating
rolls.
Doubling. — The attenuating and parallelizing of the mass
of fibers tends to reduce its thickness and make a thin sheet
or strand where there was formerly a thick one, and if continued
indefinitely would result in destroying the continuity of the
sliver or roving. To prevent this, doubling is resorted to in most
of the cotton-yam-preparation machines. Briefly explained,
this means that, instead of feeding only one lap, sliver, or
roving at the back of each machine, two or more are fed
together, making one at the front; this not only helps to
compensate for the excessive attenuation, but has the great
advantage of helping to correct unevenness in the original
mass of fiber fed to the machine. By feeding several together
the thick or thin places of any one are combined with other
slivers of normal size, or thick places with thin ones, and the
combination of two, three, four, five, or six independent slivers
or rovings, which are drawn out into one, results in an even-
ness not attainable in any other manner. Draft refers to the
ratio of attenuation, and drafting refers to the attenuation only,
ha^'ing no reference to the parallelizing or evening features
mentioned.
DRAFTING WITH COMMON ROLLS
A section though four pairs of rolls is represented in the
accompan>dng illustration, the lower rolls a, b, c, d, being con-
structed of steel and fluted longitudinally. The upper rolls
ax, bi, ci, di, are constructed of iron with a covering of flarmel
immediately around them, and a thin leather covering outside
of the flannel. These rolls are not fluted, and are pressed
against the bottom rolls by means of weights. The rolls d, di
between which the material is fed should always be spoken
of as the feed-rolls or back rolls, the roll di being distinguished
from the roll d by the term back top roll. The roUs delivering
the material, represented by a and ai, should always be spoken
DRAFT CALCULATIONS
73
of as the delivery rolls or front rolls, the roll oi being called
the front top roll. The first pair of intermediate rolls, is
spoken of as the second pair of rolls; and the third pair, as
the third pair of rolls. Thus, the roll a is the front, or delivery
roll; b, is the second roll; c, the third roll; and d, the back roll,
or feed-roll.
The circumferential speed of the upper and lower roll in
each pair, is the same; that is, a point on the surface of d moves
at the same speed as a point on the surface of Ji, because di is
driven by frictional contact with d. The same remarks apply
to any other pair in the series.
The back roll, which "is the feed-roll, always rotates at the
slowest speed and the front roll at the highest, the speed of
the other rolls being so arranged that c revolves a little more
quickly than d, and b still more qmckly than c, but at a less
speed than a. The direction of rotation of the rolls is shown by
a small arrow within the section of each.
Between d and di, a riVjbon of cotton is fed and is carried
forwards, as shown, between each pair of rolls, until it emerges'
at the front. The upper rolls are weighted in such a manner
as to firmly grip the fibers that pass below them, and thus if the
si)aces between the centers of each pair of rolls are properly
adjusted and the relative speeds of the rolls accurately arranged,
the principle of drawing the fibers past one another by m.eans of
a firm grip of their fore ends, the rear ends trailing behind, is
achieved. The same conditions continuously exist in the
machine, because as the forward rolls pass fibers forwards,
the rear rolls are supplying new ones, and the results are thus
comparatively even and regular.
74 DRAFT CALCULATIONS
The illustration shows the gradual attenuation or reduction
in size of the mass of cotton, owing to the increased speed
of each pair of rolls over the. preceding pair. It will be seen
that if the surface speed of the back roll is 60 in. per min. and
that of the front roU 360 in., the sliver emerging from the front
roll will be six times as long and consequently one-sixth as
coarse, i. e., of one-sixth the weight per unit of length, as
when entering the back roll.
The arrangement just described is only one of many found
in cotton-yam-preparation machinery and is merely given as
an example. Draft could be produced between only two pairs
of rolls almost contiguous; again, these two rolls, known as the
feed-roll and delivery roll, respectively, might have between
them a large number of other rolls, or a number of cylinders or
rollers, or other means of producing draft, but the draft would
be computed between the feed-rolls and the delivery rolls if the
total draft were desired.
Methods of Finding Draft. — Draft is the ratio of the speed
of the delivery to that of the feed part of a machine. It indi-
cates the ratio between the surface speed of the front, or
delivery, roll and the surface speed of the back, or feed, roll,
and may be found in different ways, as follows:
1. By dividing the space moved through in a given time by a
point on the surface of the feed-roll, into the space moved
through in the same time by a point on the surface of the
delivery roll.
2. By dividing the weight per unit of length of the product
delivered, into the weight of the same length of the material
fed into the feed-rolls.
3. By dividing the length delivered by the delivery roll in a
certain time, by the length fed into the feed-roll in the same
time-
It will be observed that these three methods of finding the
draft deal with the ratio between the length, weight, or speed
of the material fed and the corresponding condition of the
material delivered; and from these examples will be deduced
the facts that while the length of material fed into the machine
is increased by drafting, the weight per unit of length is always
decreased in the same proportion.
DRAFT CALCULATIONS
75
Draft may therefore be defined in various ways, thus: (1)
The ratio between th-j length delivered and the length fed in a
certain time; (2) the ratio of speed between a point on the
delivery roll and a point on the feed-roll; (3) the number of
times that a certain length of material is increased while being
operated on; (4) the ratio between the weight of a certain
length of material fed and the weight of the same length of
material delivered; (5) the number of times that the weight of a
certain length of material is decreased while being operated on.
GEARING OF ROLLS
Draft calculations are ordinarily performed by taking into
consideration the weight per unit of length of the material being
fed or delivered and the gearing that connects the delivery and
feed-rolls as well as the sizes of the rolls themselves.
Pig. 1
Figs. 1 and 2 are views of four pairs of rolls and their gearing.
The front rolls are marked a and ci; the second top roll, 6i;
the third, ci; and the back top roll, di. The bottom roll a
drives the back bottom roll by a train of gears e, f, g, h; e is on
the roll a; /j is on the back roU; / and g are compounded and
revolve on a stud. The third bottom roll is diiven from the
'-^ack roll by means of three gears i, k, I, Fig. 2; j is on the back
roll; I is on the third roll; and k is an idler, or carrier, gear
76
DRAFT CALCULATIONS
revolving on a stud. The second bottom roll is driven from
the roll a by means of three gears vt, n, o; m is on the second
roll; o is on the front roll a; and « is a carrier gear revolving
on a stud.
A carrier gear is usually placed between a driver and a driven
gear when it is not convenient to make the latter large enough
to mesh with each other, or where it is necessary to change the
direction of motion of the driven gear without changing its
speed. It is important, in connection with draft calculations,
to notice which gears are merely carrier gears, as a carrier gear
does not affect the speed, and must be left out of aU calculations
of trains of gears of which it forms a unit.
Fig. 2
The sizes of the rolls shown in Figs. 1 and 2 are as follows:
Front roll a. If in.; second roll. If in.; third roll, li in.; fourth
roll. If in. These dimensions represent the diameter of the
roll in each case.
The simplest method of showing draft rolls and their gearing,
is to make a diagram in which horizontal lines are drawn to show
the lines of rolls, and short lines drawn at right angles to these
to indicate the gears connecting the rolls.
Fig. 3 shows a diagram that would represent the rolls and
gearing shown in both Figs. 1 and 2. This indicates that
there are four lines of rolls and that the power is received by
DRAFT CALCULATIONS 77
the tight and loose pulley shown on the front-roll shaft. It
further shows that motion is conveyed to the back roll from
the front roll by means of the gears e, f,g,h; that the third roll
is driven from the back roll by means of the gears j, k, I; and
that the second roll is driven from the front roll by the gears
m, n, o. The ntmaber of teeth in each gear is shown in the figure,
as well as the diameters of the rolls. The arrows indicate the
places where the driving gears connect with the driven gears
and point from the driving toward the driven gears.
DRIVING AND DRIVEN GEARS
It is a matter of great convenience in dealing with calculations
of drafts to be able to refer to certain gears as driven gears and
others as driving gears, but it is frequently difficult to determine
which are driven gears and which are driving gears; for trains
of gears driving draft rolls are often complicated, as one gear
may transmit motion to two trains of gears and these in turn
drive back to other trains of gears. In all cases in connection
/^-l ^ Is"
W'
mSfA
Draff Cfiange Gear-g
//'
eZ2
Fig. 3
with draft calculations, therefore, it is advisable to consider
that the gear on the end of the delivery roll, which transmits
motion to the other roll or rolls, is a driver, whether it is, or is
not, in fact; and starting from this point, the next gear would
therefore be a driven, the third a driver, the fourth a driven,
ignoring carrier, or idler, gears.
For example, if it is desired to find the draft between the
third and back rolls in Fig. 3, as only these two rolls are to
78 DRAFT CALCULATIONS
be considered, the third roll would be considered the delivery
roll and the gear I the driver, while the gear j on the back roll
must be the driven, k being a carrier and consequently left out
of the calculation. The fourth roll would be considered to be
the feed-roll.
CALCULATING DRAFT OF COMMON ROLLS
Although in reality the draft between two pairs of rolls rep-
resents the ratio of the circumferential speed of one pair to
the circumferential speed of the other, it is not necessary to take
into consideration the circumference of the rolls when calculat-
ing draft, as the circumferences of two circles, or rolls, bear the
same relation to each other as do their diameters.
The sizes of rolls also, are usually expressed by their diameters,
and it is easier to measure the diameter than the circumference
of a roil. In draft calculations only the sizes of the bottom
rolls are taken into account. The top rolls are driven by
frictional contact with the bottom rolls, and therefore revolve
at the same circumferential speed; consequently, the sizes of
the top rolls can be ignored.
Another point to be taken into consideration is that the
diameters of draft rolls in cotton machinery are always expressed
in inches and fractions of an inch. It is, therefore, far simpler,
when performing draft calculations, to change the numbers
representing the diameters of the rolls to fractions having a
common denominator, and then omit these common denomi-
nators from the calculations.
In practice, when calculating drafts by means of gears, the
diameters of the rolls and the sizes of the gears must be con-
sidered, and the following rule will be found to meet almost
every possible combination of gears and rolls of which the draft
is reqxdred to be calculated.
Rule. — Always assume that the gear on the delivery roll is a
driver; multiply all driven gears by the diameter of the delivery
roll, expressed in eighths of an inch, and divide by the product
of all the driving gears and the diameter of the feed-roll, expressed
in eighths of an inch.
Referring to the arrangement of draft rolls and gears repre-
sented by the diagram, in Fig. 3, the application of the rule to
DRAFT CALCULATIONS 79
finding the draft between a and d would result in the diameter
of the roll a and the number of teeth in the gears / and h being
placed as the numerator of a fraction, and the diameter of the
roll d and the number of teeth in the gears e and g as the denomi-
nator of the fraction; consequentlj', an increase in the diameter
of the front roll would cause an increased draft. An increase
in the size of the gears f or h would also cause an increased
draft, and an increase in the size of the feed-roll, or an increase
in the size of the gears e or g would caiise a decreased draft.
For instance, assuming that the speed of the front roll
remains the same and its diameter is increased, the draft would
be increased, as it would deliver a greater length in the same
space of time. An increase in the size of the back roll would
reduce the draft, because a greater length of material would
be fed to the rolls while the same length was being delivered
at the front, and consequently the draft must be smaller. Sim-
ilarly, an increase in the size of the gears eor g would result in
the feed-roll taking in more material in the same space of time,
consequently reducing the draft; and an increase in the size
of the gears f or h would result in the feed-roll taking in less
material in the same space of time and, as the length delivered
at the front would remain the same, the draft would be increased.
In figuring drafts, the gear on the delivery roll may be con-
sidered as a driver, and the next gear will be a driven, and so on
alternately throughout the train of gears, always provided that
the carrier gears in the train, if any, are ignored in consequence
of their being simply idlers and not affecting the amount of
draft. The delivery roll should be understood as the front roll
of those rolls between which the draft is to be calculated. If
the draft is being figured between a and d. Fig. 3, a is the
delivery roll; if between b and c, b is the delivery roll.
In the combination of rolls shown in Fig. 3, it is possible
to calculate several diflerent drafts: (1) the total draft, which
represents the extent of attenuation between the back roll
and the front roll; (2) the draft between the front roll and the
second; (3) the draft betv/een the second and third rolls; and
(4) the draft between the third and fourth rolls. The accu-
racy of the calculation for the total draft can always be proved
by miiltiplying the individual drafts together.
80 DRAFT CALCULATIONS
Example 1. — ^Referring to Fig. 3, the front roll is 11 in. in
diameter and carries a 22-tooth gear driving a 98-tooth gear.
Compounded with this is a 65 gear driving a 70-tooth gear on
the back roll, which is li in. in diameter. What is the total
draft, or the draft between the front and back pairs of rolls?
11X98X70 , , ,
Solution. — ■ = 5.86, total draft
22X65X9
Example 2. — Referring to Fig. 3, the front roll is If in. in
diameter and carries an 18-tooth gear driving a 54 on the second
roll, which is also If in. in diameter. What is the draft between
these two pair of rolls?
11X54 ^ ^ ^
Solution. — =3, draft
18X11
Example 3. — Referring to Fig. 3, the second roll is If in. in
diameter and carries a 54-tooth gear driving an 18 on the front
roll. On the other end of the front roll is a 22 driving a 98
compounded with a 65, which drives a 70 on the back roll.
On the other end of the back roll is a 40 driving a 30 on the
third roll, which is 1| in. in diameter. What is the draft
between the second and the third rolls?
Solution. —
11X18X98X70X30 ^ _ , ,
=1.466, draft
54X22X65X40X9
Example 4. — The third roll in Fig. 3 is driven from the back
roll. The back roll is li in. in diameter and carries a 40-tooth
gear driving a 30 on the third roll, which is also li in. in
diameter. What is the draft between these two pairs of rolls?
9X40
Solution. — =1.333, draft
30X9
Proof. — The total draft as found in example 1 may be
proved, as already stated, by multiplying together the drafts
obtained in examples 2, 3, and 4.
3X 1.466X 1.333 = 5.86, total draft
BREAK DRAFT
Break draft is a draft between two contiguous pairs of rolls
that are not directly connected by means of gears. Reference
to Pig. 3 indicates that the second and third pairs of rolls are
DRAFT CALCULATIONS
81
adjacent to each other, and yet are not directly connected, the
driving of the third pair of rolls being attained by means of a
long train of gears from the delivery roll, and the second roll is
driven by a short train of gears from the delivery roll. The
break draft in this case, therefore, occurs between the second
and third pair of rolls, which are not directly connected.
Break draft may be found in two ways, one method being
to start with the gear m, Fig. 3, and finish with the gear I, using
the diameters of the rolls b and c.
The second method is to calculate the total draft between the
first and fourth rolls, Fig. 3; then between the third and fourth;
and next between the first and second rolls. The drafts
between the third and fourth and the first and second rolls
are multiplied together and divided into the draft between
the first and fourth rolls, or the total draft. The quotient
will be the break draft, or the draft between the second and
third rolls.
if . /i"
ir
Ji'
li'
n/6
Vro/t Cf!on^e Sear— ^8/-
'f)7(f
-fflS
^.20
Fig, 4
Example. — Find the break draft, or draft between the second
and third pairs of rolls shown in Fig. 3.
Solution (o) . — Figured according to the first method,
11X18X98X70X30
= 1.466, break draft •
54X22X65X40X9
Solution (6), — Figured according to the second method,
9X40
= 1.333, draft between third and fourth rolls
30X9
82
DRAFT CALCULATIONS
11X54
18X11
= 3, draft between first and second rolls
11X98X70
= 5.863, total draft
22X65X9
1.333X3 = 3.999; 5.863 -v- 3.999 = 1.466, break draft
Fig. 4 shows four pairs of drawing rolls geared in a different
manner from that shown in Fig. 3. In this case the gear e on
the front roll a drives the third roll c by means of the gears /, g,
h', the fourth roll d is driven from the third roll by the gears
j, k, I; k is an idler, or carrier, gear. The second roll b is
driven from the third roll by the gears j, m, n; the gear m is an
idler, or carrier, gear. The break draft in this case is located
between the first and second roUs and is calculated thus:
11X115X70X16 „^,^ ^ , ^ ,
= 2.915, break draft
20X81X30X10
METALLIC ROLLS
In recent years metallic rolls have been introduced, especially
on the preparatory machines in the processes of cotton-yam
Fig. 5
preparation. Owing to the peculiar construction of these rolls,
the niles previously given for figuring draft do not apply to them
DRAFT CALCULATIONS 83
without modification. Both the upper and lower rolls are, in
this case, constructed of steel, and both rolls ajre fluted longi-
tudinally. These flutes are different in shape and considerably
- ^ coarser than the flutes
_ ^fea. in common steel rolls,
nii^ ■,i.x^..-v.---A^^^^ ^^^^x - a ^;^T-^ a,nd when in operation
t \ w I ^ ' ~ the flutes of one roll
project into the flutes
of the other roll, the
rolls being prevented
^ . i, ya==^^ from coming into too
close contact by means
of collars.
Fig. 5 is a view of a
■(^ set of metallic rolls in
Fig. 6 position. Fig. 6 gives
a view of the ends of two rolls; 6 and 6i are the fluted por-
tions of the bottom and top rolls, respectively, meshing into
one another; a and oi are the collars on the rolls, which pre-
vent the flutes from bottoming. The collars are slightly
smaller than the outside diameter of the boss, which is the
name applied to each fluted portion of the rolls, and thus pro-
vides for a certain degree of meshing between the bosses.
A section through a por- ^ /////>r/r/r/////////////////// / //
tion of the two rolls is
shown in Fig. 7. The
sliver c as operated on
by the rolls is also indi- "^'"'jn
cated. ^ '<^^---^///S^///i^S^^^t$^:s5$$^$^$^S!^^^$$r<*-
Calculating Production
and Draft. — The crimp-
ing action of metallic .;w^
rolls causes a greater "^^
length to be fed and -c, -
delivered than in the
case of common rolls of the same diameter. It is usually
assumed that one-third more material is delivered by a
metallic roll than by a common roll of the same diameter
84 DRAFT CALCULATIONS
on this account, the zigzag lines of the circumference being
about 33|% longer than the circumference of a circle passing
through the points of the teeth. To obtain accurate results
in figuring production with metallic rolls, therefore, a cer-
tain percentage — usually 33| — ^must be added to the diam-
eter of each roll. A 1-in. roll would be taken as 1.33 in.;
l|-in., 1.5 in.; li-in., 1.67 in.; If-in., 1.83 in.; IJ-in. 2 in.
The foregoing allowances are for ordinary metallic roUsi
constructed with 32 flutes for each inch of diameter. Metallic
drawing rolls are made with flutes of varying pitch, either 16
pitch, 24 pitch, or 32 pitch. This means that for each inch of
diameter of the roll there are either 16, 24, or 32 flutes. For
instance, li-in. roll of 32 pitch would have 40 flutes in its
circumference. The allowance of 33 J % is made in case of rolls
being constructed of 32 pitch, but for 16-pitch rolls this
allowance is increased to 50%, and for 24 flutes to the
inch, an allowance of 40% is made.
Another feature to consider in connection with metallic rolls
is that the extent of the crimping action or attenuation through
the interlocking of the rolls is less for heavy slivers than for
light slivers, as heavy slivers resist the tendency of the rolls to
interlock, and, in some cases where they are insufficiently
weighted, will raise the top roll and pass through in almost a
straight hne. It therefore follows that the drafting action is
greater with light slivers than with heavy ones, and that if the
front and back rolls of the machine are both the same pitch in
the flutes, the drafting action of the back pair of rolls is less
thar? that of the front pair, since the sliver becomes thinner as
it passes forwards through the machine, on account of being
acted on b^^ the draft between each successive pair of rolls;
thus the greater draft of metallic rolls is really caused by the
difference in the relative effect of the crimping action at the
back rolls and at the front rolls.
The action of metallic rolls as compared with common rolls
may be described as follows, assuming that a comparison is
being made between a set of four pairs of common and four pairs
of metallic rolls all of the same outside diameter, aU geared
in the same manner, and all running at the same speed. The
back metallic rolls would absorb approximately 25% more
DRAFT CALCULATIONS 85
material fed into them and the front rolls would deliver
approximately 33^% more material than the common rolls.
In this case, therefore, the draft of the metallic rolls would
have to be figured in the ordinary way, as for common rolls,
and an addition of 33^% minus 25% equaUng 8i%, made to
the calculated draft so as to equal the actual draft in the case
of the metallic rolls.
In cases where the sliver is between 45 and 70 gr., in weight,
the draft between 41 and 7, the back and front rolls approxi-
mately of the same size, and flutes with a 32 pitch used, an
allowance of 9% over and above the draft as calculated with
common rolls is frequently made, in order to arrive at the actual
draft in case of metallic rolls.
From the preceding statements it will be seen that this
allowance cannot be arbitrary. The allowance should be
increased in case of running very light slivers, in case of rolls
being used of coarser pitch than 32, in case of there being a
heavy draft in the machines, or where the front rolls are very
much larger than the back rolls. The allowance is materially
reduced in case of a heavy sliver being run through the machine,
in case of a light calculated draft, or in case of the back rolls
being larger than the front rolls.
The numerous causes of variation in the allowances render
it almost impossible to accurately figure drafts for metallic
rolls, and in making changes in machines fitted with metallic
rolls or in starting up such machines, it is necessary to experi-
ment somev/hat with different gears to arrive at the desired
result; but when this result is once obtained, and so long as the
conditions remain the same, the results from metallic rolls are
just as regular as from common rolls. The accompanying
table gives the allowances that should be made, under various
conditions, on the calculated draft for common rolls in order to
ascertain what the draft would be if metallic rolls of the same
diarneter were used and assuming that the front and back roUs
do not vary greatly in diameter.
The table must not be taken as arbitrary, for slight variations
from this must be expected in practice. Drafts from 5 to 8
may be considered medium drafts.
86" DRAFT CALCULATIONS
INCREASE IN DRAFT OF METALLIC ROLLS
Weight of Gliver
Light
Draft
Per Cent.
Medium
Draft
Per Cent.
Heavy
Draft
Per Cent.
50-grain
60-grain
70-grain
80-grain
90-grain
100-grain
llO-grain
120-grain
130-grain
140-grain
150-grain
sliver
sliver
sliver
sliver
sliver
sliver
sliver
sliver
sliver
sliver
sliver
7
6
5
4
3^
3
3
2-1
21
2
10
9
8
7
6
5^
5
4
31
3
12
11
10
9
8
7
7
6
51
5
4
DRAFT GEARS
In each principal train of gears connecting draft rolls, one
gear is always spoken of as the change gear or draft gear, and
this is the one that is usually changed for altering the draft of
the machine. The draft gear, as shown at g, Figs. 1 and 3, is
usually situated on a stud together with another gear /, which
is known as the crown gear in order to distinguish it from the
draft gear.
Any change in the draft gear alters the speed of the feed-
rolls, but the speed of the front rolls remains constant. Usually,
a larger draft gear will increase the speed of the feed-rolls, thus
producing less draft, because more cotton is being fed and there
has been no change in the length of the amount delivered. A
smaller gear will produce more draft.
It should also be noted that a change in the draft gear g,
Pig. 3, makes no difference in the ratio of speed between the
first and second rolls or between the third and fourth rolls, but
it does between the first and fourth and between the second
and third rolls. This is also true in regard to Fig. 4; that is
any change in the draft change gear g will only change the draft
between the sets of rolls where the break draft is located and
between the front and back rolls.
DRAFT CALCULATIONS 87
The following rules apply to drafts and draft gears when the
draft gear is a driver, assuming that the gear on the front roll
is a driver.
The draft gear required to give a certain draft when the
draft gear being used and the draft being produced axe known
may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the draft being
produced and divide the product by the draft desired.
Example. — Referring to Fig. 3, a draft gear of 65 teeth pro-
duces a draft of 5.86. What draft gear will be reqviired to pro-
duce a draft of 7?
Solution. —
65X5.86
= 54.41, a 54 draft gear
7
The draft a certain draft gear will produce when the draft
gear being used and the draft being produced are known, may
be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the draft being
produced and divide the product by the draft gear to be used.
Example. — Referring to Fig. 3, a draft gear of 65 teeth pro-
duces a draft of 5.86. What draft will a 54 draft gear produce?
65X5.86
Solution. — =7.053, draft
54 i-
The following rules apply to drafts and draft gears when the
draft gear is a driven, and for the purpose of illustration the
gear /, Fig. 3, which is a driven gear, will be considered as the
draft change gear.
The draft gear required to give a certain draft when the draft
gear being used and the draft being produced are known, may
be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the draft to be
produced and divide the product thus obtained by the draft being
produced.
Example. — Refenring to Fig. 3, a draft of 5.86 is being pro-
duced with a 98-tooth draft gear. What draft gear will be
required to give a draft of 7?
98X7
Solution. =117.06, a 117 draft gear
5.86
88 DRAFT CALCULATIONS
The draft a certain gear will give when the draft gear being
used and the draft that it is producing are known, may be
found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the draft that is being produced by the draft
gear that is to be used and divide the product thus obtained by the
draft gear being used.
Example. — Referring to Fig. 3, a draft of 5.86 is being pro-
duced with a 98 draft gear. What draft will be produced with a
117 draft gear?
5.S6X117
Solution. — = 6.996, draft
98
CONSTANTS
Constants are almost always used to shorten calculations
for draft. There are two kinds of constants used in these prob-
lems; namely, constant dividends and constant factors. A
constant dividend is a number which, when divided by the draft,
will give the necessary draft gear; or it may be defined as a
number which, v>rhen divided by the draft gear being used on a
machine, will give the draft that the machine is producing.
A constant factor- is a nvunber which, when divided into the
draft, will give the draft gear necessary to produce the desired
draft; or it may be defined as a number which, when multiplied
by the draft gear being used on a machine, will give the draft
that the machine is producing.
Each different make of machine and each different kind of
machine has a different constant.
Assuming that the gear on the front roll is a driver, the
following statements may be made:
When the draft gear is a driver, the constant is always a
constant dividend.
When the draft gear is a driven, the constant is always a
constant factor.
The draft constant of a machine may be found by the follow-
ing rule:
Rule. — Perform the calculations exactly the same as when
finding the draft, always considering the draft gear as a 1-tooth
gear, or omitting it from the calculation.
DRAFT CALCULATIONS 89
Example. — What is the constant dividend of the rolls
shown in Fig. 3?
Solution. —
11X98X70
=381, constant dividend
22X1X9
The draft when the constant dividend and draft gear are
known may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Divide the constant dividend by the draft gear.
Example. — ^What is the total draft for Fig. 3 with a 65 draft
gear at g, if the constant dividend is 381?
Solution. — 381 -^ 65 = 5.86, draft
The draft gear when the constant dividend and draft are
known may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Divide the constant dividend by the draft desired.
Example. — What draft gear will be required to produce a
draft of 5.86 if the constant dividend is 381?
Solution. — 381 -v- 5.86 = 65-tooth draft gear
Example. — Figure the constant for Fig. 3, using the same
train of gears as in the previous examples but considering the
gear / as the draft change gear.
Solution. —
11X1X70
= .0598, constant factor
22X65X9
The draft when the constant factor and draft gear are known
may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the constant factor by the draft gear.
Example. — What is the total draft for Fig. 3, considering
/ as the draft gear, if the constant factor is .0598, a 98-tooth
gear being used at /?
Solution. — .0598X98 = 5.86, draft
The draft gear when the constant factor and draft are known
may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Divide the draft by the constant factor.
Example. — ^What draft gear will be required at /, Fig. 3, to
produce a draft of 5.86 if the constant factor with / considered
as the change gear is .0598?
Solution. —
5.86-5- .0598=97.99, a 9S-tooth draft gear
90 DRAFT CALCULATIONS
From the examples given it will be noticed that a solution
does not always give an exact number of teeth for the change
gear. In such cases the nearest number is used. For example,
if the solution of a draft calculation should show that a 64.84
draft gear is required, then a 65 gear would be placed on the
machine, and even if the calculation should show that a 64.52
draft gear is required, a 65 gear would be used, except in cases
where extreme accuracy is desired. Under these circtimstances
either the back-roll gear or the crown gear would be changed.
When the crown or the back-roll gear is changed, it is generally
considered rhat one tooth in the draft gear is equal to two teeth
in the crown, or the back-roll gear. This allowance is near
enough for practical purposes and is the basis generally adopted
in the mill. For example, a draft gear figures 42^ with a 60
back-roll gear. A 42| draft gear cannot be used, so a 42 draft
gear and a 59 back-roll gear, or a 43 draft and a 61 back-roll
gear would probably be used.
DOUBLING
When calculating the effect of draft on the weight of the
sliver or roving, deHvered from a machine, it is always neces-
sary to take into consideration the number of ends that are
to be drawn into one. For example, six ends of roving are
run into one in a certain machine that has a draft of 6; conse-
quently, each end of roving must be drawn out to one-sixth
its former weight; but since there are six ends running into
one, then the weight per yard of the sliver delivered will be
the same as the weight per yard of a single sliver put up at
the back. Therefore, if six slivers, each weighing 65 gr. to
the yard, are run through a machine having a draft of 6, the
sliver that comes out at the front will have the same weight;
that is, 65 gr. Hence, when figuring the weight of product
in connection with the draft of a machine, it is always neces-
sary to take into consideration the number of ends that are
placed at the back and run into a single end at the front.
The weight of a sliver or roving produced by a machine
when the draft of the machine and the number and weight of
DRAFT CALCULATIONS 91
the ends put up at the back are known may be found by the
following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the weight per yard of the roving or sliver
at the back by the number of ends run into one at the back and
divide this product by the draft of the machine.
The draft of a machine when the number of ends at the back,
the weight of the sliver at the back, and the weight of the sHver
delivered are known may be found by the following nile:
Rule. — Multiply the weight per yard of the sliver at the back
by the number of ends run into one at the back and divide this
product by the weight per yard of the sliver delivered at the front.
The following rules will be found to apply to draft calcula-
tions when the weight of the sUver or roving is expressed in
hanks.
The hank of a roving made by a machine when the draft
of the machine and the number and hank of the ends put up
at the back are known may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the hank of the roving at the back by the
draft of the machine and divide this product by the number of
ends put up at the back.
The draft of a machine when the number of ends at the back,
the hank of the roving at the back, and the hank of the roving
delivered are known may be fotmd by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the hank of the roving delivered by the number
of ends put up at the back and divide by the hank of the roving
used at the back.
52 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
COTTON
Cotton is a vegetable fiber belonging to the order of the Mal-
vaceae and to the genus Gossypium. The principal species
cultivated for commercial purposes are: Gossypium herbaceum,
Gossypium arboreum, Gossypium hirsutum, and Gossypium
Barbadense.
Gossypium herbaceum grows from 2 to 6 ft. high and is found
native or exotic in Northern Africa and in Asia; it is also largely
cultivated in the United States of America.
Gossypium arboreum grows to the height of 15 or 20 ft.,
whence it derives the name of tree cotton. Although the
plant is found in Asia, it is most largely cultivated in Central
and South America.
Gossypium hirsutum is a shrubby plant, its maximimi height
being about 6 ft. The young pods are hairy; the seeds are
numerous, free, and covered with firmly adhering green down
under the long white wool.
Gossypium Barbadense attains a height of from 5 to 10 ft.
The seeds of this plant are black and smooth and the fiber the
longest known to commerce. The sea-island cotton plant of
the United States belongs to this species.
STRUCTURE OF COTTON FIBER
Cotton fiber, which to the naked eye appears to be a fine,
smooth, and solid filament, exhibits a somewhat complicated
structure when magnified. A inicroscopic view of _ cotton
fibers is shown in the accompanying illustration. Each fiber
appears to be a collapsed tube with corded edges, twisted
many times throughout its length. This semispiral construc-
tion assists in the formation of a strong yam, since in the for-
mation of the thread, the convolutions interlock with one
another. These convolutions are less and less frequent as
the fiber is less matured, and are almost altogether absent in
the immature fiber, which has merely the appearance of a
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
flattened ribbon when examined under a microscope. The
immature fiber is transparent and has a glossy appearance,
so that when it exists in any
quantity in a bale of cotton it
can readily be detected with
the naked eye.
Ignoring the removable for-
eign matter contained in raw
cotton, such as sand and other
mineral substances, leaf, and
pieces of boll, or stalk, it is
found to be composed of from
87 to 90% of cellulose, perme-
ated by about 1% or less of
mineral matter, and that each fiber is surrounded by soluble
substances of a waxy or oily nature present to the extent of
from 1 to 2%. Cellulose absorbs and retains moisture, the
cellulose in the cotton fiber, when in an air-dry condition,
containing about 7|%.
The quantity of removable foreign matter in cotton varies
greatly ^N-ith the variety, and even in different growths of the
same variety. It is present to the extent of from 1% in care-
fully-cultivated sea-island to 6%, or more, in coarse, negli-
gently-cultivated East Indian cotton.
Measurements of Cotton Fiber. — Cotton fibers even from
the same seed vary considerably in length and in diameter,
and only approximate measurements can be given. The
diameter of a cotton fiber varies from .0004 to .001 in., and
the length of the fiber from | in. to 21 in. Doctor Bowman is
the authority for stating that there are 140,000,000 fibers in
a pound.
The strength of Individual cotton fibers varies from 75
to 300 gr. Usually the long-stapled, fine cottons break
with the least strain, and the short coarse cottons stand
the greatest strain. The ordinary American cottons have
a breaking strain of from 120 to 140 gr. The specific
gravity of air-dry cotton is about 1.5.
54 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
SEA-ISLAND COTTON
Sea-island cotton is grown on islands off the coast of the
Southern States, and is recognized as being the best cotton
grown. It has a long, fine, strong and silky fiber with com-
I)aratively regular convolutions, a diameter of from .0004 to
.0006 in., and ranges in length from If to 2 J in.
Sea-island cotton is largely used for fine fabrics and for
thread and lace-making purposes. It is regularly spun into
from 150s to 400s yam, and occasionally, even for commercial
purposes, as high as 600s. Where great strength is required
for heavy goods, sea- island cotton is sometimes used, even
for coarse yarns; as, for example, the fabrics for tires, sail
cloth, and so on.
The vrariety of so-called Florida sea-island cotton is grown
on the mainland of Florida from sea-island seed; this is some-
what inferior to the sea-island proper, but is a very useful
cotton for making yams of a little better quality than those
made from Egyptian cotton. It has a white, glossy, strong fiber,
a little coarser than the strictly sea-island. It is suitable for
yams from 150s to 200s.
AMERICAN COTTON
Although the sea-island cottons just described are American,
this name is seldom applied to them, but is used to indicate
the typical cotton of the world, which is grown in the Southern
States of the United States and used wherever cotton-spinning
mills exist. The cotton described commercially as American
is sioited to medium numbers of yam; is usually clean, fairly
regular in length of staple, satisfactorily graded, and conse-
quently is one of the most reliable and useful cottons for a
manufacturer's use. The quantity is greater than that collect-
ively produced in all other parts of the world. American
cotton may be divided into three important classes; namely,
gulf cotton; uplands, or boweds; and Texas cotton.
Gulf, or New Orleans, cotton usually consists of cotton raised
in the basin of the Mississippi River. Gulf cotton is from 1 in.
to 1 J in. in length of staple, from .0004 to .0007 in. in diameter,
and is generally used for yarn from 28s to 44s warp and from
50s to 70s filling or ply. This kind of cotton may be subdivided
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 93
into others, known as Memphis, benders, Allan-seed, Peelers,
and so on. The best qualities of gulf cotton are known as
Allan-seed and Peelers. These are used for fine yarns, often
for fine combed yams, and by some spinners preferred to Egyp-
tian. The color is bluish white rather than cream-colored, and
somewhat resembles short Florida sea-island.
Uplands cotton is grown in the undulating country between
the ocean and the mountains in the states of Georgia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and Alabama. It is gen-
erally used for filling yams below 40s, although it may be spun
higher if required. The length of the staple is from | to 1 in.
and the fiber is from .0006 to .0007 in. in diameter. This cotton
is usually very clean.
The cultivation of Texas cotton is largely on the increase,
and for coarse warp yam it is the most suitable cotton. In
dry seasons it is apt to be somewhat harsh and brittle and
cannot be relied on as much as gulf or uplands cotton. The
staple is usually from | to 1 in. in length (sometimes exceeding
this), and from .0005 to .0007 in. in diameter. Up to 26s
and 32s warp yams and 32s and 40s filling yams are often
made from Texas cotton, although it is eminently useful for
warp, Oklahoma cotton is of the Texas style.
BROWN EGYPTIAN COXTON
The cotton used in American mills is largely grown in
the United States, but in the fine-spinning districts a quan-
tity of brown Egyptian cotton is used. The brown Egyp-
tian cotton is generally used for warp yarns from 50s up-
wards, and for filling yarns from 60s upwards intended
for use in fine-woven cotton goods. Some of this cotton is
also used for hosiery yarns and for the manufacture of
Balbriggan underwear; in this case it is spun into lower
numbers than those just mentioned.
Almost all the Egyptian cotton used in the United States
is combed. The features of brown Egyptian cotton are
the length of staple and fineness of the fiber, it being
very silky and delicate in 'structure.
96
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
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98 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
CLASSIFICATION OF COTTON
Cotton is seldom, if ever, purchased from the examination
of the bale, but from parcels containing small samples of cotton
from each bale, technically known as papers of samples. In
judging cotton from a sample, the first thing to do is to investi-
gate the authenticity of the sample. The points then deter-
GRADES OF AMERICAN COTTON
Full Grades
Half Grades
Quarter Grades
Fair
Middling fair
Good middling
Middling
Low middling
Good ordinary
Ordinary
Strict middling fair
Strict good middling
Strict middling
Strict low middling
Strict good ordinary
Strict ordinary
Low ordinary
Barely fair
Fully middling fair
Barely middling fair
Fully good middling
Barely good middling
Fully middling
Barely middling
Fully low middling
Barely low middling
Fully good ordinary
Barely good ordinary
Inferior
mined are: (1) the grade of the sample, (2) the staple, (3) the
color, (4) the quantity of sand, (5) the amount of dampness,
and (6) whether the cotton is even-running or not.
American cotton is usually graded according to a standard
agreed on in all the leading cotton markets of the world, the
highest grade being fair, followed by six other grades, the lowest
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 99
being ordinary; cotton of lower grade is called inferior.
The seven full grades of American cotton are fair,
middling fair, good middling, middling, low middling,
good ordinary, and ordinary.
This gradation is not sufficiently fine for the cotton
merchant, and consequently each grade is subdivided into
what are known as half grades and quarter grades as
shown in the accompanying table.
Government Cotton Classification.— In 1910, and sub-
sequently, the United States, through the Department of
Agriculture and the Bureau of Plant Industry, promul-
gated a new system of cotton classification. The inten-
tion was to make the grading of cotton a more exact
science and to insure that the cotton grower, the mills
consuming cotton, and all other parties concerned in
trading in cotton, performed their transactions on a more
definite basis as to the grade of cotton dealt with in any
particular case. It was believed that the various grades
of American cotton could be fully classified by a list of
nine grades, and the following grades, therefore, were
established: Middling fair, strict good middling, good
middling, strict middling, middling, strict low middling,
low middling, strict good ordinary, good ordinary.
Official standards for these grades were established and
a number of sets of cotton samples showing the standard
grades were prepared. Some of these standard sets were
placed in vacuum storage in vaults so that the standards
might not be deteriorated by exposure to air, light, heat,
etc. Other sets were prepared for practical use and for
distribution.
The United States Government standard cotton classi-
fication has been adopted by the cotton exchanges in
various American cities, but is not recognized in Eng-
land, Continental European countries, or in any other
foreign countries, with the single exception of the rather
unimportant Rotterdam cotton exchange at Rotterdam,
Holland. Also, with comparatively few exceptions,
domestic mills use the old system of classifying cotton in
26 grades in the buying of actual cotton for manufac-
100 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
turing purposes. Thus, the Government system is em-
ployed only for the classification of the very small
amounts of actual cotton carried by domestic exchanges,
tenderable in settlement of contracts, and in the com-
paratively few cases where disputes as to grade exist and
arbitration by the Secretary of Agriculture is involved.
Classifying Cotton.— Grade actually refers to the con-
dition of the cotton as regards cleanliness, that is, the
appearance of the cotton as to its freedom from leaf and
other impurities. Some graders take into consideration
what is known as bloom, or brightness, of the cotton,
which adds to the grade; also discoloration, known as off
color, or tinges, which detracts from the grade.
The word staple usually means the average length of
the bulk of the fibers forming the bale assessed, and is
found by taking a small portion of cotton, preparing a
tuft of fibers from which the very short fibers have been
removed, and then measuring the average length of fibers
remaining. Cotton is spoken of by the length of staple;
thus, 1-in. cotton, l|-in. cotton, and so on. There is
something more that is usually implied by the word staple
— strength of the fiber. This is determined by holding
one end of the tuft between the first finger and thumb of
each hand and breaking it. The word staple may there-
fore be taken to mean the average length of the fibers
forming the bale, and may also be understood to include
the strength of the fibers; thus the expressions length of
staple and strength of staple are obtained.
The rich, bright, creamy appearance of cotton, especially
in the early part of the year, is called the bloom. This
bloom is only found on certain growths of cotton and
adds somewhat to its value, especially where it is to be
used for making weft, or filling, yarn, or where the goods
are to be sold in their unbleached or undyed state.
Tinges, high color, or off color, should be looked for.
These are caused where the cotton has become tinged
while on the plant, through rain stains, or by having
fallen on the ground and become mixed with some of the
red clay of the cotton field.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 101
It is necessary to determine the quantity of sand and
dirt in the cotton. This is often done by raising the
cotton from the paper that holds it and noticing the
quantity of sand remaining on the paper, this sand having
fallen out by the repeated handling of the cotton. It is,
perhaps, better to hold the handful of cotton as high as
one's head and shake it so that the sand, if there is any,
can be seen to fall from it.
Another test is that for dampness. This can only be
detected in the sample paper if the samples are newly
drawn, in which case it can be felt by the hand. If the
samples have been in stock for some time, the water
originally contained in them will have evaporated and
cannot be ascertained unless it has previously been so
great as to cause a slight formation of mildew on the
cotton, in which case it is indicated by the smell.
The last point, and one that is important, is to see that
all bales are somewhat alike. Usually a sample paper is
made up of a handful of cotton from each of the lot of
bales; by testing first one sample and then another it is
determined whether the lot of cotton is even running.
Occasionally, however, if not graded properly a lot of
cotton is found to be mixed; some bales may be higher
grade than others, some may be longer-stapled than others, .
and even in the same bale an abnormal variation in
length and strength of staple may be found. Cotton of
this kind should be avoided altogether, as it is almost
impossible to make satisfactory yarn from such cotton.
World's Production of Cotton. — The world's production
of cotton varies in different years, the variation being
mainly caused by fluctuations in the crop of the United
States, which produces about two-thirds of all the cotton
used in the mills of the world. The total production is
usually not far from 19,000,000 bales of 500 lb. each,
British India produces about 15 per cent, of the total and
Egypt about 7 per cent, or a little less. Other countries
in comparison produce minor crops. Favorable or un-
favorable growing seasons have a marked effect on the
world's production of cotton in any specific year.
102 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
PROCESSES AND OBJECTS
In order to produce cotton yain, the fiber is passed through
a number of processes, varying from ten in a mill manufactur-
ing coarse yams to fifteen in one making fine yams. These
processes may be divided into three classes as folio «vs: (1) mix-
ing; (2) cleaning; (3) parallelizing and attenuating.
No arbitrary method can be given for distinguishing between
coarse, medium, and fine cotton yams, but a general classifica-
tion is to consider yams below 30s as coarse; from 30s to 60s
as medium numbers; and above 60s as fine yams. The pro-
cesses in mills vary according to whether coarse, medium, or
fine yarns are made. A mill making medium yams, for instance
about 32s, •x'.'^ould in most cases use the following machines:
automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, intermediate picker,
finisher picker, card, first drawing, second drawing, third
drawing, slubber, intermediate, roving frame, spinning frame.
In cases where the railway head is used, it comes between
the card and the first drawing; in this case the third drawing
is omitted. Where the bale breaker is used, it takes a position
before the automatic feeder. Where the mule is used, it takes
the place of the spinning frame.
The machinery for mills making 10s and below is as follows:
automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, intermediate picker,
finisher picker, card, first drawing, second drawing, slubber,
roving frame, spinning frame. The railway head may be used
instead of the first drawing process.
The machinery used in mills making about 100s is as follows:
automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, finisher picker, card,
sliver-lap machine, ribbon-lap machine, comber, first drawing,
second drawing, third drawing, fourth drawing (optional),
slubber, first intermediate, second intermediate, roving frame,
mule. Sometimes a drawing process is used between the card
and the sliver-lap machine. Where four processes of drawing
are used, the roving frame is not necessary, and where four
processes of fly frames (slubber, first intermediate, second
intermediate, and roving frame) are used, it is not always
necessary to have more than three processes of drawing,
although four may be used if required.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 103
The machinery used in yarn mills for making 200s is as
follows: automatic feeder, opener, breaker picker, card, sliver-
lap machine, ribbon-lap machine, comber, first drav«ring, sec-
ond drawing, third drawing, fourth drawing, slubber, first
interraediate, second intermediate, roving frame, mule.
Although the foregoing combinations may be considered
as the standards for the class of work to which they refer, it
occasionally happens that mills are found using different lay-
outs. This may be because the mill is intended to make a
lower or a higher grade of yarn than is customary for the
numbers referred to, or because it is a mill that has been changed
over from other numbers and ,the old machinery has been
retained; or there may be many other reasons.
The objects of all cotton-yam-preparation machines are:
(1) the separation of the matted mass of fiber into loose flakes
and the removal of the heavier and more bulky impurities,
which objects are principally attained in the opening and pick-
ing processes; (2) the further cleansing of the stock from light
and minute particles of foreign matter by such means as are
adopted in the carding and combing processes; (3) the parallel-
i2ing, evening, and attenuation of the fibers, as perform.ed in
the carding and drawing processes, in the fly frames, and in
the spinning process; (4) the strengthening of the product by
twisting, as exemplified in ring or mule spinning.
(^ COTTON MIXING
The objects of mixing the cotton from a number of bales are:
(1) to allow the cotton to assume its normal condition; (2) to
establish an average quality of grade in the lot.
The quantity of cotton tised in a mixing should be as large
as possible; for the larger the mixing, the easier it is to keep
the work uniform for a considerable length of time. In addition
to securing regularity, another reason for having large mixings
is to give cotton from compressed bales an opportunity to
expand.
Mixings when made by hand should occupy a considerable
amount of floor space. The first bale should be spread all
104
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
over this space, the second bale spread to cover the first, the
third to cover the second, and so on. When a mixing is
used, the cotton should be pulled away in small sections from
the top to the bottom of the mixing so as to obtain portions
of each. bale.
It is a good plan when using bales of difEerent marks, to
arrange the mixing so that no two bales of the same mark
shall come in contact with each other. The following rule is
used to find the number of sections that should be made in
order to obtain the correct proportion of each mark in a
section.
Rule. — To find the number of sections of which a mixing
should consist, find the largest number that will exactly divide the
number of bales of each mark. Then, to find the number of bales
of each mark that there should be in each section, divide the num-
ber of bales of each mark by the number of sections in the mixing.
Example. — Find a suitable order for mixing 100 bales, the
mixing to consist of 40 bales marked ABC; 20, G H I; 10, J
K L; and 30, D E F.
Solution. — 10 is the largest number that will exactly
divide 40, 20, 10, and 30; therefore, the mixing should be made
lip of 10 sections, and in order to prevent any two bales of the
same mark coming in contact with each other, they could be
arranged as follows:
GHI
DEF
ABC
JKL
DEF
AB C
GHI
ABC
DEF
AB C
If it is desired to mix exact proportions of different varieties
of cotton, as American with Egyptian, or where dyed stock of
one color, or more, is to be blended with white, the cotton may
be blended to better advantage at some of the subsequent
processes.
* 10 times.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 105
American cotton sometimes is mixed with Egyptian in order
to cheapen the mixture. Brazilian cotton is sometimes mixed
with American in order to increase the strength of the yam;
and rough Peruvian cotton is occasionally mixed with Egyp-
tian in order to give the latter woolly qualities.
Although cotton is often mixed in this way, there is a cer-
tain limit to the mixing of harsh and soft cottons; nor is it
practical to mix long- and short-stapled cotton, as the machines
of the later processes, if set for one length of staple, will either
damage cotton of a different length or cause an imperfect
prod act.
A machine known as a bale breaker is sometimes used in
mixing cotton. Its object is to separate the matted masses
of cotton and to deliver it in an open state to the mixing bins.
The principle employed in the bale breaker is to have three or
four pairs of rolls, each pair revolving at a higher rate of speed
than the preceding pair. The cotton fed to the pair that is
revolving at a slow speed is pulled apart when it comes under
the action of the pair revolving at a faster speed. The cir-
cumferential velocity of the second pair is about twice that of
the first pair, that of the third pair is about four times that
of the second, and that of the last pair is about five times that
of the third. The first set of rolls usually makes between
5 and 6 rev. per min.
The space between the different sets of rolls will be found
to vary, but usually from the center of one pair to the center
of the next is about 9 in.
These rolls vary in construction, in some cases being solid
with flutes their whole length, and in other cases are made
of rings having projecting spikes.
The cotton should not be fed in too thick layers, since this
is liable to strain the rolls; all the dirt from underneath the
machine, which consists chiefly of sand and other foreign sub-
stances, should be removed periodically; and the machine
should be properly oiled.
106
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
AUTOMATIC FEEDER
The automatic feeder is the first machine that receives the
cotton after it has been mixed, and is used for the purpose of
aiitomatically supplying or feeding the opener or the breaker
picker.
The accompanying illustration shows a section of an auto-
matic feeder. The cotton is placed in the hopper a, which
should be kept at least half full. The bottom apron ci tends
to carry the whole mass toward the lifting apron 02. The
spikes in, the lifting apron fill with fiber and often retain com-
paratively large bunches of stock. After filling, they continue
to move tipwards, and the tendency for so large a number of
points acting on the mass of cotton is to impart a rolling
motion to it. The stripping roll b acts continuously on the
cotton carried by the lifting apron. The surface of this roll,
moving in the opposite direction from the lifting apron and
only about 1 in. from the point of the spikes, strikes oflE the
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 107
excess cotton. The cotton remaining on the Hfting apron is
the quantity necessary to supply the machine to which the
feeder is attached, and must be removed from the pins carry-
ing it. This is done by the doffer beater c, the surface of
which moves in the same direction as the part of the apron
nearest to it, but at a greater speed. The fibers removed
from the Hfting apron are in small tufts, and a certain quan-
tity of sand, etc., is thrown out by the centrifugal force of
the doffer beater or drops by its own weight. This passes
through the bars of the grating d into the chamber n. The
cotton passes forwards and tlirough the passage e.
The capacity of automatic feeders is very great, but since
the amount of v/ork they do is governed entirely by the require-
ments of the machine they feed, they are rarely run at their
full capacity. Usually about 3,000 lb. in 10 hr. is the maximum
run through a feeder.
The feeder requires from 1§ to 2 H. P. and occupies a floor
space of about 6 ft. 4 in. by 6 ft. 6 in.
OPENER
The opener is not used in all mills, as the automatic feeder is
often connected directly to the breaker picker. The opener
has for its objects the cleaning of the heavy impurities from
the cotton and the separating of the cotton into small tufts
that are light enough in weight to be influenced by an air-
current generated by a fan in the succeeding machine. It
attains these objects by presenting a fringe of cotton to a beater
that makes from 1,200 to 1,800 rev. per min. This beater
usually has two blades, and consequently for every revolution
delivers two blows to the fringe of cotton. By this means any
foreign substance will be struck from the fringe of cotton as
it is held by the feed-rolls, and knocked through grid bars.
The tufts of cotton will also be removed from the fringe as
soon as they are released from the bite of the feed-rolls, and
thus they will be sufficiently light to be acted on by the air-
current that conveys the cotton to the next machine.
108
CO T TON- YA RN PREP A RA TION
BREAKER PICKER
. The breaker picker is the first machine that deals with the
cotton after it leaves the opener. This machine may receive
the cotton either directly from an automatic feeder or from
an opener through a trunk. The objects of the breaker picker
are: (1) To remove foreign matter, especially the heavier and
larger impurities, such as dirt, pieces of seed, leaf, etc.; (2) to
separate the tufts of cotton so that they may be more easily
manipulated at the next process; (3) to form the cotton into a
layer and wind it on a roll in a cylindrical form known as a
lap.
The method used to attain these objects is to have a rapidly
revolving beater strike a fringe of cotton, which is presented
to it by a slowly revolving pair of feed-rolls. The process of
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 109
cleaning is also aided by an air-current, which draws dust from
the cotton.
Pickers are known as pickers in single section or pickers in
double section, according to whether they give the cotton a
single or a double beating action.
The manner of feeding the picker by means of a condenser
and gauge box, when the cotton is conveyed through a trunk,
is shown in the accompanying illustration. The air-current that
draws the cotton from the opener through the trunk a is
generated by a fan b. After leaving the trunk, the cotton
first comes in contact with a c^'linder of wire netting known as
a cage, shown at c. About two-thirds of the inner circumfer-
ence of this cage is protected by a cradle d of sheet metal, which
prevents the cotton from being drawn to this protected part
of the cage, the air-current passing out through the ends of
the cage and down the passage bi. The cradle d remains sta-
tionary, but the cage c revolves in the direction shown by the
arrow, and thus the cotton, which is drawn to that part of the
cage that is not protected by the cradle, is brought around
until it comes under the action of the stripping rolls /, g, which
remove it from the cage. The cotton then drops into the
gauge box j and on to the apron k, from which it is removed
by the feed-rolls I, h, of the breaker picker.
The passage of cotton through breaker pickers in single
section, whether they are fed by a condenser and gauge box or
by a cage section, is the same.
After the cotton delivered by the feed-rolls I, h has been
struck by the rapidly revolving beater ai, it passes over grid
bars ci in order that any dirt or other foreign matter may be
separated and fall through the spaces between the bars. Then
it is carried over inclined cleaning, or grate, bars / so that other
foreign matter, too heavy to be carried by the air-current,
may have an opportunity of dropping through the spaces
between the bars. This cleaning process is continued while
the cotton collects in a layer on the surface of two revolving
cages or screens, e, ei, through which a current of air is drawn
by a revolving fan k. The cotton, now in the form of a sheet or
layer, is removed by stripping rolls p and allowed to pass over
a stripping plate r, between smooth calender, or presser, rolls
110 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
s, si, 52, 53, bet-ween rolls Si and t, and round the lap roll v that
rests on the fluted calender rolls t, h, thus forming the lap x.
The draft of a breaker picker is usually a little less than 2,
and is figured from the fluted calender rolls to the feed-rolls.
The floor space of a breaker varies according to the style
and make of the machine. One type of a single-beater breaker
with a cage section occupies a floor space of 13 ft. 9 in. by
6 ft. 8 J in., allowing for trunk connections. A double-beater
machine, other particulars as above, occupies 19 ft. 10 in. by
(■) ft. 8| in. Where a condenser and gauge box are used
instead of a cage section, from 7 to 9 in. may be deducted
from the length given above. These measurements are for
pickers that make laps 40 in. wide.
When in single section, breaker pickers require about 4|
H. P.; when in double section, about 7 H. P.
The production depends on the speed, width of lap, and
weight of lap per yard. A common production is about 500 lb.
per hour, or 25,000 lb. for a week of 50 hr. actual running time.
INTERMEDIATE AND FINISHER PICKERS
Intermediate and finisher pickers are practically alike in
construction and differ very little from a breaker picker in
single section. Their objects are the same as those of the
breaker picker; the lap that they produce, however, is of a
more uniform weight per yard.
Four laps taken from the previous picker are placed on the
feed apron and thus the advantage gained by doubling is
secured.
EVENER MOTION
After it is delivered by the feed-rolls, the cotton is treated
in the same manner as in the breaker picker, but the manner
in which it is fed into the intermediate and the finisher picker
is somewhat different from that in a breaker picker, on account
of the evener motion, the object of which is to regulate the speed
of the feed-roll in accordance with the weight of cotton fed so
that a uniform weight will be presented to the beater.
CO TTON- YARN PREPARA TION
111
Fig. 1 IS a complete view of all the attachments of an evener
motion. The manner in which this evener regulates the speed
of the feed-roll in accordance with the weight of cotton fed
is as follows: The sectional plates d are pressed down on the
roll c by the weight fi, shown on the lever /, through the con-
nection made by ei and the saddles. The distance that these
plates are raised from the roll c is governed by the quantity cf
cotton that passes between them and the roll; and the distance
these plates are raised will govern the position of the belt on
Fig. 1
the cones, and, consequently, the speed of the roll c that feeds
the cotton.
When the proper weight of cotton is being fed uniformly
throughout the length of the feed-roll c, the plates are raised
the same distance from the roll c and the belt should be exactly
in the center of the cones. If, however, a portion of cotton
1 in. thicker than the average thickness comes under the section
plate at the extreme left, this section plate will be raised 1 in.
from its normal position. The result of this will be that the
end of the lever ei resting on this plate will be raised 1 in..
112 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
which in turn will raise the end of the lever €2 connected to
ei J in. The end of the lever es that is connected to this lever ea
will therefore be raised I in., which, by causing the pin d to
be raised | in., will result in the lever / being raised | in. at
the point /i.
As the lever / cannot rise at /2, its other end must rise and,
through the rod g, turn the shaft gi. The segment h will
therefore be moved, and through the gears hi, ho, and the rack k,
the belt will be guided on to the smaller part of the lower, or
driving, cone, thus decreasing the speed of the feed-roll and
reducing the weight of cotton ted. As soon as this heavier
portion of cotton has passed and the correct weight is fed,
the parts will be brought to their normal positions by means of
the weight on the lever /.
In this illustration, an extreme case has been taken, as it
is seldom that an extra portion of cotton 1 in. thicker than
the average comes under one of the section plates; but the
belt would be moved the same distance if a portion of cotton
I in. thicker than the average should come under all the sec-
tion plates. If four of the plates are raised 5 in. from their
normal position, it will have the same effect as raising each
plate I in. It is therefore obvious that the arrangement is
designed to insure a uniform weight of cotton being fed,
regardless of the number of plates that are affected.
MEASURING MOTION
The measuring motion is used to a greater extent on inter-
mediate and finisher pickers than on breaker pickers. Its
object is, when a definice length has been wound on the lap
roll, automatically to stop the feed-rolls, the smooth calender
rolls, and in some cases the fluted calender rolls, .while the
beater shaft and fans continue to revolve.
A view of a measuring motion is shown in Fig. 2 ; a represents
the end of the bottom calender roll, carrying a worm b, which
through a worm-gear c, a shaft ci, and a bevel gear d, diives a
bevel gear e. The gear e, together with a dog /, is loose on a
stud g and carries a projection ci, the dog / also carrying a
projection /i. The dog, if allowed to do so, would fall because
of its own weight so that its point would be down, but as the
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
113
gear e receives motion from the bottom calender roll, the pro-
jection ei on the gear e comes in contact with the projection /i
on the dog / and thus continually forces the dog around ahead
of it; consequently, when the projection ei is at its highest
position, the parts mentioned occupy the position shown.
As the gear e continues to revolve, the dog / will be brought
in contact with a projection on a lever h that is connected
to the starting lever hi fulcrumed at hi. Connected to hi is a
rod j, that runs along the side of the picker and connects
with a double worm r. Fig. 3. A bracket k. Fig. 2, is also
attached to the rod h2, and attached to this bracket is a rod ki
'^^
Fig. 2
that connects with the clutch I, Fig. 4, through which the lap
head is driven.
When the picker is running, the cut-out, shown in dotted
lines, in the lever h. Fig. 2, has a bearing on a casting, and
thus the starting lever hi is held in such a position that the
worm r. Fig. 3, is in contact with the worm-gear n the clutch I,
Fig. 4, being closed. When, however, the gear e. Fig. 2, has
made one revolution and has brought the dog / into contact
with the lever h, any further movement causes the dog / to
force the cut-out on h from its bearing. This causes the start-
ing lever hi to drop, disconnecting the clutch I; the worm r
is also thrown out of gear, causing the calender rolls and the
feed-rolls to stop.
114 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
GEARING
The gearing of a picker equipped with the evener motion
illustrated in Fig. 1, is shown in Fig. 4. The beater shaft m
is driven from a countershaft, and carries the usual pulleys
for driving the fan and feed-rolls.
The feed-pulley mi drives a pulley 7W2 on a shaft n extending
Fig. 3
across the picker. From this shaft, the cones and the feed-rolls,
together with the feed-apron, are driven. As the feed-apron is
driven through the cones, its speed will always be in accord-
ance with that of the feed-rolls. The lap head, cages, and
stripping rolls are driven through a side shaft p, which receives
its motion froxn the shaft n.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
2f Omft Genra
lis
Fig. 4
116 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
The measuring motion is provided with change gears, "by
means of which different lengths of laps can be procured.
When finding the length of lap, the number of revolutions
made by the bottom calender roll while the knock-off gear is
revolving once should first be determined; this result multi-
plied by the circumference of the roll will give the length of
lap. Referring to Fig. 2, the bottom calender roll a is 7 in.
in diameter, 6 is a single worm, and the worm-gear c is the
change gear; the gear d has 21 teeth, and the knock-off gear e
has 30 teeth.
The length of lap delivered when using a 45-tooth change
30X45-
gear is as follows: ■=64.285 revolutions of roll to one
21X1
revolution of gear e. 64.285X7X3.1416 = 1,413.704 in.;
1,413.704 inches -^ 36 = 39.269 yd., length of lap.
This example could also be expressed as follows:
30X45X7X3.1416
— = 39.26 yd.
21X1X36
A constant for the measuring motion may be obtained by
omitting the change gear or considering it a 1-tooth gear.
This constant, multiplied by the nimiber of teeth in any change
gear, will give the length of lap delivered when using that
gear, and consequently the gear for producing a certain length
may be found by dividing the length of lap required by the
constant. The constant is obtained as follows:
30X(1)X 7X3.1416
— ^-^ = .8726, constant
21X1X36
Draft of Intermediate and Finisher Pickers. — The draft
change gears are shown in Fig. 4; there are two change gears
ni, «2. so that if the proper draft cannot be obtained by changing
one gear, the other may be changed. The draft. of an inter-
mediate picker is usually about 4.25 and that of a finisher
picker about 4.50, when there are 4 laps up at the back.
The total draft of the machine shown in Fig. 4, with a gear
of 55 teeth on the lower-cone shaft meshing with a gear of 35
teeth, and with the belt in the center of the cones, is as follows:
9X24X12X17X18X27X55X9X78X24
24X53X96X60X27X35X9X2X12X3
= 4.422, draft
COTTON -YARN PREPARATION 117
CALCULATION OF COLORED MIXES
Colored mixtures of stock are often made by the combination
of laps on the intermediate and finisher pickers. The follov^'ing
method may be used in finding the percentage of any material
or color in the laps from the finisher picker, whatever may be
the weight of the laps fed to either the intermediate or finisher
picker, the colors or materials fed, etc.
Let A =■ sum of the weight per yard of the laps of any one
color, or kind, fed to the intermediate picker;
B = sum of the weight per yard of all of the laps fed to
the intermediate picker;
C = sum of the weight per yard of the "mixture" laps
from the intermediate picker that are fed to the
finisher picker;
D = sum of the weight per yard of the laps of the same
color (as tmder A) that are fed to the finisher
picker;
£ = sum of the weight per yard of all of the laps fed to
the finisher picker ;
F = percentage of any color or stock (as under A and U)
in the laps from the finisher picker.
Then, ^. (AXO + (BXD) ^,p„
Example. — An intermediate picker is fed with two black
laps, each weighing 14 oz. per yard, and also with one white
lap and one red lap, each weighing 13 oz. per yard. The
■ finisher picker is fed with two of the "mixture" laps made by
the intermediate, each weighing 13J oz. per yard, and also
with one white lap weighing 13 oz. per yard and one black lap
weighing 14 oz. per yard. What is-the percentage of each
color in the laps made by the finisher picker?
Solution. — Considering black, the value of A will be 14 oz.
+ 14 oz. = 28 oz.; B will equal 14 oz. + 14 oz. + 13 oz. + 13 oz.,
or 54 oz. ; C will have a value of 13^ oz. + 13| oz. = 27 oz.; D is
valued at 14 oz., and the value of E will be 13^ oz. + 13| oz.
+ 13 oz. + 14 oz. = 54 oz.
118 COTTON -YARN PREPARATION
Then,
-J, (28X27 ) + (54X14) ^^,^^ 1,400 __3^ ....
F = 54^-54 ^ 100 = -^f- = Slff % of black
Taking white into consideration, A will have a value of 13 oz.
and D will equal 13 oz. Other values will be the same as in
the case of black.
Then,
F- »^X^J>+f/X"> X100-f = 36i% of white
Finally, in calculating the percentage of red, A will equal
13 oz. and D will have a value of zero; other values are as in
the previous instances.
Then,
a3X27) + (54X0)^^.- 325 ,_,^ , ,
^ = 545<54 X100 = — = 12^V% of red
Proof.— 51M% +36*% + 125V% = 100%.
Note. — This example purposely has been made more diversi-
fied than will likely be encountered in actual mill practice, in
order that the operation of the formula may be clearly shown.
When four, laps of uniform weight are employed on the
intermediate and finisher pickers, a more simple formula
may be used, as follows:
Let ^ = number of laps of any color fed to the inter-
mediate picker;
jB=number of laps of the same color fed to the
finisher picker;
C=number 01 "mixture" laps fed to the finisher
picker;
Z)=percentage of color (as under A and B) in laps
from finisher picker.
Then, D=6lAC+2iB
Example. — ^Assume that an intermediate picker is fed
with two laps of black and two white laps. The finisher
is fed with one "mixture" lap, one black lap and two laps
of white. What is the percentage of black in the finished
laps?
Solution.— £»=(6iX2Xl) + (25Xl)
D=12i+2S
Z?=37S% of black
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
119
CARE OF PICKERS
The making of a good lap is an important point. It should
be perfectly cylindrical when removed from the machine, and
should feel as firm at one point as at another. It should
be built so that the layers will unroll easily at the next process
without sticking together. The defect known as splitting, or
licking, is due to various causes, such as excessive fan speed,
improper division of the air-currents, oil dropping on the
cotton, etc.
The laps delivered should be as near a uniform weight as
possible. Each lap from the finisher picker is usually weighed,
and a variation of ^ lb. in either direction is allowed; that is,
if laps weighing 35 lb. are delivered when they are the correct
weight per yard, any laps weighing between 34 J and 35§ lb.
are allowed to pass. Laps weighing outside this range should
be put back and ran over again, and if too many of these laps
are uniformly heavy or light, the regulating screw on the
evener should be adjusted.
Below is given a table showing for what numbers of yarn
certain weights of lap are generally used:
WEIGHT OF LAPS FOR VARIOUS COUNTS OF YARN
Weight of Lap per Yard
Numbers of Yarn
From Finisher Picker
Ounces
Is to 10s
14.0
10s to 20s
13.5
20s to 30s
13.0
30s to 40s
12.0
40s to 50s
11.5
50s to 60s
11.0
60s to 70s
11.0
70s to 80s
11.0
80s to 90s
10.0
90s to 100s
10.0
100s to 120s
9.5
120s to 150s
9.0
A good production for an intermediate or finisher picker
is about 12,500 lb. per week, allowing from 6 to 10 hr. for
120 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
stoppages. A finisher picker for making 40-in. laps occupies
a floor space of about 16 ft. by 6 ft. 8^ in. and requires about
4 H. P. to drive it.
COTTON CARDS
The lap of cotton as it leaves the picker consists of cotton
fibers crossed in all directions, together with a small quantity
of foreign matter, consisting more especially of lighter impurities
such as pieces of leaf, seed, or stalk, and thin membranes from
the cotton boll.
The objects of carding are: (1) The disentangling of the
cotton fibers, or the separation of the bunches, or tufts, of
fiber into individual fibers, and the commencement of their
parallelization; (2) the removal of the smaller and lighter
impurities; (3) changing the formation of cotton from a lap
to a sliver, accompanied by the reduction of the weight per
yard of the material.
Carding is really a straightening and brushing action, the
fibers being operated on by vAve teeth, known as card clothing
which have the effect of loosely holding a few fibers at a time
and striking them as with a comb.
THE REVOLVING-TOP FLAT CARD
T'he cm'd that is almost universally adopted for cotton
carding is known as the revolving-top flat card, sometimes
spoken of as the revolving flat card. A section through this
card is shown in Fig. 1. At the back of the card is shown the
lap 02, which has a rod ai passed through its center and rests
on the lap roll a. The lap roll a is constructed of wood and is
either fluted or has a rough surface, sometimes produced by
covering it with, a coat of paint mixed with sand, in order to
cause the lap to unroll by friction with the lap roll and without
any slippage.
The cotton is drawn over the feed-plate b by the feed-roll bi,
the single layer, or sheet, leaving the lap at the point 05. The
feed-plate b extends under the feed-roll bi, with its nose pro-
jecting upwards in front of the feed-roll almost to the teeth
shown on the circumference of the licker c. The feed-roll 61
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
121
122 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
revolves in the direction indicated by the arrow. Above the
feed -roll rests a small iron rod 62 that is revolved by frictional
contact with this roll and, since it is covered with flannel,
collects any fiber or dirt that may be carried upwards over the
surface of the feed-roll and thus acts as a clearer. It also
serves to prevent any air-current from passing between the
feed-roll and the licker cover.
The lap roll a is positively -geared with the feed-roll 61 in
such a manner that the feed-roll takes up exactly the amount
of cotton delivered by the lap roll, without any strain or
sagging, and as it revolves carries this cotton over the nose
of the feed-plate so that a fringe is brought under the action
of the licker c. The distance between the bite of the feed-roll
and the lower edge of the face of the feed-plate should be from
t's to I in. longer than the average length of the cotton being
worked, as it is necessary that the fibers should be free from
the bite of the feed-roll before the action of the teeth of the
licker exerts its greatest pull.
At the nose of the feed-plate, the licker is moving in a down-
ward direction and the strong, triangular teeth are pointing
in the direction of its revolution. Since the fringe of cotton is
held by the roll, it will be disentangled as the teeth pass through
it. When the cotton is released from the bite of the feed-roll,
it will be taken by the teeth of the licker. Any short fibers,
however, that are not sufficiently long to be secured by the
licker will fall through the space between the two knives d, di,
which are known as viote knives.
Underneath the licker is a casing ci known as the licker
screen. This casing is made of tin and extends across the
card. The portion of the screen directly under the licker is
composed of transverse bars ca, triangular in shape with rounded
comers and set with their bases inverted. As the licker revolves,
heavy impurities that were not previously taken out will be
thrown through the openings in the screen. The top of the
licker is protected by a metal cover cz known as the licker
caver, or bonnet, which is curved to correspond with the
curved surface of the licker.
Situated about midway between the back and front, of the
card, and a prominent feature in its construction, is the cylinder
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 123
e, mounted on the shaft ei. This cylinder is usually 50 in.
in diameter; its width depends on the width of the card,
being usually 36, 40, or 45 in. The surface of the cylinder
is covered with card clothing, which is a fabric with wire teeth
embedded in it and projecting through it at an angle. The
teeth on the surface of this cylinder point in the direction of
its motion. A point on the surface of the cylinder travels
about 2,150 ft. per min. The teeth of the clothing are set
very closely in the fabric, there being about 72,000 points to the
square foot and more than 3,000,000 points on the entire
cylinder. The fibers are transferred to the surface of the cylin-
der, which is rendered possible by the respective directions of
motion of the cylinder and licker and by the direction in which
their teeth are pointing. The cylinder is also revolving at
more than double the surface speed of the licker, and conse-
quently the fibers are swept off the surface of the licker where
the surfaces of the licker and cylinder are closest and carried
upwards on the surface of the cylinder.
A cover ei, which is known as the back knife plate, protects
the cylinder at this point and prevents an air-cuixent from
being formed by the motion of the cylinder. Above the
cylinder and partly surrounding its upper portion is a chain
of fiats /. These are the parts that give the name revolving-
top flat card to the card. They are made of cast iron, approxi-
mately T-shaped in section, and are partly covered with card
clothing about tI in. wide. I'he fiats are so arranged that
they will be supported immediately above the cylinder without
coming in contact with it. About forty of the fiats rest on a
flexible bend at each side of the card.
The chain of flats is not stationary, but moves at a very
slow speed, the flats nearest the cylinder moving toward the
front of the card, while, of course, the flats that are not working
are carried backwards over the top of those that are at work.
The cotton is carried upwards and forwards by the cylinder
to the point where the flats and cylinder are close together.
When the cylinder reaches the first flat, the cotton on its
surface has a tendency to project from it on account of the
centrifugal force of the cylinder, and comes in contact with
the teeth at the toe of the first flat. The stock is gradually
124 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
drawn through the teeth of the flat, receiving a combing or
carding action. Some of the fibers that have not projected
sufficiently may not have received any carding action, and
the cylinder carries them forwards to the next flat. The
fibers that have been carded once may be carded again, with
such additional fibers as are brought vmder the action of the
succeeding flat, and so on throughout the entire series. The
small impurities are left behind, since they are forced between
the teeth of the wire on the flats or cylinder and remain
there until the wire is cleaned, or stripped. Thus the short
fibers and impurities are retained, and the long, clean fibers
are passed forwards.
At the front of the card in Fig. 1 is shown a comb j supported
by arms ji. This comb consists of a thin sheet of steel attached
to a shaft and having its lower edge serrated. An oscillating
motion is given to the comb by means of a cam, and at each
stroke it strips from a flat a portion of the short fiber, leaf,
and other impurities that adhere to its face.
After the waste, known as flat strippings, has been removed
by the comb j, the flats are brushed out by means of the brush
k. The brush after it has operated on the flats is cleaned by
means of a hackle comb ki.
Beneath the cylinder is placed a screen es. This consists
of circular frames on each side of the card, practically corre-
sponding to the curvature of the cylinder and connected by
triangular cross-bars e^. As the cylinder revolves, the fibers
that project come in contact with the screen, and thus the
dirt and other foreign substances will be struck off or thrown
through the openings in the screen.
Directly in front of the cylinder is the doffer m, which is
constructed on the same principle as the cylinder. The doffer
is covered with card clothing in a similar manner to the cylin-
der, except that the wire on the doffer is more closely set and
somewhat finer. The doffer is the same width as the cylinder,
but is of a much smaller diameter, usually 27 in. The doffer
revolves in the opposite direction to that of the cyUnder, and
the teeth of the cylinder and doffer point in opposite directions.
The surface speed of the doffer, which varies from 44 to 107 ft.
per min., is much less than that of the cylinder. As the cylinder
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 125
approaches the doffer its surface is covered with separate
fibers of cotton. Since it is set within about .005 in. from the
doffer and the doffer is revolving so much more slowly, the
fibers of cotton are deposited by the cylinder on the face of
the doffer.
There is no screen beneath the doffer, as it is unnecessary,
but placed above it is a protection consisting of a metal cover
rrn known as the doffer bonnet. At the point ms it extends
to, and is almost in contact with, a plate of steel es placed over
the front part of the cylinder. Above this is a plate en known
as the front knife plate. A draft strip, or making-up piece, me
is placed in the recess formed by the doffer bonnet and the
plate es, so as to fit the angle between the doffer and the
cylinder and thus prevent dirt from entering. It also prevents
drafts and thus does away with flyings.
The cotton is carried around by the doffer on its under side
until it reaches the doffer comb n, which has an oscillating
motion of about 1,800 or 2,000 strokes per min. The com.b
consists of a thin sheet of steel attached to a shaft by a number
of small arms, and has its lower edge serrated. The down-
ward strokes of th.e comb are in the 'same direction that the
teeth of the doffer are pointing and close to them, thus making
the operation of removing the cotton very easy.
The cotton, when it leaves the doffer, is in a web, which
must be reduced to a sliver. This is attained by passing the
cotton through a guide and then through a trumpet o, on the
other side of which are two calender rolls oi, 02. The object
of these rolls is to compress the sliver so that it will occupy a
comparatively small space.
From the calender rolls 01, 02 the cotton passes through a
hole in the cover p of an upright framework., known as the
coiler head. It is drawn through the hole in the cover by two
coiler calender rolls, which further condense it, and is then deliv-
ered into an inclined tube on a revolving plate. The end of
the tube that receives the cotton is in the center of the plate,
directly under the calender rolls, and the end of the tube
from which the cotton is delivered is at the outer edge of the
plate. At the bottom of the coiler head is a plate on which
rests the can that receives the sliver. In consequence of the
126 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
sliver being delivered down the rotating tube, it will describe
a circle and be laid in the can in the form of coils.
CARD CLOTHING
Card clothing is the material with which the cylinder, doflfer,
and flats of the card are covered and by means of which. the
cotton is opened and the fibers straightened and laid parallel
to each other. It consists of wire teeth bent in the form of a
staple and inserted in a suitable foundation material. The
teeth in addition to being bent in the form of a staple, also
have a forward bend, or inclination, from a point known as
the knee of the tooth. The part of the tooth that is on the
back of the foundation after the tooth has been inserted is
known as the crown of the tooth.
The foundation material must be such that it will not
stretch after it is applied to the card, for if the clothing becomes
loose it will rise in places, or as is commonly said, will blister.
The foundation generally used is a fabric woven from cotton
and woolen yams, although sometimes cotton and linen are
employed", the linen being used on account of its strength and
freedom irom stretching.' The fotmdation is generally woven
three or four ply, in order to obtain the required strength
and the thickness that is necessary to secure the teeth. Some-
times the stirface of the foundation is coated with a veneer
of India rubber.
The wire teeth actually do the carding, the separating of
the cotton, fiber from fiber, and the rearranging in a homo-
geneous mass in which the fibers lie more or less parallel. The
material from which the wire is made, the number (diameter)
of the wire, the angle at which the wire passes through the
foundation, the angle at the knee of the tooth, the relative
height of the knee and point, and the method of insertion in
the foundation are all important considerations.
Clothing is set with many different kinds of wire, such as
iron, brass, mild steel, tempered steel, tinned steel, etc., but
for cotton carding hardened and tempered steel, which makes
a springy, elastic tooth that will not easily be bent out of place
or broken, is the best material. The wire generally used is
round in section, but various other shapes have been used.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
127
After the wire has been set in the foundation it is ground
to a point, and this alters the form of the section of the tooth
at the point, or in some cases as far down as the knee. There
are three methods of grinding the clothing, which give to it the
following names: (1) top-ground; (2) needle-, or side-ground;
(3) plow-ground.
Top-ground wire is obtained by an emery grinding roll
having a very slight traverse motion, so that the point of the
tooth is ground down only on the top, producing what is
known as a flat, or chisel, point.
In the needle-, or side-, ground wire the thickness of the
tooth is reduced at the sides for a short distance from the point
and the wire is also ground down at the top. This form 'of
point is known as the needle point and is produced by a compara-
tively narrow emery grinding v/heel that, in addition to having
COMPARATIVE DIAMETERS OF ENGLISH AND
AMERICAN STANDARD WIRES
Birmingham
Number of Wire
American
Diameter in Inches
Diameter in Inches
.014
28
.012641
.013
29
.011257
.012
30
.010025
.010
31
.008928
.009
32
.007950
.008
33
.007080
.007
34
.006305
.005
35
.005615
.004
36
.005000
a rotary motion, is rapidly traversed back and forth across
the clothing.
Both top and needle grinding are practiced in the mill, the
former being accomplished with the. so-called dead roll and the
latter with the traverse grinding roll, but plow grinding is
usually done by the manufacturers of the clothing. With
this method of grinding, the thickness of the wire is reduced
by grinding down each side from the point o^ the tooth to the
knee.
128 .COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
The diameter of the wire varies according to the class of
cotton to be carded. There are two gauges employed for
numbering wire for card clothing,' nameiy, the Birmingham,
which is the English standard, and the American standard.
The accompanying table shows the comparative diameters
of different numbers of wire of each system:
For an average grade of cotton. No, 33 wire (American
gauge) for the doffer and flats and No. 32 for the cylinder
will give good results, although some carders prefer one number
finer in each instance; for coarse work the wire is increased in
diameter, and for finer work decreased. The cylinder should
always be covered with wire one number coarser than the
dcfier and fiats, which should have wire of the vsame diameter.
CALCULATIONS
Card clothing for cotton cards is made in long continuous
strips 1 to 2 in. in width known as fillet or filleting, and in
narrow sheets known as tops; the former is used for covering
the cylinder and doffer and the latter is used for the flats.
Fillet clothing is made rib set; that is, with the crowns of the
teeth, on the back of the clothing, running in staggered ribs,
or rows, lengthwise of the fillet. The teeth are set into tops
so that the crowns of the teeth on the back side of the founda-
tion are twilled; that is, they are set in diagonal lines like a
piece of twilled cloth.
Card clothing in America, unless especially ordered, is made
with 4 crowns in 1 in. on the back of the clothing, or 8
points in 1 in. on the face, and is known as 8-crown clothing.
From this it will be seen that a 2-in. fillet will have 8 ribs on
the back and a l|-in. fillet, 6 ribs, etc. Sometimes in special
cases where a large number of points per square foot are
desired, the clothing is made 10-crown; that is, with 10 points
per in. in width on the face of the clothing, or 5 crowns per in.
on the back of the clothing.
The term nogg, which is used in connection with card
clothing, refers to the distance between the first tooth of one
line of twill and the next line. Owing to the manner in which
the teeth are set in fillet clothing, there are always one-half the
number of teeth per nogg and twice the number of noggs per
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 129
inch as in clothing for tops with the same number of points
per square foot. The number of noggs per inch always governs
the number of points per square foot in the clothing. If more
points per square foot are wanted, the noggs per inch are
increased; if fewer points are wanted, the noggs per inch are
decreased, the crowns always remaining the same.
The points per square foot in card clothing may be found
by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the crowns per inch by the points per tooth
(2), by the teeth per nogg, by the noggs per inch, and by the number
of square inches in a square foot {144)-
Example 1 . — Find the points per square foot in a sample of
rib-set card clothing; the crowns per inch are 4, the teeth per
nogg 3, and the noggs per in. 16.
Solution. —
4 crowns per m.
2 points per tooth
8 points per in.
3 teeth per nogg
24
1 6 noggs per in.
iTI
24
3 8 4 points per sq. in.
1 4 4 in. per sq. ft.
153 6
1536
3 84
5 5 2 9 6 points per sq. ft.
Dividing the points per square foot by the noggs per inch,
thus, 55,296-^16 = 3,456, it will be noticed that with 8-crown
fillet (4 crowns per inch) each nogg increases the points
per square foot by 3,456. Prom this it will be seen that in
order to find the points per square foot in 8-crown fillet
clothing it is only necessary to multiply the noggs per inch
by 3,456.
Example 2. — Find the points per square foot in a sample
of twill-set card clothing, the crowns per inch being 4, teeth
per nogg 6, and the noggs per inch 8.
130
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Solution. — 4 crowns per in.
2 points per tooth
8 points per in.
6 teeth per nogg
48
8 noggs per in.
3 8 4 points per sq. in.
1 44
1 .5 3 6
153 6
3 84 _
5 5 2 9 6 points per sq. ft.
Dividing the points per square foot by the noggs per inch,
thus, 55,296-^8 = 6,912, it will be noticed that with 8-crown
twill-set clothing each nogg increases the points per square
POINTS PER SQUARE FOOT IN RIB-SET
CLOTHING
Noggs per Inch
Points per Square
Foot
American Number
of Wire
10
34,560
28
11
38,016
28
12
41,472
29
13
44,928
29
14
48,384
30
15
51,840
30
■ 16
55,296
31
17
58,752
31
18
62,208
32
19
65,664
32
20
69,120
33
21
72,576
33
22
76,032
34
23
79,488
34
24
82,944
35
25
86,400
35
26
89,856
36
27
93,312
36
foot by 6,912. To find the points per square foot in twill-set
clothing multiply the noggs per inch by 6,912.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
131
In the preceding table is given the number of points per
square foot of 8-crown, rib-set fillet (4 crowns per inch) with
3 teeth per nogg and with from 10 to 27 noggs per in. The
table also shows the numbers of wire (American gauge) gener-
ally used in each case.
In the following table is given the number of points per
square foot of 8-crown, twill-set clothing with 6 teeth per nogg
and with from 5 to 13 noggs per inch.
POINTS PER SQUARE FOOT IN TWILL-SET CLOTfflNG
Noggs per Inch
Points per Square
Foot
American Number
of Wire
5
34,560
28
6
41,472
29
7
48,384
30
8
55,296
31
9
62,208
32
10
69,120
33
11
76,032
34
12
82,944
35
13
89,856
36
For an average grade of cotton the doffer should have 20 or 21
noggs per in. and the fiats 10 or 10| noggs per in., which in
each case would give 69,120 or 72,576 points per sq. ft. For the
main cylinder 18 or 19 noggs per in. are suitable, which would
give 62,208 or 65,664 points per sq. ft. The number of points
may of course be varied to suit the class of work, but it is
generally desirable to have the same number of points in the
doffer and fiats; and the main cylinder should have a slightly
smaller ntmiber than either.
English Method of Numbering Card Clothing. — English
card clothing for tops is often made with the teeth inserted
according to a method known as the plain, or open set, in
which the crowns, or backs, of the teeth overlap each other
exactly as bricks in a wall. The clothing is made 10-crown;
that is, with 10 points per in. across the card. This method
of setting the teeth is often used in America when a large
number of points per square inch is desired.
132
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
The English system of numbering clothing is based on the
plain-set clothing, and designates the clothing by the counts,
each count being equal to 720 points per sq. ft. The accom-
panying table shows the points per square foot in card clothing
of various counts and also the number of wire (American gauge)
that is usually used.
ENGLISH COUNTS OF CARD CLOTHING
English Counts
Roints per Square
Foot
American Number
of Wire
60s
43,200
28
70s
50,400
30
80s
57,600
31
90s
64,800
32
100s
72,000
33
110s
79,200
34
120s
86,400
35
130s
93,600
36
CLOTHING FLATS
The clothing for the fiats is made in sheets with a 1-in. space
between the sections of wire; these are afterwards cut up to
form the tops. The method of fastening the top to the fiat is to
employ a steel clamp of the same length as the clothing and
bent in a U shape. One edge of this clamp in some cases is
serrated, so as to grip the fotmdation, and the other edge
engages the edge of the fiat, holding the clothing and flat
securely together.
CLOTHING CYLINDER AND DOFFER
Both the cylinder and doffer, which are covered with filleting,
have parallel rows of holes drilled across them, which are
plugged with hardwood. The fillet is wound spirally and
secured by means of tacks driven m the hardwood plugs.
Cylinders are usually covered with 2-in. and doffers with If-in.
filleting. There are several methods of shaping the tail-ends,
as they are called, but the best is that known as the inside taper,
since it is stronger and neater than any other. Three lengths,
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 133
each equal to one-half the circumference of the cylinder of the
doff er, as the case may be, are first marked out on the end of the
fillet; in the case of a 50-in. cylinder these distances would be
6.545 ft. each. For the first distance, the fillet is cut exactly
through the middle; for the second distance, it is tapered from
half the width of the fillet to the full width; for the third dis-
tance, a cut is made on the opposite side of the fillet exactly
half way through it and the fillet tapered out to its full width
again. After one tail-end is cut, the end of the fillet is tacked
to the plugs in the cylinder and the fillet wound around the
cylinder spirally; the other tail-end is then cut and fastened
to the cylinder in the same manner as the first tail-end.
The length of filleting to cover a cylinder, doffer, or other roll
may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the roll by its width {both
expressed in inches) and by 3.14I6 and divide the product thus
obtained by the width of the fillet multiplied by 12. The result
thus obtained will be the required number of feet of filleting.
Note. — An allowance must be made for tapering the tail-
ends, generally a length equal to the circuiiiference of the roll
being sufficient.
Example. — What length of 2-in. filleting is required to
clothe a C3dinder 50 in. in diameter and 40 in. wide?
50X40X3.1416
Solution. — = 261.8 ft.
2X12
Adding a length equal to the circtmiference of the cylinder,
which is 13.09 ft., the length required will be 274.89 ft.
SPEED CALCULATIONS
If the driving shaft makes 340 revolutions per min. and
carries a 10-in. pulley, the pulley en. Fig. 2, will be driven as
follows:
340X10
20
= 170 rev. per min.
As the cylinder is 50| in. in diameter, allowing | in. for
clothing, its surface speed will therefore be as follows:
170X501X3.1416
= 2,258.679 ft. per min.
12
134 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
4"Dia.
/8"D/a.
ZO"S>/a.
■B-Diek
%3 ^
Fig. 2
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 135
Licker. — The diameter of ei5, Fig. 2, is 18 inches and that
of C6 is 7 in., so that when the cyUnder makes 170 rev. per min.,
the revolutions per minute made. by the licker will be as follows:
170X18
=437. 142 rev. per mi n.
7
As the licker is usually 9 in. in diameter, its surface speed
will be as follows:
437.112X9X3.1416
— = 1,029.993 ft. per mm.
12
Doffer. — The 4-inch pulley ce. Pig. 2, on the end of the licker
drives the 18-inch barrow pulley mj, which is compounded with
the doflfer change gear ms. This gear, for the purpose of calcu-
lation, will be assumed to have 22 teeth; the gear on the end
of the doflfer contains 190 teeth. With the licker making
437.142 rev. per min., the speed of the doffer will be as follows:
437.142X4X22
— = 11.248 rev. per min.
18X190
As the doffer is 24f in. in diameter, allowing | in. for clothing,
its surface speed will be as follows:
11.248X241 X3.1416
= 72.881 ft. per min.
12
Flats. — The 5-in. pulley en, Fig. 2, drives a pulley 10-in. in
diameter, not shown. This pulley carries a single-threaded
worm that meshes with a 18-tooth worm-gear. On the shaft
with this worm-gear is a single-threaded -uorm that drives a
42-tooth worm-gear on the shaft of the 8-inch pulley driving
flats. The speed of the flats, therefore, will be
170X5X1X1X8X3.1416 ^ ^^^ .
— = 3.179 in. per mm.
10X16X42
Draft. — The following examples illustrate the manner of
finding the draft:
Example 1. — Find the draft between the lap roll and feed-
roll, referring to Fig. 2 for data.
2 5X48
Solution. — — = 1.176, draft
6X17
136 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Example 2. — Find the draft between the feed-roll and doffer,
using a 16 change gear at b^.
24X40X120
Solution. — - = 72, draft
2.5X40X16
Example 3. — Find the draft between the doffer and the bot-
tom calender roll.
3X190
Solution. — ■ = 1.13, draft
24X21
ExAJNiPLE 4. — Find the draft between the bottom calender
roll and the coil er .calender rolls, when a 27-tooth gear on the
calender-roll shaft drives a 17-tooth gear on the vertical shaft
of coiler.
2X24X1^X27
Solution. — = 1 .059 , draft
3X24X18X17 ,
Example 5. — Find the total draft of the card, figuring from
the coiler calender rolls Pi, to the lap roll a, using a 16 change
gear at b^, and considering the vertical shaft of the coiler to be
driven as stated in example 4.
Solution. —
2X24X 18X27X 190X40X 120X48
: = 101.433, draft
6X24X18X17X21X40X16X17
Proof. — To prove that intermediate drafts equal total
draft, 1.176X72X1.130X1.059 = 101.325.
Waste. — The amount of waste made in carding shotild not,
as a rule, exceed 5% and the work of the card should be closely
watched, especially in respect to the waste under the cylinder,
which should be examined at frequent intervals to see whether
it contains too much good cotton.
Productson. — The production of the card varies according to
the class of work, a good production on low numbers being from
700 to 1,000 lb. per wk. ; for fine yams it is much lower. The
weights of delivered sliver suitable for certain classes of work
are as given in the accompanying table.
Weight and Horsepower. — The weight of a single revolving-
flat card is about 5,000 lb. It requires from f to 1 H. P. to
drive it after the initial strain of starting, which requires much
greater power.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
WEIGHTS OF COTTON CARD SLIVERS
137
Variety of Cotton
Numbers
Weight per Yard
Grains
Is to 10s
70
10s to 15s
65
los to 20s
60
20s to 30s
55
30s to 40s
50
40s to 60s
50
60s to 70s
45
70s to 100s
40
40s to 60s
55
60s to 70s
50
70s to 100s
45
70s to 100s
35
100s upwards
30
Average American <
Allan-seed and Peelers <
Egyptian <
Sea-Island <
CARE OF CARDS
Stripping. — The number of times that a card should be
stripped within a stated period depends on two factors. One
is that the greater the weight of cotton that is put through the
card per da3'', the more frequently it should be stripped; the
other is that on fine work the clothing should be kept as free
as possible from short fiber and particles of foreign matter, so
that when running fine work the card should receive more
frequent stripping, notwithstanding the fact that a lighter
weight of cotton is being put through the card than in coarse
^work. It may be stated as a common practice that for fine
work the card should be stripped three times a day unless a very
large production is being obtained, when it is advisable to strip
four or even five times per day* with a medium production
and where a very high grade of work is not called for, it is not
necessary to strip the cylinder and doffer more than twice a day.
Grinding. — Grinding is the process of sharpening the teeth of
the card wire of the cylinder, doffer, or flats by means of rolls
called grinding rolls, which are of two kinds — the dead roll and
the traverse grinder. The dead roll consists principally of a
hollow shell mounted on a shaft and covered with emery
fillet wound spirally on its surface. When grinding, a slight
138 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
traversing motion is given to the dead roll, which grinds the
backs of the teeth with a slight tendency toward grinding
the sides.
The traverse grinder consists of a roll about 4 in^ wide covered
with emery fillet and mounted so as to slide on a hollow barrel,
or shell, of large diameter. Since the grinding roll presses
against the clothing, the result of its traverse motion is to cause
the teeth that are in contact with it to be bent, or inclined,
toward the side of the card to which the roll is moving. The
result of this is that the sides of the points of the teeth are
ground down slightly, as well as the top of the points. In con-
sequence of the roll being so narrow, it requires a longer time to
grind the card with this mechanism than with the dead roll,
other conditions being the same, but the results are so much
better that it is very largely used. The length of time required
for grinding depends to a great extent on the condition of the
wire, since if the points of the teeth are dulled considerably, a
longer time will be required than if the clothing is in compara-
tively good condition. The degree of coarseness of the emery
on the grinding roU also governs, to some extent, the time
required for grinding, since coarse emery cuts much faster than
fine emery. The time is also governed by the extent of pressure
exerted by the grinding roll on the clothing. If the grinding
roll is set so that it presses heavily on the wire, the grinding will
be accomplished in less time, although there is more danger of
injuring the wire; such grinding is known as heavy grinding.
If the grinding roll presses only lightly against the clothing,
a greater time will be required to secure the proper point on the
teeth, but there is less danger of injuring the wire; this method
of grinding is spoken of as light grinding.
As a general rule it may be stated that from one-half to one
working day, or from 5 to 10 hr., is the usual time required for
properly grinding the cylinder and doflfer of a card.
The interval between the times of grinding varies. Generally
speaking, it is advisable to grind frequently and lightly rather
than at more remote intervals and heavily.
Setting. — The setting of the different parts of the card
requires careful attention and is one of the most important
points in the management of the card room. The principal
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 139
places where setting is required are as follows: between the
cylinder and the flats, between the licker and the cylinder, and
between the doffer and the cylinder. Other places for setting
are between the mote knives and the liclcer, between the feed-
plate and the licker, between the (cylinder screen and cylinder,
between the licker screen and the licker, between the back
knife plate and the cylinder, between the front knife plate and
the cylinder, between the flat-stripping comb and the flats, and
between the doffer comb and the doffer.
The exact setting, or distance between certain parts, of the
card is determined by the use of gauges; two, and in some cases
three, kinds are used. The first one is about 9 in. long and If
in. wide and contains four leaves pivoted together. These
leaves are made of thin sheet steel and are usually nrs^, T^m,
T^, and jhhs in. thick, respectively. The second gauge
which is used exclusively for flat setting, consists of a strip of
sheet steel about 2J in. long and 1^ in. in width bent at right
angles about f in. from one end, with a handle attached to this
end. The other end is the part used for setting and is usually
tMv, jihs, or t^ in. thick. The third gauge consists of a
quadrant or semicircle mounted on a shaft and is used for
setting the top of the cylinder screen to the cylinder and licker,
and also in some cases to set the licker screen to the licker.
Since the leaf and flat gauges are very thin, they are easily
damaged, and in this condition are of little use, producing faulty
settings; consequently, great care should be used to prevent
the faces becoming dented, bent, or injured in any way.
The flats are set by means of the flat gauge described, while
the card is stopped, and preferably when other machinery in the
room is also stopped, so as to prevent any vibration of the floor.
The flats are usually set about t^ in. from the cylinder at
the heel of the flat. The flats at the front of the card should
be set the closest to the cylinder, while the space between the
flats and the cylinder should gradually increase toward the back.
If a No. 10 gauge is used, the fiats at the back are set loosely to
the gauge; those at the top and center, a little closer; and those
at the front are set still closer.
The leaf gauge is used for setting the licker and it is generally
set to the cylinder with a No. 10 gauge.
140 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
The doffer is usually set to the cylinder with a No. 5 or No. 7
leaf gauge by inserting the gauge between the doffer and the
cylinder where they are closest. When a No. 7 gauge is used,
the doffer is usually set tight to the gauge.
The position of the doffer with relation to the cylinder is an
important matter and should receive careful attention. If the
doffer is set too far away from the cylinder, a patchy or cloudy
web will result, owing to the doffer not taking the fibers evenly
from the cylinder.
The mote knives are set to the licker by means of the leaf
gauge and the number of the gauge varies from 12 to 17.
The leaf gauge is used to set the feed-plate and is inserted
between the licker and the face of the feed-plate. The number
of the gauge varies from 12 to 20.
The cylinder screen is set farther from the cylinder at the
front than at any other point, the distance being about .25 in.,
and the screen at the center and back is set about .032 in. from
the cylinder. This arrangement prevents the ends of the fibers
that have been thrown out by centrifugal force from coming
in contact with the front edge of the screen and thus being
removed from the cylinder as fly, which would readily occur if
this setting were too close.
As the licker and cylinder screens are very close to each other
at their nearest point, and as the front end of the licker screen
m_ust be set only a short distance below this point, it is nearly
impossible to make an accurate setting with the licker in posi-
tion. The best method is to remove the licker and use a quad-
rant gauge, the curvature of the outside surface of which should
correspond exactly to the curvature of the surface of the licker.
This gauge is mounted loosely on a shaft of exactly the same
size as the licker shaft. The ends of the shaft rest in the licker
bearings and the screens are set to the proper distance from the
quadrant gauge by sliding the quadrant along the shaft. The
front edge of the licker screen at the point where it is hinged to
the cylinder screen is usually set about .011 in. from the licker.
The nose, or portion of the licker screen with which the fibers
first come in contact, is set ^ to i in. from the teeth of the
licker, according to the amount of cleaning action desired at this
point and the staple of the cotton being used.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 141
The back knife plate is set to the cyUnder to about a No. 17
leaf gauge at the lower edge and a No. 32 at the upper edge.
This allows the fibers to free themselves and Stand out a little
from the cylinder before coming in contact with the fiats.
The front knife plate is also set with the leaf gauge, its dis-
tance from the cylinder at the lower edge being about -.017 in.
The space between the upper edge of the plate and the cylinder
depends on the amount of waste that it is desired to remove as
fiat strippings, but the usual setting is about .032 in. If the
plate is set farther from the cylinder, more and heavier strip-
pings will be made, and if moved too far away, the strips will
form one continuous web instead of being connected by merely
a few fibers. If the plate is set too close, some of the short
fibers and dirt removed from the cotton by the fiats will in turn
, be taken from the flats by the knife and carried around by the
cylinder, thus producing bad work.
The distance between the toe of the flat and the stripping
comb is determined with the leaf gauge and is usually about
.007 in.; although this setting should be close enough to allow
the comb to remove the strippings from the fiats, it should not
be so close that the comb will strike the wire and damage it.
The doffer comb is usually set to the dofEer at the point where
they are closest to a No. 7 leaf gauge.
The doffer comb, in addition to being adjustable as to its
distance from the doffer, is adjustable as to the position of
its stroke, which is changed by altering the relative positions
of the comb and the eccentric from which it receives its motion.
If the web should follow the doffer instead of being removed by
the comb, the position of the stroke should be lowered; if the
web sags between the doffer and the trumpet, as it sometimes
does, owing to atmospheric changes, etc., the position of the
stroke should be raised.
The settings given are used only as a basis. The settings
of the various parts of the card vary according to the stock
being used and the quality and kind of finished work.
Management. — In the management of cards many points
should be watched, but more especially those that have for
their objects: (1) the production of good work; (2) turning
off as large a production as is consistent with the quality of the
142 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
work required; (3) economy by avoiding unnecessary waste
and keeping down the expenses of wages, power, supplies, etc.;
(4) maintaining the machinery in good condition.
DRAWING ROLLS
COMMON ROLLS
The principle of roll drafting is the most important feature
of parallelizing and attenuating machinery. Drawing rolls
are of two kinds — common and metallic.
Common top rolls are made in short lengths and are covered
with leather. Bottom rolls of the common type are almost
always constructed of steel, and are fluted; that is, grooves
are cut lengthwise in the surface of the rolls at certain intervals.
These flutes aid the bottom rolls in obtaining a better grip on
the cotton as it passes between them and the top rolls. Top
rolls may be made with one or two bosses, being known as
single-boss and double-boss, respectively; the boss in both
single- and double-boss rolls may be detachable. When the
boss of a roll is detachable, the roll is known as a loose-boss, or
shell, roll; when the boss is not detachable, the roll is known as
a solid roll.
Covering of Top Rolls. — As two metal rolls revolving in con-
tact would tend to crush the delicate cotton fibers, a leather
covering is necessary for top rolls of the common type. The
iron surface of the roU is first covered with a specially woven
woolen cloth, which is cemented to the roll, giving a good,
elastic foundation. When a thin leather covering that fits
very tightly is drawn over this foundation, the roll is capable of
gripping the fibers and, owing to the yielding quaUty of the
leather and cloth, does not damage them.
The cloth that lies underneath the leather should be made of
the finest and best wool, and it should not be possible to detect
by the hand the slightest variation of thickness. In mills
covering their own rolls, the old leather should be removed and
the cloth carefully examined. If it shows any evidence of dis-
integration, or wear, or an uneven surface, it should bp con-
denuaed and removed. When roils are sent out to be covered.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 143
it is considered advisable to cut the cloth with a knife in order
to prevent the same cloth being used again.
In covering rolls, the cloth is cut into strips slightly narrower
than the boss of the roll. A strip of this cloth is then laid fiat
on a table and a clean roll, the boss of which is covered with
glue, is placed on the end of the strip and the cloth wound on the
roll. The roll during this operation should be neither hot nor
cold — simply warm. The cloth is cut with a sharp knife at the
point where it begins to pass around the roll the second time.
After the cloth is put on and the seam pressed together with the
fingers, the roll should be put into evening, or smoothing, rolls
for the purpose of smoothing out any lumps or foreign matter
that may have been in the glue, thereby producing a perfectly
true and even surface.
The substance that is most suitable for covering top rolls is
the skin of the lamb or the sheep, or the skin of the goat. The
outside layer of these skins is thin, tough, and very elastic.
The color should be taken into consideration when selecting
a skin. English skins usually have a color known as the natural
oak-bark color, which is a light brown; a reddish color is given
to others by means of dye. American skins are usually of a
dark-cream color. The darker the shades the more the grain
defects are hidden from view.
The size and color of skins depend on the size and age of
the animal from which they are obtained. Lambskin is used
for the more delicate work, as it is finer than sheepskin; sheep-
skin is used for the coarser work.
When placing the leather covering on rolls, the skins are cut
into strips rather wider than the boss of the roll so as to allow
for burning off the ends. The strips are next cut into small
pieces just sufficient to fold around the boss of the roll, and their
ends are beveled to make a joint that will not be perceptible
to the touch. The beveled ends are then carefully joined
together with cement. The leather tube, or cot, is placed in a
press for a short time in order to insure a perfect joint.
The next operation is to draw the cot over the boss of the
roll — an operation somewhat similar to drawing the finger of
a glove on the finger. The roll is then revolved at a high rate
of speed and any part of the leather that projects over the boss
144 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
is burned off by friction with a piece of hard wood. The charred
portion of the skin forms a collar at the ends of each boss.
The roll must be placed in the machine so that it will not run
against the joint, and in some cases the way the lap runs is
marked by a dot of ink on the grain side of the skin. In putting
cots on double-boss rolls care should be taken that the bevels
run the same way and that the cots are of the same thickness.
Varnishing of Top Rolls. — It is the general practice in almost
all mills to varnish the rolls that perform the heaviest work;
namely, the rolls of the drawing frame, comber, sliver lap,
ribbon lap, and in some cases the slubber. Varnished rolls
should present a smooth, hard surface that has dried without
cracking and that does not cause fiber or dust to adhere to it.
Almost every mill has its own system of preparing varnish, and
foil coverers have for sale various compositions for this purpose.
Three recipes for preparing varnish are:
1. 9 oz. of fish glue; 2 qt. of acetic acid; 2 teaspoonfuls of oil
of Origanum. This mixture should stand for about 2 da. in
order that the glue may be thoroughly dissolved, after which
it may be thickened with fine pov/dered paint of any color
that may be desired.
2. 1| lb. of fish glue; | lb. of gum arable; 5 lb. of powdered
alum; 2 lb. of acetic acid; 4 lb. of water. This mixture should
be thoroughly dissolved over a slow fire, after which it may be
thickened with paint in the same manner as in the first recipe.
3. 1 oz. of ordinary glue; f oz. of fish glue; j oz. of gum
arabic. This mixture should be dissolved in 2| gi. of water
and allowed to simmer for 1 hr. over a slow fire, after which
6 oz. of thoroughly ground paint of any color may be added to
thicken it.
Generally one coat of varnish is put on the rolls, although
sometimes where fine numbers are required, two coats are put
on, and two or even three coats are put on new or newly-covered
rolls before they are put into the frame.
METALLIC ROLLS
The most practical substitute for common rolls is to have
flutes in a top steel roll corresponding to those in a bottom roll.
The flutes of the rolls mesh together, but in order to prevent
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 145
the teeth of one roll from reaching to the bottom of the spaces
between the teeth of the other roll, the rolls are held slightly
apart by collars. On a 16-pitch roll the diameter of the collars
is .07 in. less than the diameter of the fluted section, and as both
rolls are the same, the amount of overlap is .07 in. With a
24-pitch roll the collars are .06 in. less in diameter than the
fluted section, and on a 32-pitch roll they are .044 in. less.
Thus, the amount of overlap with 24-pitch rolls is .06 in. and
with 32-pitch rolls, .044 in. This amount of overlap is sufficient
to grip the sliver.
Advantages of Metallic Rolls. — The top rolls of a metallic
set are positively driven by the flutes of the lower roll meshing
with the flutes of the upper roll. The cost of roll covering and
subsequent varnishing is saved, and the bad work that arises
from imperfectly varnished rol's is entirely obviated.
It is claimed that, as metallic rolls run on collars, friction
is great'y reduced; that licking, from the presence of electricity
and atmospheric changes, is prevented and that consequent
waste is avoided. However, metallic rolls at the present time
are not used to any large extent except on drawing frames,
sliver-lap machines, and slubbers.
SETTING OF DRAWING ROLLS
One of the most important points in relation to drawing rolls
is the position of one pair of rolls relative to another, which is
governed by the length of the staple and bulk of cotton being
used. In setting rolls, there is one broad principle that must
always be followed: the distance between, the centers of each
pair of rolls must always exceed the average length of the
staple of the cotton being used.
Rapidly-revolving rolls, also, require wider settings than those
having slow speed. When the ends put up at the back are
heavily twisted, the settings are wider on the same machine
than when the ends fed are slightly twisted. Harsh, wiry
cotton requires wider settings than smooth, silky cotton,
because it does not draw so easily.
As the rolls are set according to the staple of the cotton used,
it is evident that the rolls intended to run on coarse counts from
short-staple cotton, must be. smaller in diameter than those
146
COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION
^Aor/Sfaf>/e
^pinningi Frame
Mec/ii/m Stafi/e
lonffS^/^9
JackRoi^'/tgffame-Deat/WeifhKlf
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
147
intended to work long-staple cotton, in order that the centers
of the rolls may be brought near enough together. The dia-
gram given in the accompanying illustration shows the settings
and diameters of rolls for different kinds of cotton. These
settings will vary, however, according to conditions.
The settings given in the accompanying table for American
cotton of about 1-in. staple are taken from actual measurements
in a mill making an average of 32s.
DRAWING-ROLL SETTINGS FOR AMERICAN COTTON
Speed
of
Front
Roll
Weight
of Sliver
at Back
Distance Between
Centers
Front
and
Second
Inches
Second
and
Third
Inches
Third
and
Back
Inches
First drawings.. .
Second drawings.
Third drawings. .
Slubbing
Intermediate. . . .
Roving
411
411
411
162
143
116
125
68 grains
68 grains
68 grains
68 grains
.57-hank
1.61-hank
5- hank
1/^
If
li
lA
11
lA
If
If
If
\i
. If
If
If
If
Spinning.
Each case of roll setting must be judged by its requirements.
The table shows ordinary settings on the intermediates, roving,
and spinning, and excessively wide settings on the drawing and
slubber on account of the unusually heavy sliver and high speed.
WEIGHTING OF TOP ROLLS
In order to maintain a grip on the fibers, the top rolls must
have a constant pressure on the bottom rolls. This pressure
is maintained by means of weights, light weights beijig applied
to slow-running frames and heavier ones to frames where the
rolls run at high speeds.
Self-weighting consists of having the top roll heavy enough
to maintain the necessary pressure on the fiber, and is used on
148
CO T TON- YA RN PREP A RA TION
the center and back rolls of fine roving frames, spinning frames,
and mules intended for very fine spinning.
Dead weighting consists of hanging a weight of suitable
magnitude directly from the top
roll.
Lever weighting, which is a form of
dead weighting, consists of exerting
pressure by means of a weight acting
through a lever. By this means a
smaller weight may be used and the
same pressure obtained as when a
\u. larger weight is employed in the
system of dead weighting.
This will be made more clear by reference to the accompany-
ing illustration, and the following data: The weight of w is
4 lb.; the distance of wf is 7J in.; pf, f in.; jk, f in.; kl. If in.;
Im, I in. ; mn,. I5 in. ; In, 1 in. ; jl, 2 in. The total pressure will
equal
Weight X'Zf/ 4X7-J
•— = = 40 Id., total weight on all rolls
Pf i
Part of this 40 lb. will be distributed on j and the remainder
on the point g.
The pressure on j will equal
klX^O lfX40
jl
- = 27|lb.
12| lb., or the pressure at
■ 121 lb.
= 4.166 lb.
The pressure at g equals 40— 27^
g will equal
j^X40 ^ fX40
jl ~ 2 '
The pressure at n will equal
^wX12|_|Xl2|
mn 1|
The pressure at m will equal 12|— 4.166 = 8.33 lb., or the
pressure at m will equal
lnXl2i 1X121 „^^,^
= = 8.33 lb.
mn 1|
Metallic drawing rolls require less weighting than common
drawing rolls. The principal reason for this is that the former
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 149
grip and hold more securely the fibers being operated on than
do the latter. This is due to the fact that both the top and
bottom rolls are fluted in the case of metallic rolls and the
flutes interlocking results in the fibers being more securely
held. When common rolls are used, the top roll must be
weighted sufficiently to cause it to press firmly on the bottom
roll in order that the fibers may be properly gripped. An
example of the relative weighting of metallic rolls and common
rolls, assuming that drawing frames are being considered, is as
follows:
Single-Boss Metallic Rolls
Front rolls, 36 lb. (18 lb. at each end)
Second roll, 32 lb. (16 lb. at each end)
Third roll, 28 lb. (14 lb. at each end)
Back roll, 28 lb. (14 lb. at each end)
Single-Boss Common Rolls
Front roll, 44 lb. (22 lb. at each end)
Second roll, 40 lb. (20 lb. at each end)
Third roll, 36 lb. (18 lb. at each end)
Back roll, 32 lb. (16 lb. at each end)
This weighting is subject to some variation, of course,
depending on the character of the stock being run, etc.
SCOURING ROLLS
The cleanliness of the fluted as well as the leather-covered
rolls is an important matter, since if the dirt and other foreign
matter that collects in the flutes and bearings of the rolls is not
removed, considerable waste and consequent loss of production
and bad work will result.
After the rolls have been removed they should be rubbed
with a piece of card fillet in order to remove any dirt, hard
oil, or other substances that may collect in the flutes. After
cleaning the roll in this manner it should be covered with a
paste made of oil and whiting and thoroughly scoured by
rubbing with another piece of card fillet, care being taken
not to rub around the circumference of the roll but length-
wise, so that the wires of the card fillet will follow the
crrooves of the flutes and clean them.
150 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
After this the roll should be wiped with a piece of dry waste,
covered with dry whiting, in order to thoroughly dry the flute
before the rolls are replaced. In some cases dry whiting is
used in place of the paste. Care should be taken not to allow
any of the whiting to collect in the flutes or bearings of the roll.
After the rolls have been scoured they should be examined
in order to ascertain whether there are any rough places; if any
are found they should be smoothed by using a piece of pumice
stone, a piece of very fine emery cloth, or a fine flute file. In
most cases the pumice stone or emery cloth will be found
sufficient, and the file should not be used unless absolutely
necessary.
DRAWING FRAMES
The drawing frame follows the card, except when combed
yam is being made, when it follows the comber.
The objects of the drawing frame are to lay the fibers parallel
and to correct, so far as possible, any unevenness in the sliver.
These objects are accomplished by drafting and doubling.
The number of drawing frames through which the cotton is
passed is governed by the class of work to be produced and the
number of preceding processes through which the cotton has
passed. If the sliver comes direct from the cards there are
usually two processes for coarse counts, three for medium
counts, and four for fine counts. If the sliver has passed
through the sliver- and ribbon-lap machines and the comber,
there are generally only two processes unless for very high
counts, when three, and even four, are used.
Fig. 1 is a cross-section of one delivery of a drawing frame;
the arrows in this figure indicate the direction in which the
stock passes through the machine. Usually six cans similar to
a are placed behind each delivery, each sliver passing through
the guide b, over the plate c, and the spoon d, there being one
spoon for each sliver. The slivers next pass over another
guide plate e and then to the four sets of rolls, /, /i, /2, /a, where
the necessary draft is inserted. From these drawing rolls the
slivers pass to the trumpet g, where they are combined into one,
then through the calender rolls h, hi, through the coiler tube i,
and to the can j.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
151
152
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
The drawing rolls are of the ordinary type; leather-covered
top rolls are shown in this illustration, although for coarse
work metallic rolls are generally preferred. The top rolls are
weighted in the manner usually adopted for weighting leather-
FiG. 2
covered rolls on drawing frames. The weighting arrangement is
eqtiipped with a weight-relieving motion, as shown at I, h. h, h-
The draft inserted in the sliver by these rolls, though not
arbitrary, is usually about equal to the number of doublings,
thus producing a sliver at the front of about the same weight
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 153
as each end fed in at the back. If one of the cans at the back
should become empty or if one of the sHvers should break before
reaching the back rolls and the machine should continue to run,
the reduced weight of the sliver delivered at the front would
tend to produce unsatisfactory work at the later processes. As
it is of vital importance to have the sliver that comes from the
drawing frame of a uniform weight, devices are applied to stop
the machine when an end breaks or runs out at the back. Addi-
tional mechanisms are also applied to stop the machine when the
sliver breaks between the front rolls and calender rolls, when
the cans at the front of the machine become full, and in some
cases when any part of the cotton laps around the calender
or the drawing rolls. There are two general classes of
stop-motions applied to drawing frames — ^mechanical and
electrical.
Gearing. — Each head in a drawing frame is driven separately
from any other head in regard to its individual gearing, but
all the heads are driven by the lower or main shaft, which runs
underneath the frame.
Referring to Fig. 2, a gear of 24 teeth on the front roll drives,
by means of suitable gearing, the calender rolls and the coiler
connections. Another gear of 24 teeth, situated on the front
roll, drives the back roll. The gear of 26 teeth on this back
roll drives the third roll. Thus, the draft between these two
rolls is constant, provided that the gears connecting the rolls
are not changed. The gear of 20 teeth on the front roll drives
the second roll, and consequently the draft between these
two rolls is also constant. Thus, it will be seen that the
break draft of this machine comes between the second and
third rolls.
The draft of a drawing frame with common rolls, and geared
as shown in Fig. 2, is as follows, the draft being figured from the
calender roll to the back roll:
2X30X24X100X60
= 5.509
24X45X24X44X11
Production. — The accompanying table shows the number
of pounds of drawing sliver produced in a day of 10 hr., allowing
20% for cleaning, oiling, etc.
154
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
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COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 161
may be taken directly to the comber. If, however, the lap
from the sliver-lap machine is unrolled for about a yard and
held to the light, it will be seen that the slivers merely lie side
by side, and that the lap is uneven, showing both thick and
thin places. Therefore, to have a more even lap, the ribbon-
lap machine is used. The usual doubling on the ribbon-lap
machine is 6 into 1, and the laps fed are generally 1 in. narrower
than the laps to be made for the comber.
The draft between the front and back drawing rolls usually
about equals the doublings.
Fig. 2 is the plan of gearing for a ribbon-lap machine; the
draft, figured from the front fluted calender roll to the back
drawing roll, with a 50-tooth draft gear, is as follows:
12X30X21X14X20X68X100X70
= 5.923
30X50X21X40X72X25X50X11 ^ .
Production. — The preceding table shows the production
of the ribbon-lap machine per day of 10 hr., allowing 25%
for oiling, cleaning, etc.
COMBER
The several actions of a comber must necessarily work
intermittently and may be summarized as follows: (1) The
feed-motion, by which the lap is fed to the machine; (2) the
nipper motion, which holds the cotton during the combing
operation; (3) the combing operation by the half lap; (4) the
backward and forward motion of the delivery roll, or the
piecing-up motion; (5) combing by the top comb; (6) the
delivery of the stock to the calender rolls, draw-box, and coiler.
Fig. 3 shows in section the principal working parts of the
single-nip comber. In order to bring the cotton into a position
to be combed, it is. first necessary that a certain length shall be
delivered from the lap by the feed-rolls c, ci. After the cotton
has been fed by these rolls, the nipper knife d descends and not
only grips it firmly but also, by depressing the cushion plate h,
brings the fringe of cotton into a suitable position to be acted on
by the needles 07 of the half lap 02. The cylinder 01 is in such
a position that, when the nipper knife d has completed its
downward motion, the first row of needles on the half lap enters
the end of the fringe of cotton, and, as the cylinder revolves, the
successive rows of needles remove all the fibers that are too
162
COTTON-YARN PREPAR.ATION
short to be retained by the nippers, as well as the neps that
have been left in the cotton. After the needles on the half
lap have passed the fringe of cotton, the ends of the fibers fall
into the gap left between the needles and the fluted segment 03,
and the nipper knife, together with the cushion plate, begins
to rise. When the cushion plate has reached its uppermost
position, the further lifting of the nipper knife releases the
fibers at this point. During this operation the portion of the
Fig. 3
cotton previously combed has been brought back and is now
ready to be pieced up with the cotton that has just undergone
the combing operation by the half lap.
The cylinder having revolved until the fluted segment is
in the desired position, the detaching roll g descends and grips
the cotton firmly between itself and the fluted segment. The
further revolving of the fluted segment, together with the
detaching roll, draws away the fibers that are not held by
the grip of the feed-rolls, and since the top comb u has by this
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 163
time dropped into such a position that it protrudes into the
end of the lap just in advance of the portion that has not been
cleaned by the needles of the half lap, it efficiently combs this
portion of the fibers. At the beginning of this operation the
forward ends of the fibers being combed are carried forwards
sufficiently to overlap the rear ends of the fibers that were
returned; consequently, the forward rotation of the delivery
roll s, which occurs while the detaching roU is in contact with
the segment, assists in piecing up the fibers just detached to
those previously combed, and delivers them into the pan.
It should be clearly understood that all the fibers do not
project from the feed-rolls to the same extent at one time.
For example, some of the fibers may not be gripped by the
feed-rolls at all, while others may project beyond the feed-rolls
a quarter of their length, some half of their length, and some
three-quarters of their length; consequently, when the detach-
ing action takes place, only those fibers that project entirely
beyond the feed-rolls are gripped and drawn forwards by the
action of the detaching roll and fluted segment, and those that
project only partly beyond and are still gripped by the feed-rolls
form a fringe of cotton that is always present in front of the
feed-rolls. At the next delivery of the feed-rolls those fibers
that previously projected only partly beyond the rolls may now
project entirely beyond the rolls, and consequently at the next
detaching operation these fibers will be drawn forwards in a
manner similar to those previously detached.
From the delivery roll, the cotton passes into a pan, through
a trumpet, between the table calender rolls, and is delivered
on to a table, along which it is drawn together with the other
slivers that have been delivered by the various heads of the
comber. Prom the table the slivers pass to a draw-box, where
a slight draft is given to them, after which they pass through a
trumpet and between a pair of calender rolls, where they are
condensed into one sliver. From the calender roUs the sliver
passes to a coiler and then into a can.
Double-Nip Comber. — The cylinder of a double-nip comber
contains two half laps and two fluted segments, and the seg-
ments and half laps are arranged alternately on the cylinder
with slight spaces between them. A comber with a double nip
164
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
COT'^ON- VARN PREP A RA TION
165
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166
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
gives a greater production than a comber with a single nip, but
does not clean the cotton so well, because of a smaller number
of needles acting on the fringe.
Calculations. — The gearing of a single-nip comber is shown
in Fig. 4. The draft for the gearing shown, with an 18-tooth
draft change gear, figuring from the 2-in. coiler calender roU to
the 2f-in. lap roU at the back of the comber, is as follows:
2X16X16X60X5X38X22X55X47 ^„ ^„^
= 23.579
16X16X69X1X18X23X20X35X21
As the comber removes a very large percentage of waste
from the cotton that passes through it, it is not possible to
figure accurately the weight of the sliver produced by simply
(f)
Fig. 5
taking into consideration the weight per yard of the lap fed
in, the number of doublings, and the draft of the machine.
An example will make this point clearer.
Example. — Suppose that a comber with a draft of 23.579
has six laps up at the back, each lap weighing 260 gr. per yard,
and it is desired to find the weight per yard of the sliver
delivered.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
167
Solution. — Multiplying the weight per yard of the laps fed
in by the ntmiber of laps, and dividing by the draft gives 66.1605
gr. as the weight per yard of the sliver delivered; (260X6)
-7- 23.579 = 66. 1605. If 20%of the cotton that passes through the
machine is taken out as waste, the result obtained above must
be diminished by 20% in order to obtain the actual"weight per
COMBER SETTINGS
Parts to be Set
Gauge
Size of Gauge
Delivery roll from segment .
Front flute of segment from
delivery roll
Comber
Finger
Finger
With paper
Step
Finger
Comber
Brush
Quadrant
Comber
Comber
Comber
No. 23
liin.
Feed-roll from delivery roll
Cushion plate to nipper
knife
According to staple
Distance of setscrew that
governs position of cush-
ion plate
i to f in.
Cushion plate from de-
livery roll
According to staple
Distance of nipper from
half lap when nipper is
in its lowest position ....
Brush to half lap
No. 20
Top comb set at angle of
from 25° to 30°
Top comb from fluted seg-
ment
No. 20 or 21
Distance of lifter blocks
from bearings of detach-
ing roll when resting on
segment
No. 23
Top roll from leather de-
taching roll
No- 21
yard of the sliver delivered; 20% of 66.1605 is 13.2321, which,
deducted from 66.1605, gives 52.9284 as the grains per yard of
the sliver produced.
Production. — The accompanying table shows the ntmiber
of pounds of combed sliver produced per day of 10 hr., by the
single-nip comber, allowing 5% for oiling, cleaning, etc.
Setting of Combers. — The several kinds of gauges used in
setting a comber are shown in Fig. 5, and include the regular
168
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
comber gauge (a), the step gauge (6), the finger gauge (c), the
quadrant gauge (d) , the cradle gauge (e) , and the brush gauge (/) .
Assuming that a comber has merely been set up and that
the cylinders are loose on the cylinder shaft, the parts that
require setting with gauges and the gauges used for making
each setting are as given in the accompanying table.
The setting of the feed-roll from the delivery roll varies
according to the staple and nature of the stock, as follows:
COMBER FEED-ROLL SETTING
Cotton
Length of Staple
Inches
Size of Gauge
Inches
American
About li
Up to li
1| and longer
lii to m
Egyptian
Hi to IM
Egyptian and sea-island . . .
in to 2
The setting of the cushion plate from the deHvery roll must
be adjusted according to the length of staple, as shown in the
following table:
COMBER CUSHION PLATE SETTINGS
Cotton
Length of Staple
Inches
Size of Gauge
Inches
American
11 to 11
Over 1|
1| to 1^
Egyptian. ...............
1^ to 1|
Sea-island
li to li^
Timing of Combers. — ^The cylinder is taken as a basis for the
timing of a comber, as all the intermittent movements are com-
pleted within the time occupied by one revolution of the cylin-
der. A gear of 80 teeth, on the cylinder shaft, is divided into
twenty equal parts, or sections, which are numbered on the rim
of the gear from 1 to 20, each section containing 4 teeth. This
gear is known as the index gear. A vertical index finger indi-
cates, by its relation to the position of the index gear, the posi-
tion of the cylinder.
COTTON -YARN PREPARATION 169
The numbers are so placed that as the cylinder re-
volves. No. 1 is first brought opposite the index finger,
then No. 2, No. 3, and so on up to 20. Each section of
the index gear is spoken of as a whole number, and
each tooth in a section is spoken of as i; that is, if the
cylinder has revolved until the comber is said to be at
51, it indicates that the index finger is at the second
tooth beyond the section marked 5 on the index gear, or
22 teeth from the starting position.
The actions to be timed are: (1) The motion of the
feed- rolls; (2) the motion of the nippers; (3) the placing
of the detaching roll and top roll in position for detach-
ing; (4) removal of detaching roll from detaching posi-
tion; (5) motions of the delivery roll; (6) movement of
the top comb.
The timings vary somewhat according to the nature of
the cotton, its length of staple, the amount of waste
removed, etc., but are usually adjusted as shown in the
accompanying table:
COMBER TIMINGS
Timings
Feed at
Nipper knife to leave cushion plate at
Nipper knife to touch cushion plate at
Leather detaching roll to touch segment at.
Leather detaching roll to leave segment at.
Delivery roll to reverse at
Delivery roll to deliver at
Top comb down at
Index Gear
4jto6
About 4i
About 9
About 61
About 9J
About li
About 6
5 to 6
SETTING AND TIMING THE WHITIN HIGH-SPEED
(MODEL D2) COMBER
The Whitin high-speed comber operates on the Heil-
mann single-nip principle but embodies improvements
in the construction of its actuating mechanisms that
enable closer adjustments to be made, increased speed
170 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
and production to be obtained, and better work to be
produced. The following settings and timings apply to
this machine, but are not arbitrary and may require some
alteration to produce the best results with certain grades
of cotton:
Timing Cams. — The actuating cams may be timed by
loosening the 80-tooth gear and throwing it out of mesh.
The cam-shaft is then turned until the roller on the
pawl arm is in contact with the heel of the large cam
on the end of the machine. Next the index gear is
turned until No. 5 is opposite the pointer and then the
80-tooth gear is meshed and secured.
Setting Steel Detaching Roll.— The steel detaching roll
should be free and should be set to the fluted segment
with a No. 21 gauge.
Setting and Timing Cylinders. — The index gear should
be revolved until No. 5 is opposite the indicator and each
cylinder should then be adjusted on the shaft so that
the front edge of its segment is Ig inches from the rear
side of the detaching roll. A li-inch gauge is used to
make this adjustment.
Setting and Timing Leather Detaching Roll.— The
leather detaching rolls should be set so that a No. 25
gauge may be inserted between the flat side of the
bushings on the ends of the rolls and the adjusting
slides. The index gears should be at No. 8 when this
adjustment is made. The cam on the end of the comber
should be adjusted on its sleeve so that the detaching
roll will commence to move forward when No. 6 on the
index gear is opposite the pointer. The comber should
now be turned over and the inside actuating cam ad-
justed so that the detaching roll will move forward at
No. 6.
Setting and Timing Feed-Roll.— The feed-roll should
start to revolve when No. 7^ on the index gear is opposite
the indicator. The feed-roll should be set li inches
from the detaching roll for short stock and Ig inches for
long stock.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 171
Setting and Timing the Nippers.— The nipper plates
should be set so that their front edges are gauged with a
No. 22 gauge from the nipper knife lip. The nipper knife
should hold a slip of paper on the full length of the
plate. The nipper knife may be set with an angle of
about 34 degrees by means of the stop-screws. For short
stock the front edge of the plate should be set 11 inches
from the detaching roll and for long stock a setting of
1^^ inches should be made. The nipper frames should
now be leveled with the segment by setting with a No. 19
gauge. Next the nipper frames should be connected with
the nipper shaft and the comber shaft turned until the
index gear is at No. 14i and the first row of needles of
the half lap point directly to the center of the detaching
roll. With the roll in the high part of the nipper cam
under the sliver plate the connecting-rods may now be
adjusted with a No. 25 gauge under the stop-screws.
Also, the nipper frames may now be reset by inserting
a No. 21 gauge between them and the needles. The
nipper cams should be timed so that the nipper knives
touch the plates when No. 11 on the index gear is oppo-
site the pointer.
Setting Top Combs.— The top comb shaft is set 63
inches from the back side of the detaching roll, measur-
ing to the front side of the top comb shaft. The comber
may be turned until the index gear registers No. 8 and
the segment is under the needles of the top comb. The
top comb may be given an angle of about 24 degrees and
set 3^2 iiich from the leather roll for short stock. For
long stock, the combs may be given an increased angle.
The combs should be adjusted to the segment with a
No. 22 or No. 23 gauge.
CARE OF COMBERS
The proper oiling of combers is very important, since
if oil is too freely employed on these machines they
become very dirty and run poorly. On the other hand,
the use of oil in too small quantities causes excessive
172 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
wear that soon cripples the machines. Combers should be
oiled twice a week, at uniform intervals, and the oiling
should be done under the direct and constant supervision
of a responsible person. Fast running parts should be
oiled every morning. All oil that runs out of oil holes
and over parts of the comber should be wiped off care-
fully. Twice each day, at stated times, comber tenders
should clean around the rolls of the machine with a
finger brush, and clean the backs and fronts and wipe
the lint from the machines. Four times a day, at fixed
periods, the top combs should be cleaned and the floor
swept around the machines.
Twice each week the draw boxes should be thoroughly
cleaned and top rolls replaced with newly-varnished
rolls. Also, the gearing and cams should be cleaned
twice in each week. Every morning the sliver plates,
coiler tops, and draw-box covers should be polished with
whiting. Laps must never be allowed to run out or the
needles of the half laps and top combs will be broken,
while if the laps are inserted at the proper time, the
needles will remain in good condition.
Comber tenders should be instructed to report at once
if a machine is out of order and runs poorly. They are
responsible for two sets of combers arranged in pairs
and should not leave their machines, even temporarily,
without arranging for another tender to care for them
during the absent period. The person in direct charge
of the combers, generally a third hand, should supervise
the tenders, seeing that they oil and clean the machines
isarefully and in accordance with the prescribed schedule.
Combers must not be cleaned when in operation, as
this is liable to result in very serious accidents and also
causes many breakages. Once each week, the third
hand should inspect all half laps and top combs, replac-
ing any that may be found in poor condition. Leather
detaching rolls should be varnished and changed once
each week. Stop-motions should be kept in working con-
dition at all times, and third hands should always respond
quickly to complaints in regard to poor running ma-
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 173
chines, uneven work, etc. Every Saturday, or at such
other times as the machines are to be stopped for a
considerable period of time, the pressure should be taken
off the rolls with the weight-relieving device. Roller
laps should never be cut from steel rolls with a knife;
instead, a brass hook should be used for removing these
accumulations. Steps should be taken to insure the
production of good laps for feeding combers, for poor
laps cause serious trouble in the combing operation,
damaging the machines and reducing production. The
laps should be sized every day under ordinary conditions,
but on fine counts they should be sized twice a day in
order that they may be kept of uniform weight. The
percentage of waste made should be watched and at
least once a month the percentage of waste of all the
combers should be ascertained.
Combers, sliver-lap machines, and ribbon-lap machines
should be given a thorough scouring and overhauling
once each year. All rolls, aprons, pans, etc., should be
taken off and carefully cleaned. Hoods and casings
should be removed and the gearing given a general
cleaning. The comber should be reset and any worn
parts replaced or repaired.
Waste. — It may be stated that more waste may be re-
moved by feeding at a late period, by nipping later, by
closer settings of the nippers and top combs to the
cylinders, and by increasing the angle of the top comb.
The amount of waste removed when combing different
kinds of cotton should be ascertained often enough to
insure that the proper percentage of waste is being taken
out.
The comber is operated until the doffer comb is at the
lowest part of its swing, after which the waste at the
back is all removed and the sliver broken at the point
where it is leaving the front calender rolls. The comber
is next started and allowed to run until it has made
about 40 nips. The cotton delivered by the front calender
rolls is then kept as one portion, while the waste deliv-
174
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
ered is taken as another portion. These two portions of
cotton are placed on a pair of scales, Fig. 6, which,
instead of denoting weight, denotes the percentage of
waste.
If the comber is taking out too much or too little
waste, any of the settings and timings regulating the
amount of waste may be changed. The amount of waste
Fig. 6
will vary under the very best circumstances from 1 to
3%, and due allowance should be made for this.
Another method for finding the percentage of waste is
to weigh each portion and add the weight of waste to the
weight of combed cotton and divide this result into the
weight of the waste.
Example. — If 60 gr. of sliver is delivered from a cer-
tain comber in a given number of nips and the waste
amounts to 15 gr., what percentage of waste is being
removed?
Solution.— 60 gr. weight of sliver
. 15 gr. weight of waste
75 gr. total weight
15-r75=.20, or 20%
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 175
FLY FRAMES
Fly frames have as their objects: (a) the reduction of the
thickness of the sliver, (6) the evening of the product, (c) the
twisting of the roving, (d) the winding of the roving on a bobbin.
Fly frames include slubbers, intermediates, and roving frames
where three frames are used between the drawing and spinning
frames. "Where four frames are used they are generally known
as the slubber, intermediate, roving frame, and jack frame;
in this case the word jack is used to indicate a fine roving
frame sometimes called a jack roving frame. The frame fol-
lowing the intermediates is sometimes called a fine frame. A
much better method of naming the machines is to speak of
the first machine after the drawing as the slubber; the last
machine before the spinning as the roving frame; and the inter-
mediates, if more than one, are spoken of as the first and sec-
ond intermediates, respectively.
All fly frames are practically of the same type. One point
to be noted, however, is that since the roving is gradually
drawn finer at each succeeding process, certain parts of the
intermediate frame should be smaller than similar parts of
the slubber; the same is also true in regard to the roving frame
as compared with the intermediate. With the slubber, the
cans from the drawing frames are placed directly behind the
machine and the sliver fed from the cans; and with the fly
frames that follow the slubber, creels are provided in which to
place the bobbins of roving, which is the form in which the
cotton is delivered by all of these machines.
Slubber. — ^A section of the essential parts of a slubber is
shown in Fig. 1. The cans from the finisher drawing frame are
placed behind the slubber and the sliver 6 passed to the guide
board c. In the slubber, which in this respect is unlike any
of the other fly frames, no doubling takes place, each end of
sliver being treated individually. From the guide board c the
sliver passes over the lifter roll d, through the traverse guide e,
and then through three sets of rolls fs, f2, fi, which insert the
necessary draft. From the drawing rolls, the sliver passes-
through the upper part of the flyer g and then out at its lower
part, where it is wound around an arm supported by the flyer„
176
CO T TON- YA RN PREP A RA TION
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 177
From this arm, the cotton, which, having been reduced in
size by the drawing rolls of the slubber, is now known as
roving, passes to the bobbin h, on which it is compactly wound.
In the illustration two ends are shown at the front, although
for convenience only one sliver is shown at the back. Each
end shown at the front is produced from a separate sliver fed
behind the frame.
It is necessary to insert a small amount of twist in the roving
after it leaves the front drawing rolls, to enable the fibers to
hold together and withstand the strain of being wound on
the bobbin and unwound at the next process. In fly frames,
the roving is gripped between the front rolls as it is being
delivered, and is also held by the bobbin on which it is being
wound, although as the roving passes through the hole in the
boss of the flyer and down the hollow leg, the top of the
boss of the flyer practically forms the termination of the grip
of the roving at this point. Consequently, the roving may be
considered as being firmly held here, and since the spindle
and flyer are making from 600 to 1,400 rev. per min., the roving
is being twisted all the time. In ascertaining the amount of
twist per inch inserted in the roving, the number of inches of
roving delivered by the rolls during a certain period, and the
number of turns made by the spindle during the same period,
must be obtained. If, for example, the flyer makes 25 revolu-
tions while the rolls deliver 12| in. of roving, there will be
25-4-121 = 2 ttims of twist put into an inch of the roving.
The front rolls of a fly frame rotate at a constant speed;
hence, a uniform length of roving is being constantly delivered.
Suitable means must be provided for winding this roving on
to the bobbin as fast as it is delivered, and the mechanism for
winding must be such that the roving will not be broken or
strained. The roving is wrapped around the bobbin because
of the difference in the velocity of the bobbin and the flyer eye,
since if both revolved in the same direction and at the same
speed the- roving could not be drawn through the eye of the
flyer and wound around the bobbin. In considering the
action of the flyer and bobbin in winding the roving about the
latter, it will be found that there are two methods by which
this is accomplished.
178 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
\
1. A rotary motion is given to both the flyer and the bobbin,
the speed of the flyer being just sufficiently in excess of that
of the bobbin to wind the roving on to the latter as fast as it is
delivered by the drawing rolls of the frame. Since in this
case the flyer is moving faster than the bobbin, or leading it,
the arrangement is known as a flyer lead, and a frame thus
equipped is called a flyer-lead frame.
2. Another method of winding the roving on to the bobbin
is that in which the bobbin rotates at a speed just sufficiently
in excess of that of the flyer to cause it to wind on the roving
as fast as it is delivered by the drawing rolls. This is the
arrangement that is almost always adopted on modem fly
frames, and since in this case the bobbin rotates faster, or
leads the flyer, it is known as the bobbin-lead method, fly
frames thus equipped being known as bobbin-lead frames.
In both flyer-lead and bobbin-lead fly frames, the speed of
the delivery of the roving and the speed of the flyers are con-
stant. This is necessary, because if the speed of the drawing
rolls were made variable the production of the frame would
be altered, and also because, in order to produce an even roving,
the sliver should be drawn at a regular and uniform speed.
A variable speed of the flyers is impracticable, because this
would produce a variation in the amount of twist in the roving.
In order, therefore, to compensate for the constantly increasing
diameter of the bobbin, a variation must be made in its speed,
so that the tension on the roving during the winding will be
the same whether the bobbin is empty or full. The speed of
the bobbin is regulated and controlled by two mechanisms that
act in combination. One is known as the differential motion,
more commonly called the compound; the other consists of two
cones and connections.
Calculations. — The following examples of necessary fly-
frame calculations apply to the gearing shown in Fig. 2 and
to a bobbin-lead type of frame.
Example 1. — Find the speed of the jack-shaft when the main
shaft makes 300 rev. per min. and carries a 20-in. pulley driving
a 16-in. pulley on the jack-shaft.
300X20
Solution. — -. — = 375 rev. per min. of jack-shaft
COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION
179
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180 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Example 2. — Find the revolutions per minute of the top-
cone shaft when the jack-shaft makes 375 rev. per min. and
carries a 38-tooth twist gear driving a 48-tooth gear on the
top-cone shaft-
Solution. —
375X38
= 296.875 rev. per min. of top-cone shaft
48
Example 3. — ^Find the revolutions per minute of the front
roll when the top-cone shaft makes 296.875 rev. per min. and
carries an 86-tooth gear driving a 120-tooth gear on the front-
roll shaft.
296.875X86
Solution. — = 212.76 rev. per min.
120
Example 4. — Find the length of roving delivered per minute
by the front roll when it is 1.25 in. in diameter and makes 212.76
rev. per min.
Solution. —
212.76X1.25X3.1416
=23.208 yd. per min.
36
Example 5. — Find the number of revolutions of the spindles
to 1 revolution of the jack-shaft when the jack-shaft carries a
42-tooth gear driving a 42-tooth gear on the spindle-gear shaft,
which carries a 46-tooth gear driving a 24-tooth gear on the
lower end of the spindle.
Solution. —
1X42X46
= 1.916 rev. of spindles to 1 rev. of jack-shaft
42X24
Example 6. — Find the revolutions per minute of the spindles
when the jack-shaft makes 375 rev. per min. and the spindles
make 1.916 turns to one of the jack-shaft.
Solution. —
375X1.916 = 718.5 rev. per min. of spindles
The twist, or turns, per inch in the roving may be found by
the following rules:
Rule I. — Divide the revolutions per minute of the spindles by
the length of roving, in inches, delivered by the front roll in the
same time.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 181
Example. — Find the turns per inch being placed in the
roving if the spindles make 718.5 rev. per min. and the front roll
delivers 23.208 yd. per min.
Solution.— 23.208X36 = 835.488 in. per min.; 718.5
-i- 835.488 = .859 turn per in.
Rule n. — Taking into consideration all the gears, with the
exception of the carrier gears, from the front roll to the spindles,
assume that the front-roll gear is a driver. Multiply together
all driving gears and divide by the product of all the driven gear.
Divide the quotient thus obtained by the circumference of the front
roll. )
Example. — Find the turns per inch being inserted in the
roving with the following arrangement of gears: the front roll
is 1.25 in. in diameter; front-roll gear has 120 teeth; gear on end
of top- cone shaft, 86 teeth; top-cone gear, 48 teeth; twist gear,
38 teeth; jack-shaft gear, 42 teeth; spindle-shaft gear, 42 teeth;
gear on spindle-shaft that drives spindle, 46 teeth; gear on
spindle, 24 teeth.
Solution. —
120X48X42X46 3.378
= 3.378; = .86 turns per in.
86X38X42X24 1.25X3.1416
The constant for twist may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Apply Rule II, for finding the twist, considering the
twist gear as a 1 -tooth gear.
Example. — Find the constant for twist, using the train ot
gearing given in the preceding example for finding the twist.
Solution. —
120X48X42X46
— =128.372;
86X1X42X24
128.372
■ = 32.689, constant dividend for twist
1.25X3.1416
The constant dividend divided by the twist gear equals the
twist per inch; thus, 32.689 ^38 = .86, twist per in.
The speed of the bobbins may be found by the following rule:
Rule. — Find the amount of roving wound on the bobbins per
minute and divide by the circumference of the bobbin. Add the
result thus obtained to the speed of the spindles per minute, and
the answer is the speed of the bobbins per minute.
182 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Example 1. — Find the speed of the bobbins at the beginnixig
of a set when the diameter of the bobbin is 1.75 in.; the speed
of the spindles, 718.5 rev. per min. ; and the front roll delivers
835.488 in. per min.
835.488
Solution. — = 151.967 rev. per min. of bob-
1.75X3.1416
bins over speed of spindles. Speed of the spindles, 71S.5 rev.
per min.; speed of bobbins over that of the spindles, 151.967.
718.5-1-151.967 = 870.467, speed of bobbins at beginning of set.
Example 2. — Find the speed of the bobbins at the finish of a
set when the diameter of the full bobbin is 6. 125 in. ; the speed
of the spindles, 718.5 rev. per min.; and the front roll delivers
835.488 in. per minute.
835.488
Solution. — = 43.419 rev. per min. of the
6.125X3.1416
bobbins over the spindles. The number of revolutions per
minute of the spindles is 718.5; the speed of the bobbins over
that of the spindles is 43.419. 718.5+43.419 = 761.919 rev. per
min. of bobbins at the finish of a set.
The reduction of the speed per minute of the bobbins from
an empty bobbin to a full bobbin in the above case is 870.467
— 761.919 = 108.548 revolutions.
The draft of a fly frame is calculated in the usual manner.
Example 1. — Find the total draft of the rolls shown in Fig.
2, using a 44-tooth draft gear.
1.25X100X56
Solution. — =3.977, total draft
40X44X1
The constant for draft is found in the same manner as the
total draft, except that the draft gear is considered as a 1-tooth
gear.
Example 2. — Find the draft constant for the rolls shown in
Fig. 2.
1.25X100X56
Solution. — = 175, constant
40X1X1
Example 3. — ^Pind the draft between the second and third
rolls.
1X25
Solution.— = 1.086, draft
23X1
COTTON -YARN PREPARATION 183
Example 4. — Find the draft between the front ^nd second
rolls if the draft gear contains 44 teeth.
1.25X100X56X23
Solution. = 3.659, draft
40X44X25X1
Change Gears. — In changing from one hank roving to
another some or all of the following gears must be altered (the
reference letters apply to Fig. 2) : (1) the twist gear mz, which
alters the speed of the rolls and regulates the turns of twist-
placed in the roving?; (2) the tension gear y^, which regulates,
the movement of the belt along the cones; (3) the draft gear i,
which alters the hank of the roving delivered ; (4) the taper gear
x^, which alters the taper of the bobbin; (5) the lay, or traverse,
gear v^. Which alters the speed of the traverse of the carriage.
The most important change to make is in the draft change
gear, which regulates the size of the roving. It is generally
customary at the same time to change the twist gear, because
this should vary with every change in the hank of the roving.
The tension gear is also frequently changed. It is not custom-
ary, however, to change the lay gear unless the change in the
hank of the roving is extensive. If the slubber roving is
changed .3 hank, the first intermediate roving .5 hank, the
second intermediate roving .75 hank, or the finished roving
a whole hank, the lay gear will ordinarily be changed.
It is seldom that the taper gear is changed in the mill , since
the gear that is placed on the frame by the builders usually
serves for the range of roving that the frame is intended for.
The following rules apply to the method of figuring the
different change gears when the gears that are on the frame
and the hank roving being produced are known. From the
calculations previously given it is possible to obtain the draft
and twist gears without this data, but for the tension and lay
gears this data is always necessary, since the correct gear for
starting up a frame was obtained by the builders largely by
experiment and not by calculation. Even when the gear to
use for a certain hank roving is known, the calculated gear for
another hank does not always give satisfactory results, since
the changing of these gears is largely a matter of experience and
observation, owing to a number of different items affecting the
results produced by them.
184 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
To find the draft gear to be used for a certain hank roving
when the draft gear that is on and the hank roving that it pro-
duces are known:
Rule. — Multiply the draft gear being used by the hank roving that
it produces, and divide the result by the hank roving that is to be made.
Example. — If 4-hank roving is being produced with a 32-
tooth draft gear, what draft gear will a 6-hank roving require?
Solution. — 32 X 4 = 128; 128 -^ 6 = 21.333, or practically a
21-tooth draft gear
To find the twist gear to be used for a certain hank roving
when the twist gear that is on and the hank roving that is pro-
duced are known:
Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank being made by
the twist gear, and divide by the square root of the hank required.
In examples in which the diameter of the roving affects the
size of the gear to be used it is necessary to consider the square
roots of the hanks, since the diameters of rovings vary inversely
as the square roots of their hanks.
Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 54-tooth
gear, what twist gear is required for a .64-hank?
Solution.— V:36 = .6; -N/T64 = .8; .6X54 = 32.4; 32.4-^.8
= 40.5. Either a 41-tooth or a 40-tooth gear may be used.
To find the tension gear to be used for a certain hank roving
when the tension gear that is on and the hank roving that is
produced are known, the frame having the American type of
builder:
Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank being made by the
tension gear, and divide by the square root of the hank required.
Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 50-tooth
tension gear, what tension gear is required for a .64-hank?
Solution.— Af:36 = .6; -N/:6i = .8; .6X50 = 30; 30-^.8
= 37.5. Either a 37-tooth or a 38-tooth gear may be used.
To find the tension gear to be used for a certain hank roving
when the tension gear that is on and the hank roving that is pro-
duced are known, the frame having the English type of builder:
Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank required by the
tension gear, and divide by the square root of the hank being made.
Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 20-tooth
tension gear, what tension gear is required for a .64-hank?
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 185
Solution.— Vise = .6; Vj64 = .8; .8X20=16; 16-^.66
= 26.666. A 27-tooth gear would be used.
To find the lay gear to be used for a certain hank roving when
the lay gear that is on and the hank roving that is produced are
known:
Rule. — Multiply the square root of the hank being made by
the lay gear, and divide by the square root of the hank required.
Example. — If .36-hank roving is being made with a 33-tooth
gear, what lay gear is required for a .64-hank?
Solution. — Vi36 = .6; Vi64 = .8; .6X33 = 19.8; 19.8-^.8
= 24.75. A 25-tooth gear should be used.
Production. — To find the production of a fly frame, in pounds:
Rule. — Multiply the hanks per spindle, as indicated by the
hank clock, by the number of spindles, and divide by the hank
roving.
Example. — A clock on a 72-spindle frame registers 75 hanks
of .5-hank roving turned off in a week. What is the production
in pounds?
75X72
Solution.— = 10,800 lb.
.5
Average Hank. — To find the average hank, or average num-
ber, of the roving when several hanks are being run:
Rule. — Multiply the pounds of each hank produced by the
number of the hank, and divide the sum of the products thus
obtained by the sum of the pounds produced.
Example.— If 1,800 lb. of .50-hank, 700 lb, of 1.50-hank,
850 lb. of 2-hank, 800 lb. of 2.25-hank, 750 lb. of 4-hank, and
700 lb. of 10-hank are produced in a week, what is the average
hank of the roving?
Solution. —
Total
1,8 00 X .5 =
900
700 X 1.5 =
1,0 5
8 5 X 2.0 =
1,7
8 00 X 2.2 5 =
1,8
7 5 X 4.0 =
3,0
7 X 1 0.0 =
7,0
5,6 lb.
1 5,4 5 hanks
15,4504-5,600 = 2.758, average hank
186
COT TON -YARN PREPARATION
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1 Weight of 10
Travelers
in Grains.
o
p
few
O w
as
1^
Weight of 10
Travelers
in Grains.
4
4950
2"
14
39
32
9500
If"
7-0
5i
6
5900
2
12
33
34
9600
If
9-0
5
8
6700
2
9
23
36
9700
11
11-0
4^
10
7250
2
8
20
38
9800
If
13-0
4
11
7500
2
7
18
40
9700
If
14-0
31
12
7750
2
6
16
45
9700
11
15-0
31
13
7950
2
6
16
50
9700
U
16-0
3i
i 14
8100
2
5
14
55
9600
u
16-0
3i
15
8300
2
4
13
60
9600
u
17-0
3
16
8450
2
3
12
65
9600
u
17-0
3
17
8600
2
2
11
70
9500
1§
18-0
2f
18
8750
2
1
10
75
9500
u
18-0
2f
19
8850
2
1-0
9
80
9300
1*
19-0
21
20
8900
2
li-0
8i
85
9100
n
19-0
21
21
9050
2
2-0
8
90
9100
If
20-0
2i
22
9100
2
3-0
7i
95
9000
If
21-0
2
23
9150
2
4-0
7
100
8700
If
22-0
If
24
9200
2
5-0
6i
110
8500
If
23-0
11
28
9500
If
6-0
6
is flattened, rolled, and annealed, after which it is cut and bent
on automatic machines to the shape desired. The travelers
are then hardened, tempered, scoured, and polished, each
process requiring the greatest skill and exactness.
Travelers are numbered by one maker, as shown in the
accompanying table.
It is impossible to give a definite rule by whicii to find the
weight of traveler to use for certain counts of yam. The
194
COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION
following are general principles, however: (1) A larger ring
requires a lighter traveler. (2) A coarser yarn requires a
heavier traveler. (3) Putting more twist into the yam may
require a heavier traveler. (4) A better grade of stock will
stand a heavier traveler. (5) Old rings require heavier trav-
elers than new ones. (6) During moist, sticky weather trav-
elers run hard and fly off; under these circumstances a lighter
TRAVELERS FOR FILLING YARN
u
^ >
o
■"* to CO
U r-<
-9 rt
•I1
Is
(-1
o
'-' tn to
it
^o
it
O
Weight
Trave
in Gri
1"^
(^ o
i'2
O
Weight
Trave
in Gr;
4
4000
li"
16
44
32
7900
If"
9-0
5
6
4800
1*
13
36
34
7900
If
11-0
41
8
5450
U
10
26
36
7900
If
13-0
4
10
5950
11
8
20
38
7900
If
14-0
3f
11
6150
11
7
18
40
7900
li
15-0
31
12
6350
11
6
16
45
7900
U
16-0
3i
13
6500
11
5
14
50
7900
U
17-0
3
14
6700
11
4
13
55
7900
IJ
17-0
3
15
6850
11
3
12
60
7900
li
18-0
21
16
6950
H
2
11
65
7800
li
18-0
2f
17
7100
n
1
10
70
7800
li
19-0
2|
18
7200
n
1-0
9
75
7800
li
19-0
2|
19
7300
11
2-0
8
80
7700
li
20-0
2i
20
7400
u
4-0
7
85
7600
li
20-0
2i
21
7500
u
4-0
7
90
7400
li
21-0
2
22
7600
n
5-0
6*
95
7400
li
22-0
If
23
7700
1*
5-0
61
100
7200
li
23-0
U
24
7800
1*
6-0
6
110
6900
li
24-0
li
28
7900
If
7-0
5i
traveler should be used. (7) Short stock, weak staple, or
heavily-drafted yarns require a lighter traveler than the same
numbers spun under better conditions. (8) The higher the
speed the lighter the traveler, and vice versa; the variation is
in the proportion of one or two grades of travelers to each 1,000
rev. of spindle. (9) Without separators a few grades heavier
traveler will be required.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
195
The accompanying tables are given as guides in selecting the
size of traveler to be used for warp and for filling yarns.
Spindles. — The spindles form one of the most important
parts of a ring spinning frame, and on them depends to a great
extent the successful and economical operation of ring spinning
frames. The modem ring-frame spindle is known as a gravity
spindle, sometimes called a top, an elastic, or sl flexible spindle,
which indicates that it is allowed to find its own best center of
rotation within certain limits, thus reducing or removing the
liability of excessive vibration and wear. The older style of
spindle was a rigid spindle, and this vibration and wear was
a frequent occurrence when the spindle became slightly out
of balance.
SIZES
OF
BOBBINS
Diameter of Barrel
Number of Yam
Warp
Inch
Filling
Inch
4s to 16s
16s to 30s
30s to 40s
40s to 100s
3
4
3
I
4
1
1
i
Bobbins. — The bobbin should fit the top of the spindle
closely, but not tightly, and should fit snugly the sleeve bearing
for a distance of about f in. Where a cup is used it should
project into the cup about | in. The accompanying table gives
suitable sizes of bobbins for various numbers of yam, both
warp and filling, assuming that the proper size of ring is used.
A larger ring requires a larger bobbin.
Dimensions. — The length of the traverse should be less for
fine yams than for coarse yams; 5| in. is about the average,
7 in. being about the maximtmi traverse and 4f in. the mini-
mum. The speed of the spindle has to be higher in making
fine yams than in the case of coarse yams and higher for warp
yams than for filling yams, because the additional amount of
196
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
twist that has to be put in the fine yam or warp yam will
seriously reduce the speed of the front roll, and consequently
the production of the frame, if the spindle speed is not high.
DIMENSIONS OF R]
[NG
SPINNING FRAMES
Warp
U
>H
•4-1
O
u
(D
a
Filling
Gauge
of
Spindles
Inches
Diam-
eter of
Ring
Inches
Length
Traverse
Inches
Gauge
of
Spindles
Inches
Diam-
eter of
Ring
Inches
Length
of
Traverse
Inches
3i
2i
7
4
9
10
11
15
16
17
20
21
25
26
27
28
30
31
35
36
37
39
40
41
44
45
50
51
60
70
80
2f
If
21
3
11
6i
2
u
6
If
If
6
If
1§
5§
5i
If
u
5
5
The accompanying table indicates approximately the cus-
tomary gauge of the spindles, the diameter of the rings, and the
lengfth of traverse for the principal numbers of warp and filling
yams between 4s and 80s.
COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION
ly;
The term gauge used in connection with spinning frames
implies the distance from the center of one spindle to the center
of the next spindle in the same row. Frames are usually built
Fig. 2
with from 160 to 288 spindles, although they may be built with
a greater or less number. In speaking of the number of spindles
of a ring frame, both sides are included; consequently, a frame
of 288 spindles would have 144 spindles on a side.
198 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Calculations. — Speed calculations for ring frames are illus-
trated, by the following examples:
Example 1. — Find the speed of the cylinder n. Fig. 2, when
the driving shaft makes 400 rev. per min. and carries a 30-in.
pulley that drives a lOf -in. pulley on the cylinder shaft w.
Solution. —
400X30
=1,116.279 rev. per min.
lOf
Example 2. — If the cylinder n. Fig. 2, makes 1,116.279 rev.
per min., find the speed of the. front roll shaft ws.
Solution. —
1,116.279X42X22X45
=116.279 rev. per min.
42X88X108
Example 3. — If the cylinder n. Fig. 2, is 7 in. in diameter
and makes 1,116.279 rev. per min., find the speed of the spindles
if the whorl around which the band passes is il in. in actual
diameter.
Note. — In connection with finding the speed of spindles a
question arises as to where the diameter of the whorl should
be taken. It is customarily taken at the bottom of the groove,
although theoretically the diameter should be considered a
little larger than this, in order to allow for the thickness of the
spindle band; consequently, the calculation should be made
with the diameter taken at the center of the band, about xt in.
being added to the diameter of the whorl in order to make
allowance for this, this dimension being termed the working
diameter.
Solution. — if in.+^ in. = 11 in., working diameter of
whorl.
1,116.279X7
= 9,617.172 rev. per mm.
16
Note. — The question of slippage also arises in connection
with the speed of the spindles. This is a variable quantity,
depending on the tension of the bands, the oiling of the spindles,
the number of the yarn being spun, the weight of the travelers,
and other factors. The loss from the calculated speed of the
spindles, due to slippage, will vary from 5 to 10%, but as 5%
is the customary allowance it will be adopted in these calcu-
lations. Making this allowance, example 3 would be com-
pleted as follows:
100%-5%=95%,or .95
9,617.172 X .95 = 9,136.313 rev. per min.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 199
To find the speed of the traveler when the speed of the-
spindle, the speed of the front roll, and the diameter of the
bobbins are known:
Rule. — Find the number of revolutions per minute of the bob-
bin necessary to take up the amount of yarn delivered per minute
by the front roll. Subtract this number of revolutions per minute
of the bobbin from the revolutions per minute of the spindle.
Example. — If the spindles make 9,136.313 rev. per min. and.
the front roll delivers 365.302 in. per minute, what is the speei
of the travelers when the bobbins are | in. in diameter?
365.302
Solution. — ■ =132.890, the rev. per mm. of bob-
1X3.1416
bins necessary to take up amount delivered by front roll.
9,136.313-132.890 = 9,003.423 rev. per min. of traveler
Twist calculations for ring frames are not entirely accurate
on account of several variable factors that affect the amount of
twist in the yam.
To find the turns of twist per inch being placed in the yarn:
Rule I. — When figuring from the gears, consider the gear
on the end of the front roll as a driver. Multiply all the driving
gears and the diameter of the cylinder together and divide by the
product of all the driven gears, the working diame er of the whorl,
and the circumference of the front roll.
Example 1. — ^What is the twist per inch that is being placed
in yam spun on a frame geared as shown in Fig. 2, if the
diameter of the front roll is 1 in., the cylinder 7 in., and the
working diameter of the whorl xf in?
Solution. —
108X88X42X7
= 26.326, turns per in.
45X22X42XHX3.1416X1
Rule II. — In case the speed of the spindles and the number of
inches of yarn delivered by the front roll are known, divide the
speed of the spindles, without any allowance for slippage, by the'
inches delivered per minute by the front roll.
Example 2. — ^What is the twist per inch that is being inserted
in yam if the spindles make 9,617.172 rev. per min. and the
front roll delivers 365.302 in. per min.?
Solution.— 9,617.172^365.302 = 26.326, tums per in.
200 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
To find the constant for twist from the gears:
Rule. — Consider the gear on the end of the front roll as a
driver and the twist gear as a 1 -tooth gear. Multiply together
all the driving gears and the diameter of the cylinder and divide
by the product of all the driven gears, the working diameter of
the whorl, and the circumference of the front roll.
Example. — ^What is the constant for twist with the frame
geared as shown in Fig. 2, if the diameter of the front roll is
1 in., the cylinder 7 in, and the working diameter of the
whorl xf iO"
Solution. —
108X88X42X7
— = 1,184.697, constant
1X22X42XMX3.1416X1
To find the twist per inch when the constant for twist and
the twist gear are known:
Rule. — Divide the constant by the number of teeth in the twist
gear.
Example. — ^What is the twist per inch that is being inserted
in yam if the constant for twist is 1,184.697 and the twist gear
contains 45 teeth?
Solution. — 1,184.697-7-45 = 26.326, turns per in.
To find the necessary twist gear to give a required number
of turns per inch when the constant is known:
Rule. — Divide the constant by the twist required.
Example. — If the constant for a train of gears is 1,184.697*
what size twist gear will be required to give 20 turns per inch
in the yam?
Solution. —
1,184.697-7-20 = 59.2, or a 59-tooth gear (practically)
The calciilations given in connection with twist make no
allowance for any slippage that may occur, or for any loss
caused by the traveler speed being slightly less than the
spindle speed. These points are sometimes taken into con-
sideration, although the contraction of the yarn, due to the
twist inserted, generally compensates for any loss due to
these causes.
In determining the amount of twist to be placed in either
warp or filling yam spun on a ring frame, a constant is used
that multiplied by the square root of the coimts gives the
COTTON- YARN PREPARA TION
201
required number of turns per inch. For ordinary warp yam
spun on ring frames the constant is usually 4.75, but for
filling it is 3.25. These figures, however, are varied accord-
ing to the twist required, the quality of the yam to be made,
or the kind of stock being used. Long stock does not require
so much twist in proportion as short stock. Filling yam from
carded stock requires, as a rule, from 1| to 2| turns per inch
more twist than the square root of the counts multiplied by
120
lOS
30^
Draft Change.
Crtar
l"iia
*«r
Pig. 3
3.25. On combed stock the standard number of turns is suffi-
cient, since combed stock does not require so much twist for
the same nvunbers as carded stock. Fine filling yams or yams
for twisting are spun with less twist than 3.25 times the square
root of the counts.
Example 1. — ^What is the standard twist in 28s warp yam?
Solution. —
-V28 = 5.291. 5.291X4.75 = 25.132, tums per in.
. Example 2. — ^What is the standard twist in 36s filling yam?
Solution.-— >/36 = 6. 6X3.25 = 19.5, tums per in.
202
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Draft calculations are of importance in connection with
ring spinning frames, as the draft together with the hank of
the roving, governs the size of the yam produced.
Example 1. — Find the draft for rolls geared as shown in
Fig. 3.
1X120X84
Solution.— = 10.971 , draft
30X35X1
Example 2. — Find the draft constant for the rolls when
geared as shown in Fig. 3.
1X120X84
Solution. — -=384, constant for draft
30X1X1
To find the hanks per spindle produced per day:
Rule. — Divide the product of the circumference of the front
roll, the number of revolutions per minute of the front roll, the
minutes per hour, and the hours per day by the product of the
number of inches in 1 yd. and the number of yards in one hank.
ALLOWANCES ON CALCULATED PRODUCTION OF
RING SPINNING FRAMES
Warp Yarn
Filling Yarn
Numbers
Allowance
Per Cent.
Numbers
Allowance
Per Cent.
5s to 10s
lOs to 20s
20s to 30s
3Cs to 40s
40s to 55s
55s to 85s
85s to 100s
11
10
9
8
7
4
2
5s to 10s
10s to 15s
15s to 20s
20s to 30s
30s to 35s
35s to 45s
45s to 60s
14
12
11
10
8
7
6
Example. — How many hanks per spindle, per day of 10 hr.,
will be produced by a frame with a front roll 1 in. in diameter
that makes 116.279 rev. per min.?
1X3.1416X116.279X60X10 ^ , ,
SOLUTION.- 36X840 -=7.248 hanks
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
203
When figuring the production of ring frames from the speed
of the front roll it is necessary to make certain allowances,
since the frame is not running continually, owing to the stop-
pages necessitated by cleaning, oiling, and doffing. These
allowances will vary with the yam spun, since coarse yam
requires more frequent doffing than fine yarn, owing to the
PRODUCTION OF WARP SPINNING FRAMES
Weight
Rev.
of
Front
Roll
Rev.
Hanks
Pounds
Number
of Yarn
per
Yard
Twist
per
T 1
9f
Spindle
per
Day
per
Day
in
Inch
per
per
per
Grains
per
Minute
Minute
Spindle
Spindle
10
.833
15.02
146.2
6.900
8.295
.829
12
.694
16.45
143.2
7,400
8.214
.685
14
.595
17.77
139.7
7,800
8.013
.572
16
.521
19.00
137.3
8,200
7.875
.492
18
.463
20.15
134.2
8,500
7.698
.428
20
.417
21.24
131.8
8,800
7.560
.378
22
.379
22.27
128.6
9,000
7.376
.335
24
.347
23.27
124.5
9,100
7.141
.298
26
.320
24.22
122.2
9,300
7.085
.272
28
.297
25.13
117.8
9,300
6.830
.244
30
.277
26.02
115.0
9,400
6.668
.223
32
.260
26.87
112.4
9,500
6.516
.205
34
.245
27.69
109.1
9,500
6.326
.186
36
.231
28.50
106.1
9,500
6.218
.173
38
.219
29.28
103.2
9.500
6.048
.159
40
.208
30.04
100.6
9,500
5.896
.147
42
.198
30.78
98.2
9,500
5.755
.137
44
.189
31.50
96.0
9,500
5.626
.128
46
.181
32.21
93.8
9,500
5.556
.121
48
.174
32.90
91.9
9,500
5.443
.113
50
.166
33.58
90.9
9,600
5.384
.108
bobbins being tilled more rapidly. The accompanying table
gives the allowances usually made for different counts of yam.
To find the total production, in pounds, of several frames
when the number of hanks produced by each spindle is known:
Rule. — Find the production, in pounds, of each frame by
multiplying the number of spindles in the frame by the hanks
Produced by each spindle and dividing the result by the counts
being spun. Add the results obtained for each frame.
204
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Example. — If four frames of 160 spindles produce, respect-
ively, 37 hanks per spindle c^f 36s, 33 hanks per spindle of 50s,
28 hanks per spindle of 70s, and 27 hanks per spindle of 80s,
in 1 wk., what is the total production for the week?
160X37
Solution. —
36
= 154.4'
14 ib. o
160X33
50
= 105.6 lb. of i
160X28
70
= 64 lb.
of 70s
160X27
= 54 lb.
of 80s
80
164.444 + 105.6+64+54 = 388.044 lb., total production for 1 wk.
PRODUCTION OF FILLING SPINNING FRAMES
Weight
Rev.
of
Rev.
Hanks
Pounds
Number
of Yarns
per
Yard
Twist
per
Front
Roll
of
Spindle
per
Day
per
Day
in
Grains
Inch
per
Minute
per
Minute
per
Spindle
per
Spindle
10
.833
10.27
161.2
5,200
8.945
.894
12
.694
11.26
158.2
5,600
8.778
.731
14
.595
12.16
156.9
6,000
8.706
.622
16
.521
13.00
155.4
6,350
8.719
.545
18
.463
13.79
152.2
6,600
8.540
.476
20
.417
14.53
148.8
6,800
8.444
.422
22
.379
15.24
146.1
7,000
8.290
.376
24
.347
15.92
139.9
7,000
7.938
.331
26
.320
16.57
138.2
7,200
7.927
.305
28
.297
17.20
134.1
7,250
7.692
.275
30
.277
17.80
129.6
7,250
7.514
.250
32
.260
18.38
126.3
7,300
7.323
.229
34
.245
18.95
122.4
7,300
7.097
.208
36
.231
19.50
119.1
7,300
6.980
.194
38
.219
20.03
117.6
7,400
6.892
.181^
40
.208
20.55
115.4
.7,450
6.835
.171
42
.198
21.06
113.3
7,500
6.711
.160
44
.189
21.56
110.7
7,500
6.557
.149
46
.181
22.04
108.3
7.500
6.414
.139
48
.174
22.52
105.9
7,500
6.272
.131
50
.166
22.98
103.9
7,500
6.218
.124
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 205
To find the average number of yarn being produced:
Rule. — Multiply the number of pounds produced by each
frame by the counts of yarn being spun. Add the results thus
obtained and divide by the total number of pounds.
Example. — ^What is the average number of yam being spun
if fotir frames produce, respectively, 164.444 lb. of 36s, 105.6
lb. of 50s. 64 lb. of 70s, and 54 lb. of 80s?
Solution.— 1 6 4.4 4 4 X 36 = 5 9 1 9.9 8 4
1 5.6 X 50 = 5 2 8 0.0
6 4.0 X 70 = 4 4 8 0.0
5 4.0 X 8 = 4 3 2 0.0
3 8 8.0 4 4 1 9 9 9 9.9 8 4
19,999.984-^38S.044 = 51.540s, average number of yam
MULE SPINNING
The chief difference between the ring spinning frame and
the mule is that the former is a constant, and the latter an
intermittent, spinning machine. There is also a difference
in the form in which the yam is produced. The ring spin-
ning frame winds it on a wooden or paper bobbin, and the
mule produces yarn in the form of a cop. In the mechan-
ism by which the yam is produced, the ring spinning frame
differs very considerably from the mule; in fact, the two
machines are radically different in principle, construction,
and operation.
The mule has three principal objects: (1) the reduction of
the roving to the counts of yam desired; (2) twisting the yarn
to give it sufficient strength for the purpose intended; (3) wind-
ing the yam in suitable form for use at the next process.
A sectional view of the essential parts of the mule is given
in Fig. 1. Generally speaking, the machine proper consists
of a headstock, which contains most of the mechanism for opera-
ting the various parts; a creel b for holding the roving that is
to be drawn and converted into yam; drawing rolls c, ci, a
for inserting the required amount of draft to reduce the size
of the roving; and a carriage d that carries spindles far twisting
and winding the yam, a cylinder for driving the spindles, and
206
CO T TON- YA RN PREP A RA TION
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 207
fallers for guiding the yam on to the spindles and keeping it
under tension during winding.
The bobbins of roving bi from the last fly-frame process are
placed in the creel b and the ends conducted to the drawing
rolls C2, ci, c, through which they pass, in order that they may
be drafted as required. After leaving the front drawing rolls,
the stock passes to the spindles di, which are carried by the
carriage. The carriage recedes from the rolls, as the stock is
being delivered, but after the rolls cease to deliver, it returns.
When the rolls first commence to deliver, the spindles occupy
position (a), shown in dotted lines, and gradually recede in
the direction shown by the arrow, until position (fc) is reached,
when the rolls stop delivering and the carriage ceases to naove
outwards. The extent of the outward movement of the car-
riage, known as the draw, or stretch, varies from 53 to 68 in.,
the general length being about 62 or 64 in.
During the outward run of the carriage, the spindles are
revolving and inserting twist in the yam, which is accomplished
by having the upper ends of the spindles slightly below the
delivering point of the rolls, as shown by the dotted lines in
position (a) , and the spindles inclined, with the upper end nearer
the rolls than the lower.
Since the spindle is inclined toward the rolls and is revolving
as the stock is being delivered, a few open spirals of yam are
wound on its blade between the nose, or upper end, of the cop
and the point of the spindle. If the spindle were extended, the
yam would wind on it in open spirals until it formed a right
angle with the spindle; but since the spindle is not thus
extended, after the coils of yam have reached its upper end,
every time it makes one revolution the upper coil is slipped
off just as it is being completed, thus inserting one turn of
twist in the yam. The spindles by receding from the rolls
keep the yam under tension as it is being delivered, and since
they are continually revolving dixring this time, they are
continually inserting twist. The inclination of the spindles
assists in allowing the yarn to pass easily over their ends,
especially when the carriage is near the end of its outward
run, as the angle between the yam and the spindles approaches
nearer to a right angle than when the carriage is first starting
20S COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
out. This is shown by positions (a) and (&). The spindles
are driven by bands passing around the revolving cylinder d2
and the whorls on the spindles.
While the carriage is running out, the fallers di, ds, known
as the winding and counter fallers, respectively, are not in con-
tact with the yam, but occupy the positions shown, the wind-
ing-faller wire being above the yam and the counter-, or ten-
sion-, faller wire, below. The winding faller is for the purpose
of guiding the yam on to the spindles in the proper form to
build up a cop, while the counter faller keeps the yam under
tension dtiring winding.
When the carriage has reached position (6), the spindles
and rolls are stopped and the spinning is completed. In order
that the yam may be wound on the spindles, the open coils
of yam between the nose of the cops and the ends of the
spindles must be unwound; this is done by causing the spindles
to make a few revolutions in the opposite direction to that in
which they revolve during spinning and winding, and is known
as backing off. After the open coils are entirely unwound,
the spindles stop revolving in this direction, the fallers in the
meantime having assumed their proper positions for winding.
Winding commences as the carriage starts to run in and con-
tinues, the yam being guided on to the spindles by the wind-
ing faller, until position (a) is reached, when the carriage and
spindles stop, which completes the cycle of operations. The
rolls now begin to deliver, the spindles to revolve, and the
carriage to move outwards, as before.
Calculations. — To find the niimber of turns of twist being
inserted in the yam, the following rule may be applied:
Rule. — Assuming the front-roll gear to be a driving gear,
divide the product of the driving gears and the diameters, in
inches, of the rim pulley and cylinder by the product of all
the driven gears and the diameters, in inches, of the cylinder
pulley, whorl, and the front roll multiplied by 3.1416 to give its
circumference.
Example. — Find the number of turns of twist per inch
being inserted in the yam, with a deduction of 5% for
slippage of bands, belts, etc., according to the data given in
Fig. 2.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 209
48X60X66X16X6
Solution. — ; • = 22.223
24X60X22XllXfX 1X3.1416
5% of 22.223 = 1.111. 22.223-1.111 = 21.112, turns of twist.
To find the number of turns of twist per inch being inserted
in the yam when the number of revolutions per minute of the
spindles and the number of inches of stock delivered per minute
are known:
Rule. — Divide the number of revolutions per minute of the
spindles by the number of inches of stock delivered per minute
by the front roll.
Example. — Find the number of turns of twist per inch being
inserted in the yam when the spindles make 9,819.786 rev.
per min. and the front roll delivers 465.113 in. of stock.
Solution. —
9,819.786-^465.113 = 21.112, tums of twist per in.
The twist is generally altered by changing the rim pulley
or the speed gear. The speed gear is the one changed under
ordinary conditions, which require only a slight alteration in
the amount of twist, but for a considerable change the rim
pulley is altered; in extreme cases both are changed. Referring
to Fig. 2, the spur gear C23, of 66 teeth driven by the 22-tooth
gear C22 on the front end of the rim shaft is the speed gear.
To find the constant for twist for the rim pulley when the
sizes of the gears, pulleys, etc. are known:
Rule. — Perform the calculations in exactly the same manner
and select exactly the same data as when finding the twist, except
that the rim pulley should be considered as 1 in. in diameter.
Example. — Find the constant for twist for the rim pulley
f according to the data given in Fig. 2.
Solution. —
48X60X66X1X6 ^ „ _
; — — =1.3889, constant
24X60X22X11X1X1X3.1416
To find the constant for twist for the speed gear when the
sizes of the gears, pulleys, etc. are known:
Rule. — Perform the calculations in exactly the same manner
and select exactly the same data as when finding the twist, except
that the speed gear should be considered as having only 1 tooth.
Example. — Find the constant for twist for the speed gear
<:23 according to the data given in Fig. 2.
-210 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Solution. —
48X60X1X16X6
.3367, constant
24X60X22X11X1X1X3.1416
To find the number of turns of twist per inch being inserted
in the yarn when the constant for the rim pulley and the size,
or diameter, of the rim pulley are known :
Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the rim pulley being used by
the constant for twist for the rim pulley.
Example. — Find the turns of twist per inch being inserted
in the yam, making a deduction of 5% for slippage of bands,
belts, etc., when a 16-in. rim pulley is used and the constant
is 1.3889.
Solution.— 16X1.3889 = 22.222. 5% of 22.222 = 1.111;
22.222-1.111 = 21.111, turns of twist per in.
To find the ntunber of turns of twist per inch being inserted
in the yam when the constant for the speed gear and size of the
speed gear are known:
Rule. — Multiply the size of the speed gear being used by the
constant for twist for the speed gear.
Example. — Find the turns of twist per inch being inserted
in the yarn, making a deduction of 5% for slippage of bands,
belts, etc., when a 66-tooth speed gear is being used and the
constant is .3367.
Solution.— 66 X. 3367 = 22.222. 5% of 22.222 = 1.111.
22.222-1.111 = 21.111, tums of twist per in.
To find the diameter of the rim pulley being used when the
calculated twist and the constant for twist for the rim pulley
are known:
Rule. — Divide the number of turns of twist per inch by the
constant for twist for the rim pulley.
Example. — Find the diameter of the rim pulley required to
produce 22,223 tums of twist per inch when the constant for
twist for the rim pulley is 1.3889.
Solution.-^ 22.223-^-1.3889 = 16 in., dia. of rim pulley.
To find the size of the speed gear being used when the cal-
culated twist and the constant for twist for the speed gear
are known:
Rule. — Divide the number of turns of twist per inch by the
constant for twist for the speed gear.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 211
Example. — Find the size of the speed gear required to pro-
duce 22.223 turns of twist per inch when the constant for twist
for the speed gear is .3367.
Solution. —
22.223-^.3367 = 66.002, or practically a 66-tooth gear
To find the twist to be inserted in a certain class of yam, the
square root of the counts to be spun and the standard multi-
plier for that class of work must be known, in which case the
square root of the counts is multiplied by the standard multi-
plier. The standard multiplier varies for different classes of
work and kinds of cotton; the following are not absolute, but
are given as a guide: For warp and filling yams spun on the
mule from American cotton, 3.75 and 3.25 respectively, are
used; for Egyptian cotton, 3.6 and 3.18, respectively; and 2.75
for filling yams spun from sea-island cotton. For hosiery yams
the multiplier ranges from 2.25 to 2.6, as hosiery yams are
softer than weaving yams and require less twist. Long stock
requires less twist than short stock, and combed stock less than
carded stock. In many cg,ses the constant multiplier is given
with each order, especially with those for hosiery yams.
Example. — Find the standard number of turns of twist per
inch for 39s filling yam spun from American cotton.
Solution.— \39 = 6.244. 6.244X3.25 = 20.293, standard
number of turns of twist per in.
If carded stock is being used, the above result will be increased
about 1 or I5 turns per inch; thus, 20.293-1-1 = 21.293 turns of
twist per inch for carded stock.
The following examples illustrate the methods of finding
the total draft, constant for total draft, size of change gear
required to produce any desired draft, and the draft produced
by a certain size of change gear:
Example. — ^Find the total draft, or the draft between the
front and back drawing rolls, according to the data given in
Fig. 2.
1X120X56 „_„ , , ^
Solution. — = 8.626, total draft
19X41X1
Example. — Find the constant for the total draft according
to the data given in Fig. 2, considering the 41-tooth gear as
the draft gear.
212 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Solution. —
1X120X56
= 353.684, constant for total draft
19X1X1
Example. — -Find the size of the draft gear required to pro-
duce a draft of 8.626 when the constant is 353.684.
Solution. — 353.684-5-8.626 = 41.002, or practically a 41-
tooth draft gear.
Example. — ^Find the draft produced by a 41-tooth draft
gear when the constant is 353.684.
Solution.— 353.684^41 = 8.626, draft
The production of mules may be found in three general
ways: (1) by taking into consideration the number of stretches
per minute, the length of each stretch, the number of spindles
per mule, the counts of yam being spun, and the length of
time run; (2) by using indicators, or hank clocks; (3) by keep-
ing an account of the weight of each doff for a given period,
adding the estimated amount on the spindles at the end of
this time, and deducting the amount on the spindles at the
beginning. ' I
To find the production for a given length of time accord-,
ing to the first method: j
Rule I. — Divide the product of the number of stretches per
minute, the length of each stretch, 60 (the number of minutes
per hour), the number of hours run, the number of spindles per
mule, and the number of mules by the product of 36 (the num-
ber of inches in a yard) , SJfi (the number of yards in a hank) ,
and the counts of the yarn being spun. Usually a deduction of
about 10% is made for stoppages, such as doffing, cleaning, etc.
Example. — Find the total number of pounds produced in
a week of 60 hr., making a deduction of 10% for stoppages,
etc., by 6 mules of 780 spindles each. The yam being spun
is 39s and each mule makes 5j draws, or stretches, of 62 in.,
per minute.
5JX62X60X60X780X6 ,„„, ,_,^
Solution.— = 4,871.428 lb.
36X840X39
10% of 4,871.428 = 487.142. 4,871.428— 487.142 = 4,384.286 lb.
To find the production for a given length of time according
to the second method, that is, using indicators:
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 213
Rule n. — Multiply the number of hanks per spindle pro-
duced by each mule by the number of spindles in thai mule and
divide by the counts of yarn being spun to find the number of
pounds produced. To find the total number of pounds produced,
add the number of pounds produced by each mule. Usually
a deduction of from 2|% upwards is made for waste, etc.',
although in some cases the indicators are constructed so as to
provide for this allowance.
Example. — Find the total number of pounds produced by
6 mules of 780 spindles each, making a deduction of 3§% for
waste, etc. The hank clock on each mule registers, respect-
ively, 38.25, 37.5, 37, 37.25, 38.75, and 38.5 hanks, and the
counts of the yam being spun are 39s.
38.25X780
Solution. — =765 lb.
39
37.5X780
39
37X78
39
37.25X780
39
38.75X780
39
38.5X780
= 750 lb.
= 740 lb.
= 745 lb.
= 775 lb.
= 770 lb.
39
765+750+740+745+775+770 = 4,545 lb. 3|% of 4,535
= 159.075. 4,545-159.075 = 4,385.925 lb. of 39s yam
Rule m. — Multiply the sum of the hanks per spindle pro-
duced by each mule by the number of spindles per mule and
divide by the counts of the yarn. The usual deduction for waste
should be made.
Example. — Same as example under Rule II.
Solution.— 38.25+37.5+37+37.25+38.75+38.5 =
227.25X780
227.25, total number of hanks. = 4,545 lb. 3|%
39
of 4,545 = 159.075. 4,545-159.075 = 4,385.925, total number
of lb. of 39s yanij^
214 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
To find the production for a given length of time according
to the third method : \
Rule rV. — Find the total number of pounds doffed for 'the
given time, add to this the estimated number of pounds on
spindles at the end of this time, and then deduct the number of
pounds on the spindles at the commencement of this time.
Example. — Find the total number of pounds of yarn pro-
duced in 1 wk. by 6 mules that have produced 121 doffs of
practically 36 lb. each. At the end of the week there is approxi-
mately 100 lb. of yam on the spindles, and at the end of the
previous week, or the beginning of the week under consideration,
there was 71 lb.
Solution.— 36X121 = 4,356 lb. doffed. 4,356+100 = 4,456.
4,456 - 71 = 4,385 lb. produced-
Changing Cotints. — To find the size of the draft gear required
to produce a yam of certain counts when the counts of the 3'-arn
being sptin and the draft gear in use are known and when the
hank of the back roving remains the same:
Rule. — Multiply the counts of the yarn being spun by the
draft gear in use and divide by the counts of the yarn desired.
Example. — Find the size of the draft gear required to pro-
duce 45s yam when 39s is being spun with a 41 -tooth draft
gear. The hank of the back roving is the same in both cases.
Solution. —
39X41
= 35.533, or practically a 36-tooth draft gear
To find the size of the draft gear required to produce a yam
of certain counts when the hank of the back roving is to be
changed, and the counts of the yam being spun, the draft gear
in use, the hank of the back roving being used, and the hank of
the back roving to be used are known:
Rule. — Divide the product of the counts of the yarn being spun,
the gear being used, and the hank of the back roving to be used by
the product of the counts of the yarn required and the hank of the
back roving being used.
Example. — Find the size of the draft gear required to pro-
duce 45s yam with a 6-hank back roving when 39s is being
spun from 4.5-hank back roving with a 41-tooth draft gear.
The back roving is running single; that is, one end per spindle.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
PRODUCTION OF MULES
215
Pounds per Spindle per
Week
No. of
Yarn
Stretches
per Minute,
64-Inch
Stretch
Hanks
per Spindle
per Day
Without
Roller
Motion
With
5 Per Cent.
Roller
Motion
6
6.00
6.85
6.85
7.20
8
6.00
6.85
5.13
5.39
10
6.00
6.85
4.11
4.31
12
6.00
6.85
3.42
3.59
14
5.50
6.28
2.69
2.82
16
5.50
6.28
2.35
2.47
18
5.50
6.28
2.09
2.20
20
5.50
6.28
1.88
1.97
22
5.50
6.28
1.71
1.79
24
5.50
6.28
1.57
1.64
26
5.25
6.00
1.38
1.45
28
5.25
6.00
1.28
1.34
30
5.25
6.00
1.20
1.26
32
5.25
6.00
1.12
1.17
34
5.25
6.00
1.05
1.11
36
5.125
5.85
.97
1.02
38
5.125
5.85
.92
.97
40
5.00
5.71
.85
.89
42
5.00
5.71
.81
.85
44
4.75
5.42
.73
.77
46
4.75
5.42
.70
.74
48
4.50
5.24
.65
.68
50
4.50
5.24
.62
.66
52
4.25
4.85
.55
.58
54
4.25
4.85
.53
.56
56
4.25
4.85-
.51
.54
58
4.25
4.85
.50
.52
60
4.125
4.71
.47
.50
62
4.125
4.71
.45
.47
64
4.125
4.71
.44
.46 .
66
4.125
4.71
.42
.44
68
4.00
4.57
.40
.42
70
4.00
4.57
.39
.41
72
4.00
4.57
.38
.40
74
4.00
4.57
.37
.38
76
4.00
4.57
.36
.37
78
4.00
4.57
.35
.36
Note. — ^Allowance has been made for stoppage for cleaning
and dofiSng.
216 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Solution. —
39X41X6
=47.377, or practically a 47-tooth draft gear
; 45X4.5
To find the size of the speed gear required to give the proper
twist for any cotints of yam without changing the rim pulley,
when the counts of the yam being spun, the counts of the yam
to be spun, and the size of the speed gear being used are known:
Rule. — Multiply the size of the speed gear being used by th<
square root of the counts required and divide by the square root
of the counts being spun.
Example. — Find the size of the speed gear required for 45s
yam when 39s is being spun with a 66-tooth speed gear.
Solution.— -V39 = 6.244; ^[45 = 6.708
66X6.708
=70.904, or practically a 71-tooth speed gear
6.244
To find the size, or diameter, of the rim pulley reqtiired to
give the proper twist for any counts of yam without changing
the speed gear, when the covmts of the yam being spun, the
counts of the yam to be spun, and the diameter of the rim
pulley being used are known:
Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the rim pulley being used
by the square root of the counts required and divide by the square
root of the counts being spun.
Example. — Find the diameter of the rim piilley required for
45s yam when 39s is being spvm with a 16-inch rim pulley.
Solution.— ->/39 = 6.244; V45 = 6.708
16X6.708 , . , .
=17.188, or practically a 17-inch rim pulley
6.244
To find the size of the builder gear to give the required rate of
movement to the builder for any counts of yam, when the
counts of the yam being spun, the size of the builder gear being
used, and the counts of the yam required are known:
Rule I. — Multiply the builder gear being used by the square
root of the counts of the yarn required and divide by the square
root of the counts of the yarn being spun.
Example. — Find the size of the builder gear required to spin
45s yam when 39s yarn is being spun with a 28-tooth builder
gear.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 217
Solution. — ^^45 = 6.708; 'V39 = 6.244
28X6.708
=30.08, or practically a 30-tooth builder gear
6.244 . K J B
Rule n. — Multiply the square of the builder gear being used
by the counts of yarn that it is desired to spin and divide by the
counts of yarn being spun. Extract the square root of the result
thus obtained.
Example. — Same as example 1.
282X45
, Solution. — =904.613
39
'V904.615 = 30.077, or practically a 30-tooth builder gear.
Another method of finding the size of the builder gear for
any counts of yam requires that the constant for the builder
gear shall first be found.
To find the constant for the builder change gear when the
length of the screw being used and the pitch, or number of
threads to the inch, in the screw are known:
Rule. — Multiply the length, in inches, of the part of the screw
that is being used by the pitch of the screw.
Example. — Find the constant for the builder change gear
when 7| in. of a 4-pitch screw is being used during the formation
of a set of cops.
Solution. — 7. 5 X 4 = 30, constant
To find the number of stretches, or draws, in a cop of any
counts of yam when the weight of the cop, the counts of the
yam, and the length of the stretch are known;
Rule. — Divide the product of the weight of the cop, in grains,
840 (the number of yards in 1 hank) , 36 (the number of inches in
1 yd.), and the counts of the yarn by the product of 7,000 (the
number of grains in 1 lb.) and the number of inches in one stretch.
Example. — Find the number of 62-in. stretches required to
produce a 330-gr. cop of 39s yam.
330X840X36X39
Solution. — = 896.748 stretches
7,000X62
To find the size of the builder change gear required for
any counts of yam when the constant for the change gear,
the weight of a full cop of yam, the length of one stretch,
and the counts of the yam required are known:
218 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Rule. — First find the number of stretches required for a full cop
of yarn of the weight and counts required, and then divide the
number of stretches required by the constant.
Example. — Find the size of the builder gear required for a
62-in. stretch mule to spin a 330-in. cop of 45s yam when the
constant for the builder change gear is 30.
330X840X36X45
SoLtTTiON. — ■ = 1 ,034.709 stretches
7,000X62
1,034.709^30 = 34.49, or practically a 34-tooth builder gear
Note. — It will be seen that the results obtained by these
rules vary somewhat. Since, however, the proper size of
builder gear is influenced by many other factors, such as the
tension on the yam during winding (which is governed by the
amount of weight on the counter faller and action of the quad-
rant), the amount of twist inserted in the yam, etc., no rule
will give absolutely accurate results. Rules for finding the
size of the builder gear must therefore be considered as giving
approximate results only, and it may often be found necessary
to slightly increase or decrease the calculated size of the builder
gear as the case may require.
The horsepower required to drive a mule varies, especially
during the different periods in its actions. It is generally
estimated, however, to be about 1 H. P. for every 100 to 110
spindles for coarse counts, 110 to 120 for medium counts, and
120 to 130 for fine counts. Generally speaking, a mule of
about 700 spindles, spinning medium counts, with a spindle
speed of about 9,000 rev. per min., under favorable conditions
will require, during the drawing-and-twisting period, about
25 H. P. for the first 2 or 3 sec. as the carriage starts out; after
that it decreases to about 10 or 12 H. P. until the carriage com-
pletes its outward run, when the horsepower is reduced to
about 1 or 1| until backing off is completed. As winding
commences and the carriage starts in, the power required is
increased from 1 or 1| to about 3 H. P. This continues until
the winding is completed, when the power is decreased to
practically nothing.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 219
TWISTING
The name ply yams is given indiscriminately to all threads
that are composed of two, three, or more single yams twisted
together at one operation, and they are distinguished from one
another by the terms -two-ply, three-ply, and so on. When
two or more ply threads are twisted together the resulting
yams are spoken of as cabled yarns.
The twisting process may be performed on machines of
various types, depending on two distinct factors: (1) the
condition of the yam when it is being twisted, and (2) the
method employed to insert the twist. The yam is twisted
in two conditions — ^wet or dry — giving the names wet twisters
and dry twisters to the two types of machines.
The machine most commonly used for twisting is that known
in America as a ring twister. The object of the twister is to
form the ply yam by inserting a suflEicient amount of twist in
the required direction and to wind the resulting yam on a
twister bobbin.
The principle on which the ring twister is constructed and
operated is to pass the yam from a creel to delivery rolls and
twist it by passing it through a traveler that is revolved rapidly
around a ring, by means of a rotating spindle carrying a bobbin;
the difference between the circumferential speed of the bobbin
and the speed of the traveler causes the twisted yarn to be
wound on the bobbin.
The twister closely resembles the ring spinning frame, a large
number of parts and motions of which are duplicated on a
twister. Ring twisters for both wet and dry twisting are
similar in construction, with the exception that in the wet
twister, the yarn immediately before being twisted is mois-
tened by being passed through a trough containing clean
water.
Calculations. — The only calculations that are of importance
in connection with twisters are: (1) those that are useful in
determining the twist per inch inserted in the ply yam, and (2)
those that are useful in determining the production of a twister.
As there are no draft rolls in a twister, the subject of drafts,
of course, does not enter into any calculations.
220
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Example. — If the speed of the front, or delivery, roll of
a twister corresponds with that of the 90-tooth gear /a, shown
In the accompanying illustration, what is its speed when the
cylinder makes 1,185 rev. per min.
Solution. —
1,185X20X38
= 83.388 rev. per mm. of the front roll
120X90
Example. — ^Find the number of inches delivered per minute
by the front roll when it makes 83.388 rev. per min. and is 1| in.
in diameter.
Solution.— 83.388X11X3.1416=392.957 in. per min.
Example. — ^Find the speed of the spindles when the cylin-
der is 8 in. in diameter and makes 1,185 rev. per min.* the
spindle whorl being li in. in diameter.
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 221
Solution. — If the exact diameter of the cyHnder and the
smallest diameter of the whorl are 'taken, accurate results are
not obtained, as some allowance should be made for the diam-
eter of the spindle band, which is usually | in. The most
nearly correct way is to make an allowance for this both on
the diameter of the cylinder and of the spindle whorl, but it
is more convenient and gives sufficiently accurate results to
use the actual diameter of the cylinder but add | in. to the
diameter of the spindle whorl at its smallest part. This is the
practice that is followed here.
1,185X8
— =6,894.545 rev. per min. of the spmdles
Is
Example. — ^What is the twist per inch being inserted in the
yam, if the front roll delivers 392.957 in. per min. and the
spindles make 6,894.545 rev. per min.?
Solution. — 6,894.545-^-392.957 = 17.545 turns per in.
Note. — Some millmen make a deduction from the calctilated
result of 5% to allow for slippage and loss in winding, but this
should not be done, as the yam contracts during the process
of twisting in about the correct proportion to compensate for
such slippage.
Example. — Find the twist per inch being inserted in the
yam by figuring through the gears from the front roU to the
spindles, thus ascertaining the ntmnber of revolutions of the
spindles per inch delivered by the front roUs.
Solution. —
36X90X120X8
'■ = 17.545 turns per in.
36X38X20X11X11X3.1416
Example. — ^Find the constant for twist by figuring through
the gears from the front roll to the spindles, adding | in. to the
diameter of the whorl and considering pi as the twist change
gear.
Solution. —
36X90X120X8
^=350.901, constant
36X38X1X1|X1§X3.1416
Example. — Find the twist per inch being inserted in the
-yam with a 20-tooth twist gear, if the constant is 350.901
Solution. — 350.901 -r- 20 = 17.545 tums per in.
222 COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
Example. — Find the twist gear required to produce 17.545
turns per inch if the constant is 350.901.
Solution. — 350.901^ 17.545 = 20-tooth twist gear.
The amount of twist to be inserted in ply yams is specified
by a multiplier, which, when multiplied by the square root of the
counts of the single yam to which the ply yam under considera-
tion would be equal, approximately indicates the turns per inch
to be inserted. The range of multipliers is from 2.5 to 6.5.
The smallest are used for mending yams, knitting yams, and
embroidery yams, since these are commonly required to be soft,
full yams; larger multipliers are used for yams intended for
sewing threads, and the largest are for such yams as those
intended for fishing nets, macrame, and other hard twines,
harness yam, etc.
Example. — ^Find the turns per inch to be inserted in 2-ply
72s using 5 as a multiplier.
Solution. — Considering the 2-ply yam as a single yarn its
cotuits would be
72s4-2 = 36. \36=6. 6X5 = 30 tums per in.
Example. — -What twist per inch should be inserted in 5-ply
85s with a multiplier of 6?
, Solution. —
85s4-5 = 17 ^17 = 4.1231 4.1321X6 = 24.738
In some districts in the United States, it is customary to take
as a multiplier a number that, when multiplied by the square
root of the cotm.ts of the single yam used to form the ply yam,
gives the tums per inch in the ply yam; this is also a common
method in Europe. It is therefore always important to under-
stand whether a multiplier is to be considered as multiplying
the square root of the counts of the single yam, forming the
ply yam, or of a single yam that would be equivalent to the
completed ply yam, since in the latter case the multiplier is
larger than in the former.
Example. — ^What multiplier would be used with which to
multiply the square root of the single yam in order to give
30 turns per inch in 2-ply 72s?
Solution. — a/72 = 8.485 30 -r- 8.485 = 3.5
The multiplier in this case, 3.5, when multiplied by the
square root of the counts of the single yams forming the ply
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION 223
yam, gives 30 turns per inch, just as the multiplier 5 gave 30
turns per inch in a previous example when multiplied by the
square root of 36, which was considered as the counts of a
single yam equivalent to 2-ply 72s.
Production. — As twisters are not provided with hank clocks
the production is generally figured directly from the front roll,
which gives only a theoretical production.
Rule. — To find the number of hanks per spindle, multiply
the number of inches delivered per minute by the total number of
minutes run, and divide the product thus obtained by the number
of yards per hank multiplied by 36 {the number of inches per
yard). From this calculated production, a certain percentage
should be allowed for stoppages.
Example. — If the front roll delivers 392.957 in. per min.,
what is the production for 1 wk. of 60 hr., allowing 6% for
stoppages?
392.957X60X60 , ,
Solution. — = 46.780 hanks per spindle
840X36
per wk. .94X46.780 = 43.973 hanks.
The allowance of 6% in this example is not accurate for all
kinds of twisting, for this varies from 5 to 20% . The allowance is
intended to compensate for the amount of time lost in stopping
the frame for doffing and various other purposes. It is least in
the case of fine yams, as the frames do not require doffing so
frequently, and greatest in the case of coarse yams. It is also
greater when several single yams are being twisted than when
2-ply yams are being made. For example, the allowance for
2-ply 6s is usually 14%; for 3 -ply, 15%; for 4-ply, 17%; and
for 6-ply, 20%. For number 20s, the allowances are 10%,
11%, 12%, and 13% for 2-, 3-, 4-, and 6-ply, respectively. For
40s, the allowances are 6% for 2-ply, 7% for 3-ply, and 8%
for 4- or 6-ply; for number 80s, 4% for 2-ply, 5% for 3- and
4-ply, and 6% for 6-ply. This allowance should not be con-
fused with an allowance sometimes made for slippage.
Rule. — To find the number of pounds per spindle, divide the
number of hanks per spindle by the resultant counts.
Example. — If a frame produces 43.973 hanks per spindle
per week, what is the production per spindle in pounds if two
strands of 40s are twisted together?
22^
COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
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COTTON-YARN PREPARATION
225
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226
WARP PREPARATION
Solution. — 40 4- 2 = 20s, resultant counts. 43.973-5-20
= 2.198 lb. per spindle per wk.
The floor space occupied by twisters depends on the number
of spindles in the frame and the space between the spindles, or
the gauge of the frame. The number of spindles varies from
DIMiENSIONS OF TWISTERS
Size of Rings
Gauge of
Spindles
Size of Rings
Gauge of
Spindles
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches
41
5i
2i
3|
4
5
2i
31
3t
4i
2
3
3
4
If
2f
64 to 240, one-half being on each side of the frame; the regular
sizes contain either 180, 208, or 240 spindles. The sizes of rings
generally used and the corresponding gauges, or spaces between
the centers of the spindles, are given in the accompanying table.
WARP PREPARATION
SPOOLING
Warp yam must ultimately be placed either on the loom
beam to be woven or put up in the form of a bundle to be
shipped from the mill where it is spun. In either case it must
first be spooled, in order to obtain a greater length of yarn
and thus facilitate later processes. The object of the spooler,
therefore, is to place a suitable lengfth of yarn on a spool, this
yam being taken from the bobbin or cop on which it has pre-
viously been wound at the spinning process, or, in some cases,
at the twister.
As shown in the accompanying illustration, spoolers are so
made that many of the parts on one side are duplicated on the
other, thus permitting the yam to be spooled on both sides of
K
? .
r
\
I
— 1_
1/
I
WARP PREPARATION
227
the machine. The bobbins j, as they come from the spinning
frame are placed in the bobbin holder k, the end of yam being
passed tinder a swinging arm similar to ^3, and then carried T;o
the thread guide I, from which it passes to the spool h. As the
spool revolves, the yam is wound on it. The traverse of the
yam on the spool is obtained by imparting an up-and-down
motion to the rail m on which the thread gtiides I are secured.
This motion is given to the traverse raU by means of the rods
mi, motion being imparted to these rods by the rods ni2, which
are connected to the arms n; these arms are acted on by a
mangle gear / and quadrant «i. The bobbin boxes, in which
the bobbins are kept, are shown at ^; g shows the creels on
which the spools are placed as they become full. In cases where
the yam to be spooled is wound on cops or bobbins with a filling
wind, from which the yarn must be pulled off at the nose, the
cops or bobbins are placed on spindles and the yam carried
through the guides to the thread guide on the traverse rail and
then to the spool.
SIZES OF SPOOLS
Counts
Length of Traverse
Inches
Diameter of Head
Inches
8s to 16s
18s to 34s
36s to 54s
56s to 80s
90s to 100s
6
5
41
3^
3
5
4
3f
3i
2f
In spooling, the larger the spool can be made, the more yam
it will hold, and consequently the greater wiU be the production
of the spooler; but there is a limit to the size of the spool, due
to the fact that at the next process the yam is obliged to turn
the spool, and if too much tension is brought on it, it will break
frequently and thus defeat the object of having a large spool.
From this it will readily be apparent that the coarser the yam
the larger will be the spool that can be used. Good sizes of
spools for different counts of yam are as given in the accom-
panying table.
228 WARP PREPARATION
Settings. — To set the mangle-gear arrangement shown in
the illustration, have the pinion gear di just at the point of
reversing the mangle gear /, then find the difference between
the number of teeth on the segment wi, and on the stud gear //
and set the stud gear so that it will be half this number of teeth
away from the end of the segment. At this point the top of the
traverse rail on one side of the spooler should be about rs in.
below the top heads of the spools, and the top of the traverse
rail on the other side should be the same distance above the
bottom heads of the spools on that side of the machine.
The gear /? meshing with the segment is known as the change
gear, and it is this gear that is altered when a change in the
traverse is desired. A larger gear drives the quadrant more
quickly, and consequently makes it travel a greater distance
while the mangle gear is making one revolution. This gives
a longer traverse of the traverse rail. A smaller gear has, of
course, th^ opposite effect. In case the change gear does not
give the exact traverse required, any slight change may be
obtained by moving the studs in the lever n, that support the
rods nii. By this method of changing the traverse, the traverse
on one side may be altered independently of that on the other,
which cannot be done by changing the change gear. This, of
course, is often of advantage.
Another adjustment, but one that alters only the point at
which the rail reverses without altering the traverse, can be
made by dropping or raising the lifting rods. If, for example,
the traverse rail is a little too high at both the top and bottom
points at which it reverses, then the rods may be dropped until
the traverse rail assumes its correct position. Care should be
taken, however, to have the traverse rails perfectly horizontal
and the .studs in the slots of the lever n all set at the same point
on one side of the frame.
The upper and lower plates of each thread guide should be set
at such a distance apart that the yam will just pass through
without chafing. It is a good plan to use a No. 7 or No. 9 card
gauge to set these on fine yams and No. 11 on coarse yams, or
even No. 7 and No. 9 together, equaling No. 16, on very coarse
yams. The settings of these plates should be looked over
frequently.
WARP PREPARATION
229
Calculations. — To find the gear required to give a desired
length of traverse when the gear being nin and the length of
traverse it gives are known:
PRODUCTION OF SPOOLERS
Revolutions per Minute of
Number of
Cyl. 167,
Cyl. 184,
Cyl. 200,
Yam
Spindle 750
Spindle 825
Spindle 900
Pounds per Day per Spindle
8
10.8
11.8
12.9
10
8.6
9.5
10.3
12
7.2
7.9
8.6
14
6.2
6.8
7.4
16
5.4
5.9
6.5
18
4.8
5.3
5.8
20
4.3
4.8
5.2
22
3.9
4.3
4.7
24
3.6
4.0
4.3
' 26
3.3
3.7
4.0
28
3.1
3.4
3.7
30
2.9
3.2
3.5
32
2.7
3.0
3.3
34
2.6
2.8
3.1
36
2.4
2.7
2.9
; 38
2.3
2.5
2.7
40
2.2
2.4
2.6
44
2.0
2.2
2.4
50
1.8
1.9
2.1
60
1.5
1.6
1.8
70
1.3
1.4
1.5
80
1.1
1.2
1.3
90
1.0
1.1
1.2
100
.9
1.0
1.1
Rule. — Multiply the traverse gear being used by the length
of traverse desired and divide the result by the length of the trav-
erse being run.
Example. — An 11-tooth gear is being used and gives a
55-in. traverse. What gear will be required for a 4i-in. traverse?
230 WARP PREPARATION
11X4~
Solution. — ~ = 9-tooth gear.
To find the length of traverse that a certain gear will give
when the gear being used and the length of traverse it gives
are known:
Rule. — Multiply the length of traverse being run by the gear
to be used and divide this result by the gear being used.
Example. — ^An 11-tooth gear gives a 5|-in. traverse. What
traverse will a 9-tooth gear give?
5-X9
Solution. — = 4|" traverse
11
BEAM WARPING
As the yam comes from the spooler, it is taken to a machine
known as a warper, the object of which is to unwind the yam
from a large number of spools and place it in an even sheet on a
beam, known as a section beam. Warping is divided into sev-
eral different classes according to the manner in which the yam
is treated. The operation known as beam warping derives its
name from the fact that the yam as it is unwound from the
spools is wound on a beam.
The principle of beam warping is simple; it consists of
arranging spools of yam in a creel so that they revolve with the
least possible resistance, and the yam is wound on a roll, or
beam, rotated by contact with a revolving cylinder.
The accompanying illustration shows the creel and warper
as they appear when in operation. The ends are gathered from
the spools and passed between the guide rods c; they then pass
through the expansion comb d, under a drop roll, over the guide
roll/, through the drop wires g, through the expansion comb di,
over the measuring roll h, and then to the beam k, on which they
are wovmd in an even sheet.
The first important part of the warper with which the yam
comes into contact as it passes from the creel is the expansion
comb d, which is arranged so that the spaces between the wire
teeth may be enlarged or reduced, and the gauge of the comb
regulated to imiformly distribute the sheet of yam over the
WARP PREPARATION
231
whole width of the machine, irrespective of the number of ends
being run. Passing from the expansion comb, the yam comes
into contact with a drop roll, which takes up any slack yam
that may be let oflE by the spools. When the warper-is stopped
232 WARP PREPARATION
for any cause, the momentum of the spools causes considerable
yarn to be unwound,- which, if not taken care of in some man-
ner, may become snarled and break when the warper is again
started.
As the principal object of a warper is to wind on a beam an
even sheet of yam that consists of the same number of ends at
all times, all modern warpers are supplied with slop-motions,
which stop the machine if a single end breaks while passing from
the creel to the beam. The yarn, after passing through the drop
wires of the stop-motion, next passes through the expansion
comb dx and then over the measuring roll h, which is driven by
the friction of the yarn. Connected with this roll is a device
for measuring the yam wound on the beam.
Attachments are provided on all warpers by means of which
they may be run at two speeds. In starting a warper, the belt
is shifted to the slow-motion pulley, and the yarn immediately
begins to wind on the beam, gradually pulling up the drop roll
as the tension of the yam cotuiteracts the weight of the roll.
As soon as the roll has resumed the position that it should
occupy while the warper is ninning, and after the spools have
acquired some momentum, the belt is moved to the tight pulley,
and the machine will run at full speed.
A cone-drive attachment is provided on some warpers by
means of which the beam may be driven at a slower speed as the
spools become nearly empty. The advantage of such an
arrangement is clearly seen, for a spool filled with yam is larger
in diameter than an empty spool; consequently, if the same
length of yam is being unwound from each in the same time, the
spool that is nearly empty must make more revolutions per
minute than the other, which is undesirable. In addition, as
the diameter of the spool decreases the amount of pull necessary
to turn it is increased, which naturally brings more strain on the
yarn. If, therefore, the same length of yarn is to be unwound
from the spools at all times this length cannot exceed what the
yam will stand when being unwound from the nearly empty
spools; consequently, when the spools are full, the warper is not
run at its full capacity.
The aim in warping should be to produce hard and level
beams, free from ridges or soft sides near the beam head. The
WARP PREPARATION
233^
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10
II
12
COTTON WEAVING 265
manner that the bar containing the first pick will be placed
on the cylinder first, and the pegs that control the first harness
miist come at the front of the loom so that the pegs will operate
the first lever. When the first harness and the first pick are
not designated on the draft, it is safe to assume that the lower
left-hand comer will give the position of these two.
In Fig. 3, the draft given in Pig. 2 is pegged for a double-
index dobby that is placed at the right-hand side of the loom.
The first, or front, harness is operated by the vertical rows of
pegs marked a, ci; b indicates the first pick. In Fig. 4, the
same draft is shown pegged for a single-index dobby that is
a.
IT'
ooo»o»o»ooo ooooo
• ••oo**o*o*ooooooooo
• •00*«0«0«0*0000000Q
• O«O*OOOOO*«'OOOOOCO0
o»o«o«ooooo«oooooooo
Fig. 3
located on the left-hand side of the loom. The order of raising
and lowering the front harness is shown at a; 6 indicates the
harnesses that are raised or lowered on the first pick.
Timing a Dobby. — In case the dobby is driven from the
crank-shaft, turn the loom until its crank-shaft is on the bot-
tom center; keeping the loom in this position, move the con-
necting-rod on the dobby until the dobby crank-shaft is on
its back center. When in this position, the rockers should be
perpendicular. Should they not be in this exact position, they
may be adjusted by loosening the setnuts at the bottom of the
connecting-rod and then moving the rocker until it is in the
266
COTTON WEAVING
desired position. When the dobby is driven from the cam-shaft,
place the loom crank-shaft on its bottom center. Have the
crank to which the connecting-rod of the dobby is attached
on its back center, and adjust the rockers so that they will be
perpendicular when the different parts are in the positions
stated.
a
J
ooeoooooo«o«o«o»«»»9 ■• — ff
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o o o • • •
ooooooooo«o
o o • • •
oooooooo*o«o*o«*oo«»
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• • • o o
oooooooooooo»«o«o»o»
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oooooooooo««ooo»o»o«
ooooooooo««ooo«o«o»o
oooooooo«»ooooo»o«o«
oooooooo«ooooo»o«o«o
Fig. 4
Adjusting the Knives. — Turn the loom tmtil the bottom
knife is at its extreme inward position and then set the knife
about I in. back of the notches in the hooks; turn the loom over
and set the top knife similarly. If set in this manner, the top
knife will be directly over the bottom knife when the rocker
is perpendicular; both knives will have an equal lift at this
COTTON WEAVING 267
point and tlie harnesses that are changing will consequently
be level. Ihus, the harnesses that are changing are level v/hen
the crank-shaft of the loom is on its bottom center.
Timing the Cylinder. — ^When timing the dobby cylinder,
have one of the knives as far in as it will move. Loosen the
gears that drive the cylinder and turn the cylinder until the
pegs operating the hooks for the knife that is in are giving the
fingers of the dobby their full lift. With the, cylinder in this
position, turn the worm until the straight part or that portion
that gives the pause, is operating on the worm-gear on the
end of the cylinder.
Considerable care should be taken to have the chain bar
directly under the fingers when the cylinder stops, so that the
peijs will lift the fingers and bring down the hooks, causing them
to be caught by the knife when it starts on its outward stroke.
BOX LOOMS
The principle of box looms is that of having at one or both
ends of the loom a number of boxes, which are generally
operated by levers and other stiitable mechanism that will
bring the bottom of the desired box in line with the race plate
of the loom and thus allow the picker to act on the shuttle
contained in that box. By this means, several shuttles, each
containing a different kind or color of filling, can be operated,
and the one to be used at any given time selected automatically.
On looms weaving cotton goods, the drop boxes are generally
placed only at one end of the loom. The number of shuttles
that can be operated in a box loom is one less than the total
number of boxes; thus, six is the largest number of shuttles
that can be run in a 6X 1 loom; four in a 4X 1 loom; two in a
2X1 loom; etc. The statements made in the following pages
should be accepted as referring to a 4X 1 drop-box loom.
The method of operating the boxes with the Crompton
4X1 box motion is illustrated by Fig. 1. In this view the
first box is shown level with the race plate, and if it is desired
to raise the lifting rod a-i, and consequently the boxes a, so
that the picker b will act on the shuttle carried by the second
268
COTTON WEAVING
box, the front shaft d of the box motion will be given a half
revolution. This will cause the eccentric di on the shaft to
raise the collar gi and consequently the lever g at its forward
end. As no motion is given to the crank-arrangement at the
back end of the lever g, the forward end of the lever will be
Fig. 1
brought up to the point 2, this lift being sufficient to bring the
bottom of the second box level with the bottom of the race
plate. When it is desired to bring the third box into position
the eccentric arrangement of the front shaft d remains in the
position shown, and a half revolution is given to the back shaft
COTTON WEAVING
269
e, causing the crank-arrangement e-i, ez to lower the back end
of the lever g to the point gs, and the front end of the lever to
be raised to the point 3, which lift is sufficient to bring the
bottom of the third box level with the race plate. If the dif-
ferent parts of the box motion are in the position shown and
it is desired to bring the fourth box into position for the picker
to act on the shuttle contained by that box, both the front and
back shafts will be given a half revolution, which will result
in the eccentric on the front shaft raising the lever g at this
point, and the crank-arrangement on the back shaft will drop
the back end of the lever g to the point gs. This action of
the two shafts will result in the forward end of the lever g
being raised to the point 4t which lift will be sufficient to bring
the bottom of the fourth box level with the race plate.
In dropping the boxes, the motion given to the lever g will,
of course, be opposite to that described for raising them, the
motion being positive in both directions.
The motion of the front shaft d and back shaft e is obtained
by suitable mechanism and is controlled by levers operated
by a box chain. As each bar of the box chain serves for only
2 picks of the loom, if the pattern being woven contains a large
number of picks of each color, it would be necessary to build
a very long box chain. To overcome this difficulty, a mechan-
ism known as the multiplier motion is applied to most box looms.
By means of this motion, the box-chain bar that controls the
box containing the required color will not have to be built for
every 2 picks, since it will be possible to build any bar in such
a manner that in addition to raising the required box it will also
multiply the number of picks that that bar of the chain governs.
/ge
Blue
24
12
4
4
12
2a
W/tite
24
!2
4
4
4
12
24
\3U
Red
12
12
12
12
'4t^
yellow
12
_l
L2.
Fig. 2
Building Box Chains. — Box chains are built from pattern
drafts, which show the nurr.ber of picks of each color in one
repeat and the order in which they are placed in the cloth.
270
COTTON WEAVING
t&'Boii?
A box-chain draft is shown in Fig. 2. With this draft as a guide,
it is necessary to build the box chain in such a manner that the
exact number of picks of each color shown in the draft will be
placed in the cloth in their proper order. One other point
that should be noted is that in many cases the colors are so
arranged that it is a difficult matter to build the chain without
serious jumps in the boxes, for although it is possible to raise
the boxes from the first to the fourth
or to lower them from the fourth
to the first, this should be avoided
as much as possible; consequently,
when building a box chain care
should always be taken to place
the different colors in the different
boxes in such a manner that the
least possible number of jumps will
be necessary. A jump occurs when
the boxes are moved through a
greater space than is occupied by
one box. By referring to Fig. 2,
it will be noticed that by placing
blue in the first box, white in the
second, red in the third, and yellow
In the fourth, the boxes will be
lifted in regular order and no
jumps will occur; whereas, if the
red is placed in the second box
. and the white in the third, it will
be necessary to jump the boxes in
many cases. Fig. 3
Fig. 3 shows five bars of a filling chain, each bar showing
a different arrangement of rollers and washers; the first, or
top, bar contains a multiplier roll for placing the multiplier
motion in operation. It will be seen that, with the exception
of this roll, the bar consists of washers; consequently, a bar
built in this manner will give 12 picks of the first box if a 12-pick
multiplier motion is used. The next bar contains washers
only, and, as a result, the first box will be on a line with tlie
race plate. The next bar contains a roll that will operate the
^M^Joat
COTTON WEAVING
271
Fig. 4
lever of the box motion that will raise the second
box. The next bar contains a roll that wiU operate
the lever of the box motion that wiU result in the
third box being brought into position. The bot-
tom bar is built to give the fourth box, as it
operates both levers.
When building a box chain for a loom., the side
on which the box mechanism is placed should be
carefuUy noted and the chain built in such a man-
ner that the rollers and washers will come under
their correct levers.
Fig. 4 shows the complete chain built according
to the chain draft. The first color called for in the
draft is 24 picks of blue; this color is in the first
box. To obtain these 24 picks of blue the first
two bars of the chain, reading from the top, are
built to give the first box and on the end of each
bar is placed a multiplier roll. Since each bar con-
taining a multiplier roll will give 12 picks, these
first two bars of the chain will give 24 picks of the
first box. The next color in the draft is 24 picks of
white, which is in the second box. These two bars
are built in the same m^anner as the first two, with
the exception that there is placed on each a roll
that will raise the inside lever of the box motion
and thus give the second box. By comparing each
bar of the box chain with the filling draft it
will be seen that the desired result will be given.
However, it should be noted that when it is
necessary to place only 4 picks of a color in the
cloth, the multiplier cannot be used. In this case,
two bars are built to give the desired box and,
since each bar operates for 2 picks, the desired
4 picks will be given.
In case it is necessary to place a certain number
of picks of one color in the cloth, this number being
greater than 12 and yet not a multiple of 12, as
many bars as possible will be built with multi-
pliers and then the desired number will be
2:12 COTTON WEAVING
completed by building a sufficient number of bars without
multipliers. For example, suppose it is desired to place 30
picks of one color in the cloth; two bars containing multipliers
will be built, which will give 24 of the required picks, and in
addition to these, three bars without multipliers will be built,
which will give 6 more picks, thus completing the 30 picks.
Timing of Box Motions. — The boxes should be timed in
such a manner that they will not start to change before the
shuttle is well into the box and will be completely changed
before the loom cormnences to pick. If the boxes commence
to change before the shuttle is well boxed, the shuttle will be
caught in the mouth of the box and will thus prevent the chang-
ing. On the other hand, if the loom commences to pick before
the boxes are completely changed, the bottom of the box will
not be level with the race plate when the shvittle is thrown.
There are several methods of timing the boxes, one probably
being as good as another, so long as it accomplishes the result
of changing the boxes in time. One method is to set the box-
changing device so that the boxes will have moved about \ in.
when the dagger on the protector rod strikes the bunter.
Leveling the Boxes. — ^After the boxes have been timed so
that when changing they will start and stop correctly, it is
necessary to level them; that is, the lifting parts should be so.
adjusted that whenever a box is brought into position, the
bottom of that box will be on an exact level with the race plate
of the loom. This will sometimes be found to be difficult,
since in many cases all the boxes, with the exception of one,
may be in a correct position, and yet changing the one that is
a little out of true may so alter the lift of the others that, when
they are again brought into operation, they will be found to
be either above or below the correct position. The leveling
of the boxes is a matter of leverage, and the different arms of
the levers must be so set that they will give the throw required.
The boxes should work freely in the grooves in which they
slide and yet not be so loose as to result in an uneven throw
being given to the shuttle when acted on by the picker. If
they are tight in the grooves, they will be raised and lowered
in a jerky nianner, which may cause the picker to be caught
in its throw, thus preventing the lifting of the boxes.
COTTON WEAVING 273
THE NORTHROP LOOM
In power looms of ordinary construction it is neces-
sary that the supply of filling be replenished by hand
whenever it breaks or the cop, or bobbin, in the shuttle
becomes exhausted. To accomplish this the loom must
be stopped, usually by the filling stop-motion, and the
weaver, after immediately giving the loom proper atten-
tion, must again place it in operation. In the Northrop,
or Draper, loom, the filling yarn is automatically renewed
in the event of breakage or exhaustion, and without
stopping the loom or requiring the attention of the
weaver. Looms of this class are called automatic looms.
When automatic looms are employed, the weaver can
supply them with large quantities of filling at convenient
intervals, and this can be accomplished with but little
labor. Because of this fact, it is possible for each
weaver to attend to a much larger number of automatic
looms than is possible when common looms are employed.
The number of automatic looms that can be attended by
one weaver doubtless will average fully three times as
many as in the case of common looms.
As a result of the increase in the productive capacity
of weavers through the installation of automatic looms,
the cost of weaving is greatly reduced. Savings of from
40 to 50 per cent, have been made in many cases, and
under favorable conditions the gain is even' greater.
Also, because of the increased production of the weaver,
it is possible, and the general custom is, to grant him
greater compensation.
Filling-Changing Mechanism.— The principal feature of
the Northrop loom is, of course, the filling-changing
mechanism. This is shown in perspective in Fig. 1,
which illustrates the battery, comprising a hopper, in
which the supply of filling for replenishing the shuttle is
carried, and mechanism for transferring the bobbins;
also devices for controlling the transfer of filling when
required.
274
COTTON WEAVING
COTTON WEAVING 275
The bobbins b on which the filling yarn is wound are
carried in the revolving hopper, which is capable of
being rotated on its axis. This hopper is always on the
right-hand side of the loom and consists of a stationary
flanged end plate q that carries the support on which the
circular disks c^ and c^ rotate.
In filling the hopper, the weaver first vmwinds a foot
or so of filling from the bobbin, places the heel of the
bobbin in the recess in the disk c^, and presses the tip of
the bobbin firmly into the clip c^ in the disk Cg. The end
of filling yarn is then passed over a notched disk Cg that
holds the yarn in proper position to be threaded in the
shuttle and is secured by being wound several times
around the stud c^.
The number of bobbins contained in the hopper varies
in looms of different models; most looms are equipped
with what is known as the 25-bobbin hopper, which con-
tains twenty-eight spaces for bobbins.
The transfer of the bobbin from the hopper to the
shuttle is effected, as shown in Fig. 2, by the transferrer d
and transferrer fork d^, which, by the motion of the lay
of the loom, are forced downwards for a short distance,
swinging on the stud d^, and thus pushing the bobbin out
of the hopper and into the shuttle.
The head of the transferrer engages with the heel of
the bobbin in the hopper and the transferrer fork comes
in contact with the tip of the bobbin. The filled bobbin,
in being pressed into the top of the shuttle, forces the
empty bobbin out through the bottom of the specially-
designed shuttle, which has no spindle, and it passes
through an opening in the bottom of shuttle box, over the
guide &3 and into the sheet-metal receptacle b^.
The operation of the transferrer and attached mech-
anism is governed by the starting rod /, Fig. 1. Nor-
mally, the shuttle-feeler finger /,, which is setscrewed to
to the starting rod, is held in its lowest position by the
spring fg. The finger presses down on_ the stud e^ (also,
see Fig. 2), holding the shuttle feeler e^, which swings on
the stud e^, away from the lay and, by means of the
276
COTTON WEAVING
slot ^3 and stud e^, causing the 1-atch depressor e^ to hold
the latch finger e in a depressed position, where it will not
-~-te in the path of a hunter e attached to the lay. Whenever
Fig. 2
the filling is missing, however, a partial revolution is given
to the starting rod / and the finger f^ is raised against the
tension of the spring /3. When this takes place, the
shuttle-feeler finger releases its pressure on the stud e^
COTTON WEAVING 277
and the spring e^ raises the latch finger e^ into an opera-
tive position so that it will be struck by the bunter e on
the lay and forced toward the front of the loom for a
short distance as the lay moves forwards. The movement
of the latch finger imparted by the motion of the lay
causes the transferrer d and transferrer fork d^ to be
forced downwards, transferring the bobbin from the hop-
per to the shuttle.
In Fig. 2 the transferrer, latch finger, and other parts
are shown in the positions that they occupy after the
bunter has engaged the latch finger and forced it forwards
to the full extent of its movement, thus causing the trans-
ferrer to assume its lowest position, placing the bobbin in
the shuttle as shown.
Shuttle Feeler. — If the transfer of a bobbin from
the hopper to the shuttle were to take place with the
shuttle in such a position as not to properly receive the
bobbin, it is very probable that parts of the transferring
mechanism or the shuttle, etc. would be broken. To pre-
vent the transfer of the bobbin under this condition, the
shuttle feeler e^ is employed. As the spring e^ causes the
latch finger e^ to rise into its operative position, the
stud e.^, which is on an extended arm of the latch finger,
operates the shuttle feeler e^ by means of the latch depres-
sor e^. The stud e^ engages with the slot e^ in the latch
depressor and the upward movement of the latch finger
causes the latch depressor to swing the shuttle feeler on
the stud e^ so that its upper end passes directly in front
of the shuttle box until it nearly reaches the back plate
of the box.
If the shuttle a is not far enough in the box for the
transfer of a bobbin to take place properly, the tip of
the shuttle will project from the box and the end of the
shuttle feeler will come in contact with it as the lay
comes forwards. When this occurs the shuttle feeler will
be pushed forwards by the shuttle and, by means of the
latch depressor and stud e^, will depress the latch finger
so that it will not engage with the bunter e on the lay.
Instead, the upper rounded corner of the latch finger will
278 COTTON WEAVING
engage with the inclined vinder surface of the hunter
and, as the lay moves forwards, the latch finger, shuttle
feeler, and other parts will be thrown downwards into
the positions that they occupy during the normal operation
of the loom. Under this condition the transfer of a
bobbin from the hopper to the shuttle, of course, cannot
take place and the loom will be stopped in the ordinary
manner for want of filling.
Hopper. — The manner in which the hopper is rotated
on its axis c to bring the next bobbin in contact with the
stop Cg after the preceding bobbin has been inserted in
the shuttle may be understood by referring to Fig. 2. A
ratchet gear Cjg, cast integral with the bobbin heel
plate Cg, is operated by a pawl d^ having a projection, or
tooth, Jg engaging with the teeth of the ratchet. The pawl
is swiveled on a stud in the transferrer d and is large
and heavy so that when the transferrer is thrown down
by the hunter on the lay engaging the latch finger, the
tooth dg will become disengaged from the ratchet and the
pawl will fall forwards and downwards. This causes
the tooth dg to take up a tooth on the ratchet and when
the bunter releases the latch finger and the coil spring d^
raises the transferrer and pawl, the ratchet and hopper
will be .turned in the direction indicated by the arrow in
Fig. 2 until the next bobbin in the hopper strikes the
stop Cg. A stop pawl c?g attached to the frame also engages
with the ratchet c^g and serves to hold the hopper securely
in position.
Shuttle. — The shuttles required by the Northrop loom
are of the self-threading type and are designed to utilize
filling yarn supplied on bobbins or in cop form. One of
these shuttles is illustrated in Fig. 3.
The shuttle a is open on the bottom, and is formed to
receive a bobbin of filling from the top and eject it
through the opening in the bottom. It does not contain
the usual spindle; instead, a shuttle spring a^, made in
the form of a fork with its tines extending on each side
of the shuttle, is placed in the end opposite the eye. The
shuttle spring contains notches designed to engage with
COTTON WEAVING
279
metal rings h securely placed on the
heel of the bobbin h. When the trans-
ferrer forces a fresh bobbin from the
hopper into the shuttle, the heel of the
bobbin is forced between the tines of
the shuttle spring, and the notches in
the latter, by engaging with the rings
placed on the bobbin, securely hold ,.:.^.,«s-
the bobbin in its proper position in the '^ ^Jf
shuttle. At the . same time the new
bobbin, by striking on top of the bob-
bin already in the shuttle, forces the
latter out of the shuttle spring so that
it falls through the openings in the
bottom of the shuttle and in the lay,
into the empty-bobbin can.
If the shuttle should happen to be
a trifle too far in the box when the
transfer takes place, the heel of the
bobbin will strike the bent and in-
clined shuttle-spring cover a^, which,
by either forcing the shuttle in one
direction or the bobbin in the other,
or both, will guide the bobbin into the
shuttle so that the rings on the former
will be properly gripped by the shuttle
spring.
The manner in which the self-
threading feature of the shuttle op- ,
erates may be described as follows:
When a fresh bobbin is transferred
from the hopper to the shuttle, the
end of the filling yarn is held by be-
ing wound around the stud c , Fig. 1,
and as it is placed in the proper notch
in the plate c^ when the hopper is
filled, the filling thread will be held in
exact line with the shuttle, as shown
by the dotted line at b., Fig. 3, when Fig. 3
280
COTTON WEAVING
the latter Is picked across the loom. On the first pick
after the transfer and as the shuttle moves away from the
battery side of the loom, therefore, the filling will fall
into the longitudinal slot Og and pass beneath the horns, or
projections, a^, a., and a^ of the sheet-metal stamping and
also beneath the projection a of a small cast-iron piece.
As the shuttle is driven back toward the battery side of
the loom, the threading is completed and the end is drawn
through the ej'e h^ as indicated. A projection (not shown)
on the casting carrying the projection Cg prevents the
filling from being thrown out of the shuttle eye when the
shuttle is checked in the box during the ordinary opera-
tion of the loom. The customary friction flannel is in-
serted at a to control the running of the filling.
Fig. 4
Filling Motion. — The filling motion of the Northrop
loom, which is of peculiar and original construction,
serves a dual purpose. First, it must be arranged to
impart motion to the starting rod and shuttle-feeler finger
which control the operation of the transferring mechanism,
and, second, it must be devised in such a manner as to
throw the shipper handle of the loom from its retaining
notch in the event of a failure to transfer.
The action of the filling-motion mechanism. Fig. 4, in
controlling the transferring device and the stopping of the
loom may be described as follows: The rotation of the
filling cam on the cam-shaft of the loom causes the cam-
follower g^ to move the follower hook g^ toward the
front of the loom on every alternate pick, that is, every
time that the shuttle comes to rest in the box on the left-
COTTON WEAVING 281
hand side of the loom. Whenever a pick of filling is left
in the shed, as in the normal operation of the loom, the
filling fork will not enter the grate on the lay and will be
tilted so that it will escape being caught by the hook ^3
as the latter is moved toward the front of the loom.
Assuming, however, that the filling becomes broken or
exhausted, then, as the shuttle enters the box on the left
of the loom, it will leave behind it no pick of filling and
the filling fork g^ will not be tilted to escape the follower
hook Qy Under this condition, as the hook moves
toward the front of the loom, it will engage the filling
fork and draw it and the fork slide g^ forwards. As this
takes place, the stud g^ on the dog g^, which is attached
to the fork slide, will operate the arm f^, causing the
starting rod /, Fig. 1, to make a partial revolution, rais-
ing the shuttle-feeler finger f^ and allowing the trans-
ferring mechanism on the next pick and with the shuttle
on the battery side of the loom to operate, as has been
previously described.
As the filling-fork slide g. is forced forwards by the
follower hook g^, a notch in the filling-motion trip h
will engage with a boss of the guide plate g^. The fork
slide in being moved forwards, therefore, will cause the
angular bar h, of the filling-motioii trip to rise out -of the
notch g^^ in the fork slide, in which it normally is at rest
and fall into the slot g^^.
As the motion of the filling-cam follower g^ moves the
hook fifg in the opposite direction, the fork slide is brought
back to its normal position by a spring. Suppose that the
transfer to the shuttle of a fresh supply of filling was
successfully accomplished, when the transferring mech-
anism was thrown into operation. Under this condition,
the shuttle will leave a pick of filling in the shed when
it again enters the box on the left of the loom and the
filling fork will be tilted so that the follower hook will
not engage with it and the transferring mechanism will
not again be put into operation. Moreover, in moving
forwards the head of the filling-cam follower g^ will strike
the end of the filling-motion trip and replace it in its
282 COTTON WEAVING
normal position, with the bar h engaging the notch g^...
On the other hand, assume that for some reason the
transfer of fresh filling to the shuttle was not properly
accomplished and the shuttle is again driven into the box.
on the left-hand side of the loom without leaving behind
it a pick of filling. In this case, the filling fork will again
fail to be disturbed and will be engaged by the follower
hook g„, the filling-fork slide being forced forwards for the
second time and again operating the arm /^ so as to turn
the starting rod and again throw the transferring device
into operation.
As the filling-fork slide is moved forwards the second
time, another notch h^ of the filling-motion trip will en-
gage with a fixed boss and the fork slide in moving for^
wards will cause the angular bar h^ of the trip to rise out
of the notch g^^ of the fork slide and fall into the
notch g^Q. It will be noticed that the notch g^^, in addition
to being farther back than the notches g^,j and g^^, is much
deeper. Thus, when the bar h^ of the filling-motion trip
is engaged with this notch, the dog h, of the filling-
motion trip is placed in a position directly back of the
end of the lever that operates the shipper handle of the
loom.
If the second attempt to transfer fresh filling to the
shuttle fails and the shuttle again enters the left-hand box
without leaving a pick filling in the shed, the filling fork
will again engage the cam-follower hook and the fork
slide will be brought forwards for the third time. In
this case, however, the filling-motion trip has already
assumed its extreme position relative to the filling-fork
slide, and therefore it will, in this case, be moved for-
wards with the slide. Since the dog h^ of the trip is now
engaged with the end of the knock-off lever* the latter
will be moved a sufficient amount to cause the shipper
handle to be forced from its retaining notch and stop the
loom. It will be noted, however, that if the second
attempt to transfer fresh filling to the shuttle is success-
ful, the pick of filling left by the shuttle as it enters the
box will cause the filling fork to miss the filling-cam-
COTTON WEAVING 283
follower hook and the fork slide will not be moved for-
wards. The head of the cam-follower g^, however, will
replace the filling-motion trip, as previously described. It
will be noted from the foregoing description that, in the
event of the filling breaking or running out, this deviae
will cause the loom to make two distinct attempts to
replenish the filling and, in the event of consecutive
failure, will stop the loom.
Feeler Filling-Changing Device.— When the transfer
of filling is controlled by a filling fork and the customary
grate, or grid, the transferring mechanism will not be
placed in operation until the fork has detected the
absence of filling, due either to breakage or exhaustion.
Since the transfer of fresh filling cannot take place
instantaneously, but at least one shed must be left empty
and very likely only a portion of a pick inserted in
another shed, a mispick will be made in the cloth. More-
over, whenever the very last end 6f the filling yarn is
woven from the bobbin, a bunch is liable to be formed
in the cloth on account of the last few turns of yarn on
the bobbin slipping off at once and being woven into the
cloth in a lump.
Since the transferring mechanism is operated much
more frequently because of the exhaustion of the filling
than on account of the filling becoming broken, a large
number of mispicks and other defects in the cloth — in
fact, the bulk of them — ^will be prevented if the trans-
ferring mechanism is set in operation just before the
filling in the shuttle becomes exhausted. This, therefore,
is the object of the feeler filling-changing mechanism,
sometimes called the mispick preventer, and its use ren-
ders entirely practicable the weaving of perfect cloth on
an automatic loom.
This mechanism is not necessary for looms used for
weaving plain fabrics, such as print cloths, sheeting, etc.,
because in such fabrics the few mispicks made by an
automatic loom are not seriously objectionable.
When fabrics involving the use of more harnesses,
including fancy fabrics in which the weaves are produced
284 COTTON WEAVING
by dobby or jacquard shedding mechanisms, are woven,
however, mispicks are of serious consequence and the
loom should be equipped with the feeler filling-changing
mechanism.
This device is so arranged that a filling feeler that
projects through the front-box plate and a slot in the
side of the shuttle, feels for the filling wound on the
bobbin. When only a layer, or so, of yarn remains on
the bobbin, the starting rod is operated by a suitable
mechanism and fresh filling is supplied to the shuttle;
thus the filling in the shuttle is never allowed to become
exhausted.
Shuttle-Feeler Thread Cutter. — An attachment known
as a shuttle-feeler thread cutter is necessary on all looms
equipped with the filling-feeler device for operating the
transferring mechanism. Whenever the latter mechanism
is placed in operation by the filling-feeler motion, and
not by the breaking of the filling as detected by the
filling motion, a thread of filling extends from the
selvage of the cloth through the shuttle eye to the
bobbin contained in the shuttle. When the fresh bobbin
of filling is inserted in the shuttle, not only must the
old bobbin be removed, but the shuttle eye must be
cleared to allow the yarn from the new bobbin to be
properly threaded in the eye. To accomplish this the
thread extending from the selvage of the cloth must be
cut as closely as possible to the shuttle so that the old
bobbin, in being ejected, will draw the short length of
yarn, left extending from the shuttle, through the shuttle
eye, leaving the latter entirely clear and free.
The temple thread cutter alone cannot accomplish this
result, as it cuts the thread at too great a distance from
the shuttle eye and it does not positively operate at the
correct time. The object is attained by means of a
thread cutter, mounted on the shuttle feeler, which not
only severs the filling yarn close to the shuttle at the
time of the transfer of filling, but also clamps and holds
the end extending to the cloth so that the temple thread
cutter will again cut the yarn close to the selvage.
COTTON WEAVING 285
Dual Function of Straddle Bug.— The straddle bug g^.
Fig. 4, is so designed as to be placed on its stud g_^^ in
two positions, that is, with the stud g^ at the left, en-
gaging with the arm /^ on the starting rod, or with the
stud at the right, in which position it will not engage
with the arm f^. When the straddle bug is placed in the
former position, the transferring mechanism will be set
in operation by the filling motion when the filling breaks
or becomes exhausted, since the stud g^ will operate the
arm f^ and turn the starting rod.
When the filling-feeler device is applied to the loom
the filling, of course, will not become exhausted, as the
loom is caused to transfer just before the bobbin in the
shuttle becomes empty. As on many fabrics the possible
mispicks from a comparatively few breakages of the filling
are not of vital importance, the straddle bug is often
placed in the position shown in Fig. 4 on many looms
equipped with the filling-feeler attachment. That is, the
latter device prevents the majority of defects, and a few
mispicks, caused by the breaking of the filling, are tol-
erated in order to preserve fully the automatic features
of the loom.
When, however, fabrics are woven in which it is abso-
lutely necessary that the pick be matched, as in fancy
weave effects, fine napped goods, etc., the straddle bug is
removed from stud g^ and replaced with the stud g^
at the right. In this position the stud g^ will not engage
the arm f^, and the projection g^^ will rest directly behind
the lever which throws the shipper handle from its re-
taining notch and stops the loom. Thus, whenever the
filling breaks, the loom will not transfer, as stud g^ will
not operate arm /^ and the starting rod, but instead the
loom will be stopped as in the case of common looms.
Double Filling-Fork Arrangement.— A single filling
fork placed at one side of the loom can detect the pres-
ence or absence of only every alternate pick of filling.
Naturally, the filling may break when the shuttle is
traveling toward either side of the loom. As the transfer
of filling can take place only when the shuttle is at rest
286 COTTON WEAVING
on the hopper side of the loom and because of the
peculiar action of the filling motion, shuttle feeler, etc.,
which may delay the transfer, from one to three picks of
filling may be missed in the fabric before fresh filling is
supplied. The number of picks, and possibly portions of
picks, varies, of course, and it is clearly evident that a
single filling fork operating at one side of the loom will
be unable to detect all of these variations. When, there-
fore, cloth in which the slightest defect is objectionable is
woven, an additional filling fork operating on the right-
hand side of the loom is supplied. This extra filling
fork is applied to looms equipped with the filling-feeler
device, and, also, is very often attached to looms having
only the single-fork filling-changing mechanism, because
it not only affords extra protection against possible im-
proper functioning of various parts but, in addition,
furnishes a double control over the take-up motion. By
virtue of this latter fact, the slightest thin place or crack
in the fabric is prevented.
Warp Stop-Motions.— When an end of the warp breaks
in a loom of ordinary construction, the machine con-
tinues to run until the defect is observed and the loom
stopped bj'' the weaver. If a considerable period of time
elapses before this is accomplished, not only will a more
or less prominent defect be formed in the fabric but the
broken end often will become entangled with adjacent
ends, which also may become broken, and a more serious
imperfection will be made in the cloth. To obviate this
fault and automatically stop the loom whenever a warp
end breaks, warp stop-motions are applied to many
looms. Such devices are especially necessary when auto-
matic, or filling-replenishing, looms are employed, be-
cause, in such cases, the weaver attends to so many
looms that the prompt observance of broken warp ends is
difficult, and the immediate stopping of the loom is
otherwise impossible.
There are several different types of warp stop-motions,
but those ordinarily employed in connection with the
COTTON WEAVING 287
Northrop loom are mechanically operated and of two
principal kinds, namely, the cotton-harness warp stop-
motion and the steel-harness warp stop-motion.
FIXING NORTHROP LOOMS
The adjustment, timing, and repair of many parts of
the Northrop loom are not different from the care of the
similar parts of an ordinary loom. The additional and
typical devices and mechanisms of this loom, however,
require special care on the part of the loom fixer. Incor-
rect timing and setting will result not only in failure to
replenish the filling when required but in some cases
will cause parts to be broken.
Adjustment of Filling-Changing Mechanism.— In ad-
justing this mechanism, first the lay should be pulled
forwards to the front center and the filling fork care-
fully adjusted so that the prongs of the fork will freely
pass through the grate, or grid. The filling-motion
cam g. Fig. 1, on the cam, or bottom, shaft of the loom
is timed in the ordinary manner. The filling-motion
arm, or finger, f^ now should . be placed against the
stud <7g of the straddle-bug g^ carried by the filling-fork
slide g^ and the finger secured to the starting rod /.
Next, the loom should be turned forwards with the filling-
motion fork g_i^ engaged with the hook g^, which will push
back the finger f^ and turn the starting rod into its opera-
tive position.
The next operation is to loosen and raise the shuttle-
feeler finger /^ until the shuttle feeler e. passes in front
of the mouth of the shuttle box, whereupon the finger
should be securely fastened to the starting rod. By
means of the slotted latch depressor e^, attached to the
shuttle feeler, the latch finger ^^ should now be adjusted
so that It will be in position to be struck by the hunter e
on the lay and the latter should be brought forwards to
its front center, thus operating the transferrer d.
The latch finger should be adjusted by means of the
adjusting screw e^ and locknut ^^^ so that the transferrer
and transferrer fork will have a downward movement
288 COTTON WEA VI NG
just sufficient to force the empty bobbin from the shuttle
and place the fresh bobbin in correct position in the
shuttle spring. The proper adjustment is to have the
head of the transferrer just clear the head of the bobbin
when the latter is in its lowest position; this clearance
should not exceed j-g inch.
Position and Care of Shuttle.— It is important to have
the shuttle stopped in the box in exactly the correct
position to receive the bobbin when the latter is pushed
into it by the transferrer. If the pick is too weak, the
shuttle may not fully enter the box, and if too strong,
the shuttle may be rebound. When adjusting the shuttle
feeler and latch finger, therefore, the shuttle should be
pulled from the box until the shuttle feeler will strike
its tip when thrown upwards. When the shuttle feeler
is in this position — that is, in contact with the protrud-
ing shuttle — great care should be taken to see that the
latch finger will not engage the hunter on the lay in
such a manner as to cause the transfer to take place.
Should the loom be stopped with an empty bobbin in the
shuttle, it is an indication that the transfer has been
prevented by the shuttle feeler, and steps should be
taken at once to insure that the shuttle will be properly
boxed.
The metal parts of the shuttle should be kept securely
fastened, especially the shuttle spring, which must be
kept tight in order properly to recei\'e and hold the
bobbin. The eye of the shuttle and the thread passages
to the eye must always be kept open and free. Some-
times these become clogged with lint and occasionally
the thread passages to the eye are closed by jamming or
bruising of the metal.
Any defect that prevents the filling from entering the
shuttle eye will cause misthreading to take place, which
will not only break the filling, but will cause a mispick
to be made in the cloth. If the loom misthreads several
times in succession, a defect in the cloth is sometimes
made that is beyond repair, necessitating the cutting of
the cloth. When the shuttle misthreads, the filling fork
COTTON WEAVING 289
will be operated correctly on the first pick after the
transfer, but as the shuttle is returned on the next pick,
the filling will be broken and the transferring mech-
anism will again be placed in operation, which may
continue until all of the bobbins have been transferred
from the hopper.
Setting of Feeler Filling-Changing Mechanism.— In
looms in which the filling feeler and feeler thread-
cutting mechanisms are used, the filling-cam-follower
trip should be so adjusted on tha upper end of the
filling-cam follower that the notch will engage the feeler
slide when the latter has been raised into its active
position by the filling-feeler mechanism, and this con-
tact should take place just as the crank-shaft of the
loom reaches its front center.
To adjust the filling feeler itself, an empty bobbin
should be placed in the shuttle and the latter inserted
in the box. With the loom on the front center and the
lay in its extreme forward position, the adjusting screw
should be turned until there is a distance of about the
thickness of one layer of yarn between the feeler and
the bobbin in the shuttle. Several bobbins ^containing a
small amount of yarn now may be taken, and the loom
started after one of them has been inserted in the
shuttle. If the bobbin is ejected before the filling yarn
has been woven down close enough, or if the filling
weaves entirely off before the transfer takes place, the
screw can be adjusted one way or the other as may te
required. A number of trials may be necessary before
the feeler is correctly adjusted.
The filling feeler should be set to pass through the
slots in the box plate and in the shuttle, without touch-
ing either part. For the same reason, care should be
taken that the shuttle boxes properly on the left-hand
side of the loom. It is good practice to set the feeler as
closely as possible to the upper edge of the slot in the
shuttle, because the latter may rise slightly in entering
the box. This may cause the feeler to strike the lower
edge of the slot in the shuttle and force back the feeler
290 COTTON WEAVING
so that the transfer of filling will be prevented when the
filling in the shuttle is exhausted.
Adjusting Shuttle-Feeler Thread Cutter.— In looms
equipped with the filling feeler and shuttle-feeler thread
cutter, the starting rod and shuttle feeler will be
operated in the same manner as when the former is
functioned by the filling-fork slide. However, the feeler
thread cutter, which is carried by the shuttle feeler on
looms having the filling-feeler device, must be so ad-
justed that the bunter on the lay will operate the
thread cutter and cause the filling to be cut properly.
Also, the shuttle feeler must prevent the operation of
the transferring mechanism in case the shuttle is pro-
jecting from the box so as not to be in proper position
to receive the fresh bobbin of filling. The correct results
ordinarily can be obtained without difiiculty by changing
the angle of the thread cutter so as to place .it either
farther, or not so far, forwards, or by raising or low-
ering it. Care should be taken to make the adjustment
in such a manner that the thread cutter does not cut
the filling unless a bobbin is transferred, as this will
make a mispick in the cloth.
The shuttle-feeler thread cutter also must be adjusted
so that whenever a bobbin is transferred the thread
from the exhausted bobbin will enter the opening in the
end of the thread cutter. The thread must not only be
cut, but also must be held and drawn back until again
cut by the temple thread cutter. Heavy or light filling
may require this adjustment to be altered and also may
require a .slight alteration in the position of the shuttle-
feeler thread cutter.
Care of Cotton-Harness Warp Stop-Motion.— In adjust-
ing the cotton-harness warp stop-motion, the first opera-
tion is to throw off the driving belt of the loom or else
disconnect the belt-shipping mechanism so that the
shipper handle can be placed in its retaining notch.
The knock-off link is then drawn forwards against its
bearing in the hub of the cam.
COTTON WEAVING 291
Next, the feeler bar is placed in its central position
with reference to the two box plates and the loose and
tight oscillator fingers adjusted so that they will project
evenly from each side of the feeler shaft, or at right
angles with the feeler-bar holders.
The oscillator cam now should be loosened in order
that the cam may be revolved by hand, and the tight
knock-off ^og adjusted by its setscrew so as to clear the
lug by about -i^ of an inch. Next turn the oscillator
cam until the cam follower rests on the lowest part, or
heel, of the cam, when the feeler should be near the back
box plate. The loose oscillator finger now should be
connected with the cam follower by means of the oscil-
lator rod and turnbuckle. The latter should be adjusted
so that the feeler bar will move equally toward both
box plates. The tight oscillator finger now is attached
to the loose knock-off dog by means of the oscillator rod
and turnbuckle, the adjustment being made so that the
loose knock-off dog will just clear the lug on the hub
of the oscillator cam. If it now is found that the feeler
bar does not move equally toward each box plate, the
trouble may be corrected by further adjustment of the
oscillator rods by means of the turnbuckles.
The tension of the cam-follower spring should be
adjusted so as just to be sufficient to cause the cam
follower Og to follow the cam contour when the point of
contact moves from the toe to the heel of the cam. If
the tension of this spring is too great, the drop wire
will be struck too hard a blow and will be liable to be
bent or injured when trapped between the feeler bar
and the rear box plate.
Care of Steel-Harness Warp Stop-Motion.— In adjusting
the steel-harness warp stop-motion the shipper handle
is placed in its retaining notch and the loom turned over
until the feeler bars are moved into their extreme for-
ward positions directly beneath the stop-motion girt.
The knock-off link now is drawn forwards against its
bearing in the hub of the oscillator cam, and the cam
follower should bear against the heel, or lowest part, of
292 COTTON WEAVING
the cam. The knock-off dog now should be set so as to
just clear the lugs on the hub of the cam.
The setting of the oscillator cam is controlled by the
setting of the harness cams that raise and lower the
heddle bars to form the sheds in the warp, and this
setting should be altered to work with the setting of the
harness cams if the latter is changed for any reason.
When the harness that is rising is just passing the
harness that is falling, or is level with it, the long axis
of the cam should be horizontal, or level, and the cam
should be fastened to the cam-shaft in this position. The
tension of the oscillator cam-follower spring should be
adjusted so that the feeler bars will not strike too hard
a blow on the heddle when the latter is allowed to fall
by a broken warp end and is trapped between the feeler
bar and stop-motion girt.
General Care of Warp Stop-Motions. — As a rule, warp
stop-motions occasion but little trouble. There are, how-
ever, several minor difficulties that may be remedied
easily when the causes are recognized. The lower ends
of the steel heddles or of the drop-wire detectors are
sometimes badly bent and twisted by the action of the
feeler bar. In most cases, this will be found to be due
to an improper adjustment of some working part, the
fallen heddle or drop wire being struck repeatedly by
the feeler bar and the loom failing to be stopped.
The bars supporting the drop wires or heddles should
be kept straight, clean, and smooth. In the steel-harness
stop-motion, if the heddle bars are not straight, reedy
and uneven cloth will be produced. Oil should not be
placed on these bars, however, as it is apt to stain the
warp. Extra heddles and drop wires are sometimes ap-
plied by breaking open the slot and slipping them into
position. These always should be removed when drawing
in a new warp, as they may catch on other drop wires
and interfere with proper action.
Occasionally, a set of drop wires or steel heddles will
become magnetized, which makes trouble by causing the
individual heddles to stick together. This prevents the
COTTON WEAVING 293
formation of clear sheds and interferes with the fall of
the heddle or detector if a warp end breaks. The diffi-
culty is remedied by having the heddles demagnetized
by passing them through an electrical coil.
Slack warp threads often cause considerable annoy-
ance, the loom being stopped repeatedly and the weaver
being unable to find a broken warp thread. This is due
to the slackness of the thread allowing the detector to
fall just low enough to engage with the feeler bar.
Sometimes this trouble is due to the whole warp being
woven too slack but more often it is only one thread
or a group of threads that gives difficulty. Occasionally,
the stop-motion girt or box plates are not in the correct
position relative to the whip roll. In some fancy
weaves, certain ends do not interlace with the filling as
frequently as other ends and, hence, tend to become
slack. As such threads are not liable to become broken
on account of their slackness, it is well not to drav/
them through detectors of the stop-motion. Large spooler
knots with long tails often cause excessive warp break-
age and if automatic knot tiers are not employed, it is
desirable to have spooler tenders tie a weaver's knot
instead of the customary overhand knot.
When a cotton-harness type of warp stop-motion is
used and extra drop wires employed, the warps should be
sized a trifle more heavily in order to give the yarn the
extra strength required to withstand the additional
chafing and wear. This is not necessary in the case of
the steel-harness stop-motion.
Speed of Northrop Looms.— The speed at which Nor-
throp looms can be run and the power required to drive
them depend largely on the width, weight, and character
of the loom and the weight and construction of the fabric
being woven. The filling-replenishing devices are capa-
ble of operating at any speed at which it is practicable
to run the loom. Excessive speed causes a large increase
in the number of breakages of warp yarn, and the loom
is stopped so often to tie in broken ends that any gain
made by increased speed is apt to be more than offset.
294 COTTON-MILL PLANNING
COTTON-MILL PLANNING
To explain the method of planning the layout of a mill, a
standard cotton mill will be taken as an illustration, and the
details of the machinery equipment worked out with reference
to this particular type of mill. Hence, it will be assumed that
it is required to lay out the machinery for a mill to make 4-yd.
goods, 39 in. wide, 28s warp and 36s filling, 72 sley, and 80
picks to the inch. It will be assumed, also, that 10,000 spindles
have been decided on as the size of the mill.
Organization. — Two important matters must be figured out:
(1) The organization of the miU in order to produce the line
of goods; (2) the machinery needed to supply 10,000 spindles
and to take care of the product of these spindles and manu-
facture it into cloth. In mill engineering, the term organization
is usually applied to the program, or list, of the weights of the
product at each machine and the drafts and doublings necessary
to produce these results, the whole organization being calcu-
lated closely enough so that, after making due allowances for
waste, it will show the weight, hank, or number delivered,
from the weight of lap in the picker room, to the weight of the
cloth desired.
The counts of the warp yam to be made in this case are
already known as 28s and that of the filling as 36s; and for
making these yams, a mill usually has the following processes:
Bale breaker, automatic feeder and opener, breaker picker,
intermediate picker, finisher picker, one process of carding,
three processes of drawing, no combing, and three processes of
fly frames (slubber, intermediate, and roving). Then follow
spinning, spooling, warping, slashing, drawing in, ■s^'eaving,
sewing, cloth brushing, folding, and baling.
For the counts of yam to be spun, the lap from the finisher
picker should weigh from 12 to 14 oz. per yd.; in this case a
13 oz. lap will be taken for the purpose of illustration. The
number of processes between the lap and the yam being known,
the hank of the 13 oz. lap must be ascertained and the attenu-
ation between the lap and the yam so distributed that the
yam will gradually be drawn finer at each process with the least
COTTON-MILL PLANNING 295
detriment to the fiber and with a maximum of production.
Before this can be decided, however, the number of doublings to
be made at each process must be known. It is usually under-
stood that at the drawing frames in a mill spinning yams of
medium counts there are 6 doublings at each process, with
the draft approximately the same. It is also a general custom
to have no doubling at the slubbing frames but to have 2 ends
up at the interrnediate frames, 2 ends at the roving frames,
and generally 2 ends at the spinning frames; that is, yams of
these counts are usually spun from double roving. There
is, of course, no doubling in a card, and the card draft is gener-
ally about 100.
A 13-oz. lap is .00146 hank, and weighs 5,687^ gr. to the yard.
This, when operated on by a 100 draft at the card, gives a
56.87-gr. sliver, but as there is at least 3% of waste at the card,
the actual weight of the sliver delivered will not exceed 55 gr.
This sliver, after passing through the drawing frames with a
doubling of 6 at each delivery and the customary draft of
6, will still remain a 55-gr. sliver, or .151-hank, since if the
doublings equal the draft the weight of the sliver v/ill remain
unchanged.
At the slubber there is only 1 end up, but at the intermediate
frame there are 2 doublings, also 2 at the roving frame and 2 at
the spinning frame. An arrangement of drafts for the four
processes following the third drawing process must therefore
be found 'that will reduce the .151-hank sliver delivered by
the third drawing frame to a 36s yam with the above doublings.
A somewhat elastic rule used by mill engineers is to have the
drafts in the processes between the third drawing frame and
the spinning frame about 4, 5, 6, and 12, respectively, increasing
or decreasing each factor slightly, as may be necessary, to
obtain the exact total draft required to produce yam of the
required counts. Arranging a series of drafts in accordance
with this rule, drafts of 4.5 in the slubber, 5.5 in the inter-
mediate frame, 6.5 in the roving frame, and 12 in the spinning
frame may be selected as practical drafts, which, as shown
by the following explanation, will give the desired attentia-
tion of the roving necessary to produce a 36s yam from . the
spinning frame.
296 ' COTTON-MILL PLANNING
Adopting these drafts and ignoring the question of waste
at each process, as the amount of waste is slight, the hank
of the slubbing will be .68, which is determined by multi-
plying .151 by 4.5 (the draft), which equals .679, or prac-
tically .68. The intermediate frame will deliver a 1.87 hank
roving, which is determined by multiplying .68-hank slubbing
by 5.5 and dividing the result thus obtained by 2 (the niimber
of doublings). The hank of the roving from which the yarn
is spun will be 6, determined by multiplying 1.87-hank roving
from the intermediate frame by 6.5 and dividing the result
thus obtained by 2, which equals 6.077-, or in round numbers
6-hank. The counts of the yam will be 36s, determined by
multiplying 6-hank roving by 12 and dividing the result thus
obtained by 2.
The above arrangement provides for the production of the
filling yam, but the warp yam, which is to be 28s cotmts,
can be made from the same hank roving as the filling yam
by reducing the draft in the spinning frame; although a more
satisfactory yam could be made from slightly coarser roving,
for convenience in the mill the same hank roving is often
used. In this case the draft at the warp spinning frames will
be 9.3, determined by multiplying the number of the yam by
the number of doublings and dividing by the hank roving, as
28X2
follows: -=9.3, draft.
6
Summary. — The complete organization is shown in the
following summary: Finisher picker, 13-oz. lap, .00146 hank;
cards, draft 100, 3% loss in waste, 55-gr. sliver, or .151 hank;
first drawing frame, draft 6, doublings 6, hank .151; second
drawing fraaiie, draft 6, doublings 6, hank .151; third drawing
frame, draft 6, doublings 6, hank .151; slubbers, draft 4.5,
no doublings, hank .68; intermediate fly frames, draft 5.5,
doublings 2, hank 1.87; roving frames, draft 6.5, doublings 2,
hank 6.07; warp spinning frames, draft 9.3, doublings 2, counts
28s; filling spinning frames, draft 12, doublings 2, counts 36s.
Machinery Equipment. — In order to determine the number of
preparatory machines necessary, the number of spindles to
be supplied must be known, in this case 10,000. The produce
tion of a warp spinning frame on 28s yam is slightly in excess
COTTON-MILL PLANNING 297
of that of a filling frame on 36s, but as the goods to be produced
contain a slightly greater weight of warp than of filling yarn,
it will be assumed that 5,000 spindles are to be operated on
warp yam and 5,000 on filling yam.
The table on page 189 gives the production of warp spinning
frames per spindle per day, making suitable allowances for all
stoppages for doffing, oiling, cleaning, etc.; the table on page
190 gives the production of filling spinning frames. Referring
to these tables, the production of a warp spinning frame on
28s yam is .244 lb. per spindle per day, which equals 1,220 lb.
per day for 5,000 spindles. The production of a filling spin-
ning frame on 36s yam is given as .194 lb. per spindle per day,
which equals 970 lb. per day for 5,000 spindles, making a
total production of warp and filling yam of 2,190 lb. per day.
Considering a week to consist of 6 full days, for convenience
in calculation, this will give a total weekly production of
13,140 lb. of yam. Allowing for 5% of waste in the various
machines between the finisher picker and the spinning frames
gives a total of 13,831 lb. (13,140^.95 = 13,831.578) of cotton
that must be passed through the finisher picker per week,
and allowing 5% more for waste in the picking processes will
necessitate 14,559 lb. (13,381 -J- .95 = 14,558.947) being passed
through the breaker picker per week.
Considering first the nimiber of machines necessary in the
preparatory processes, a bale breaker will handle 15,000 lb.
of cotton per day of 10 hr., or 90,000 lb. per wk.; therefore, one
bale breaker will be more than sufficient for a mill of this size.
An automatic feeder and opener will handle 3,000 lb. per day
of 10 hr., or 18,000 lb. per wk.; consequently, only one machine
is necessary, since the mill is to consume only 14,559 lb. of
cotton per wk. A breaker picker will handle 500 lb. per hr.,
which, allowing for the time consumed in cleaning, etc., will
give a total production of about 25,000 lb. per wk., an amount
more than sufficient to meet the needs of a 10,000-spindle
mill; hence, one breaker picker is sufficient. Intermediate
and finisher pickers produce about 12,500 lb. per wk., allowing
from 6 to 10 hr. for cleaning. In this case about 14,500 lb.
must be treated each week in the picker room and therefore
one intermediate and one finisher picker will be barely sufficient
298 COTTON-MILL PLANNING
while two would be excessive; however, by reducing the time
for cleaning to a mininitim, one intermediate picker and one
finisher picker will produce good work in sufficient quantity.
The number of cards required to deal with 13,831 lb. of cotton
per week must next be determined, and in this considerable
latitude is left to the mill engineer. It is assumed that the
revolving fiat cards will be used, the production of which varies
in different mills, from 300 lb. for very fine yams to 1,000 lb.
per card per wk. for coarse yams. In this case, 28s and 36s
yams are to be spun, and as 800 to 850 lb. per week is an appro-
priate production for such yams, 17 cards will be required to
card 13,831 lb. of cotton per week.
Dealing next with the drawing frames, the front roll of the
machine is usually If in. in diameter and makes about 360
rev. per min. The speed of delivery of the machine, therefore,
is 43.197 yd. per min., which is calculated as follows:
360X1.375X3.1416
= 43. 197
36
This result multiplied by the weight of the card sliver per
yard, 55 gr., and by 3,600, the number of minutes per week,
gives 8,553,006 gr. as the total number produced by one deliv-
ery in a week. This divided by 7,000, the number of grains
in 1 lb., gives nearly 1,222 lb., which divided into 13,831, the
ntunber of pounds of cotton to be handled in a week, gives eleven
deliveries as the number required. As drawing frames are
usually built in sections of five or six deliveries, one first,
sfecond, and third drawing frame, each containing two heads
of six deliveries each, will answer the requirements and also
make an allowance for stoppages.
The next machine through which the cotton passes in the
proper sequence of operations is the slubber. The hank of
the slubbing, or roving from the slubber, as figured in the
organization of the mill, is .68, and it will be assumed in this
case that the production is at the rate of 15.86 lb. per da.,
or 95.16 lb. per wk., per spindle. This, divided into 13,831 lb.,
gives 145 slubber spindles as the number necessary. Slubber
frames are built in various lengths, usually in multiples of 4,
the shortest having 40 spindles and the longest 80; so in this case
it would be best to have two slubbers, each with 72 spindles.
COTTON-MILL PLANNING 299
As 1.87-hank roving is to be produced, it will be assumed that
the production of the intermediate frames will be 5.31 lb. per
da. per spindle, or 31.86 lb. per wk. This amount divided into
13,831 lb. gives 434 spindles, and as these intermediate frames
are built in multiples of 6, five frames of 90 spindles each will
be required.
Relative to the roving frames it will be considered that the
production for a 6-hank roving is shown as 1.23 lb., per da., or
7.38 lb. per wk., which when divided into 13,831 gives 1,874
spindles. Fourteen frames of 136 spindles each would be
most suitable.
Considering next the number of spinning frames, the number
of spindles has already been decided on as 10,000. Spinning
fram.es are usually built in sections of 8 spindles, and a frame of
about 208 spindles and of the regular gauge is usually preferred.
Therefore, in this case 48 frames, each with 208 spindles, would
be used, giving a total of 9,984 spindles in the mill.
After the spinning, the filling yarn is ready for the loom;
but the warp yam must pass through several processes before
it is ready for weaving. The first machine is the spooler.
■Considering the spindle speed of this machine as 825 rev. per
min., 20 lb. per spindle per wk. may be taken as an average
production. The production of warp yarn was previously
calculated as 1,220 lb. per day, or 7,320 lb. per week; therefore,
dividing 20 into 7,320 gives 366 spooler spindles necessary.
Spoolers are built in various lengths, for instance, 80, 100,
and 120 spindles. In this case four spoolers of 100 spindles
each will be necessary.
The production of warpers is given in the table on page 219,
and for 28s yam with 440 ends on a beam is 2,425 lb. per wk.
Dividing this into 7,320, the number of pounds of warp yarn
produced per wk. gives three warpers to be installed.
A slasher will prepare the warps for about 500 looms weaving
cloth similar to that decided on as the product of this mill.
In a mill of this size, since it is very improbable that more than
500 looms will be operated one slasher may be asstuned to
be all that is necessary.
Dealing now with the weaving, it is first necessary to find
the production per week of a loom weaving goods having 80
300
COTTON -MILL PLANNING
picks per in. In this case it is assumed that the looms
will run 185 picks per niin.; therefore, the production of a loom
per week will be 208.125 yd., as shown by the following cal-
185X3,600
culation: = 231.25. 10% ot 231.25 is equal to
80X36
23.125; therefore, 231,25-23.125 = 208.125 yd.
MACHINES AND FLOOR SPACE FOR A 10,000-
SPINDLE MILL
Number of Machines
Floor Space
1 bale breaker
1 automatic feeder and opener
1 breaker picker
1 intermediate picker
1 finisher picker
17 cards . . .
1 first drawing frame, two heads of
six deliveries
1 second drawing frame, two heads
of six deliveries
1 third drawing frame, two heads of
six deliveries
2 slubbers, 72 spindles
5 intermediates, 90 spindles
14 roving frames, 136 spindles
48 spinning frames, 208 spindles . . .
4 spoolers, 100 spindles
3 warpers
1 slasher
266 looms
1 sewing and rollmg machine
1 brusher
1 folder
1 baling press
9' 9"X7'
10' 6"X6' 6"
17' 7"X6' 6"
16' X 6' 8"
16'X6'8"
9' 10" X 5' 2" each
10'10"X3'4"perhead
10' 10" X 3' 4" per head
10' 10"X3'4"per head
31' 8"X3'2"each
29' 5"X3' 1" each
32' 11"X2' 11" each
25' 11"X3' 3" each
21' 3"X4' each
18' X 8' each
38' X 8'
16'X11' 10" for 4 looms
4'X2'9"
10' X 4'
10' X 4'
4' 9"X3'
The production of warp yam per day is 1,220 lb., or 7,320 lb.
per wk., to which must be added 10% to allow for the increased
weight occasioned by the size, making 8,052 lb. of warp yam
to be woven per week.
The production of filling yam is 970 lb. per day, or 5,820 lb.
per wk., which, added to the weight of the warp yam, gives a
total production for the weave room of 13,872 lb. per wk. The
COTTON-MILL PLANNING 3(^
weight of the cloth is 4 yd. per lb. ; therefore, the yards of cloth
to be woven per week will be 4X 13,872 = 55,488 yd. Dividing
this total yardage by the production of one loom (208.125 yd.)
gives practically 266 looms as the niimber necessary for the
weave room.
In the cloth room, a miU of this size would require one sewing
and rolling machine, one cloth brusher, one folding machine,
and one baling press.
The foregoing description shows how the equipment of
machinery is determined so that the production from the
machines at each process will almost exactly balance the 3,niount
of material supplied to them from the preceding process or
taken from them by a later process; therefore, so long as the
mill is maintained on the class of goods for which it was origi-
nally intended, there will be no idle machinery, neither will
there be an oversupply of material, and thus the whole plant
will be kept in constant operation with the largest possible out-
put at the least possible expense.
The accompanying table gives the complete list of machines
for a 10,000-spindle mrU on 4-yd. goods made from 28s warp
and 36s filling, together with the floor space occupied by each
machine, from which can be determined the total floor space
and size of the mill that would have to be erected to accom-
modate this machinery.
302
COTTON DESIGNING
COTTON DESIGNING
ELEMENTS OF TEXTILE DESIGN
The Weave. — All woven fabrics are constructed of two series
of yams; namely, the warp, which is the system of parallel
threads running lengthwise of the goods, and the filling, which
is the system of parallel threads running across the cloth at
right angles to the warp. By the weaving process the picks
of the filling are interlaced with the ends of the warp so as to
produce a woven fabric of a texture depending, to a great
extent, on the method of interlacing.
T«^;
Fig. 1
Plain Weave. — The simplest method of interlacing the warp
and filling is by that system known as plain weave. Fig. 1 (a)
is a diagrammatic view of a plain woven fabric in which one
pick of filling is over all the odd-numbered ends of the warp
and under all the even-numbered ends, while the next pick of
filling interlaces with the warp ends in reverse order.
COTTON DESIGNING 303
Representation of Weave. — Fig. 1 also illustrates the method
of representing a weave on design paper; (a) shows the way the
ends and picks of the cloth are interlaced, and (6) shows the
weave. Each vertical row of squares represents a warp end,
and each horizontal row represents a pick of filling. The
lines drawn from (a) to (6) show which warp end each vertical
row of squares represents; the ends are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, and 6, at the bottom.
By following the ends from (o) to (&), it will be seen that
when they are up, as shown in (a), the corresponding squares
in (6) are filled in, and on the other hand when the ends are
down, the corresponding squares in (&) are left blank. When
the ends have been shown on design paper, the picks also have
been shown, and consequently (&) shows where the filling is
up and where down in the same manner as it shows where the
warp is up and where down. That this is so may be seen by
referring to (c), which is exactly the same as (&) except that
in this case the lines ^re drav/n from the picks in (a) to the
rows of squares in (c) that represent the respective picks. If
the picks are followed from {a) to (c) in the same manner
as the ends were followed from (o) to (&) , it will be seen that
(c) shows the interfacings of the picks, {d) is a method of
showing the interlacing of one pick of filling with the warp
and represents the manner in which either of the picks h and d
interlaces with the warp ends, the curved line showing the
pick of filling and the circles, sections of the warp ends.
Repeat of Weave. — ^Every weave is complete on a certain
number of ends and the same, or a different, number of picks
that have definite interlacings and that are arranged in a fixed
order of sequence. The method of interweaving and the order
of arrangement of all other ends and picks in the fabric are but
repetitions; hence, these ends and picks constitute one repeat
of the weave. Thus, it will be noted in Fig. 1 that the plain
weave repeats on two ends and two picks.
Drawing-in Draft. — Every end in the warp that interlaces
with the filling differently from the others must be drawn
through a separate harness in the loom, but every end in th©
Warp that works in a manner similar to some other end may be
drawn through the same harness as that other end, provided
304
COTTON DESIGNING
that it is drawn in its regular order. Thus in the case of the
plain weave, if every even-numbered end is drawn through
one harness and every odd-numbered end is drawn through
another harness and these two harnesses are made to rise and
fall alternately, or first one and then the other is lifted, and a
pick of filling passed through each opening, cloth similar to
that shown in Fig. 1 (a) will be formed.
The method, or order, of drawing each end of a weave
through the loom harnesses is usually indicated on design paper
by means of a draft, called the harness draft, or drawing-in
draft. This is best indicated with figures, but may be shown
I 234 56 78 ^^ "aeans of crosses, dots, etc. In
Fig. 2, (a) shows the plain weave
extended on 8 ends, and (b) shows
the harness draft. The first end is
drawn through the first harness, as
shown in the harness draft (b) , and
the second end, as it interlaces
with the filling differently from the
first, must be drawn through a
separate harness, or the second, as
shown; the third end in the weave
works like the first and therefore
-■-■
_■-■
1 1
I 1
1 1
1 1
(a) ■„■
■ 1
-■-■
-■-■
■-■-
■-■-
-■ ■
1 1
L. 1^
lUlU
1 ,
2 2 2_2
Cb)
Fig. 2
can be drawn through the same harness as the first end;
the fourth end works like the second and is consequently
drawn through the same harness as the second. The har-
ness draft, therefore, is simply a draft showing the person
.who draws in the warp ends through which harness each
end of the warp is to be drawn, being so constructed that
ends having the same interlacings are drawn on the same
harness. Harness drafts are generally constructed for only
one repeat of the weave, since all other ends are drawn in
similarly to the ends in that repeat. Consequently, in making
out the harness draft for the plain weave only the first two
ends need be shown, since the first two ends in the har-
ness draft. Fig. 2 (&), show the manner of drawing in all the
ends of the warp.
Chain Drafts. — After the harness draft has been made to
show the method of drawing in the warp ends, a plan must be
COTTON DESIGNING
305
tDBSlEBlEraEPffllEia
DDannnnDpnDa
aaoHBHaaaaHH
DaHBHDHapaBB
aHBHDDHHaaDB
— ■DDDHHlBaaa
■laaDaBDBjaBDa
^anoBBaaBBPa
DBBBDaBBpaaB
aDBBBDBaaDBB
nDDBBBOaaBBB
BaaDBBaDBBBQ
^aDDBDBaBDa
"ODDBWlDDg
made to show how, or in what order, the harnesses must be
lifted so that the ends drawn through them will interlace with
the filling according to the desired weave, or in other words a
plan showing which harnesses are to be raised and which
lowered on each pick. This plan is known as the chain draft
or pegging plan. The chain draft is indicated on design paper,
each fiUed-in square indicating that a harness is raised, and
each blank square showing that a harness is lowered. To make
a chain draft from the weave and harness
draft, commenc with the first end and copy
the interfacings of each end in one repeat
of the weave that is drawn in through a
separate harness as indicated by the har-
ness draft, placing these interlacings of the
ends in the same relative position that the
harnesses through which they are drawn
occupy in the harness draft.
Fig. 3 is one repeat of the
weave shown by the dia-
gram Fig. 1 (a) , and since the
first end is drawn through the
first harness, as shown in Fig.
2 (&), the interlacings of the
first end must be copied to show the man-
ner in which this harness should be raised
and lowered. The second end is drawn
through the second harness; therefore, to
show the workings of this harness the
interlacings of this end must be copied.
When this has been done it will be noticed
that the chain draft is similar to the weave
shown in Pig. 3; therefore, this figure can be used to indicate
the chain draft as well as to show the weave.
To illustrate further the method of obtaining the chain draft
from the weave and harness draft, refer to Fig. 4, in which
(a) represents one repeat of a weave; (b) shows the harness,
or drawing-in draft; and (c) shows the chain draft. In (a),
each vertical row of squares represents one end; each row of
squares across the design paper, one pick; and each filled square.
DaanDDDD
ODDDDDDD
nnnnaann
nanannnn
aaaaaaaa
nnaaanna
DBDaDDDn
"0000000
(a)
nnnnnann
DDODisnnD
aDSDQDSlO
DiaaaaaDEi
OBinD
nocsD
DDOB!
DDOO
anan
mnoa
Fig. 3
0)
lonoBBBDn
DDBBBDDD
OBBBOOOO
BBaoaoao
BODOBDD
__DaDBBDD
OBBBOOOO
OOBBBOgO
OOOBBBDO
■"OODBBDO
"OODBDO
OODDD
8b:
Bl
nnno
DODO
DODO
DODD
DODD
DODO
OODD
DDOa
ODOO
ooan
DDOa
OODO
Fig. 4
306 COTTON DESIGNING
an end raised over a pick. In (&) , each vertical row of squares
represents one end, the same as in (a) , but each row of squares
across the design paper represents one harness, and each num-
ber the harness through which that particular end is drawn.
In (c), each vertical row of squares represents the working of
one harness, or, in other words, the order of raising and lowering
the harness, while each row across the design paper represents
one pick, or one bar of the chain that is placed on the loom to
govern the operation of the harnesses.
To make a chain draft from a weave it is simply necessary
to copy the interlacings of those ends that are drawn on separate
harnesses. Therefore, in order to ascertain the number of ends
that any chain draft will require it is only necessary to find the
number of harnesses that the drawtng-in draft occupies. In
Fig. 4 (b) , 6 harnesses are used, and thus only six vertical rows
of squares, representing the 6 ends of the weave that have
different interlacings, will be required for the chain draft. In
copying the interlacings of those ends that are drawn on
separate harnesses, since the first end is drawn through the
first harness, the first harness shown in (c) is marked the
same as the first end shown in (a). The second end is drawn
through the second harness, and consequently the second har-
ness shown in (c) is marked the same as the second end shown
in (a). This method is continued with the first 6 ends, all of
which are drawn through separate harnesses. The seventh
end of the weave is drawn through the third harness, but since
the working of this harness has already been set down, it must
not be marked again. The same can be said of the rest of the
ends, all of which work in a manner similar to some one of the
first 6 ends. Therefore, the chain draft is complete as shown
in (c).
Standard Types of Drawing-in Drafts. — The simplest method
of drawing the warp ends through the harnesses is that known
as the straight draft, which may be defined as a draft in which
the ends are drawn through the harnesses in regular order
from front to back. To illustrate this, suppose that a weave
occupied 10 harnesses and that the ends were drawn straight
from the front harness to the back harness. Then the first end
would be drawn through the first harness, the second end
COTTON DESIGNING
207
through the second harness, the third end through the third
harness, and so on, ending with the tenth end, which would
be drawn through the tenth harness. The draft would then
commence another repeat with the first harness again, and the
nest, or eleventh, end would be drawn through that harness,
the twelfth end would be drawn through the second harness,
and so on.
Another method of drawing in warps is known as the center,
or point, draft. In regular point drafts, the ends are drawn
from the front to the back harness and then the next end,
instead of being drawn on the front harness as in the straight
draft, is drawn through the next to the back harness and the
aDGDnnnd)
QnaDaamn
aaanafSDa
naDDSDDD
DDoainDaa
DainnaDD
DiaaDnnDD
EDanangp
c-nnnaa
aDDDDn
DEDnnp
anonnn
oaosiaa
DDDngia
ananna
DDDnnnmn
DDnaDSJDa
DDDDsann
Dasnnnan
DHDnnnna
maaaaaDQ]
nanaamaa
aDDDisaDa
naDHDDDD
DnaJDDDDD
DODDnann
maaoaaam
nnagnnffiD
nanamnnn
DDiSlDDaOD
DBiDaDDaaj
snanDDDD
nnnannan
annnaaaD
□□
aa
aa
aa
ma
am
gg
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
ends then drawn in regularly from back to front. Pig. 5 is an
illustration of a regular point draft on 8 harnesses.
Another type of point draft, illustrated in Fig. 6, is known
as the irregular point draft. In these drafts the ends are
drawn through the harnesses straight for a certain number of
times and then reversed as in a regular point draft.
nnannnan
annanDDD
DaGDaDDD
aooaaama
naaaamam
aDDDaDDD
DDDEDDDn
DaSinDDDD
nSDDDDaD
maaoaaaa
nnnnnnniffl
aDDDDQBE
nanaasiDn
nnnaBnnn
DDDEianan
maBDnnna
DElDDDnnD
aDDDDDDa
GDnnnDDn
DDDDDDDD
nannnnnn
SinDDaDDD
DsinnnDaD
DDEiDnanD
DDDiBannEi
DDDDSlDaD
nnnnnsaa
anGDDnnn
GGGGGaaD
aDGGaaDD
DGGGaDDG
OQaOQQGG
GGGGGGGG
fflGGGGOaa
GSGGGGGG
aasGaaaa
GGGSlGaaG
GGaaoaaG
GGGGGSGIU
naaaaamD
nannnaanpn
GGGGQaaa
GGGGGGGa
GGGGGGGG
aaaaGGGG
GGGGOaaG
GsiGaaaaai
aasiGGasia
aanoGiuaa
ggggmaga
ga
aa
aa
aa
GG
GO
ma
am
og
Fig. 7
Still another type of irregular point draft is illustrated in
Fig. 7. The method adopted in this case is that of drawing the
ends straight for a certain number of harnesses and then revers-
ing, but only running the ends for a few harnesses, when they
are again run straight and again reversed, etc.
308
COTTON DESIGNING
In the method of drawing in the warp ends known as the
angled draft they are drawn straight for a certain number of
harnesses and then reversed, but instead of the reversing
starting with the next to the back
harness as in the point draft, it is
started on an intermediate harness,
generally half way between the first
and last harnesses, but depending
somewhat on the chain draft that
is to be used. Fig. 8 shows an
angled draft on 8 harnesses arranged in this manner.
The skip draft may be considered as a straight draft drawn
in sections with one or more harnesses skipped between the
sections. Fig. 9 shows a skip draft on 4 harnesses in which
the first section of 4 ends is drawn in straight; then 1 harness
is skipped and the next section of 4 ends drawn straight, then
nnnnaDDEi
ODDDDnan
DDDDDlBaD
oaansnna
annEDDDn
DDsinDnDn
DiDDnnDan
maDaDDaD
nnnaiBDDD
DnnanmDa
annnnnisD
DanaDnDHi
nsjDDDaaD
DDmaaana
nnamnnnn
Fig. 8
Innnainnaia nfflanmana
DDEinasiDD oonaaDDBi
DEnnoDDa nnninDnEiD
mapaaDDOO aaiiiDaiiiaa
Fig. 9
onnDnisinn
DDDDisnan
DDDSinnnii]
DQSinnnsiD
atanDDDDD
mDDDDDDD
nfflnnoEinaina
SaDDEiaDD
aannanan
QDDDanDa
DDDEianntii
oprnDDDma
no
DD
Fig. 10
noisnn
DDDDai
DODDn
DDDEia
Fig. 11
another harness skipped and the next section drawn in straight,
and so on. In Fig. 10, a skip draft on 6 harnesses is shown in
which 2 harnesses are skipped between the sections.
Satin drafts are really adaptations of the skip-draft principle
in which harnesses are skipped between the ends instead of
between sections of ends. Thus in the 5-hamess satin draft
shown in Fig. 11, the first end is drawn in on the first harness;
the second end is drawn in on the third harness,
skipping the second harness; the third end is
drawn in on the fifth harness, skipping the fourth
harness; the fourth end is drawn in on the second
harness, skipping the first harness; and the fifth
is drawTi in on the fourth harness, skipping the
third harness. In this satin draft only 1 harness
is skipped between the ends, but often more than one harness
is skipped. For instance, in the 8-end satin draft shown in
Fig. 12, 2 harnesses are skipped between the ends.
DDanDHinD
DDmanaoD
DDDDDaaE)
Dnnnsnnn
DHinaDnnD
DDDDnDIIia
DDDiannDD
Fig. 12
COTTON DESIGNINC
309
nnnnaanninnnfET
DnanDanninnQjia
annnnnnn
ngaDDDnn
DDDnaDDIB
Dannnama
DDDDDElDn
DDDDSIDDD
DDDianDaD
DDSaDDDD
DmaDDDDD
maDDDDDn
DOSDn
[3DDa
A section draft may consist of any one or more of the fore-
going styles of drafts arranged so as to be repeated in sections
throughout the width of the cloth.
Thus, Fig. 13 shows a section draft on
12 harnesses, and as indicated by the
brackets the method of drawing in the first
section of 4 ends is to be repeated three
times, and the method of drawing in the
second and third sections of 4 ends is to be
repeated the same number of times. Thus,
it will be seen that this is really a short method
of indicating a comparatively large draft, since if this draft
were extended fully as indicated, it would occupy 36 ends,
as shown in Fig. 14. This section draft is simply an amal-
DDDa
naan
DDna
DDDD
DDDa
anna
oaaa
Doaa
3X 3X 3X
Fig. 13
□DDnnnna
naaanaaa
Daaaoaaa
aaaaaaan
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaan
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaa,
aaamaaaai
aamaaaaa
amooamoD
moaamaaD
aaananaa
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaa
aaoaaaag
aaaaaaam
aaaaaama
aaaaaisaa
aaaamaaa
aaaaaaaa
aasaaaaa
aiaaaaoaa
mgggoaga
naonannn
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaooo
aaaiaaaacs)
aamaaama
asaaamaa
(aaaasaaa
aaaaaaaa
aaaaoDoo
aaoaoaoa
anaoaaaa
aaOEaoDL
aaoaaaBiia
ansaaaiiaa
maaaisaaa
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaoD
oaaaaooa
aaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaa
aggaaaao
□aaa.
aamio
omaa
sjaaa
aaao
aaaa
aaan
aaaa
aaaa
aaan
aaan
aaan
Fig. 14
gamation of straight drafts in sections, but it is not necessary
to use straight drafts, since angled, skip, or satin drafts may be
extended in sections in the same manner.
TWILLED WEAVES
In the plain weave, each end is alternately raised and lowered,
but in a twill the warp ends are so raised that the warp and filling
floats form diagonal lines across the cloth, known as twill lines.
In a twill each warp end must be either over or under the
filling for at least 2 picks in succession and at least 2 successive
warp ends must be raised or lowered on each pick, in order to
make the twill line across the cloth. On this account at least
3 harnesses are necessary to weave a twill, or in other words
three is the smallest niimber of harnesses on which a twill
310 COTTON DESIGNING
effect can be formed in the cloth. Thus, the 3-harness, or
prunelle, twill, as it is called, is the simplest twill that can be
made.
A weave may be warp flush, filling flush, or equally flush,
depending on whether a preponderance of warp or filling or aji
equal amount of each is brought to the face of the cloth; thus,
Fig. 1 (a) is a warp-flush prunelle twill, twilled to the right, and
Fig. 1 (b) is the same weave twilled
to the left. Fig. 1 (c) shows a filling-
flush prunelle twilled to the right, and
Fig. 1 (d) shows a filling-flush prunelle
twilled to the left. A cloth woven
with a warp-flush weave shows a fiUing-flush weave on the back,
and if woven with a filling-flush weave shows a warp-flush
weave on the back.
Regular twills are those that run in regular order; it is,
therefore, simply necessary to know the interlacing of any one
end or pick, say the first, of a regular twill in order to show the
entire weave on design paper.
The interlacings of the first end or pick of any regular twill
are conveniently shown by writing numbers above and below
a horizontal line. Fig. 2 shows one repeat of
the ^^^ regular twill. A rule for making any
regular twill when the interlacings of the first pick
are given is as follows:
Rule. — Mark on the flrst pick of the weave the
_DODBaDB
DDaHDQHB
DDBDDHSD
DBDDHBDQ
■aDBIHDDQ
DDBIBDnnB
DBBDaDHD
ends that are to he lifted on that pick; then above on FiG. 2
the second pick place similar marks, moving them one square to
the right if the twill is to run to the right, or one square to the left
if the twill is to run to the left. Proceed with each pick in the same
■way, moving one to the right or left, as the case may be, until there
are as many picks as ends.
Angle of Twills. — The angle of the twill is affected: (1) by
the manner in which the ends and picks interlace; (2) by the
relative number of ends and picks per inch.
Fig. 3 illustrates the method of running up twill lines on
design paper so as to form different angles.
A regfular 45° twill weave forms a 45° twill in the fabric
only when the cloth contains an equal number of ends and
COTTON DESIGNING
311
picks per inch. Increasing the picks per inch or decreasing
the ends per inch decreases the angle of the twill; decreasing
the picks or increasing the ends increases the angle.
Weaves in which the angle of the twill is greater than
45 degrees are called upright twills, and those in which
76° 72° 63°
DDDDBDDD
DDDDBDDD
DDDDBDnD
DDDDBDOa
DDDBDDDa
DDDBODDD
DDDHDDDD
paaiDgar
DDHDanDD
DHDDDDDD
DBDDDDDa
DHDDDDDD
-naaaDDD
DDDDDDH
annDDDH
DDDDaaHD
DDBDDDD:
DDBDDDD--
DDBDDDBD
DDBDDDBD
DBDDDDBO
DBDaaBDD
DBDDDBDO
DBDDDBDD
iDDDBDDD
DDDBDDD
IDDDBDDD
IDDBDDDD
DDDBDDDD
DDDBDDD'^
DDBDDDD
DDBDDDBD
DDBDDDBD
DBDDDBDD
DBDDDBDD
DBDDBDDD
BDDDBDDD
BDDBDDDD
BDDBDDDD
DDBDDDDD
DDBDDDDL
DBDDDDBD
DBDDDBDD
BDDDBDDD
BDDBDDDD
DDBDDDDD
DBDDDDrr
"DODBBDD
DDBBDDDD
BBDDDDDD
DDDDDDI
DDDBBBDD
BBBDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDBB"-
BBBBODDD
aDBDDDDD
DBDDDDDD
DBDDDDDD
"DDDDDDD
DDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
GaDDDDBD
GDDDDBDD
DDDDDBDD
DDDDBDDD
DDDDBDDD
DDDBDDDD
DDDBDDDD
DDBDDDDD
DDBDDDDD
DBDDDDDD
DBDDDDDD
"DDDDDDD
_DDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDQB
DDDDDDBD
DDDDDBDD
DDDDBDDD
DDDBDDDD
DDBDDDDD
DBDDDDDD
""DDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDI
DDDDBBDD
DDBBDDDD
BBDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDT
DDDDBBBG
OBBBDDDD
BDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDr
BBBBDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDD
DDDDDDBD
DDDDDBDD
DDDDBDDD
DDDBDDDD
DDBDDDDD
DBDDDDDD
DDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDBB
DDDDBBDD
DDBBDDDD
BBDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
GDDDDBBB
OGBSIBDDD
BBDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDBB
BBBBDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
aaDQDQaa,
45"
27C
18^
14°
Fig. 3
the angle of the twill is less than 45 degrees are desig«
nated as oblique, or reclining, twills. Upright twills and
iancy diagonal weaves, forming twill lines with angles
greater than 45 degrees are used in many types of fabrics.
Oblique, or reclining, twills are not so frequently em-
ployed, but are used in special cases.
312
COTTON DESIGNING
To find the twill angle that will be formed in a fabric, the
following method may be applied:
Let jE = ends in one repeat of weave;
P = picks in one repeat of weave;
e = ends per inch in cloth;
i) = picks per inch in cloth;
ian=tangent of angle of twill in fabric;
cot = cotangent of angle of twill in fabric.
Then,
And
Ep
Pe
cot--
Example.— A diagonal, or twill, weave that repeats
on 4S ends and 60 picks is to be used in a fabric that
will be woven with 72 ends and 54 picks per inch.
What will be the angle of the twill in the cloth?
60X72
Solution. — ■ tan =
And
cot =
48X54.
48X54
= 1.6666
= .60000
60X72
■ LJI— Jl-J
^^j Reference to a table of natural tangents and
cotangents indicates that 1.6666 is the tangent and
■■Di .60000 the cotangent of an angle of 59° 2' -which,
!!■■■ therefore, is the angle of the twill in the fabric men-
(^) tioned in the question.
DDDDB Shrinkage or stretch in the length, or in the direc-
dqSdd ■''^o^ o^ *^^ warp, or contraction in the width in the
■'ddd direction of the filUng, in any finishing process, will
(fj affect the twill angle of a fabric in exact accordance
■■■■D ^^^^ ^^® resulting change in the number of ends or
J Jgy jl picks per inch.
'■■■■ Standard Twills. — Several twills that are con-
fg) stantly used in the construction of the more common
f-TQ 4 fabrics are known by definite names. Among them
are the filling-flush prunelle. Fig. 4 (a); the warp-
f.ush prunelle. Fig. 4 (b); the cassimere. Fig. 4 (c);
the filling-flush crow. Fig. 4 (d); the warp-flush crow.
Fig. 4 (e); the filling-flush Albert twill. Fig. 4 (/); the warp-
fMsh Albert twill. Fig. 4 (g); the filling-flush broken ctq-u.
COTTON DESIGNING
313
Fig. 5 (o) ; the warp-flush broken crow. Fig. 5 (6) ; the Venetian
twill, Fig. 5 (c); and the Mayo, or Campbell, twill. Fig. 5 (d).
The weaves shown in Fig. 5 are not regular twill weaves.
Fancy Twills. — In addition to the regular 45°
twills there are many other twill weaves that
are known as fancy twills. These weaves gen-
erally consist of a regular twill
weave between the twill lines
of which are placed sometimes
a
IDDBO
DDDB
DBOa
■DDD
(a)
IHBOI
■■r
■ai
DBBatf
DBaBB
BBDBQ
BDBBD
BDBDB
(C}
DDBaOBBB
BaDBDDBB
BaDBBBDD
aBODBBBO
DBBBDDBD
DDBBBDDB
BBaDBDDB
BBBDDBaU
BBBDBaDI
BBDDBBDD
BDBDDBBa
DDBBOaBB
BaDBBDDB
BBDDBBQD
DBBOOBBa
aaBBDQBD
BaOBBDOB
BBODBaBB
DBBDOBBB
QDBDBBBB
BODBBBBD
BOBBBBOD
aBBBBOBD
" IBBDDBB
DDBBDai
BDaBDBI
DBBODBBI
DDBOBBBI
nDDBBBBD
JDBBBBaa
OBBBBOBD
BBDDr~
IBBOBaOB
IBDDBBDQ
jaBDOBBD
DDBBOaBB
"DDBBDDB
BDDBBaO
DBBQQBBD
DDBBDDBa
(d)
Fig. 5
BBDBDaaB
BDBDBDBB
DDDBDBBB
BBaDBBBQ
DBOBBBOB
■OBBBDOB
DBBBDBaa
BBBDBDBD
BBDDDBDB
BOBBDOBB
DBDBQBBB
OBBaBBBD
aOOBBBOB
BDBBBDBD
aBBBDDDB
BBBDBBDD
BBDBDBDB
BODBBOBB
DBDOaBBB
BDBDBBBD
DBDBBBan
DDBBBDBB
DBBBaBOB
BBBODBBO
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
DDBBnDBB
"DHnBDQB
HBaaBBDD
DBDBaBBa
DDBaDDBB
DBBaDBDB
BBDaBBDD
BQOBBDBD
DDBBODBB
BDBnBDDB
BBDDBBaa
OBaBOBBD
DDBBODBB
DBBDDBDB
"BDDBBDD
DDBBOBD
GDBBDDBI
BGBDBDDI
BBDDBBDD
DBDBDBBD
DDBBDDI
DBBDOBDB
" BDOBBDD
DOBBGBD
other twills running in the opposite direction, sometimes small
spots, and sometimes other small weaves. Figs. 6 and 7 are
twill weaves of this type.
Entwining Twills, — Twills of the
entwining type are constructed from
regular twills by rtmning sections of
twill lines both to the right and to the
left so that each section meets other
sections at right angles. As the name
indicates, the effects produced by these
twills have an entwined or interlaced
appearance; the more perfect ones are
obtained when the separate sections
are composed of equally flushed twills,
although in some cases unequally flushed twills give good
results. Fig. 8 shows an entwining twill constructed by
running two twill lines of the cassimere to the right and two
to the left, the weave repeating on 8 ends and 8 picks.
DDBBDDB
BDBGBDDi
BBDDBBDD
DBDBDBBD
GDBBDDBB
DBBDDBDB
"BDDBBDD
DDBBDBD
Fig. 8
314
COTTON DESIGNING
aaammmoo
oammmamo
oaHaaHH
m3umsM2u
gpai
DHBCDaaa
oaaoHHig
aaommmaa
mommmooQ
ammmaoau
■■■DoaBa
TPDDDBCr
IGDDBBBD
DBBBDSgaa
acmmmnmii
DDDBBBQ^
"OaDBBBD
iBagoBBr
BBaaoBi
aBBBOaOL
^DBBBODD
ioalaBBB
nmanmwSa
""iDBBBDD
aaBBBDDD
DBBBODOB
BDBDaOBB
BBOaDBBB
BBBOBBBD
^'^DBBBOa
□^DDBBBD
DBBr
BDBI
DBBBaDDL
IBBODDBD
IBDODBBB
iggoBBio
OBBBOBO^
DaBBBQD^
QOOBBBD'^
BODDBBBa
— IDDDBB"
IBDDOB
GBBBDOOL
DOBBBDaa
Fancy entwining-twill effects are obtained by omitting one or
more twill lines from each section and continuing the remaining
twill lines of each section until they meet those of the other
section. By this means two blank spaces are made in the
weave, in which other weaves may be inserted. A weave of
this character is shown in Fig. 9.
Curved Twills. — Curved twiUs are those in which the twill
lines have a wavy, or curved, nature instead of being perfectly
straight as in an ordinary twill weave. Fig. 10 (c) shows
several repeats of a curved twill constructed with the chain
draft shown in Fig. 10 (6) and the drawing-in draft Fig. 10 (c).
The first end of the effect
in Fig. 10 (c) is like the
first end of Fig. 10 (&);
the second end is Uke the
fourth end; the third,
like the seventh; the
fourth, hke the tenth;
and so on, each end of
Fig. 10 (fe) being taken in
the order indicated by the
drawing-in shaft in
Fig. 10 (c).
Skip Twills.— Skip
twills are a type of broken
twill effects formed by a FiG. 9
skip drawing-in draft and a regular twill weave as a chain
draft. The draft is so constructed that when the harnesses
are skipped, the end in the harness just before the skip
will rise and fall exactly opposite to the next end; by this
means a broken effect is formed in the cloth. In Fig. 11 (a)
is shown a skip twill that is made with the 6-end regular twill
^5, Fig. 11 (c), as a chain draft and the skip drawing-in draft
shown in Fig. 11 (6).
Pointed Twills. — ^Another class of twill weaves obtained by
means of the harness draft includes those weaves obtained by
point drafts, which form wave effects across the cloth. These
effects are also frequently spoken of as herring bones, or her^
ring-bone stripes, because the radiating twill lines suggest the
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COTTON DESIGNING
315
radiating bones of a fish's backbone. To make a pointed, or
wave, effect with the 45° twill shown in Fig. 12 (o) as the chain
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Fig. 10
draft; Fig. 12 {b) shows the harness draft that will be used, and
Fig. 12 (c) shows the effect obtained in the cloth. The same
effects may be made to extend lengthwise of the cloth by simply
316
COTTON DESIGNING
reversing the chain draft in the same manner that the harness
draft was reversed when making waves across the cloth. This
is illustrated by Fig. 13.
Diamond Weaves. — By reversing
both the harness and chain drafts of
any regular twill, another class of
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Fig. 12
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Fig. 14
weaves that is very largely used, and known as diamond weaves
from the effects formed in the cloth will result. Fig. 14 is a
typical diamond weave.
COTTON DESIGNING . 317
SATIN AND MISCELLANEOUS WEAVES
Satin weaves, in a certain sense, are the exact opposite of
twills, since while it is the object of a twill weave to show a twill
line running diagonally across the cloth, in the satin weave all
twill lines are avoided as far as possible.
In a regular *t twill weave only one interlacing is made on each
pick, but the ends support each other, since on the first pick
the first end is down and on each succeeding pick the next end
is down, thus forming a twill line. With the 5-end warp-fiush
satin weave shown in Pig. 1, only 1 end is down on
each pick, but the interlacing of each end is at least
1 pick apart from the interlacing of either of the
■■■■a
■OBBB
■■■DH
OBHBH
p ^ 2 ends next to it. Thus on the first pick, the first
end is down; on the next pick, the fourth end is
down; on the third pick, the second end is down; on the
fourth pick, the fifth end is down; and on the fifth pick, the
third end is down; consequently, the points of interlacing
do not run up in regular order, as is the case in a regular twill
weave, but are scattered over the weave. By this means the
interlacings of the warp and filling are almost entirely hidden,
while the cloth produced is smooth and soft, this being the
object of the weave.
The order in which the ends are raised or lowered when form-
ing a satin weave ife generally indicated by a series of figures,
in which each figure represents an end, and its position in the
series indicates the pick on w^hich it is moved. Thus, referring
to the 5-end satin in Fig. 1, the ends would be said to be lowered
in 1, 4, 2, 5, 3 order: 1 being the first number, shows that the
first end is lowered on the first pick; 4 being the second number,
shows that the fourth end is lowered on the second pick; and
soon.
Satin weaves may be either warp-flush or filling-
flush; the former having more warp yam on the SoaSB
face, and the latter more filling on the face. Warp
and filling satins, as shown on design paper, may be
readily distinguished, for if there are more fiUed-in than blank
squares, as in Fig. 1, the weave will be a warp satin. In case
there are more blank than fiUed-in squares, as in Fig. 2, the
nnann
DDDDB
DBaoa
318
COTTON DESIGNING
weave will be a filling satin, since the blanks represent filling
over warp.
The smallest number of ends on which a regular satin can be
constructed is 5. It cannot be constructed on 6 ends, although
in many cases a weave known as an irregular satin is made on
6 ends, the order of moving the harnesses being either 1, 3, 5, 2,
6, 4 or 1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5. With weaves in which the ends are
raised or lowered in either of these orders, no two adjacent ends
are moved on successive picks; or in other words, no two ends
support each other, and yet the same number of ends are not
skipped between successive picks.
The following table gives the different orders of moving the
ends in satin weaves complete on 12 ends or less.
5-End Satins
1, 4, 2; 5, 3
1, 3, 5, 2, 4
6- End Satins
1, 3, 5, 2, 6, 4
1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5
10-End Satins
1, 4, 7, 10, 3, 6, 9, 2, 5, 8,
1, 8, 5, 2, 9, 6, 3, 10, 7, 4
11-End Satins
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
1, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3
1, 4, 7, 10, 2, 5, 8, 11, 3, 6, 9
1, 9, 6, 3, 11, 8, 5, 2, 10, 7, 4
1,5,9,2,6, 10,3,7,11,4,8
1, 8, 4, 11, 7, 3, 10, 6, 2, 9, 5
1,6,11,5,10,4,9,3,8,2,7
1, 7, 2, 8, 3, 9, 4, 10, 5, 11, 6
12-End Satins
1,6,11,4,9.2,7, 12,5,10,3,8
1, 8, 3, 10, 5, 12, 7, 2, 9, 4, 11, 6
9-End Satins
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8
1, 8, 6, 4, 2, 9, 7, 5, 3
1, 5, 9, 4, 8, 3, 7, 2, 6
1, 6, 2, 7, 3, 8, 4, 9, 5
Illustrating the typical satin weaves. Fig. 3 is an 8-end
filling-flush satin; Fig. 4, a 9-end warp-flush satin; and Fig.
5, a 10-end filling flush satin.
Double Satins. — Weaves known as double satires are some-
times constructed from regular satins. These are made by
7-End Satins
1, 4, 7, 3, 6, 2, 5
1, 3, 5, 7, 2, 4, 6
1, 6, 4, 2, 7, 5, 3
1, 5, 2, 6, 3, 7, 4
8- End Satins
1, 4, 7, 2, 5, 8, 3, 6
1. 6, 3. 8, 5, 2, 7, 4
COTTON DESIGNING
319
adding one mark to each mark in a regular satin; that is, in
case the satin is a filling satin, each end will be raised an extra
time during one repeat of the weave, and in case the satin is a
aoDDDBna
DDBaanno
nnaaanDH
DDDaBDDa
DBDnanan
DaDDDDBD
DnDBDDnn
■DDDDaaa
Fig. 3
imiMnHB
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Fig. 4
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Fig. 5
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warp satin, each end will be lowered an extra time during one
repeat of the weave. These marks may be placed above,
below, or at the side of the regular satin marks. Double satin
weaves are principally used when it is desired to increase the
strength of the goods 'and yet retain the
satin face. Typical double-satin weaves
are shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
Satin Derivatives. — Satin
weaves provide a ready means
for constructing other weaves,
or derivatives. In almost
every case satin derivatives
are formed by adding one or
more extra risers to the risers of a regular satin. Fig. 8 shows
such a derivative, the basic satin weave being indicated by
crosses and the added risers by filled squares.
Basket Weaves. — Basket weaves are used frequently in all
classes of woven fabrics; their chief feature is the regular
saoB
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Fig. 6
Fig. 7
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Fig. 8
Fig. 9
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Fig. 10
occurrence of large floats of both warp and filling. The first
type of basket weaves consists of those in which the squares
of warp and filling are of equal size. These baskets are simply
320
COTTON DESIGNING
DDDBB
nnnBB
— moa
lana
■■■gg
Fig. 12
Fig. 11
extensions of the plain weave both warp way and filling way,
and it is always possible to weave them on 2 harnesses.
Fig. 9 is a basket weave of this type.
A second type of basket weaves consists of twill baskets,
which are generally constructed on a satin base and produce
much neater effects than the regular basket. Fig. 10 shows a
twill basket weave constructed in this manner from an 8-end
satin weave. The crosses show the satin weave, and
the filled-in squares show the risers that are added
in order to obtain the basket weave.
A third type of basket weaves consists
of irregular baskets; in these the squares
of warp and filling are not exactly equal.
Thus, in Fig. 11, the filled-in squares in one part of
the weave occupy 3 ends and 3 picks, and in another
part they occupy but 2 ends and 2 picks.
A fourth type of baskets consists of fancy basket weaves. In
Fig. 12, the squares of filling are broken in the center by a float
of warp, and the squares of warp are broken by a float of filling.
Fig. 13 shows a fancy basket weave constructed by separating
warp floats of 4 ends and 4 picks each by 3 ends and 3 picks
and filling in these intervening ends
and picks with a suitable weave.
Rib Weaves. — Rib, or cord, weaves
are extensions of the plain weave in
either the ends or picks alone and are
of two classes — ^warp ribs and filling
ribs. A warp-rib weave is an extension
of the plain weave in its picks. In
order to illustrate the construction of
these weaves, Fig. 14, which shows a
warp rib weave, has been divided into two sections (a) and (b).
In (a), all the odd-numbered ends float over the filling for 4
picks, and the even-numbered ends are down. In (6) , the reverse
is the case. With this class of weaves, a distinct rib is formed
across the cloth by means of the ends covering the filling.
To make a perfect fabric with a warp-rib weave there
should always be more ends per inch than picks per inch iu
the cloth.
DDDDBDan
■■■■DBga
DDDDBDBD
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QgnDBgBg
■■■■OBOir
■■■■gaga
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— aagBga
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_- j^g^g
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Fig. 13
COTTON DESIGNING
321
Filling-rib weaves are the exact opposite of warp-rib weaves.
As the filling covers the ends in these weaves, ribs are formed
lengthwise of the cloth, and for this reason the cloth should
always contain more picks per inch than ends. Fig. 15 is an
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aBOBaaai
aaaBaHOH
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-amamama
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iaBOBOBa
IBBDDDD
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BBBBODDO
DnDDI
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Fig. 14
Fig. 15
oaaaaBa.
aaaaaaoi
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Fig. 16
illustration of a filling-rib weave. In (a) , all tlie odd-numbered
picks float over the 4 ends, and all the even-numbered picks are
under the ends. In (b), the exact reverse is the case.
The ribs formed by weaves of this type are not always of
equal size, for unequal rib weaves are frequently used. Fig,
16 is an illustration of a weave of this kind.
Corkscrew Weaves. — Corkscrew weaves may be considered
a class of rib weaves; but while in rib weaves the ribs extend
in a straight line either across the cloth or lengthwise of it,
in corkscrew weaves the ribs form a twill line, and for this
reason are sometimes known as corkscrew twills. Although these
weaves may be formed on any number of ends or picks above 5,
the best effects are obtained with weaves complete on an uneven
number of ends and picks.
Fig. 17 shows a typical warp corkscrew weave; filling-cork-
screw weaves may be formed in a similar manner. Another
aaaaBoaa aaoBDaoi
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aaaaaaaa
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Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
class of corkscrew weaves includes those known as warp cork-
screws with filling effects. These weaves may be constructed in
such a manner as to form ribs in a twill line across the cloth and
also show a distinct line of filling floats as in Fig. 18.
322 COTTON DESIGNING
Honeycomb Weaves. — Honeycomb weaves are very common
and are extensively used in making towels. When coarse,
soft-twisted yams are employed they make a spongy cloth well
suited to this purpose. It is possible to make honeycomb
weaves on any number of ends from 4 upwards, but the best
effects are obtained with an even number of ends. A weave
of this type is shown in Fig. 19.
COMBINATION WEAVES
In the formation of combination weaves, however widely the
weaves that are to be combined may differ in respect to the
effects that they produce in the cloth, they must be somewhat
similar as regards the number of interlacings of the warp
and filling, otherwise they cannot be made to weave together
evenly. For this reason, closely-woven and loosely-woven
weaves should rarely, if ever, be combined if the warp yams
are all run from the same beam, as they can be made to weave
only with great difficulty.
Stripe Weaves. — Stripes are continuous effects running
lengthwise of the cloth, or in the direction of the warp. One
method of combination that is as satisfactory as any for certain
classes of weaves is to combine two weaves, one of which is the
reverse of the other in regard to the warp and filling flushing.
These weaves can always be made to cut. By cutting is meant
that, where the weaves join, the warp
floats of one weave will oppose, or
come against, the filling floats of the
other, and the filling floats oppose the
warp floats. Fig. 1 shows 8-end warp-
flush and filling-flush satin weaves _
Fir" 1
combined to form a stripe weave. '
Another good method of forming combination stripes with
warp- and filling-flush weaves is to combine two twill weaves
in one of which the warp flushes to an extent equal to the filling
flushes of the other weave. Fig. 2 shows a weave of this kind.
Very frequently stripe weaves are formed by using an equally-
flush twill as a chain draft and arranging the drawing-in draft
iDI
^DHBL
■■■■■■■a
■■■■DBBP
■DBBBHBI
BBBBBBDI
BBBDBBBB
DBB
DDBaODDD
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ZaDDDDDD
DDDBDDDD
□DODDDBD
DBDODOaa
DDDgBnaa
gnnQODar
COTTON DESIGNING
323
so as to produce the required stripe effect. Fig. 3 (c) shows a
stripe weave made in this manner. The stripe is obtained by
aoaDBano DioBHaa ■■■!
DDDMDaaD ■□■DMBHB DF
DDBDDDDB
nmnaaoma
zioaaamaa
DDDDHnDD
DDDHDDDD
DDHDDDDr
DHDnDDBD
Fig. 2
■DaBDaaH
aaiBanaB
DBBOBBaa
DDBBDD
DDBBnaflB
DBBaDBBD
BBDaBBDD
BDaBBDDB
DDBBna
BBDQBB
BBnOBD
DDBBPa
□ndmnnfflffl
DDHiannDn
naaadKDDn
maaaaaaa
anonnDSin aannnffl
unaadiDDa
naamDDna:
sKsnaaia
annnna
anamaa
Fig. 3
DBOBBaBD
BDBBDBBO
DBBOBBOB
OBOBBOBD
BaBBOBBD
DBBOBBDr
IDBBOBO
BDBBDBaB
DBBOBBOB
BBOBBOBO
■DBBOBOr
DBBDBBOI
Fig. 4
using the cassimere twill as the chain draft and drawing the
warp ends through the harnesses, as indicated by the drawing-
in draft shown in Fig. 3 (&). In
all places where this weave changes ,
the ends cut. By this means a
perfect stripe is obtained.
Another class of stripe designs
includes weaves known as single-end stripes. These are gen-
erally formed by opposing a warp-flush weave with a single
end of a filling-flush
weave, or vice versa, hav-
ing the ends cut where
the two weaves oppose
each other; the effect of
this is to form a cut mark,
or fine indented line,
which is generally
arranged to run warp
way of the cloth. Fig. 4
illustrates one of these
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weaves.
Check Weaves.
Check weaves may be
made in a variety of rlG. 5
ways, many of these weaves having a twill or satin base. Often
the figure on one part of the check will be produced by the warp,
while the figure on the other part will be made by the filling.
324
COTTON DESIGNING
Fig. 5 shows a check-weave made by cutting and reversing
an equally-flushed twill. In Fig. 6, a check-weave is shown
that is made with warp-flush and filling-flush twills cut and
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Fig. 6
Fig. 7
reversed. Warp-flush and filling-flush satin weaves are often
combined to form checks. Fig. 7 shows such a weave.
SPOT WEAVES
Weaves that produce fabrics of a spotted character, that is,
cloths with spots distributed over the face, are known as spot
weaves. These weaves are formed by bringing a certain series
of yam, either the warp or the filling, to the surface of the cloth
at certain points and allowing it to float for a number of ends
or picks, as the case may be, thus producing a spotted effect
on the cloth. The manner in which the yam is allowed to
float on the face will determine the shape and appearance of the
spot, and the places where these floats are m.ade will determine
the arrangement, or distribution, of the spots on the surface of
the fabric. Spots may be made by floating either the warp or
the filling on the face of the cloth; the former are known as
warp spots, and the latter, as filling spots.
The first consideration when making a spot weave is the
arrangement, or order of distribution, of the spots on the sur-
face of the cloth. Spots may be arranged in plain order,
satin order, broken crow order, etc.; by this is meant that
the spots appear on the surface of the cloth in the same order
COTTON DESIGNING
325
that the ends are either raised or depressed in a plain, satin,
or broken crow weave, as the case may be.
After the spots have been placed on the design paper, the
blank spaces must be filled in with some simple weave, known as
the ground weave, in order to give the fabric the required firm-
ness of texture.
The weave shown in Pig. 1 is a warp-spot weave having the
spots arranged in 5-end satin order and a plain ground weave.
In constructing filling-spot
weaves, the arrangement of the
spots on the surface of the cloth
is determined in exactly the same
manner as with warp-spot weaves ;
in fact, the construction of a
filling-spot weave very closely
resembles that of a warp-spot
weave with the single exception
that in the foraier the filling
floats on the surface of the cloth
to form the spots, instead of the
warp, as in the latter.
Spot Effects With Extra Warp. — In many fabrics of a spotted
character, the ground is woven with one warp and one filling,
and the spots, which are often of a different color from the
ground, are produced by the use of an extra, or figuring, warp
or filling, or both. In these cloths, the ground, or body, of the
fabric is produced in the ordinary manner, the extra system of
yarn, either warp or filling, that produces the spot figures being
allowed to float at the back of the cloth except at those places
where the spots occur, where it floats on the face in such a
manner as to produce a spot of the required shape and size.
Assume that it is desired to construct a spotted fabric with
the spots prodiiced by an extra system of warp yam. Fig. 2
(a) shows a spot figure arranged in 5-end satin order, which,
for the purpose of illustration, will be converted into an extra-
warp spot design. The first step in arranging this spot for
extra warp is to separate the ends of the spot design, as shown
in Fig. 2 (a), by blank ends, as shown in Fig. 2 (6). The next
step is to insert the ground weave, which forms the body of the
Fig. 1
nULttJLOOO
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(d)
Fig. 2
326
COTTON DESIGNING
2,27
cloth; in this case, the cassimere twill, Fig. 2 (c), will be used.
The ground weave is inserted on the ends of Fig. 2 (&) that were
left blank, or, in this case, the even-numbered ends, as shown
in Fig. 2 (d), which is the completed design. If this weave is
warped 1 end of white and 1 end of green throughout the warp,
and a soUd-green filling used, it will be seen that white spots
arranged as in Fig. 2 (a) will be produced on the surface of a
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Fig. 3
Eolid-green twilled fabric. The extra, or white, warp floats on
the face only to form the spot, and when not producing the
spot is carried to the back of the fabric.
Harness and Chain Drafts. — In making harness, or drawing-
in, and chain drafts for extra-warp fabrics, it is advisable to
separate the harnesses carrying the ground ends from those
carrying the extra- warp ends, since fabrics of this description
328 COTTON DESIGNING \ '
require two beams, owing to the difference in take-up between
the ground warp and the extra, or figuring, warp. It is cus-
tomary to draw the ground ends on the front harnesses and the
extra-warp ends on the back harnesses.
Spots Formed by Extra Filling. — Cloths in which the spot
is formed on the surface by an extra, or figuring, series of filling
yarn are constructed very similar to extra- warp fabrics, except
that the spots are produced by filling yam instead of warp yam.
The structure of the fabric may be said to be practically the
same; that is, the cloth consists of a ground, or body, woven
with a simple weave, and spots produced by flushes of extra
filling on the face at certain points, while when the figuring
filling is not to be used to form a spot, it floats on the back of the
cloth.
For instance, suppose that it is desired to arrange Fig. 2 (a)
for an extra-filling design. Separate the picks and place them
on design paper, as shown in Fig. 3 (a) ; wherever it is desired
to have the spot appear, the filling is allowed to flush on the
face, and at every other place the entire warp is raised over the
pick of filling so that the latter will float on the back of the
cloth. Fig. 3 (a) represents the exact reverse of Fig. 2 (a) , with
the exception, of course, that Fig. 3 (a) is opened out, the
picks being separated by blank picks. To complete the design
it is now only necessary to insert the ground weave on the
blank picks that are left for its reception. The completed
design is shown in Fig. 3 (&) , in which the 4-hamess, or cassi-
mere, twill has been inserted as a ground weave.
PIQUES AND BEDFORD CORDS
Piques. — A piqu6 cloth has a separate system of filling,
known as the wadding filling, and also has a separate system of
warp ends for the purpose of holding the wadding filling and
also to assist in forming ridges across the cloth.
In making ^ design for a piqu6, the following points should
be noted: (1) When placing the weave on design paper, the
first step is to indicate the vertical rows of squares on which
the face ends are to be placed and also the vertical rows of
COTTON DESIGNING
329
squares on which the backing ends are to be placed ; this can be
done by shading the vertical rows of squares representing the
backing ends. (2) The proportion of face ends to back ends
in piques is generally 2 face and 1 back; that is, every third
end on the design paper will be a backing end. (3) The picks
on which the wadding filling is to be inserted should be indi-
cated in some way. (4) The proportion of face picks to wadding
picks depends to a large extent on the kind of yarn to be used
for the wadding; in case it is coarser than the yarn for the face
picks, the proportion is generally 2 face to 1 wadding, although
different proportions are used to suit different requirements.
(5) In addition to the face and wadding picks there are v/hat
are known as the cutting picks; these are the picks on which
the backing ends are brought to the face for the purpose of
pulling down the face cloth between the wadding picks, thus
forming furrows across the
cloth, and should be indicated
on the design paper in some
manner. (6) The number of
picks between the cutting
picks is determined by the
design to be woven; however,
if possible, there should be at
least 2 picks of the face weave
between the wadding picks
and the cutting picks. (7)
The face weave is placed on
all the face ends, neglecting
the backing ends and wadding
picks entirely. The face
weave of piques is generally
F& C
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Fig. 1
the plain weave. (8) All the face ends are raised on the wadding
picks. (9) AU the backing ends are raised on the cutting picks.
Fig. 1 shows the design paper marked out for a piqu6 design
occupying 18 ends and 24 picks. The shaded squares indicate
those on which the backing warp and the wadding filling are to
be placed. The ends and picks are also marked with the letters
F, face; B, back; W, wadding; F b'C, face and cutting. The
next step is the placing of the face weave on the squares that
330
COTTON DESIGNING
are not marked for back ends and wadding picks. Fig. 2 shows
the design with the plain weave inserted for the face. The
next step is to mark the design to show all the face warp
ends raised on the wadding picks, since these are inserted
so as to cause the face cloth to be pushed upwards between
the cutting picks. The back warp must remain under the
wadding picks to bind the wadding picks to the fabric. The
next step is to raise the backing ends on the cutting picks.
This requires the backing ends to be raised on the eleventh
and twelfth, also the twenty- third and twenty-fourth picks.
The effect of this is to bind the backing ends to the fabric
Fa c
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and pull down the face cloth to form a hollow furrow after
a certain number of wadding picks have been inserted, in
this case 4 picks, and after a certain amount of face cloth
has been woven, in this case 6 picks.
Fig. 3 shows the design complete. The first 2 picks are plain,
the backing ends being down and consequently not showing
on the face at all. On the third and fourth picks, the wadding
is inserted. While this is done all the face warp is raised, as
shown by the crosses, and the back warp is down; consequently,
the picks of wadding will lie in between these two series of
yams and will not show on the face, but being heavier than the
face yams will tend to raise the cloth constructed by the
COTTON DESIGNING 331
face weave. The next 4 picks are repetitions of the first 4
picks, and then come 2 more face picks. On the eleventh
and twelfth picks, in addition to the plain weave of the face
cloth, the backing warp is brought to the surface, as shown by
the dots. These are the cutting picks. In weaving a pique
design, the backing warp is generally placed on a separate
beam that is weighted heavier than that containing the face
warp, thus causing the backing warp to be under greater
tension. When this backing warp is brought to the face, as
it is under greater tension, it will of course tend to draw down
the face yarns, thus causing a furrow between those parts of the
cloth that contain the wadding picks..
The next 12 picks are but repetitions of the first 12 picks;
Fig. 3 shows 6 repeats of the ends and 2 repeats of the picks, the
weave being complete on 3 ends and 12 picks.
It will be understood that the wadding picks do not show
on the face of the cloth at any point, but simply lie between
the face and back ends. Again, the backing ends do not
show on the face of the cloth at all, except where they are
raised for the purpose of pulling down the face cloth. Conse-
quently, the face of a cloth woven with a design such as the
one shown in Pig. 3 would be similar to plain cloth, with the
exception of the raising of the cloth in ridges through the effect
of the wadding picks, and the formation of furrows by the
floating of the back warp over 2 picks in certain parts of the
cloth.
The position that the different ends and picks occupy when
woven into cloth with this design is more clearly illustrated
■Xst End Face, ^2d End Back. 3d End Face:
Fig. 4
in Fig. 4, where a sectional view of 3 ends and 24 picks is
shown. The heavy, dark line represents the backing end,
and the other two lines running in the same direction show 2
face ends. The larger cross-sections marked w show the
332 COTTON DESIGNING^
wadding picks, and the smaller cross-sections show the face
picks. The face picks interweaving with the face warp crowd
over the wadding picks, thus hiding them. The backing end
rising over the interlacings of the face filling and face warp
draws them down, thus forming a furrow across the cloth.
In making the harness and chain drafts for a pique weave,
the backing and face warps are drawn through separate sets
of harnesses. The backing warp is in most cases drawn
through the back harnesses and the face warp through the
front harnesses.
When pique cloths are arranged 2 face to 1 back they are
as a mle reeded 3 in a dent; that is, 2 face ends and 1 back
end are drawn in each dent of the reed in such a manner that
there will be 1 face end on each side 'of the back end in the
dent. Piques are high-pick cloths, the number of picks per
inch being largely in excess of the number of ends per inch.
Bedford Cords. — Although Bedford cords have the same
general appearance as piques with the exception that the fur-
rows run lengthwise of the cloth -^ 5
instead of across the cloth, their
construction differs to a large
extent. Thus , wadding ends
are employed instead of wad-
ding picks, and these wadding
ends are held in.the cloth by QCFFWFFW FFCCFFWF FWFF'
means of the same picks that YiG. 5
form the face of the cloth instead of using backing picks.
Two warp ends working plain throughout the entire length of
the cloth form the furrow.
Fig. 5 shows one repeat of the ends and two repeats of the
picks of a Bedford-cord design; the furrows lengthwise of the
cloth, which are characteristic of Bedford cords, are formed by
the first and second, also, the eleventh and twelfth ends, which
work plain throughout the cloth; while the weaves between
them form the ridges. The parts of the design between the
ends working plain are marked a and 6. In section a the fifth
and eighth ends, marked W, are the wadding ends. The third,
fourth, sixth, seventh, ninth, and tenth ends work plain on the
first and second picks and are all raised on the third and fourth
BDiaigi^iaa^
naDBDDBD
anBDDBDn
naiEiBgsEisi^
BDEiEi^iaia^
DSOHDDHD
aDHODigD
aiSlDBnBDD
[xigidiaHDaH
■DBDSS^®
gHaDBDHaD
■ODH
DDBQ
_DOL
DDBQ
COTTON DESIGNING 335
picks. This being one repeat of the design in its picks, the
others are only repetitions of these first 4 picks. The effect of
raising the ends in this manner is to cause the second and fifth
picks and also the first and sixth to come together and thus
produce a plain weave on the face of the cloth. On those picks
on which all these ends are raised the wadding ends are also
raised. The filling floating at the back will bind the wadding
ends to the face cloth, not allowing the wadding ends to show
on the face and yet holding them securely in position.
Section b corresponds to section a, with the exception that the
position of the picks is reversed; that is, while in section a the
face ends are working plain on the first and. second picks,
in section b they are all raised; and while in section a all the
face ends are raised on the third and fourth picks, in section b
they are working plain. Thus, the same picks, that are weav-
ing plain to form the face cloth in section a are floating at the
back to hold the wadding ends in section b; and vice versa.
The first, second, eleventh, and twelfth ends, which work
plain throughout the cloth, will work tighter than the rest of
the ends in the warp, and make the furrows between those
parts of the cloth that contain the wadding ends.
When making the dra wing-in draft for a Bedford cord, the
wadding ends are generally drawn through the back harnesses,
and the face ends are drawn through the front harnesses. In
reeding these cloths, each wadding end should be drawn into
a dent with 2 or more face
QDoamnDsi
DnnDDaan
aaaDDDDn
aaDDaaaa
nnaainDain
noainDiaDD
QEinannDD
maaDDDaa
DDDDnnno
DDDnaQED
DDDDDEiaa
DOaDSlDnE
oainDaaDD
laaDDDnDD
ooamnnaa
DDmaaDDa
nnno ends if possible. Fig. 6 shows
EinDE) a drawing-in draft for Fig. 5.
DDDD In reeding the ends when drawn
DDDD through the harnesses in this
~" manner the best plan would be
Fig. 6 to draw 5 ends in a dent, com-
mencing with the second end;
that is, the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ends would
occupy one dent; the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and
eleventh another; the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth,
and sixteenth, another; and the seventeenth, eighteenth, nine-
teenth, twentieth, and first, another. This will bring each
wadding end in a dent between 2 or more face ends.
334 USEFUL INFORMATION
USEFUL INFORMATION
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
UNITED STATES MONEY
10 mills (m.) =1 cent , . . ct.
10 cents =1 dime d.
10 dimes =1 dollar $
10 dollars =1 eagle E.
m. ct. d. $ E.
10= 1
100= 10= 1
1,000= 100= 10= 1
10,000 = 1 ,000 = 100 = 10 = 1
United States currency is based on a decimal system, the unit
being 1 dollar; thus, one-tenth of 1 dollar is 1 dime and ten
times 1 dollar is 1 eagle.
Dollars are separated from cents and mills by a decimal
point, cents occupying the first two, and mills the third place
to the right of the point, since cents represent hundredth
parts of a dollar and mills, thousandth parts; thus, $25,487
is read twenty-five dollars forty-eight cents and seven mills.
When the number of cents in an expression of dollars and
decimal parts of a dollar is less than ten, a cipher is inserted
between the decimal point and the figure denoting the number
of cents, since cents represent hundredth parts of a dollar,
thus $14.06.
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
16 drams (dr.) =1 ounce oz.
16 ounces =1 pound lb.
100 pounds =1 hundredweight cwt.
20 hundredweight =1 ton T.
dr. oz. lb. cwt. T.
16= 1
256= 16= 1
25,600= 1,600= 100= 1
512,000 = 32,000 = 2,000 = 20 = 1
USEFUL INFORMATION 335
A long ton is equal to 2,240 pounds and is used in connec-
tion with large lots of merchandise, notably iron and coal,
when bought and sold by the wholesale. A long hundred-
weight is 112 pounds. The long ton and long hundredweight
are used in the United States Custom Houses. Unless other-
wise stated, the short ton (2,000 pounds) and short hundred-
weight (100 pounds) are always referred to.
An adaptation of avoirdupois weight that is used in mill
work for weighing yam, roving, etc., is as follows:
gr. dr. oz. lb.
27.34+ = 1
437.50 =16 = 1
7,000.00 =256 = 16 = 1
TROY WEIGHT
24 grains (gr.) =1 pennyweight pwt.
20 pennyweights = 1 ounce oz.
12 ounces =1 pound lb.
gr. pwt. oz. lb.
24= 1
480= 20= 1
5,760 = 240=12 = 1
APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT
20 grains (gr.) =1 scruple sc. or a
3 scruples = 1 dram dr. or 5
8 drams =1 ounce oz. or g
12 otmces =1 pound lb. or H>.
gr. 3 5 o lb.
20= 1
60= 3= 1
480= 24= 8= 1
5,760 = 288 = 96 = 12 = 1
LIQUID MEASURE
4 gills (gi.) =1 pint pt.
2 pints =1 quart qt.
4 quarts =1 gallon gal.
31| gallons =1 barrel bbl.
63 gallons =1 hogshead hhd.
336 USEFUL INFORMATION \
gi. pt. qt. gal. bbl. hhd. \
4= 1 \
8= 2= 1
32= 8= 4= 1
1,008 = 252 = 126 = 311 = 1
2,016 = 504 = 252 = 63 =2 = 1
APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURE
60 minims, or drops (iTt) . . . . = 1 fluid dram f 5
8 fluid drams =1 fluid ounce it
.16 fluid ounces =1 pint O.
8 pints ....r =1 gallon Cong.
M /5 fsO. Cong.
60= 1
480= 8= 1
7,680= 128= 16 = 1
61,440=1,024 = 128 = 8=1
DRY MEASURE
2 pints (pt.) =1 quart qt.
8 quarts =1 peck pk.
4 pecks =1 bushel bu.
pt. qt. pk. bu.
2= 1
16= 8 = 1
64 = 32 = 4 = 1
LINEAR, OR LONG, MEASURE
12 inches (in.) or (") =1 foot ft. or (')
3 feet = 1 yard yd.
5| yards, or I6-2- feet =1 rod rd.
40 rods =1 furlong fur.
8 furlongs, or 320 rods. . . . = 1 mile mi.
in. ft. yd. rd. fur. mi.
12= 1
36= 3 = 1
198= 16J= 5^=^ 1
7,920= 660 = 220 = 40=1
63,360 = 5,280 =1,760 =320 = 8 = 1
USEFUL INFORMATION 337
SURVEYORS' MEASURE
7.92 inches (in.) =1 link li.
25 links =1 rod rd..
100 links, 4 rods, or 65 feet. = 1 chain ch.
10 chains =1 furlong fur.
8 furlongs, or 80 chains . . = 1 mile mi.
in. li. rd, ch. fur. mi.
7.92 =
1
198 =
25 =
1
792 =
100 =
4 =
= 1
7,920 =
1,000 =
40 =
= 10 =
1
63,360 =
8,000 =
320 =
= 80 =
8
= 1-
Cunter's chain, 66 feet in length and divided into 100 links,
is used in ordinary land surveys, but for locating roads and
laying out public works an engineer's chain 100 feet in length
is used. At the present day the tendency of engineers is to
use a 100-ft. steel tape for measurements.
CLOTH MEASURE
2 1 inches (in.) =1 nail na.
4 nails =1 quarter (of a yard) qr-
4 quarters =1 yard yd.
3 quarters = 1 ell (Flemish) .E. F.
5 quarters = 1 ell (English) E. E.
iji. na. qr. yd. E. F. E. E.
2i= 1
9 = 4 = 1
36 =16 = 4 = 1
27 =12 = 3= I =1
45 =20 = 5 = li =lf =1
The French ell equals 6 qr. and the Scotch ell, 4 qr. 1+in.,
or practically 37 in.
SQUARE MEASURE
144 square inches (sq. in.).. = 1 square foot sq. ft.
9 square feet =1 square yard sq. yd.
30 i square yards, or) ^ - ,
272i square feet / = 1 square rod sq. rd.
160 square rods =1 acre A.
640 acres =1 square mile sq. mi.
338 USEFUL INFORMATION
sq. in. sq.ft. sq. yd. sq. rd. A. sq. mi.
144 = 1
1,296 = 9 = 1
39,204 = 272^= 30|= 1
6,272,640 = 43,560 =■ 4,840 = 160 =1
4.014.489,600 =27,878,400 =3,097.600 =102,400 =640 =1
CUBIC MEASURE
1,728 cubic inches (cu. in.)- . = 1 cubic foot cu. ft.
27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard cu. yd.
16 cubic feet =1 cord foot cd. ft.
8 cord feet, or \ , , ,
128cubicfeet / =^"°''^ "^-
cu.in. cu.ft. cu.yd.
1,728 = 1
46,656 =27 =1
MEASURES OF TIME __
60 seconds (sec.) =1 minute min.
60 minutes =1 hour hr.
24 hours =1 day da.
7 days = 1 week wk.
3651 days, or
, 52 weeks 1 J days.
sec. min. hr. da. wk. yr.
60= 1
36,000= 60= 1
86.400= 1,440= 24= 1
604,800= 10,080= 168= 7 = 1
31,557,600 = 525,960 = 8,766 = 3651 = 52,^=1
Note. — For convenience it is customary to reckon 365 da.
as a year and call every fourth year 366 da., placing the extra
day in the month of February, which then has 29 da. This
is known as a leap year. A year is equal to 12 months (mo.)
and for convenience a month is considered as 30 da.
ANGULAR MEASURE
60 seconds (") =1 minute '
60 minutes =1 degree "
90 degrees =1 right angle, or quadrant . . L
360 degrees, or 4 1_ =1 circumference cir.
}
= 1 year yr.
USEFUL INFORMATION 339
MISCELLANEOUS MEASURES
1 pound sterling (£) = $4.8665
1 fathom =6 feet
1 knot, or nautical mile = Irk miles
1 meter = 39.37 inches
1 decimeter =3.937 inches
1 centimeter = .3937 inch
1 millimeter = .03937 inch
1 dozen (doz.) =12 articles
1 gross =12 dozen
1 great gross =12 gross
1 quire =24 sheets of pap'er
1 ream =20 quires
1 large ream = 500 sheets
1 perch = 24f cubic feet
1 tierce =42 gallons
1 puncheon =2 tierces
1 carat = 3i grains (troy)
1 butt = 108 gallons
1 bushel =2,150.42 cubic inches
1 palm =3 inches
1 hand =4 inches
1 span =9 inches
1 gallon of water (U. S.
Standard) =231 cubic inches = 8.355 pounds
1 gallon of water (British
Imperial gallon) =277 cubic inches = 10 pounds
1 cubic foot = 7.481 gallons ■*
MENSURATION
TRIANGLES
A triangle is a plane figure bounded by
three straight lines and having three angles.
The altitude of a triangle is the distance from
d its apex to base measured perpendicularly to
the base. In the triangle abc, the dotted line bd represents
the altitude, and the line a c the base, of the triangle.j
340 USEFUL INFORMATION
Rule. — To find the area of a triangle, multiply the base by ihe
altitude and divide the product by 2.
Example. — The base of the triangle is 14 in. in length and
the altitude is 12 in.; what is the area?
14 in. X 12 in.
Solution. — = 84 sq. in.
2
Note. — In the above example it will be noticed that by
multiplying inches by inches the product obtained is square
inches; similariy, feet multiplied by feet or rods by rods equals
square feet or square rods, etc. It must be remembered that
only hke numbers can be m.ultiplied together and that feet
can never be multiplied by inches, nor rods hy feet; conse-
quently, in aU problems deaUng with mensuration, all dimen-
sions must be reduced to like terms before miiltiplying.
Rule. — To find the area of a triangle when the altitude is
unknown but the length of each side is given, from one-half the sum
of the three sides, subtract each of the sides separately and multiply
the remainders together and by one-half the sum of the sides; the
square root of the product will be the area of the triangle.
Example. — ^What is the area of a triangle the sides of which
are, respectively, 16, 16, and 12 ft. in length?
Solution.— 16-M6+12 = 44; 44-i-2 = 22; 22-16 = 6;
22-16 = 6; 22-12 = 10;
6X6X10X22 = 7,920; •V7;920 = 88.99 sq. ft.
QUADRILATERALS
A quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight
lines.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral the opposite sides of which
are parallel.
A rectangle, Pig. 1, is a parallelogram having
all of its angles right angles
A, square. Pig. 2, is a paral- PiG- 1
lelogram having all of its angles right angles
and all of its sides of equal length.
A rhomboid. Fig. 3,
is a parallelogram hav-
PiG 2 ^^^ none of its angles
right angles. Pig' 3
A rhombus. Pig. 4, is a parallelogram
having all of its sides of equal length but none of its angles
USEFUL INFORMATION
541
Fig.
Fig. 5
right angles. The altitude of a parallelogram is the dis-
tance between two opposite sides measured perpendicularly,
as indicated by the dotted lines
in Figs. 3 and 4.
Rule. — To find the area of a paral-
lelogram, multiply the altitude by
the base and the product will be the
4
area.
Example. — Find the area of a parallelogram the base of
which is 345 in. and the altitude 423 in.
Solution. — 423 in. X 345 in. = 145,935 sq. in.
A trapezoid. Fig. 5, is a quadrilateral having "only two of its
sides parallel. The altitude of a trapezoid is always measured
perpendicularly between the paral-
lel sides, as shown by the dotted
line in Fig. 5.
Rule. — To find the area of a trap-
ezoid, multiply one-half the sunt of the parallel sides by the
altitude.
Example. — The parallel sides of a trapezoid are, respectively,
12 and 28 ft. in length, and the altitude is 30 ft.; what is the
area of the figure?
Solution.— 12 ft. +28 ft. = 40 ft.
40 ft. -^2 = 20 ft.
20 ft. X 30 ft. = 600 sq. ft.
A trapezium. Fig. 6, is a quadrilateral that has no two sides
parallel. A line joining two opposite comers of a quadrilateral,
as the line ab. Fig. 6, is known as a
diagonal.
Rule. — To find the area of a tra-
pezium, divide the figure into two
triangles by means of a diagonal; the
sum of the areas of these triangles
equals the area of the trapezium.
Example. — ^What is the area of
a trapezium whose diagonal is 43 in.
long, the length of the perpendicu-
lar lines dropped on the diagonal from the opposite comers
being 22 and 26 in. respectively?
342 USEFUL INFORMATION
Note. — The perpendicular lines drawn from opposite comers
of a quadrilateral to its diagonal constitute the altitudes of
the two triangles into which the diagonal divides the quadri-
lateral. Thus, in Fig. 6, the line fd represents the altitude
of the triangle adb, and the line ec the altitude of the triangle
acb.
Solution. — 43 in. X 22 in. = 946 sq. in. ; 946 sq. in. -5- 2 = 473
sq. in., area of one triangle; 43 in. X 26 in, = 1,118 sq. in.; 1,118
sq. in. -T- 2 = 559 sq. in., area of other triangle.
473 sq. in. +559 sq. in. = 1,032 sq. in., area of trapezium
POLYGONS
A polygon is a plane figure bounded by straight lines. The
term is usually applied to a figure having more than four sides.
The bounding lines are called the sides, and the sum of the
lengths of all the sides is called the perimeter of the polygon.
A regular polygon is one in which all the sides and all the angles
are equal. A polygon of five sides is called a pentagon', one of
six sides, a hexagon, etc. Regular polygons having from five
to eight sides are shown in the accompanying illustration.
Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon
Rule. — To find the area of a regular polygon, multiply the peri'
meter by one-half the length of the perpendicular from its center to
one of its sides.
Example. — The perimeter of a regular polygon is 28 in. in
length and the perpendicular distance from its center to one
side is 8 in.; what is its area?
Solution. — 8 in.T-2 = 4 in.; 28 in.X4 in. = 112 sq. in.
THE CIRCLE
A circle. Fig. 1, is a plane figure bounded by a curved line,
called the circutnference, every portion of which is equally dis-
tant from a point within called the center. The diameter of a cir-
cle is any straight line drawn through its center and terminating
USEFUL INFORMATION
:43
at each end in the circumference. Thus the line ab, Fig. 2,
is a diameter of the circle. A straight line drawn from the
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
center to the circumference of a circle, as ac. Fig. 3, is called a
radius.
Rule. — To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diam-
eter by 3.1416.
Example. — ^What is the circumference of a circle the diameter
of which is 48 in.?
Solution. — 48 in. X 3. 1416 = 150.7968 in.
Rule. — To find the diameter of a circle with a given length of
circumference, divide the circumference by 3.1416.
Example. — What is the diameter of a circle the length of
circumference of which is 8 ft.?
Solution. — 8 ft. -^3.1416 = 2.5465 ft.
Rule. — To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the
diameter by .7854.
Example. — ^What is the area of a circle the diameter of which
is 75 in.?
Solution. — 75 in.X75 in. X. 7854 = 4,417.875 sq. in.
Rule. — To find the length of one side of a square equal in area
to a given circle, multiply the diameter of the circle by .886227.
Example. — What is the length of one side of a square that is
equal in area to a circle 15 in. in diameter?
Solution.— 15 in. X .886227 = 13.293 in.
THE PRISM
A prism is a solid body the ends of which are
formed by two similar plane figures that are
equal and parallel to each other, and whose sides
are parallelograms. Prisms are triangular, rectangular,
square, etc., according to the character of the figure forming the
344 USEFUL INFORMATION
ends. The base of a prism is either end, and of solids in
general, the ends on which they are supposed to rest.
Rule. — To find the surface area of a prism, multiply the length
of the perimeter of the base by the altitude, and to the product add
the area of both ends.
Example. — ^What is the surface area of a square prism the
base of which is 14 in. square and the altitude 25 in. in length?
SoLUTiQN. — 14 in. X 4 = 56 in., perimeter of base
56 in.X25 in. = 1,400 sq. in., area of sides
14 in.X14 in. = 196 sq. in., area of one base
196 sq. in.X2 = 392 sq. in., area of both bases
1,400 sq. in.+392 sq. in. = 1,792 sq. in., total surface area
Rule. — To find the contents or volume of a prism or rectangular
box, multiply the width by the depth and by the length; or find the
area of the base according to the rule previously given, which
when multiplied by the height equals the contents or solidity of the
prism.
Example. — What is the capacity of a box 36 in. long, tha
ends being 14 in. by 28 in.?
Solution.— 28 in. X 14 in.X36 in. = 14,112 cu. in.
Note. — It has been stated that inches multiplied by inches
equals square inches or, similarly, yards multiplied by yards
equals square yards. Continuing still further, as is necessary
in finding the contents, volume, solidity, or capacity of solids;
square inches or square yards multiphed by inches or yards
equals cubic inches or cubic yards, etc.
From this it will be seen that by multiplying together the
two dimensions of a surface, such as a rectangle, the area of
the figiire wiU be expressed in square units, and if the three
dimensions of a solid, as for instance, a square prism, are
multiplied together the contents, or solidity, of the soUd is
expressed in cubical units.
THE CYLINDER
A cylinder is a body of uniform diameter the ends, or bases,
of which are equal parallel circles.
Rule. — To find the surface area of a cylinder, mul-
tiply the circumference of the base by the height of the
cylinder and to this product add the area of the ends.
Example. — What is the surface area of a cylin-
der 6 in. in diameter and 13 in. high? CT' ^
USEFUL INFORMATION
345
Solution. —
62 X. 7854 = 28.2744 sq. in., area of one end
28.2744 sq. in. X2 = 56.5488 sq. in., area of both ends
6 in. X 3.1416 = 18.8496 in., length of circumference
18.8496X 13 = 245.0448 sq. in., area of convex surface
245.0448+56.5488 = 301.5936 sq. in., total surface area
Note. — The convex surface of a solid is the curved surface;
thus, the area of the convex surface of a cylinder is its total
surface area less the area of the ends.
Rule. — To find the contents or volume of a cylinder, first find
the area of the base, and then multiply the area of the base by the
altitude.
Example. — ^How many cu. ft. of water will a cylindrical tank
12 ft. in diameter and 14 ft. high hold?
Solution.^ 122X. 7854 = 113.0976 sq. ft., area of base;
113.0976 sq. ft.X14 ft. = 1,583.3664 cu. ft.
THE PYRAMID AND CONE
A pyramid. Fig. 1, is a solid the base of which is a polygon and
the sides of which taper uniformly to a point called the apex.
A cone, Fig. 2, is a solid having a
circle as a base and a convex sur-
face tapering uniformly to the
apex. The altitude of a pyramid
or cone is the perpendicular dis-
tance from the apex to the base.
Rule. — To find the contents or
volume of a cone or pyramid, multi-
ply the area of the base by one-third the altitude.
Example. — ^What is the solid contents of a cone 30 ft. high
and 5 ft. in diameter at the base?
Solution. — S^X .7854 = 19.635 sq. ft. area of base
i of 30 ft. = 10 ft.
19.635 sq. ft. X 10 ft. = 196.35 cu. ft.
THE FRUSTUM OF A PYRAMID OR CONE
If a pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to the base, as in Fig. 1,
the lower part is called the frustum of the pyramid. If a cone
is cut in a similar manner, as in Fig. 2, the lower part is called
the frustum of the cone.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
346
USEFUL INFORMATION
Rule. — To find the contents or volume of the frustum of a
pyramid or cone, find the areas of the two ends of the frustum;
multiply them together and extract the square root of the product.
To the result thus obtained add the
two areas and multiply the sum by
one-third of the altitude.
Example. — ^What is the capacity
of a tank shaped Hke the frustum
of a cone, the inside diameter of
the top being 10 ft. and of the
bottom 14 ft., and the depth of
the tank being 12 ft.?
Solution.— 10 ft.XlO ft. X. 7854 =78.54 sq.
smaU end; 14 ft.X14 ft. X .7854 = 153.9384 sq.
153.9384 X 78.54 = 12,090.321936 ;
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
ft., area of
ft., area of
large end; 153.9384X78.54 = 12,090.321936; ^12,090.321936
= 109.956 sq. ft.; 109.956+153.9384+78.54 = 342.4344 sq. ft.;
12 ft. -h3 = 4 ft.
342.4344 sq. ft. X4 ft. = 1,369.7376 cu. ft.
THE SPHERE
A sphere is a solid bounded by a continuous convex surface,
every part of which is equally distant from a
point within called the center. The diameter, or
axis, of a sphere is a line passing through its cen-
ter and terminating at each end at the surface.
Rule. — To find the surface area of a sphere,
square the diameter and multiply the result by
S.14I6.
Example. — What is the surface area of a sphere 14 in. in
diameter?
Solution. —
142X3.1416 = 14X14X3.1416 = 615.75 sq. in.
Rule. — To find the contents or volume of a sphere, multiply the
cube of the diameter by .5236.
Example. — How many cubic inches of ivory in a billiard ball
2 in. in diameter?
Solution.— 23X. 5236 = 4.1888 cu. in.
USEFUL INFORMATION 347
MENSURATION OF LUMBER
Lumber is measured by board measure, which is an adaptation
of square measure. A board foot is considered as 1 sq. ft. of
board 1 in. thick; therefore 1,000 ft. of lumber is equal to 1,000
sq. ft. of boards 1 in. thick.
Rule. — To find the number of feet of lumber in 1-inch boards,
multiply the length of the board, in feet, by the width, in inches, and
divide the product by 12.
Example. — How many feet of lumber are there in a 1-in.
board 18 ft. long and 8 in. wide?
18X8
Solution. — ■ = 12 ft.
12
Rule. — To find the number of feet of lumber in joists, beams, etc.,
multiply the width, in inches, by the thickness, in inches, and by
the length, in feet. Divide this product by 12 and the quotient is
the number of feet of lumber in the stick.
Example. — How many feet of lumber in a joist 4 in. wide,
3 in. thick, and 12 ft. long?
4X3X12
Solution. — =12 ft.
12
MECHANICAL CALCULATIONS
SHAFTING
The shafting used in a mill may be divided into three classes
as follows: (1) The main, or head, shaft, which is driven
directly from the source of power; this shaft is sometimes
called the first, or prime, mover. (2) The second movers, or
line shafts; these are the main driving shafts of each room and
derive their power from the prime mover. (3) Countershafts
for simply transmitting power to different parts of the room or
for making changes in the speed for driving some particular
machine or machines; these are located with reference to the
positions of different machines in order to supply them with
power as economically as possible. Long countershafts are
classed as second movers.
348 USEFUL INFORMATION
Formerly wrought-iron shafts were largely used, but these
are being replaced by turned or cold-rolled steel shafting. The
following rules will be found useful in finding the required size
of a cold-rolled shaft necessary to transmit a given horsepower.
Rule. — To find the required diameter of a main shaft, find the
cube root of 100 times the required horsepower divided by the
desired number of revolutions of the shaft per minute.
Rule. — To find the required diameter of line shafts to transmit a
given horsepower with the power taken off at intervals and the
bearings of the shaft not more than 8 ft. apart, find the cube root
of 50 times the required horsepower divided by the desired nutnber
of revolutions per mimite.
Rule. — To find the required diameter of short countershafts for
transmitting a given horsepower, find the cube root of 30 times the
required horsepower divided by the desired number of revolutions
per minute.
Example. — Suppose that it is desired to purchase a line shaft
for a weave room requiring 350 H. P. ; it is desired to have the
shaft make 300 rev. per min. and a cold-rolled shaft is to be
used. What diameter of shafting is required?
50 XH. P.
Solution. — Diameter of shaft equals cube root of
rev. per min.
4
50X350 oo-T . •
= 3.87+m.
300
Note. — In a case hke this a 4-inch cold-rolled shaft would
probably be ordered, as this would allow for the extra power
required to overcome the friction of the shaft in its bearings.
The following rules give the methods of finding the required
size of turned shafting to transmit a required horsepower.
Rule. — To find the required diameter of a main shaft, find the
cube root of 125 times the required horsepower divided by the
desired number of revolutions per minute.
Rule. — To find the required diameter of line shafts with the
power taken off at intervals and the bearings not more than 8 ft.
apart, find the cube root of 90 times the required horsepower
divided by the desired number of revolutions per minute.
Rule. — To find the required diameter of short countershafts,
find the cube root of 60 times the required horsepower divided by the
desired number of revolutions per minute.
USEFUL INFORMATION
349
Example. — ^What diameter of turned shafting is capable of
transmitting 45 H. P., the shaft to be the main driving, or line,
shaft of the room and the bearings not more than 8 ft. apart?
It is desired that the shaft make 150 rev. per min.
^. 90XH. P.
Solution. — Diameter of shaft equals cube root of ■
rev. per min.
-=3 in.
Note. — ^When the hangers are placed far apart, a larger
shaft is necessary in order that it may have stiffness to with-
stand the bending strain due to its lack of support and to its
own weight.
Distance Between Hangers. — ^When hangers are put up they
should be lined perfectly true, both laterally and vertically,
and should not be placed too far apart. The distance between
the bearings should not be great enough to permit a deflection
of the shaft of more than .01 in. per foot of length. Hence,
when the shaft is heavily loaded with pulleys, the bearings
must be closer than when it carries only a few. PtiUeys that
transmit a large amount of power should be placed as near a
hanger as possible.
The accompanying table gives the maximuni distances
between the bearings of different sizes of continuous shafts that
are used for the transmission of power:
Distance Between Bearings
Diameter of Shaft
Feel
Inches
Wrought-Iron Shaft
Steel Shaft
2
11
11.5
3
13
13.75
4
15
15.75
5
17
18.25
6
19
20.5
7
21
22.25
8
23
24
9
25
26
350 USEFUL INFORMATION
Speeds and Diameters of Pulleys. — ^A driving pulley is one
that furnishes power to a driven pulley. The tight side of a
belt always travels toward a driving pulley and the slack side
toward a driven pulley.
Rule. — To find the number of revolutions of a driven pulley,
multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its revolutions and
divide the product by the dia'/neter of the driven pulley.
Example. — A driving shaft making 350 rev. per min. carries
a 24-in. pulley that drives. a 14-in. pulley on the main shaft of a
machine; find the revolutions of the main shaft of the machine.
24 in. X 350
Solution. — = 600 rev. per mm.
14 in.
Rule. — To find the revolutions of a driving pulley, multiply the
diatneter of the driven pulley by its speed and divide by the
diameter of the driving pulley.
Example. — The shaft of a machine makes 700 rev. per min.
The size of the driven pulley is 8 in. and the driving pulley on
the main shaft is 14 in.; find the revolutions of the main
driving shaft. gin.XTOO
Solution. — — =400 rev. per min.
14 in.
Rule. — To find the diameter of a driven pulley, multiply the
diameter of the driving pulley by its speed and divide the product
by the desired number of revolutions of the driven pulley.
Example. — The main shaft of a room makes 225 rev. per
min. and carries a 20-in. pulley from which it is desired to drive
a countershaft 300 rev. pe*- min.; what size pulley must be
ordered for the covmtershaft?
20X225
Solution. — ~ = 15-in. pulley
300
Rule. — To find the diameter of a driving pulley, multiply the
diameter of the driven pulley by the desired speed and divide the
product by the speed of the driving shaft.
Example. — Find the size of the pulley required on a driving
shaft making 360 rev. per min. in order to drive a machine 600
rev. per min. The size of the driven pulley on the machine
IS 12 m. 12X600
Solution. — — = 20-in. pulley
360
USEFUL INFORMATION
351
Effect of Countershafts on Speed. — It often happens that
power is transmitted through one or more countershafts, carry-
ing different-sized pulleys, before being applied to the pulley,
the speed of which it is desired to find.
Rule. — To find the speed of a driven pulley when the power is
transmitted through countershafts, multiph' the speed of the driv-
ing shaft by the product of the
diameters of all the driving pul-
leys and divide the result by the
product of the diameters of all the
driven pulleys.
Example.' — Referring to
P*^ the accompanying figure, as-
sume that the driving shaft
makes 375 rev. per min. and
that the main driving pulley a
is 18 in. in diameter and
drives a 12-in. pulley & on a
countershaft. On this coun-
tershaft a 22-in. pulley c drives
the 10-in. pulley d of a ma-
chine. Find the number of
revolutions of the pulley d.
375X18in.X22in.
= 1,237.5 rev. per min.
Solution. —
12 in. X 10 in.
Rule. — To find the surface velocity of a rotating pulley or
cylinder or the speed of a belt passing around it, in feet per minute
{slip neglected), multiply the diameter of the pulley or cylinder in
feet by 3.1416 and by the number of revolutions per minute.
If the diameter of the pulley or other cylinder is expressed in
inches, multiply its diameter by 3.1416 and by the number of
revolutions per minute that it makes and divide the product by 12.
Example. — Find the surface velocity, in feet per minute, of a
50-in. cylinder making 160 rev. per min.
50X3.1416X160
Solution. — =2,094.4 ft. per min.
Circumferential Speed of Pulleys. — Pulleys over 4 ft. in
diameter and flywheels, especially cast-iron ones, should never
352 USEFUL INFORMATION
be speeded so fast that their surface velocity exceeds 5,000 ft.
per min., since there will be a danger of their bursting. Many
authorities give 3,750 ft. per min. as a limit to the surface speed
of large pulleys. Smaller pulleys may have a higher surface
velocity, but excesses should be avoided.
BELTS
Care of Belts. — Belts should be run with the smooth, or
grain, side next to the pulley for the following reasons: (a)
There is more friction of the belt on the pulley and, therefore,
less slipping and consequent loss of power. (6) The center of
strength in a belt is located one-third of the distance through
the belt from the flesh side and it is better to crimp the grain,
or weak, side around the pulley than to strain it. (c) The
stronger side of the belt receives the least wear when run in this
manner.
Some authorities recommend that the flesh side of a belt
be run next to the pulleys; this is contrary to general practice,
but in some cases it gives good results.
The lower part of a horizontal or inclined belt should be the
driving part; then the slack part will run from the top of the
driving pulley. The sag of the belt will then cause it to
encompass a greater length of the circumference of both pulleys.
Long belts, running in any direction other than the vertical,
work better than short ones, as their weight holds them more
firmly to their work. There is, however, a disadvantage in
belts that aie too long, since they greatly increase the strain
on the bearings of the shaft.
The accumulations of grease and gummy matter should be
frequently removed and the belts dressed with castor oil or
some other suitable dressing on the side of contact, in order to
keep them moist and pliable. It is bad practice to use rosin to
prevent slipping; it gums the belt, causes it to crack, and pre-
vents slipping for only a short time.
If a belt properly cared for persists in slipping, a wider belt
or larger pulleys should be used ; the latter to increase the belt
speed. Belts should not be run tight, as the strain thus pro-
duced will wear out both the belt and the bearings of the shaft.
USEFUL INFORMATION
353
Belt Fastenings. — There are many good methods of fasten-
ing the ends of belts together, but lacing is generally used, as it
is flexible like the belt itself, and runs noiselessly over the
pulleys. The ends to be laced should be cut squarely across
and the holes in each end for the lacings should be exactly
opposite each other when the ends are brought together. Very
narrow belts, or belts having only a small amount of power to
transmit, usually have only one row of holes punched in each
end, as in Fig. 1 ; A is the outside of the belt, and B the side
running next to the pulley. To lace, the lacing should be drawn
VWvWVWI
JB
^i/v^VlAMl lAA/1/A/l/VVlA/J
Fig. 1
half way through one of the middle holes, from the under side,
as for instance through 1 ; the upper end should then be passed
through S, under the belt and up through 3, back again through
S and 3, through 4- and up through 5, where an incision is made
in one side of the lacing, forming a barb that will prevent the
end from pulling through. The other side of the belt is laced
with the other end, it first passing up through 4- Unless the
belt is very narrow, the lacing of both sides should be carried
on at once.
Fig. 2 shows a method of lacing where double lace holes are
used, B being the side to run next to the pulley. The lacing for
the left side is begun at 1, and continues through £, 3, 4. 5, 6,
7, 6, 7, 4, 5, etc. A 6-in. belt should have seven holes, four in
the row nearest the end, and a 10-in. belt, nine holes. The
354
USEFUL INFORMATION
edges of the holes should not be nearer than f in. from the sides;
and the holes should not be nearer than J in. from the ends of
the belt. The second row should be at least If in. from the end.
Another method is to begin the lacing at one side instead of in
the middle. This method will give the rows of lacing on the
under side of the belt the same thickness all the way across.
Quarter-Turn Belts. — ^When the driving and driven shafts
are at right angles to each other and are not in the same plane,
the pulleys must be so placed that the belt is delivered from
5 1
A
%
mM^
^vnMaMaaV^'
J
^
m/W
Fig. 2
one pulley into a plane passing through the center of the face
of the other pulley. This arraiigement is known as a quarter-
turn, because, as shown in Fig. 3, a quarter twist is given to the
belt. A connection of this kind can only be driven in the
direction indicated by the arrows on the belt. If the direction
of the belt is reversed it will run off the pulleys unless a guide
pulley is used.
The easiest and most convenient way of fixing the position
of quarter-turn pulleys is to plumb the leaving sides of each
pulley; that is, drop a plumb-line from the center of the face
USEFUL INFORMATION
355
of the leaving side, where the belt leaves the driving pulley, and
anange the driven pulley so that the plumb-line shall just
touch the center of its face on the side from which the belt
leaves it. This is shown by the two pulleys at the top of Fig.
3, which represents a plan of two quarter-turn pulleys as seen
from above. >
The objection to a quarter-turn belt is that, when the angle
at which the belt is drawn off the pulleys is large, the belt is
strained, especially at the edges, and it does not hug the pulleys
well. Small pulleys placed some distance apart, with narrow
Fig. 3 Jll
|FiG. 4
belts give the best results, from which it follows that quarter-
turn belts are not well suited to transmit much power.
Fig. 4 shows how the arrangement can be improved by. placing
a guide pulley against the loose side of the belt. The driver d
revolves in a left-hand direction, making ah the driving, or tight,
side of the belt. To determine the position of the guide pulley,
select some point in the line ab, as g. When the pulleys differ
in diameters this point should be somewhat nearer the smaller
pulley. Draw lines eg and eg; the middle plane of the guide
pulley should then pass through the two lines. Looked at from
356 USEFUL INFORMATION
a direction at right angles to pulley /, line eg coincides with ab ;
looking at right angles to pulley d, line eg also coincides with ab.
Length of Belts. — The following rules will enable calcula-
tions in connection with belts to be performed.
Rule. — To find the length of an open belt, multiply half the sum
of the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys by 3.1416, and
to this product add twice the distance between centers.
Example. — A cotmtershaft is to be driven from the main
shaft with an open belt, the distance between the centers of the
shafts is 12 ft., and the diameters of the driving and driven
pullej'-s are, respectively, 2 and 3 ft.; how long a belt is required?
2+3
Solution.— -—=2.5; 2.5X3.1416=7.854
12X2=24; 24+7.854 = 31.854 ft. of belt
Note. — In case one pulley is much larger than the other, it is
well to cut the belt 2 or 3_ in. longer than calculated by the
above rule.
Rule. — To find the length of a crossed belt, to one-half the prod-
uct of the sum of the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys
and 3.1416 add twice the square root of the sum of the square of the
distance between the centers of the shafts and the square of one-half
the sum of the diameters of the driving and driven pulleys.
Example. — ^A countershaft is to be driven from the main
shaft with a crossed belt, the distance between the centers of the
shafts is 12 ft., and the diameter of the driving and driven
pulleys are, respectively, 2 and 3 ft. ; how long a belt is required?
Solution.— (2+3)X3.14i6 ^ ^^^
= 7.854
2
2X >/l44+2.52 = I
2X >fl44 + a25 =
2X Vl50.25 =
2X12.25 = 24.5
24.5+7.854 = 32.354 ft. of belt
Note. — These rules, although not absolutely accurate, are
near enough for practical purposes when it is impossible to
measure the length of belt required.
USEFUL INFORMATION 357
Horsepower Transmitted by Belts. — ^As the width of a belt
required to transmit a given horsepower depends on the speed
and tension of the belt, the size of the smaller pulley, and the
relative amount of its surface touched by the belt, no rule can
be given that will apply to all cases. A belt that is being con-
stantly shifted from a tight to a loose pulley, or vice versa,
must be wider than one running on the same pulley all the time,
and innumerable other conditions govern the horsepower cap-
able of being transmitted by a given belt and the life of the belt.
It has been found by exhaustive experiments that a single
belt traveling 900 ft. per minute will transmit approximately
1 H. P. per inch of width when the arc of contact on the smaller
pulley does not vary much from 180°. This is used by many
engineers as a general law for belting and is applied in all cases.
Prom this fact the following rules in connection with belting
are obtained.
Rule. — To find the horsepower transmitted by a given belt,
divide the product of the width of the belt, in inches, and the speed,
in feet per minute, by 900.
Rule. — To find the required width of a belt to transmit a given
horsepower, divide the horsepower multiplied by 900 by the speed
of the belt, in feet per minute.
Example. — Two 48-in. pulleys are to be connected by a single
belt and make 200 rev. per min.; if 40 H. P. is to be transmitted
what must be the width of the belt?
200X48X3.1416 . . , , .
Solution. — ■ = 2,513 ft. per mm. (nearly)
40X900 . .,,,,,
■ = 14.3 m., width of belt
2,513
Note. — ^A 14-inch belt might safely be used, since the rule
gives a liberal width when the pulleys are of equal size.
In these rules it has been assumed that the belt is open and
also that the driving and driven pulleys are of the same diam-
eter, the belt consequently being in contact with half of the
circumference of each pulley. But when one pulley is larger
than the other, the horsepower transmitted is reduced as the
arc of the smaller pulley that is in contact with the belt is
reduced. With a crossed belt the amount of horsepower that
can be transmitted by a given width of belt is increased, as there
358 USEFUL INFORMATION
is then more of the surface of the pulleys in contact with thie
belt.
As the rules for single belts are based on the strength at the
lace holes, a double belt, which is twice as thick, should be able
to transmit twice as much power as a single belt and, in fact,
more than this where, as is very common, the ends of the belt
are cemented together instead of being laced. Where double
belts are used on small pulleys, however, the contact with the
pulley face is less nearly perfect than it would be if a single belt
were used, owing to the greater rigidity of the former. More
work is also required to bend the belt as it runs over the pulleys
than in the case of the thinner and more pliable belt, and the
centrifugal force tending to throw the belt from the pulley also
increases with the thickness. For these reasons, the width of a
double belt required to transmit a given horsepower is generally
assumed to be seven-tenths the width of a single belt required
to transrait the same power. Therefore, in order to find the
width of a double belt required to transmit a given horsepower,
proceed as with a single belt and raultiply the result by i^; and
in order to find the horsepower transmitted by a given width
of a double belt, proceed as with a single belt and multiply the
result by ■^.
ROPE TRANSMISSION
Many American mills are introducing rope drives for trans-
mitting power, especially for the main drives from the engine,
for which this method is particularly adapted. The distance
to which power can be transmitted by means of sheave pulleys
and ropes is practically unlimited, as is also the amount of
power< Except for very short distances, rope driving is the
cheapest method of transmitting power, being economical not
only in the first cost, but in the maintenance. This in itself
is an important item. An evenness of motion that cannot be
obtained by any other system of power transmission is obtained
by transmitting power in this manner; this is due to the light-
ness, elasticity, and slackness of the rope, which takes up all
inequalities between the power and the load. Rope drives
are noiseless because of the flexibility and lubrication of the
USEFUL INFORMATION 359
rope and because of the air passage underneath the rope, owing
to the V-shaped groove in which it runs. An exact aUnement
of the driving and driven pulleys is not necessary when ropes
are used, and by properly placing idle pulleys power may be
transmitted in any desired direction. The security that a rope
drive affords against shut-downs due to the crippUng of the
drive is one of the great advantages of this system. This is due
to the fact that before breaking, the rope stretches excessively,
though gradually , thus giving warning that it should be replaced.
The absence of electrical disturbances and the alnaost total
immtmity from slip are among the many advantages that may
well be claimed by this system for power transmission.
There are two systems of rope transmission in common use.
In the first, the transmission is effected by several parallel,
independent ropes that pass around the flywheel of the engine
and the pulley or pulleys to be driven. Each rope is made
quite taut at first, but stretches imtil it slips, after which it is
respliced.
In the second system of rope transmission, a single rope,
having but one splice, is carried around the pulleys as many
times as is necessary, to transmit the required power; the
necessary tension is obtained by passing a loop of the rope
around a weighted pulley.
The first of the above systems of transmission is used chiefly
in Europe; the second in the United States. The ropes gener-
ally used are of manila, hemp or cotton, sometimes with a wire
core. For transmitting power long distances, especially where
the rope is exposed to the weather, a wire rope is used. For
inside drives the cotton rope without a wire core is suitable.
Next in importance to the rope are the grooved ptdleys, or
sheaves, on which the rope runs. The grooves are made of
metal or wood and must be smooth, in order to prevent the rope
from wearing, and true, to keep it from swaying. These
grooves are made V-shaped so that they may grip, or bind, the
rope and not allow it to slip; the rope does not touch the bottom
of the groove but is wedged in between the sides.
Rule. — To find the horsepower transmitted by a single rope
running under favorable conditions in a 45° groove, multiply the
speed of the rope, in feet per second, by the square of its diameter.
360
USEFUL INFORMATION
in inches, and divide the product by 825. This quotient multiplied
by the result obtained by subtracting from 200 the speed of the rope
per second, squared, and divided by 107.2 equals the horsepower
that can be transmitted with a single rope.
Example. — ^A flywheel designed for a rope drive is 22 ft. in
diameter and is equipped with 30 grooves; the diameter of the
rope is IJ in. and the flywheel makes 50 rev. per min.; what
horsepower can be safely transmitted?
Solution, —
22X3.1416X50
= 57.596, speed of rope in ft. per sec.
60 (sec.)
57.596X(1|)2
825
57.596X1. 5625.
825
X
-X
(200-
/ ^^ 57.5962\
(200 )
\ 107.2 /
107.2
3317.299216\
107.2
.109083 X (200 - 30.9449) =
.109083X169.0551 = 18.441, H. P. for one rope. Since there
are 30 grooves in the flywheel, in each of which there is one rope,
the total power transmitted will be 18.441X30=553.23 H. P.
.'76
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O fO so 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 /OO UO IZO 130 {40 ISO
Velociii/inFeet per Second
The accompanying figure shows the horsepower transmitted
by 1-in., li-in., l^-in., l|-in.,and2-in.ropesfor various velocities.
USEFUL INFORMATION 361
The horizontal distances represent velocities in feet per second,
and the vertical distances the horsepower transmitted by a
single rope. It shows that the maximum power is obtained
at a speed of about 84 ft. per second. For higher velocities,
the centrifugal force becomes so great that the power is
decreased, and when the speed reaches 145 ft. per second, the
centrifugal force just balances the tension, so that no power at
all is transmitted. Consequently, a rope should not run faster
than about 5,000 ft. per min., and it is preferable, on the score
of durability, to limit the velocity to 3,500 it. per min.
GEARING
The transmission of power for short distances at slow speeds,
as between the driving and driven shaft of a machine, is gener-
ally accomplished by means of gears. Gears are ordinarily
made of cast iron; if great strength is required, steel may be
used. Gears that are called on to resist shocks may be made
of gun metal or phosphor bronze. Fast-running gears are
sometimes made of rawhide or fiber instead of metal.
For solving problems that deal with gears, use the same rules
as are given for pulleys, remembering that the number of teeth
on the driving gear or gears multiplied together and by the
speed of the first driver equals the number of teeth on the driven
gear or gears times the speed of the last driven gear. Speeds
and sizes of gears, like pulleys, should be treated by proportion.
Intermediate gears should not be used when finding speeds or
sizes of gears.
Rule. — To find the speed of a driven gear, multiply the speed of
the first driving gear by its number of teeth and by the number of
362 USEFUL INFORMATION
teeth on each driving gear in the train, if there is more than one,
and divide the product by the number of teeth on the driven gear
or by the product of the teeth on the driven gears.
Example. — Suppose that the shaft e in the accompanying
figure is the driving shaft and makes 40 rev. per min. ; find the
number of revolutions of the driven shaft / when a and c have
each 24 teeth and d and 6 11 teeth.
40X24X24
Solution. — —=190.413 rev. per mm.
11X11
A good method of determining whether a gear is a driver
or driven gear is to notice which side of its teeth are worn,
or polished smooth. The driving gear always has its teeth
polished on the side facing in the direction in which the gear
is moving; a driven gear has the opposite side of the teeth
polished; and an intermediate gear has both sides of the teeth
worn.
Constants. — It often happens that though a machine con-
tains a more or less complicated train of gears, only one of them
is changed for alterations in the speed of the driven gear. This
gear is known as a change gear, and the arrangement of the train
is such that its size may readily be changed without disturbing
the other members of the train. If the change gear is a driven
gear, an increase in its size wiU. diminish the speed of the driven
gear or shaft. If it is a driver, an increase in its size will
increase the speed of the driven gear or shaft.
Where a train of gears is employed, the calculation of the
required size of change gear to produce a given speed of the
driven gear becomes rather long unless some method of short-
ening the operation is adopted. This may be accomplished
by partly performing the operation and securing a number that
expresses the value of the train, excluding the change gear, and
that needs but one multiplication or division to obtain the
desired speed or the desired size of change gear; such a ntimber
is called a constant.
A constant ntunber may be either a constant factor or a
constant dividend. A constant factor is a number that, when
multinlied by the change gear, gives the speed of the driven
shaft of a train of gears and, when divided into the speed of the
driven shaft, gives the number of teeth in the change gear. A
USEFUL INFORMATION 363
constant dividend is a number that, when divided by the number
of teeth in a change gear, gives the speed of the driven shaft
of a train of gears, and, when divided by the speed of the
driven shaft, gives the number of teeth in the change gear.
For all speed calculations the constant number for a train
of gears is a constant factor if the change gear is a driver and a
constant dividend if the change gear is a driven gear. Where a
constant number is used in connection with some result depend-
ent on the action of a train of gears, it may be either a con-
stant factor or dividend, depending on whether the value of the
said result is increased or decreased by an increase in the size
of the change gear.
Rule. — To find a constant, perform the calculation of the train
of gears in the ordinary manner, using a theoretical change gear
of one tooth.
Example. — A certain roll is driven as follows: The first
driving gear has 40 teeth and makes 390 rev. per min. ; this gear
drives a 39-tooth gear attached to a shaft on which there is also
a 64-tooth gear driving a 32-tooth gear on a shaft. On this
latter shaft is fastened a 40-tooth gear that drives a 40-tooth
gear on another shaft; on this shaft a change gear drives a
12S-tooth gear on the shaft of the roll. What is the constant
for finding the speed of the roll with various change gears?
Solution. — In this case the constant number must be a con-
stant factor, as the change gear is a driver and an increase in its
size increases the speed of the roll.
390X40X64X40X1
= 6.25, constant factor.
39X32X40X128
Note — If any change gear is used, its size multiplied by 6.25
in this case, will give the speed of the roll; also, if any speed is
desired, the required change gear can be found by dividing
the desired speed by 6.25.
The pitch circle of a gear is an imaginary circle described,
with the axis of rotation for a center, through the point of con-
tact of the teeth of one gear with those of another gear. It is
the effective circumference of a gear and really determines its
ratio of velocity when working with other gears.
The circular pitch of a gear is the distance between the centers
of two consecutive teeth measured on the pitch circle or, as it is
sometimes called, the pitch line.
364 USEFUL INFORMATION
The diametral pitch of a gear is equal to the number of teeth
on its circumference divided by the number of inches in the
diameter of the pitch circle. In order to mesh and run together,
gears must be of the same pitch.
Sizing Gear-Blanks. — Many mills are equipped with
machines for cutting gears to replace broken or worn ones,
making change gears, etc. When it is desired to cut a gear,
it is necessary to select a gear-blank of the correct diameter
for the desired number of teeth and pitch.
Rule. — To find the desired diameter of blank for any number
of teeth and any diametral pitch, add 2 to the required nu?nber of
teeth and divide by the desired pitch; the quotient is the diameter,
expressed in inches, of the blank required.
Example. — ^A change gear with 33 teeth and 10-pitch is
desired. To what diameter must the gear-blank be turned?
33+2
Solution. — ■ =3^ in.
10
Rule. — To find the number of teeth the gear-cutter must space
to cut a given blank a required pitch, multiply the diameter of the
blank by the required pitch and from the product thus obtained
subtract 2; the answer is the number of teeth required.
Example. — ^How many teeth must the gear-cutter space to
cut a gear-blank 2J in. in diameter, 12-pitch?
Solution. — 2|X12 = 30; 30-2 = 28 teeth
Worms and Worm-Gears. — ^A worm is a screw designed to
mesh with and turn a gear called a worm-gear. Worms are
single threaded when they have a single thread cut on them and
double threaded when they have two threads. A worm is always
a driver, a single-threaded worm driving the worm-gear one
tooth for each revolution and a double-threaded worm moving
it two teeth.
Occasionally worms are 'met with that have three threads
cut on them. Worms furnish a means of reducing a great
velocity of a shaft to the slow speed of the worm-gear.
Rule., — To find the speed of a worm-gear driven by a single-
or a double-threaded worm: If the worm is single-threaded, divide
its speed by the number of teeth in the worm-gear.
If the worm is double-threaded, multiply its speed by 2 and
divide the product by the number of teeth in the worm-gear.
USEFUL INFORMATION 365
Example. — ^An 80-tooth worm-gear is driven by a double-
threaded worm making 160 rev. per min.; find the number of
revolutions per minute of the worm-gear.
160X2
Solution. — ■ =4 rev. per nun.
80
A worm is always a driver and reckoned as a one-tooth gear
if single threaded and a two-tooth gear if double threaded.
Mangle Gears. — Mangle gears reverse their direction of rota-
tion and are always driven gears. They are either eccentric
or concentric. When concentric the center oi the pitch circle
coincides with the axis of rotation, and when eccentric the center
of the pitch circle is removed from the axis of rotation. The
speed of a mangle gear is found in the same manner as that of an
ordinary gear, except that its size is reckoned as somewhat
larger than it really is, because the driving pinion, while round-
ing each end of the row of pegs, makes a half revolution, which
moves the mangle but one peg. A mangle gear is said to per-
form a complete cycle of its movements in making a double
revolution; that is, one revolution in one direction and one in
the opposite direction.
RxJe. — To find how many complete cycles, or double revolutions,
a mangle gear will make per minute, divide the product of the
number of revolutions per minute of the driving pinion and the
number of teeth that it contains by the sum of twice the number of
pegs in the mangle and the number of teeth in the driving pinion
diminished by 2.
Example. — ^A 10-tooth pinion gear making 216 rev. per min.
drives a mangle gear with 176 teeth, or pegs; how many com-
plete cycles per minute does the mangle gear make?
216X10 216X10
Solution. — — = =6 cycles
(176X2) + (10 -2) 352+8
That is, the mangle gear would make 12 revolutions, 6 in one
direction and 6 in the other.
366 USEFUL INFORMATION
LEVERS
A lever is an inflexible bar capable of being freely moved
about a fixed point, or Une, called the fulcrum. The bar is
acted on at two points by two forces that tend to rotate it in
opposite directions about its fulcrum. Of these two forces, the
one that is appUed with the purpose of imparting motion is
termed the power, while the force that is to be overcome is the
weight, of resistance. The parts af and bf. Fig. 1, are the arms
of the lever.
Fig. 1
There are three classes, or varieties, of levers; if the fulcrum
is between the power and the weight {p, /, w) , as shown in Fig. 1 ,
the lever is of the first class. In this combination equilibrium
exists if the product of the force p times arm af equals the
product of the force w times arm bf.
Fig. 2
If the weight is between the power and the fulcrum (p, w.f) as
shown in Fig. 2, the lever is of the second class.
If the power is between the weight and the fulcrum (w, p,f),
the lever is of the third class. Fig. 3.
Sometimes it is not convenient to use a lever sufficiently long
to make a given power support a given weight. In this case
combinations of levers known as compound levers are used.
USEFUL INFORMATION 367
Rule. — To find the weight supported or the pressure exerted at
the weight end of the lever, the length of the weight arm, the length
of the power arm, and the power applied being known, multiply the
Fig. 3
power by the length of the power arm and divide the product by the
length of the weight arm.
Example. — ^A 25-lb. weight is placed on a lever that is so con-
nected as to exert a pressure on a pair of rolls; the weight is 4
ft. from the fulcrum of the lever, and the rod connecting the
lever with the rolls is 1| ft. from the fulcrum of the lever; find
the pressure exerted.
25X4
Solution. — —^ — =66f lb. pressure
Any problem of levers may be solved by treating it as a pro-
portion in which the power is to the weight as the weight arm
is to the power arm; and, as in proportion the product of the
extremes is equal to the product of the means, so the power
times the power arm equals the weight times the weight arm.
With compound levers, the continued product of the power
multiplied by the power arms is equal to the continued product
of the weight multiplied by all the weight arms, every alternate
arm of the combination of levers, starting with the power arm,
being a power arm and every alternate arm, starting with
the weight arm, being a weight arm.
Example. — ^A 40-lb. weight (power) acts through the follow-
ing power arms:. 4 ft., 3 ft., and 3 ft., respectively; the corre-
sponding weight arms being 3 ft., 2 ft., and 2 ft., respectively;
what weight is supported, or pressure exerted, at the extremity
of the last weight arm?
40X4X3X3
Solution. — ■ = 120 lb.
3X2X2
NlEVrORANDA
NIENIORANIDA
NIENIORAND^
NIEIVLORANDA
\
NiE;]VtORANDA
NIENIORANDA
Promotion
Advancement in Salary
and
'^ Business Success
Secured
Through the
COMPLETE COnON
Cotton Carding and Spinning
Cotton Designing
Complete Woolen
Woolen Carding and Spinning
Woolen and Worsted Designing
Complete Textile Designing
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION
OF THE
International
Correspondence Schools
International Textbook
Company, Proprietors
SCRANTON, PA.. U. S. A.
K^y^ SEE FOLLOWING PAGES ^V^
His Course Made Him
Successful
When I began taking your Complete Cotton
Course, for which I subscribed with the I. C. S.,
I was working as overseer in a small cloth room.
Being ambitious to get something better I
studied the Course diligently, and before fin-
ishing it I secured a position in a large mill,
doubling my salary. A year later I came to
my present position with the Pelzer Manu-
facturing Co., as cloth-room overseer with a
further increase in salary. I have held this
place in one of the largest mills in the South
for 4 years and have had my salary raised
again. A large part of my success is due to the
I. C. S.
Alonzo T. Guy,
Pelzer, S. C.
GOOD RESULTS FOLLOW TRAINING
W. T. Hall, Gibsonville, N. C, was employed as a
second hand when he enrolled with us for the Fancy Cot-
ton Weaving Course. This has secured his promotion to
the position of overseer of weaving with a salary that has
been nearly doubled.
SALARY INCREASED 200 PER CENT.
John W. Lord, 175 Newton St., New Bedford, Mass.,
thinks that any young man who is ambitious cannot do
better than to take an I.C.S. Course. When he enrolled
with us for the Cotton Spinning and Warp Preparation
Course, he was a second hand earning about $12 a week.
He is now overseer at the Gornold mills and his salary has
increased almost 200 per cent.
SALARY TRIPLED
E. W. Smith, 2410 Whitesboro St., Utica, N. Y., says
that the knowledge gained from his Cotton Carding and
Spinning Course for which he subscribed with the I.C.S.
has enabled him to secure and hold a position as overseer
of the carding department of the Utica Fine Yarn Co. He
was employed as a third hand when he enrolled.
THE I.C.S. THE MAKING OF HIM
J. B. Batton, Box 23, Rosemary, N. C, enrolled with us
for the Cotton Carding and Spinning Course, and got
right down to work. He says that what he knows today he
learned from the Course which has been the making of
him, securing his promotion to the position of overseer for
the Rosemary Manufactviring Co. and doubling his salary.
NOW SUPERINTENDENT
Arthltr Thrope, Fayetteville, Tenn., was employed as a
carder when he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the Cotton
Carding and Spinning Course. He says that this gave him
the courage to tackle any practical problem.s that came his
way, and enabled him to make one advancement after
another, until he is now the superintendent of the Elk
Cotton Mills with an increase in salary of 275 per cent.
READY FOR THE OPPORTUNITY
Chas. F. Campbell, Gibsonville, N. C, was running a
fly frame when he began to study our Cotton Carding and
Spinning Course. The superintendent saw that he was
trying to better his job and set him to learn to grind
cards. Eighteen months later the overseer resigned and
Mr. Campbell was given his position with a large increase
in salary. Had he not been prepared he would have been
obliged to refuse a position that promises better things in
the future.
Hi^h Praise From a
Successful Student
I wish that I had more education to express
my feeKngs toward the International Corre-
spondence Schools, but I have no words to tell
all the good they have done me. It is not
easy to study and work at the same time, but
I can say that it is better to spend one's
evenings in study than to stand on the comer
every night. There is no money coming at the
end of the week for standing at the corner.
When I enrolled with the I. C. S., October
19, 1907, I could write but very little and I
knew almost nothing about figuring. How-
ever, I completed the first part of arithmetic
with a grade of 100 per cent. Not so bad for a
man who did not know anything about arith-
metic and who was at work every day. I am
also married and have 4 children. But I
completed the section on arithmetic with a
percentage of 98, and also the section on card-
ing.
When I enrolled with the I. C. S. I was only
a fixer. I am at present overseer of carding
for I. K. Stewart & Sons and am doing well.
My pay has doubled since enrolment — all
thanks to the I. C. S. If any one desires to
know what the I. C. S. can do, let him write
to me.
Every night when I come back from work —
even at 10 o'clock, I have to visit my I. C. S.
library before taking a rest, and I have done
that ever since I signed for my Course in 1907,
Michael Bessette,
68 Academy St.,
Amsterdam, N. Y.
SALARY MORE THAN DOUBLED
Jas. R. Frye, Marion, N. C, a graduate of our Cotton
Carding and Spinning Course, was earning $1.25 a day as
card grinder when he enrolled for the Course. At that
time he could barely read and write. He is now overseer
of the card room for the Marion Manufacturing Co., and
his salary has been increased $1.75 a day.
NOW PARTNER
Erhard M. Mayer, 1731 Milan St., New Orleans, La.,
was clerking in an office when he enrolled with the I.C.S.
for the Cotton Carding and Spinning Course. He is at-
present in partnership with his brothers, running the Na-
tional Hosiery Mills, an enterprise which he has helped to
establish.
125 PER CENT. INCREASE
Reg. p. Jackson, Yorkville, S. C, was working as a
second hand in the spinning room before taking up his
Cotton Carding and Spinning Course with the I.C.S. He
would not sell at any price his Course which has made him
overseer of spinning and twisting for the Neely Manu-
facturing Co., at an increase in salary of 125 per cent.
ADVANCEMENT CAME THROUGH HIS COURSE
C. C. Tate, Box 5, Cliffside, N. C, had received very
little education and was earning only small wages in the
card room when he enrolled with the I.C.S. Had it not
been for his Cotton Carding and Spinning Course, he
would still be earning that small salary, he says. With the
help of his Course he has become overseer in the card
room of the Clififside mills, the largest gingham manufac-
turing plant in the South.
IT PAID
Aloysius A. Dankel, Coplay, Pa., declares that it paid
him to subscribe for our Complete Textile Designing
Course. He was a loom fixer when he enrolled with the
I.C.S., but he is now foreman weaver for the John H.
Meyer Silk Co. His wages have been considerably in-
creased.
WORTH TWICE THE PRICE
The Cotton Carding and Spinning Course, for which
W. B. CoGART, Roxboro, N. C, enrolled, has been worth
to him twice what he paid for it. He was then earning
ordinary wages. He became assistant superintendent of
the Roxboro Cotton Mills, earning nearly twice as much.
Now an Officer of the
Company
I can recommend the Complete Woolen
Course, for which I enrolled with the Inter-
national Correspondence Schools, to any one
anxious to improve his position. I received
my practical knowledge in the mill and at the
same time find your Bound Volumes are of
considerable help to me. I was earning
small wages as a bookkeeper when I first
enrolled, btit have now become the secretary
and treasurer of the Slingsby Manufactur-
ing Co., and also the manager of our six-set
blanket mill, employing 225 persons.
John B. Varey,
Brantford, Ontario, Can.
5ALARY NEARLY DOUBLED
N. H. McGuiRE, Fort Mill, S. C, was a second hand
having but little education when he enrolled with us. He
now has charge of weaving for the Fort Mill Manufactur-
ing Co., at a salary nearly double what he received at the
time of enrolment.
GAINED PROMOTION— SALARY INCREASED
A. R. Drake, Collegepark, Ga., has been promoted from
second hand to overseer and his salary has been increased
$40 a month, since he completed the Cotton Carding and
Spinning Course, for which he subscribed with the I.C.S.
He is now employed in the Gate City hosiery mill and is
proud of his diploma.
SALARY INCREASED 150 PER CENT.
John Bauer, 325 Earle St., New Bedford, Mass., would
still be fixing looms had it not been for his Complete
Textile Designing Course with the I.C.S. He is now
overseer for the New Bedford Cotton Mills Co., having
organized his department when the new mill started. His
salary has been increased about ISO per cent. He says his
I.C.S. Course did it.
GRADUATE RECEIVES 300 PER CENT. INCREASE
R. H. Armfield, Greensboro, N. C, has been promoted
to the position of overseer of carding for the Proximity
Manufacturing Co., at White Oak Mills, and his salary
has been increased more than 300 per cent, since his enrol-
ment with the I.C.S. for the Cotton Carding and Spinning
Course.
BECAME SUPERINTENDENT
C. N. Steed, Rdckhill, S. C, was an overseer when he
took out his Course in the Theory of Textile Designi-ng.
He says this has proved of immense benefit to him, since
he has now_ become superintendent of the Highland Park
Manufacturing Co., employing 450 persons. His salary,
of course, has been greatly advanced.
■ SALARY DOUBLED
W. R. BoSTiAN, China Grove, N. C, says that our Cot-
ton Warp Preparation and Plain Weaving Course has ad-
vanced him to the position of head loom fixer. His salary
has been nearly doubled since he enrolled.
Now Secretary and Treas-
urer of the Randolph
Manufacturing Co.
When I enrolled with the I.C.S. I was
employed as shipping clerk by the Ran-
dolph Manufacturing Company of Frank-
linville. Later on I became bookkeeper,
still pursuing iny studies at odd times.
The instruction I received from my
Course has been of much assistance to me.
In fact, I feel the Course was indispen-
sable. It has proved far more valuable
and useful than my most sanguine expec-
tations.
Since obtaining my Diploma I have be-
come Secretary and Treasurer of the Ran-
dolph Manufacturing Company, increasing
my income about 500 per cent.
Hugh Parks, Jr.,
Franklinville, N. C.
MULTIPLIED BY TWO
H. G. McNiSH, 50 Park St., Ware, Mass., held a position
as card grinder at the time he enrolled with the I. C. S. for the
Cotton Carding and Spinning Course. At present he is em-
ployed by the Otis Co. as overseer, and his salary has been
multiplied by two.
THREE TIMES mS FORMER SALARY
E. P. Knowles, Main St., Langley, S. C, was making $1.50
a day fixing fly frames, when he began to study our Cotton
Warp Preparation Course. He has advanced to the position
of overseer for the Langley Manufacturing Co. He says he
could not have made a success of his work if he had not taken
our Course.
PROFITABLE STUDY
Willis Herring, Crichton, Ala., could read and write but
knew little of arithmetic when he enrolled with the schools for
the Cotton Carding and Spinning Course. At that time he
was a section hand working for 90 cents a day. His Course not
only helped him in his work but improved his general education
as well. He is now overseer of spinning with the Mobile Cotton
Mills. His salary has been more than doubled. He says if it'
had not been for his Course he would still be running a section.,
WORTH WORKING FOR
R. F, Harris, Lowell, N. C, has been so greatly benefited
by completing our Cotton Carding and Spinning Course, that
he wishes every boy in the cotton mills could take advantage
of an I. C. S. Course. His Course has raised him from a
Eosition as operative to that of assistant superintendent of the
owell Cotton Mills.
DID HIM A WORLD OF GOOD
Christopher J. Wilson, 309 North 14th St., New York,
N. Y., says that his Theory of Textile Designing Course with
the I. C. S. did him a world of good. He was employed as
finish-percher in the Assabeth Mills at the time of enrolment
with the I. C. S. ; before finishing the Course he became fabric
examiner at a salary more than doubled.
FOUR TIMES mS FORMER SALARY
J. P. TiDWELL, La Grange, Ga., could not add up a column of
figures correctly and had received but little education at the
time he enrolled with the Schools for the Cotton Warp Pre-
paration and Plain Weaving Course. He says that this secured
for him the position of overseer of weaving for the Unity
Cotton Mills, increasing his salary 400 per cent.
The Gateway to Success
When I enrolled with the International
Correspondence Schools I occupied the position
of loom fixer. Since then I have become
general superintendent of the Ashcraft Cotton
Mills, and my salary has been increased more
than 400 per cent. I think your method is
the gateway to success for a young man that
wants to rise and who is not able to stop work
to attend a school. It is undoubtedly the
best way for a young man or a young woman
to get the practical part of manufacturing,
together with the technical part, without
losing their positions. I am ever ready to
speak a word in behalf of your grand and
noble institution, which is calculated to lead
the working classes to the top, if they will
only grasp the golden opportunity and apply
themselves; for advancement is sure to come
to those who prove their worth.
R. J. Brown,
Florence, Ala.
_l
10
SPARE-TIME STUDY IS PROFITABLE
G. W. Rollins, Box 44, Caroleen, N. C, was working
as a second hand when he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the
Cotton Warp Preparation and Plain Weaving Course. He
is now assistant superintendent at a big increase in salary.
NOW SUPERINTENDENT
A. T. Brown, Rockhill, S. C, was a second hand in the
cotton mill when he enrolled for the Special Cotton
Course. He is now superintendent of the Aragon Cotton
Mills and his salary has been increased fourfold.
HOLDS HIS POSITION THROUGH HIS COURSE
H. Dietrich, Fleetwood, Pa., recommends the Complete
Textile Designing Course, for which he subscribed with
the I.C.S. to anj' one who is ambitious to advance himself.
He was working as a twister when he enrolled, but his
Course advanced him to his present position as superin-
tendent of the Fleetwood Silk Co., with an increase in
salary of about 80 per cent.
HE WAS AMBITIOUS
At the end of 18 years' work in the cotton mills, HErRY
R. Bolton, Box 113, McColl, S. C, was only a fly-frane
tender. At that time his ambition to succeed took hold of
him and he remembered that he had seen an I.C.S. adver-
tisement. He enrolled for the Cotton Carding and Spin-
ning Course and devoted every spare moment to study.
Within 2 months he was made a card grinder, and within
a year was given another promotion. For the past
5 months he has been overseer of carding for the Marl-
boro Manufacturing Co., and his salary has been doubled.
NOW SUPERINTENDENT
O. L. Wagstaff, Thomasville, N. C, was earning $1 a
day in a carding mill when he enrolled for the Cotton
Carding and Spinning Course. He is now superintendent
of the Amazon Cotton Mills Co., employing 126 persons.
His salary has been increased several hundred per cent.
A YOUNG MAN'S PROMOTION
J. C. Jolly, Valmead, N. C, was working as a band boy
when he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the Cotton Carding
and Spinning Course. He now has full charge at night of
the Moore Cotton Mill Co. mill at Lenoir, N. C.
11
Salary Increased 300
Per Cent.
There is nothing better in this world for any
young man who is trying to get ahead in the
world, as I have found it a good thing and I feel
much pleased over your instructions; I think
that this is the only way to learn. I encourage
every young man to invest his spare moments
in this way. Before I enrolled with the School
of Textiles my education was not worth men-
tioning in regard to calculations, etc. But
today I can say that I have learned a great
deal from your Schools in regard to calculations,
weaves, and machinery. And if I had not
enrolled with your Schools I would not have
been able to hold my present position today.
I advise all men who wish to make this world
a success to start in at once and spend a few
moments each day at this study, which they
will not regret in the future. I have found it a
grand study. I have obtained a good position
and my salary has increased 300 per cent,
since I have enrolled with the Schools. After
holding a position as designer I can understand
how much your instructions have taught me
in every way in regard to calculations, weaves,
etc..
O. C. Drechsler,
Box 1121,
Maynard, Mass,
12
NOW OVERSEER
N. B. Hill, 306 W. Bl9unt St., Kinston, N. C, was
working as a second hand in the spinning room when he
began to study with the I.C.S. on our Cotton Carding and
Spinning Course. This has enabled him to become over-
seer of spinning for the Caswell Cotton Mill.
NOW SECRETARY AND TREASURER
J. H. Chambliss, West, Tex., was a bookkeeper when
he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the Cotton Carding and
- Spinning Course. He is now secretary and treasurer of
the Brazos Valley Cotton Mills, receiving four times as
much salary as he did at the time of enrolment.
HIS COURSE HELPED
Wm. Cain, Pine Meadow, Conn., had attended school
for only a short time in his eleventh and twelfth years.
While he was earning ordinary wages he enrolled with the
Schools for the Cotton Carding and Spinning Course. He
is now overseer of carding and spinning for D. B. Smith
Sons.
NOW SUPERINTENDENT
A. I. McDonald, St. Paul, N. C, had reached the second
grade only in public school when he weiit into the cotton
mill, at the age of 11. When 28 years old, he enrolled
with the I.C.S. for the Cotton Carding and Spinning
Course. He is now the superintendent of the St. Paul
Cotton Mill Co., employing 200 persons.
WOULD NOT SELL HIS COURSE FOR $1,000
B. W. Bingham, Ozark, Ala., had only 3 months'
schooling before starting work in the cotton mills. He
could read but little and could hardly write at all, when
he enrolled with us for the Cotton Carding and Spinning
Course, from which he graduated. At the time of enrol-
ment he was working as a second hand. He is now
general superintendent of the Ozark Cotton Mills and his
salary has increased about 900 per cent. He says that if
he could sell it for $1,000 he would not take the money
and be without his Course.
NOW PROPRIETOR
Rollin R. Rhodabarger, Keyser, W. Va., was employed
as an overseer when he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the
Woolen Carding, Spinning and Weaving Course, from
which he graduated. He is now superintendent, Woolen
Department, Patchett Worsted Co., being also a stock-
holder in that Company. His salary of course has been
largely increased.
13
His Early Promotion Due
to the I. C. S.
At the time I enrolled in the I. C. S. for a
Complete Cotton Course, I was boss weaver at
the Elmira Cotton Mills. Something like one
year afterward I was promoted at the same
mill to superintendent. I am sure that my
early promotion was due to my enrolment in
your Schools, and I am equally confident that
my ability to fill my position successfully is due
to the training I received from you. I had
only a very simple education, such as I could
get from the old field free schools, up to 10
years of age when I enrolled. The training
I received in mathematics alone has been worth
the expense and time spent on the entire Course.
I was earning the usual wages when I first
enrolled. I now earn twice as much, with a
nice house furnished free.
John G. King,
Burlington, N. C.
14
SALARY INCREASED 500 PER CENT.
A. H. McCarrel, Bath, S. C, began the study of our
Complete Cotton Course while serving as paymaster for
the Aiken Manufacturing Co. He is now general manager
of the same company, and also of the Seminole Manufac-
turing Co., employing about 700 persons. Since enrol-
ment his income has increased more than 500 per cent.
SUPERINTENDENT OF A LARGE MILL
T. E. Gardner, Greensboro, N. C, had been set to work
at the age of 13, and had received but little education at
the time of his enrolment for the Cotton Carding and
Spinning Course. At the time he was a night overseer.
Since obtaining his dioloma he has become superintendent
of the White Oak mills, employing 1,500 persons.
225 PER CENT. INCREASE
Frank E. Heymer, Lando, S. C, was a designer "when
he enrolled with the I.C.S. for the Complete Cotton
Course. Although he had trouble to learn English his
Course has enabled him to become superintendent of the
Manetta Mills and his salary has increased 225 per cent.
BECAME SUPERINTENDENT
RoBT. Wm. Boys, New Market, N. H., started to work in
the cotton mills at the age of 10. He was employed as an over-
seer of weaving at the time he enrolled with us for the Complete
Cotton Course. He is now superintendent of the New Market
Manufacturing Co., employing 900 hands.
AN AMBITIOUS STUDENT
C. C. PoiNDEXTER, Box 539, Winston-Salem, N. C, was
working for the Chatham Manufacturing Co. as a stenographer.
Being ambitious he took up a Coiirse with the I. C. S. in Woolen
Carding, Spinning and Weaving. When the superintendent
resigned he was immediately promoted to his position with an
increase of 50 per cent, in salary, which has since been increased
by one-third.
STEPPING UPWARD
J. RoBiE Cove, 26 West 6th St., Lowell, Mass., enrolled with
the Schools at the age of 16 for the Complete Cotton Course.
He had just gone to work as an office boy. Since then he has
taken the following steps upward: apprentice, machinist, tool-
maker, inspector, draftsman, mill designer, assistant mechan-
ical .superintendent, and now master mechanic for one of the
largest cotton mills in New England. He says that the rapidity
of his advancement was due to the assistance received from Ws
Course and the Library of Technology.
15
Rapid Promotion
Followed Study
When I began studying your Course, I had
charge of a beaming room and was doing a
little designing for plain looms. I had secured
a few books and was reading them, when I
decided that a Course in your Schools was the
thing that would fit me for advancement.
I assure you that from the start your instruc-
tion gave me more confidence; I was promoted
so fast and had so much new work to do that
I had to postpone the last two lessons of my
Course for some time. Correspondence instruc-
tion is beneficial in many ways. It develops
your ideas, gives you more confidence in your-
self, and consequently increases your ability.
Your training has been very beneficial to me,
and I recommend it to all who wish to fit them-
selves for advancement. I am now getting
along very nicely and every day can see the
advantages of having taken the Course. I am
now one of the proprietors of the Montgomery
Worsted Mills.
Benj. B. Crowther,
Conshohocken, Pa.
347-90
16
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