Makm$fon^ onFarmCrops Floyd Michols Class_ Book ■H£L Copyright N ( COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/makingmoneyonfarOOnich MAKING MONEY ON FARM CROPS Making Money on Farm Crops BY FLOYD B. NICHOLS Agricultural Editor THE FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER Published By THE FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER St. Joseph, Missouri 19 13 5 Copyrighted 1913 by THE FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER 3i. joseph, Missouri IT ©CI.A343411 PREFACE Increased efficiency is the keynote of modern farming. The effort toward the highest conserva- tion is the goal of the best farmers, and it is a goal that is being approached closer every day. With a production from the farms of more than nine billion dollars in 1912, it is evident that agriculture is an industry that is large enough to command the energy and ambitions of any man. As in all other industries, the attention of the leaders is being given to reducing wastes. The production of crops, the handling of the soils from which these crops grow, and the proper disposal of the feeds through the livestock route is perhaps the most important series of problems now before farmers. The key of the whole situation is to produce the maximum of yields with the minimum of expense, and this expense includes the important item of soil fertility. 6 Preface There has been much progress in the last few years in more logical systems of cropping. In this time, there has been a great extension in the acre- age of legumes, and a wonderful growth in the de- mand for lime and phosphorus. More farmers are using logical crop rotations than ever before. All these things are fine, and are encouraging items in the progress of American agriculture. As the dark side to the picture, however, atten- tion might be drawn to the poor results on many farms. There are too many cases of the farmers giving the rent on their farms and equipment, and the work of themselves and their families in ex- change for a mere living, and sometimes a poor one. The fault, of course, is largely with the farm own- ers. Modern farms are business institutions, and an investment in one should pay interest on the capi- talization, fair wages for the labor and leave a profit besides. Farms will do this, under present condi- tions, if they are handled properly. What is most needed is for inefficient farmers to realize they are not using proper methods, and for them to study and adopt systems which the better producers have found to be the most profitable. Poor farmers are slow about doing this ; slower, in Preface 7 fact, than those in almost any other business. Pro- fessional men and merchants are ever ready to adopt new methods others have found to be successful. More than that, men in other lines hold many con- ventions, and pay experts high prices to address their meetings ; for they realize the importance of progress. Farmers should take a lesson from this spirit of efficiency, which is paramount in the busi- ness and professional work. In the period from 1880 until the close of the last century, much of the food grown in the United States was produced at a loss. This was made pos- sible largely by the great extension of the cultivated area of the country, and the vast increase in the pro- duction of food. Great cities were built, and vast commercial enterprises were started which built up the cities, for there was cheap food for the workers. These cities now are firmly established as a part of American life, and the people are there who must be fed. The days of cheap land are past, and with them have passed the days of cheap food. The cost of living never will decrease, except as the cost of distribution is lowered, and it is logical to suppose that the producers also will profit from the elimi- nation of middlemen. The high-cost-of-living" specter, which is the constant companion of the peo- 8 Preface pie of the cities, is the symbol of the opportunity of farming. With increased prices for food have come high prices for land and equipment. While the oppor- tunities in farming are much better than ever be- fore, it is only the trained men and women, who un- derstand How to use the mighty forces of the earth for the production of food and clothing, who will make a financial success. Efficiency is demanded on modern farms. This book has been prepared to set forth the practical facts of logical crop management without all the mass of hazy, complicated technique which is often placed around them. The purpose has been to show how more money could be made from the soil. With increased profits from farming will come better homes, schools and churches. It is the hope of the author that this book will aid in obtaining these. FLOYD B. NICHOLS. CONTENTS Page Chapter I — Soils for Crops 15 Chapter II — The Improvement of Farm Crops 49 Chapter III — Profitable Alfalfa Production 69 Chapter IV — How to Grow Clover 105 Chapter V — Cowpeas As a Rotation Crop Ill Chapter VI — Corn-Growing for Profit 157 Chapter VII— Wheat As a Money Crop 199 Chapter VIII— Oats On Corn-Belt Farms.... 239 Chapter IX — The Sorghums .......„..'.. *3'i ILLUSTRATIONS Page A western alfalfa field 18 Diversified farming in Kansas 19 Soil-making agencies at work 22 A farm tractor in operation 24 Out-cropping of a limestone ledge 26 Soil cultivation . . . . , 29 Hereford cattle . . 36 A poultry prize-winner 41 Wheat on drained land 44 In the Shenandoah Valley 47 Wheat breeding plats 52 Patrons of husbandry 55 A prize-winning corn sample 57 An experimental mill , 60 An Angus champion 63 Farm tractor 65 Jersey cows 72 Sheep 75 A farm team 79 An alfalfa field 81 A good farm home 85 Stacking alfalfa 86 Loading alfalfa hay 87 Power hay baler 89 Luncheon 94 Farm barn 97 Dairy farm in Pennsylvania 99 Running the separator 108 Holstein champion 113 Clover on limed soil 118 Pole stacker 1-21 Loading clover with power 124 Herefords on clover 128 Farm improvements pay .138 A "Toe-Hold" tractor 140 Careful cultivation pays 144 12 Illustrations Page A champion Jersey cow 149 Holstein cows 152 A solid-wall silo •. 151 Shucking corn , . 1G1 Preparing for the corn contest 163 Soil formation on steep slopes 165 Harvesting corn in Kansas 168 Picking up the corn 171 Well cultivated corn 175 December in the corn field 178 Sentinels of prosperity 179 Good barns and silcs go together 182 Shucking shock corn 184 Shredding corn 186 Feeding corn to steers 189 Corn ear worm 193 In the wheat fields of Ohio 203 Marketing wheat in the Palouse country 204 Soft wheat in Kansas 205 A wheat field in August 209 The soil was well prepared 214 A Kansas wheat field 216 In the wheat fields of Canada 219 Preparing for wheat in Oregon 221 A well-capped shock of wheat 225 Wheat stacks 227 W T heat in Colorado 230 Threshing wheat , 233 Putting wheat in a bin 235 The start to the "ultimate consumer" 237 Threshing oats 242 Seedbed preparation on a big scale 244 The last load 247 Harvesting oats 250 Place oats bundles in long shocks 251 A self-rake reaper 255 Oats straw stack 259 Pligh class kafir 264 Well made mules 266 Preparing for kafir 268- Missouri mules 271 A "low down" farm tractor 274 Filling a silo ' 275 "BROTHER JONATHAN" Trade Mark of The Fruit-Grower and Farmer St. Joseph, Missouri CHAPTER I. SOILS FOR CROPS CHAPTER I. " SOILS FOR CROPS More Legumes Should Be Grown What is a Good Rotation? When Legumes Will Not Grow How Shall Lime Be Applied? Small Limestone Crushers Classification of Lime Compounds Equivalent Weights Plants in Relation to Lime The Use of Commercial Fertilizers Add Phosphorus How to Find Out What the Soils Need In Regard to Green Manures Drainage Helps Drainage is Drought Protection What Can Be Expected from Drainage? The Land Drains Quickly Conserve the Barnyard Manure The Essentials in Soil Management CHAPTER I. SOILS FOR CROPS A more efficient use of crop rotation and a larger acreage of legumes are badly needed in Am- erican farming". The soils of this country are not worn out, and all that is needed to increase the yields to a marked extent is more care in growing crops. If the one crop system of soil management used on so many farms were changed to a rotation adapted to the conditions, the average crop yields in the United States' would not compare so dis- gracefully with those of Europe. More Legumes Should Be Grown The air is the cheapest source of nitrogen. This essential element for plant production can be ob- tained by the growth of legumes much cheaper than it can be purchased in the form of commercial fertilizers, under most conditions. Of course, there are a few conditions — truck farming on land near large cities is an example — where it would be cheaper to buy bone meal or some other fertilizer to supply nitrogen, but these are only minor excep- tions. :_j Making Money on Farm Crops The acreage of the leguminous — the nitrogen gathering — crops of the country could profitably be doubled. Too much energy and too large an acre- age is taken up with growing crops like wheat and corn, until many fields have become so exhausted that they will not produce profitable returns in these crops. Much of this excessive cropping of the land with cereal crops has been brought about by tenant farming. But there is not the slightest excuse for a tenant not growing leguminous crops, if the landlord is fair with the contract. Legumes can be grown in almost all parts of the United ■ -.silk :■- ". : : ;>"■': ■ : ' ■ ; «: ;>.. ■ . \f?-;>: , In the alfalfa fields of the West. States, and their more liberal use would be of great importance and profit to both tenants and land- lords. Cowpeas, for example, will grow in a very large section of the country. This is not a south- ern crop at all. There is no reason why tenants Soils for Crops 19 should not grow this crop. In many cases it will return a greater profit than ordinary cereal crops, and its beneficial influence on soils is very great. Land owners should give tenants every encourage- ment to grow this crop. What is a Good Rotation? Under most conditions, a logical crop rotation will have a leguminous crop, such as alfalfa, clover or cowpeas ; a crop for which the land must be well prepared, such as wheat, and a crop for which the land must be well cultivated, as corn and potatoes. Just the way these combinations will be made is ever the problem of the individual ; for it is obvious that conditions such, for instance, as are found on m Diversified farming in Kansas. the sandy soils of New Jersey and those of western Kansas require radically different rotation of crops. 20 Making Money on Farm Crops Legumes are mentioned first in this general scheme because they should be given first place in planning a rotation. This is not only due to their beneficial effect on the soil, but also because they will produce returns that usually will exceed other field crops, if they are cut at the proper time, and the feed is well cared for and properly fed to farm animals. When you consider the rather high price of alfalfa hay in the last few years, you cannot beat ifit returns on this crop with wheat or corn, if the conditions are favorable for growing alfalfa. And if you will feed these crops properly, you can make greater returns than if you just sell the hay. When Legumes Will Not Grow In many sections there are fields that will not, under present conditions, grow legumes The soil is acid, and under these conditions alfalfa and red clover will not do well, and they usually soon will die, even if they start to grow. Make the litmus test for soil acidity, and be certain about the acid. This test is easy to make, and it is fairly accurate. This is the way to make it: Buy five cents' worth of blue litmus paper at a drug store, and take a ball of the soil you desire to test, and press the earth around the paper. If the ground is dry, add mois- ture. Let the ball stand for half an hour, then Soils for Crops 21 break it open and look at the paper. If it has turned red, the soil is acid. Look at it carefully, for sometimes the change is faint. More than one test should be run, to guard against error. If the soil is acid, lime should be applied. But lime has other beneficial influences besides the correction of soil acidity. For one thing, it decomposes potassium compounds, and thus aids in making potash more available. This does not mean that lime has any power to supply potash ; it merely makes available the potash stored in the land. Lime also aids the phosphorous compounds. Solu- ble phosphorus combines with other compounds readily, iron for example, and forms a compound that is insoluble, and is rejected by plants. Lime, however, combines with phosphorus better than iron, and forms compounds that are soluble, and may be used by plants. Lime also will aid in the decomposition of organic matter. Now it is organic matter that furnishes the principal source of nitro- gen and this supply must be reduced to furnish available nitrogen. The flocculation of the soil, which is the forcing apart of the soil particles, is greatly aided by an application of lime. This is one of the most im- portant effects of the application of this element. 22 Making Money on Farm Crops One good test for the need of lime on land is the way red clover grows. If you, can produce good yields of this crop, it is practically certain the Soil-making agencies at work. soil does not need lime. If the crops are poor and sickly, it is probable an application of lime would pay. Soils for Crops 23 How Shall Lime Be Applied? Ground limestone is the best form in which to apply lime, in most sections. Lime crushers that are small and cheap now may be purchased, and they are being introduced in many sections, to fur- nish ground limestone to the surrounding country. Larger plants — the one at the southern Illinois pen- itentiary is an example — have been built that are shipping many thousand tons of ground limestone a year. The increase in the sales of this material from the penitentiary plant is a good example of the extension in the use of limestone in other sec- tions. The sales from this plant have been : In 1906 122 tons In 1907. 1,520 tons In 1908 2,428 tons In 1909 .4,846 tons In 1910 14,135 tons In addition, there are more than a dozen private companies furnishing ground limestone to Illinois farmers. In speaking of the use of limestone on Illinois soils, Dr. Hopkins said : "The amount of limestone used in soil improvement in this state should rap- idly increase until it reaches more than a hundred times the present demand, for the reason that lime- 24 Making Money on Farm Crops stone is one of the necessary materials that must always be supplied for the highest improvement and permanent maintenance of Illinois soils, and also because at reasonable prices for limestone and ., - • '.; : -<- [**•> ' _ '■■""■... ' Farm tractors cheapen the cost of production. Deep plowing may he clone at just the time it is needed: farm produce, it can be used with sufficient profit to justify its application. Even the landowner who receives only one-half of the crops produced can afford to pay for the limestone when needed, and a share of the increased crops will likewise well pay the tenant for the hauling and spreading." Small Limestone Crushers In the judgment of the author, there will be a big extension of the use of small plants for crush- Soils for Crops 25 ing limestone in the future. Small plants reduce freight charg'es ; usually they eliminate raiiroad freights. In putting in a plant of this kind, always have a sample of the rock you expect to grind analyzed before you buy the machinery. Lime- stone varies greatly in composition, owing to the different percentages of foreign matter. Even two ledges in the same community might vary greatly, so be certain of the purity. Send a sample of the rock to the department of chemistry of your state agricultural college. The most extensive experiments in this coun- try on the use of different forms of lime on soils have been made at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, and the results there were in favor of ground limestone. Quicklime tends to destroy the organic matter of the soil to a much greater extent than does ground limestone. So apply the ground material if the prices admit. Classification of Lime Compounds Ground Limestone. — The word lime, as ordi- narily used, refers to burned lime or calcium oxide, but it is very often used to designate any form of lime without regard to its composition. Limestone in its natural state consists of lime or calcium oxide in combination with carbon dioxide, and is known 26 Making Money on Farm Crops as carbonate of lime. It usually contains more or less of magnesium carbonate, together with some iron, aluminum and sand. It was originally sup- posed that magnesium limestone was injurious, |, mmm^Mms. The out-cropping - of a limerock ledge. Ground limestone may be cheaply produced here. especially if used on the same soil for several years, but later researches have proved this belief is un- true, and that it is equally valuable with pure cal- cium limestone, for use on soils. Good limestone should contain at least 90 per cent calcium and magnesium carbonate. The availability of ground limestone depends on its fineness. It should all pass through a sieve Soils for Crops 27 of 80 meshes to the inch. Material coarser than this may remain in the soil for several seasons before becoming- available. This form of lime may be applied to the soil in almost any quantity with- out danger, although it is generally recommended at the rate of 3,000 pounds an acre and sometimes more. Burned Lime. — This is also known as "stone lime," "lump lime," "quicklime" and "caustic lime." It is produced from raw limerock by burn- ing. One hundred pounds of limestone will pro- duce 56 pounds of burned lime. This is the most active form of lime, and may be used at the rate of 1,000 to 1,200 pounds an acre. Much larger quantities are sometimes used, but the above amounts should be sufficient in most cases. This form of lime is usually put upon the mar- kets in lumps, and before being applied to the soil it must be reduced to powder. This is conven- iently done by placing the lime in small piles about the field, and covering it with three or four inches of moist soil. The lime will absorb the moisture from the soil, and gradually break down into a fine powder, when it may be spread with a shovel. Ground burned lime may be purchased at a slightly advanced price. 28 Making Money on Farm Crops Hydrated Lime. — When burned lime is treated with water or steam it enters into combination with the water and forms what is chemically termed calcium hydrate or hydrated lime. This form, like burned lime, is caustic, but it is always in the powder form, and may be readily applied to the soil. Fifty-six pounds of burned lime are equiv- alent to- 7-i pounds of hydrated lime. This form of lime is also known as slaked (slacked) lime. Air-Slaked Lime — When burned lime is ex- posed to the action of the air for any considerable length of time, it gradually takes up moisture and carbon dioxide, and changes to the hydrate and car- bonate forms. If exposed for a sufficiently long time, it will all change to the carbonate form or the state in which it was before burning. Its value lies somewhere between that of hydrated lime and ground limestone. Equivalent Weights The different lime forms have different amounts of calcium present. When the compounds are free from mixtures, the equivalent weights are shown in the following table. Usually they are not quite Soils for Crops 29 pure, but they generally are not very much adul- terated. 1,000 pounds of burned lime is equivalent to : 1,351 pounds hydrated lime. 1,786 pounds ground limestone or marl. 1,351 to 1,786 pounds air-slaked lime. About 3,000 pounds hardwood ashes. Plants in Relation to Lime After several years of careful experimenting upon the use of lime on various soils and with many crops, Dr. II. J. Wheeler, of the Rhode Island Proper tillage is essential for the best results on all soils. 30 Making Money on Farm Crops Experiment Station, has made a classification of plants according to their action with reference to lime. The following table is based on Wheeler's classi- fication : Plants benefited by Plants indifferent Plants injured by lime. to lime. lime. Beans Corn Watermelon Beets Millet . Blue Lupine Celery- Golden Rye Sheep Sorrel Onions Potatoes Cabbage Carrots Pea Red Top Grass Alfalfa Clover Barley- Wheat Oats Timothy Kentucky Blue Grass Seed Fruits Stone Fruits The Use of Commercial Fertilizers Frequently farmers are advised, usually by those interested in the sale of the material or by those who have not made a careful study of soil conditions, to apply a complete fertilizer, contain- ing considerable amounts of the three elements apt to 1 be exhausted in soils — nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. A very common complete fertilizer is Soils for Crops 31 one having a composition known as 2-8-2, which means it contains 2 per cent ammonia, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 2 per cent potash. Fertilizer manufacturers usually state the percentages of fer- tilizing elements in this way. The amounts of actual fertilizing elements sound larger in these forms than when stated as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. A ton of this material contains 33 pounds of nitrogen, 80 pounds of phosphorus and 33 pounds of potassium. Such a fertilizer usually is sold at retail for from $20 to $25 a ton, and sometimes higher. A 50-bushel crop of corn takes from an acre 75 pounds of nitrogen, 12 of phosphorus and 36 of potassium ; and other grain crops have simi- lar plant food requirements. Such a fertilizer would have to be applied at the rate of more than two tons an acre to supply the nitrogen, and at the rate of more than a ton to add the potassium. When the value of the yields of crops are consid- ered, it may readily be seen that there is not much profit in such an investment. Few soils are deficient in all plant food ele- ments. If they are, they are very poor soils. Over every acre of land there is an inexhaustable sup- ply of nitrogen that merely is waiting the growing of leguminous crops to become available fo.r the use 32 Making Money on Farm Crops of all crops. Use this supply. Nitrogen is the most expensive form of commercial fertilizer, and it can be obtained free if the proper crops are grown. And then in regard to the potassium content of soils : There are not many soils in the United States where the potassium content needs any ad- dition, or where such applications w T ould pay. It is true, however, that there are such lands, but they usually are not deficient in both nitrogen and phosphorus, too. In most of the land in the north- central states, the soil contains, to the depth the land is plowed, 35,000 pounds of potassium, and deeper the soil contains similar amounts that will be brought to the surface, as it is needed, by the growth of deep-rooted crops, as alfalfa, and also by the gradual lowering of land levels. Muck soils frequently need potassium and phosphorus, but never nitrogen, so a complete fertilizer would not pay. Add Phosphorus There should be a great extension in the use of phosphorus on soils in the United States, and much of the extension in the use of commercial fertili- zers in the future will be along this line. From the older soils of the East on through the fertile prairie lands of the Mississippi valley to the far Soils for Crops 33 West, there are lands that would be improved markedly by applications of this material. The supply on many soils is low. If you believe this element should be added to your soils, buy a small quantity, apply it to the land, and note the result in crop yields that you get. Probably the best way to sum up the phosphorus proposition is to quote from a bulletin of the Indiana Experiment Station. In a bulletin of this station on "Co-operative Fertilizer Tests on Clay and Loam Soils" these statements may be found: "Phosphoric acid and potash give a greater profit, for a dollar invested in fertilizer, than complete fertilizer, on both corn and wheat. In nearly all experiments with all crops on clay and loam soils, phosphoric acid was found to be the most effective of the fertilizing elements." How to Find Out What the Soils Need Never apply a complete commercial fertilizer unless you are certain the land is deficient in the three elements contained ; and never use fertilizer of any kind until you are sure the soil needs it. Here is a good way to find out the fertilizer re- quirements of land : Lay out a number of experi- mental plats on a typical soil uniform in appear- ance throughout, each plat one rod wide and eight 34 Making Money on Farm Crops rods long, that is, one-twentieth of an acre. Ap- ply the different fertilizers carefully, and work them well into the soil. 8 RODS 1 rod 1 rod 1 rod 1 rod 1 rod 1 rod 1 rod 15 pounds Nitrate of Soda 30 pounds Superphosphate 15 pounds Sulphate of Potash 15 15 pounds pounds Nitrate of Soda Sulphate of Potash 15 30 pounds pounds Nitrate of Soda Superphosphate 30 15 pounds pounds Superphosphate Sulphate of Potash 15 30 15 pounds pounds pounds Nitrate of Soda Superphosphate Sulphate of Potash Soils for Crops 35 A few check plats, unfertilized, should also be laid out to allow proper comparison. All the plats must otherwise be treated exactly alike in the way of sowing and cultivation. Careful comparison of the crop results will reveal the plant-food require- ments of the soil. Apply the fertilizers broadcast, and harrow the land lengthwise, to avoid mixing the materials. The land for all these plats must be the same, in order to make the test of value. This test should be used where there is doubt as to just what the soil needs, and there is on most farms. Where such tests have been made, it usually has been found that there is not a need for more than one or two of the elements, as a rule. You can take this as an axiom to follow in the applica- tion of commercial fertilizers : There are few fields where an application of a complete fertilizer will pay, and before commercial fertilizers of any kind are added, the soil types should be studied thoroughly, so you may know just what you are doing. There is no disposition on the part of the au- thor to discourage the intelligent use of commer- cial fertilizers. Not at all. On the contrary, it would be well if there was a great extension in their use. But there is a great deal of money 36 Making Money on Farm Crops wasted every year by the addition of expensive elements that do not increase crop yields. A great many of the soils in the fertile corn sections of the West could profitably have phosphorus added to them, while the addition of the other two elements would not pay, in most cases. Study the plant food deficiencies of your soils, and know just what you are applying when you add fertilizers. What is most disgraceful, however, is to see the vast sums that are being spent by farmers in grain sections for fertilizers that contain nitrogen. Grow protein crops, and feed them to high-grade animals. This, in most cases, is "bonehead" farming of the worst type. The Creator put the nitrogen in the air to be used, and there is no use in a farmer wast- Soils for Crops 37 ing his profits on buying it when he can get all of this element he needs by growing legumes. Many times, farmers spend good money for commercial nitrogen and also for protein feeds, when both can be obtained by growing a leguminous crop. In Regard to Green Manures Green manure crops frequently can be used to good advantage, for the betterment of soil condi- tions. There is one thing that should be carefully considered, however, when one is growing these crops, and this is that when some crops, as cane', are plowed under, there is a great formation of acid, and if there is not a good supply of lime in the soil, the field may become acid. The contin- ued growing of green manure crops, in some sec- tions, has brought on just this condition. Of course, this can be overcome by the use of lime. Cowpeas is one of the best green manure crops, and there is not so great a formation of acid as there is with many crops. When this fact is con- sidered, and also that the crop adds an abundance of nitrogen to the land, it may be seen that it should be used for such purposes when possible. One of the principal objections to the use of this crop, usually, is the high cost of the seed. Green manure crops frequently can be worked 38 Making Money on Farm Crops in between ether crops, without any loss of rent on the land, for it would not produce a crop any- way. Take, for example, the growing" of a crop of cowpeas after wheat, where the field is not to be put into wheat again : The crop may be planted after the wheat has been cut, and in most sections it still will have time to mature a crop. The increase in yield of wheat due to the cow- peas is generally given as from three to five bush- els an acre. At the Missouri Experiment Station, an increase in yield of 63 per cent with oats and 49 per cent with wheat following cowpeas as a catch-crop was obtained. The Arkansas Experi- ment Station reports, as an average of four years' test with wheat, an increase in yield of 25 per cent from plowing under cowpea stubble in the fall, 39 per cent from plowing under cowpea vines, and 42 per cent when cowpeas were grown every year as a catch-crop between the wheat crops, only the stubble of the peas being plowed under. At the Kansas Station cowpeas were sown as a catch-crop between wheat crops for five years, plowing under the entire growth of peas about the middle of September, two or three weeks before seeding to wheat. The cowpeas were sown every year soon after wheat harvest, in close drills, at the rate of about one bushel of peas an acre. The Soils for Crops 39 field was usually double-disked ahead of the drill. Both plots were plowed on the same date and given similar preparation before seeding. The field used for this work was upland soil low in fer- tility. The yields for five years were : YIELD AN ACRE OF WHEAT. Treatment. 1904. 1905. 190G. 1907. 1908. Av. Wheat continuously ...13.40 12.02 13.41 11.79 11.08 12.34 Wheat continuously, with cowpeas as catch crop 14.49 16.53 15.54 16.37 20.13 16.61 Every season the catch-crop of cowpeas gave an increased yield of wheat, and the effect was accum- ulative, the increase in yield being gradual from year to year. The first year of the trial there was a difference of only one bushel in favor of the cow- pea rotation, while after five years the plot which received the green manuring produced nine bushels more wheat to the acre, the average difference be- ing four and one-third bushels an acre in favor of planting cowpeas as a catch-crop between crops of wheat. Under average farm conditions it will not be possible to get cowpeas grown as a catch-crop between two wheat crops, because there is not time, but frequently it will be possible to plant it where wheat is not to be resown. This table shows the value of this use of cowpeas. 40 Making Money on Farm Crops Drainage Helps Fortunate indeed are farmers in the humid sec- tions who do not have some land too wet for the best crop production. Wet spots are an aggrava- tion to handle, for they delay the cultivation of the rest of the field. Then there are some fields where it will pay to underdrain the whole field. Before the perfection of tile drains, the handling of these fields often was a serious problem, and usually an elaborate system of ditches was con- structed that took up a great deal of room. They were in the way and were inefficient. There is no excuse for that in this day of tile drains. Usually the wet land that now is not producing good crops is the most fertile on the farm. In many cases, these wet spots have received the wash from the higher levels, and if the surplus water were removed the fields would produce crops far superior to average yields. Drain these swales, and give the crops a chance. Drainage is Drought Protection If your soil is tile drained, the crops will stand drought better than if it is not drained. While the reasons for this are plain enough, th'is fact is not well understood by the farmers of the country. Soils for Crops 41 The reasons are that the pnysical condition of the land is improved by drainage, the land is more mel- low and loose, air gets in the soil better, and High quality poultry pays. mainly the capillary water is more freely intro- duced, and is more available for the plant. It is the capillary water that is of importance in the de- velopment of the plant. Stagnant water is not, for the plants can not use it. 42 Making Money on Farm Crops Drainage will deepen the soil, and allow it to warm more rapidly in the spring. It lengthens the growing season. It prevents soil washing, and makes a better home for the roots. And, most im : portant, it allows the production of larger crops, as it will pay big in dollars and cents, and that is one of the main things we desire from land. Use round tile drains. There are many com- panies making clay tiles, and usually farmers will find it is about as cheap, after the labor cost is con- sidered, to buy these tiles as it is to make cement tiles on the farm, which is now being done in many localities. Cement tiles can be made that are of good quality and will produce good results, but the labor increases the cost of this type of drain so it is about the same as clay tile, under most condi- tions. When cement is low in price, the cement tiles may be materially cheaper than clay tiles. The distance between the tiles and the depth will vary with the slope, amount of water to be re- moved, the nature of the soil, and just how quickly the water is to be removed. In many cases, all that is needed in draining wet spots in fields is the placing of a string of tile through the spot, and perhaps the use of a few short laterals. There are some fields where it will pay to put in an elabor- Soils for Crops 43 ate system of mains and laterals, and cover the whole field. One mistake many farmers make when they start into tile drainage is the use of tiles that are too small. No matter how well the tiles are laid, they may get out of line, and where one part sinks out of line, the part that is low will fill up with sediment, and thus the size of the drain will be re- duced. Frequently a drain gets stopped up in just this way, and the whole drainage system is ruined. Never use tiles less than four inches in diameter, even for laterals. What Can Be Expected From Drainage As an example of the results one can expect from tile drainage, eight acres of land on the farm of Mont Van Buskirk, in Anderson county, Kan- sas, might be mentioned. This land was tile drained in 1911, and produced its first crop in 1912. The crop was corn, and the yield was 60 bushels an acre. The land never had produced a crop before. The first crop, valuing corn at 50 cents a bushel, paid for raising the corn, for laying the tile, and left a good profit besides. The eight acres produced 480 bushels of corn, which is worth $240. The cost of the drainage sys- tem was $125, leaving $115 to pay for producing 44 Making Money on Farm Crops the corn, and for profit. Then the value of the land has been increased to more than $100 an acre. This drained land is a low swale typical of thou- sands of acres in eastern Kansas, and in many sec- Wheat on drained land in Missouri. tions elsewhere. A shallow ditch ran through the middle, and for several rods on each side water stood much of the year. The only growth was willows, some water grass and weeds. The field was too wet for pasture. The land never had pro- duced anything. This field was not a difficult engineering propo- sition at all. Through the middle of the wet land, near where the shallow ditch had been, a six-inch line of tile was placed. On either side, on slightly higher land, was placed a line of four-inch tiles. One of these smaller lines was 55 rods long, the other 14 rods. Two short, four-inch laterals were used, in addition. The fall was fairly good, so the Soils for Crops 45 leveling was an easy proposition. This usually is the case, when draining low, wet swales. The tiles were placed three feet deep. The cost of digging the ditches was 35 cents a rod. The work was done by contract, and this included the cost of laying the tiles, and filling the ditches after the tiles were laid. The main ditch has an intake made of rock and gravel, which covers the tiles at the upper end, to care for the water that comes from farms above. The outlet is protected by rods and wire netting to keep out mice and other small animals that might enter when no water was flowing in the drain. The system was constructed in the summer of 1911, too late to put in a crop. Most of the land was covered with willows, which caused some trouble when the land was plowed. The largest were grubbed. The compact roots of the willows forced the runners of the corn planter out of the ground some places, and this reduced the percen- tage of stand materially. The land was well culti- vated, so most of the willows were killed, and they will not cause any trouble next year. This land has received the wash from the sur- rounding hills, and the soil is very deep. In most 46 Making Money on Farm Crops places, the soil was the same at the bottom of the tile ditches as it is at the top. This is typical of wet spots in that section. The Land Drains Quickly In speaking of the way the field dries, after a rain, Mr. Van Buskirk said: "The low, tile drained portion of the field can be cultivated sooner than higher portions where the tiling has not been placed. The reason is obvious. The drainage from the low land is almost perfect through the tiles, and it flows out rapidly. On the higher land, it must seep away by percolation through the soil, and drainage is slower." Mr. Van Buskirk has used both clay and ce- ment tiles. He has a machine for making cement tiles that cost $35, and in speaking of the operation of it, he said: "For cement tiles 12 inches long and six inches in diameter, the cost of the material was two cents each. This was for' tiles made last winter, when cement was 20 cents a sack, which is very low. The cost of four-inch tiles was one cent each. We used one part of cement to four parts of sand. About 200 tiles of either kind can be made with this machine in a day. I do not think there is much to be saved by making cement tiles, over the cost of clay tiles, after the labor is consid- Soils for Crops 47 ered. These prices I have quoted merely are the cost of the sand and cement. But when a farmer desires to do the work himself and to have some employment at odd times, it may pay him to make his tiles. I believe well-constructed cement tiles are the equal of clay tiles." Cement tiles are good, if they are made prop- erly, and they will last well. Whether it will pay to make them is merely a business proposition to be determined after the prices of the labor and ma- terial for the cement tiles, and the cost of the clay tiles is known. Conserve the Barnyard Manure A reform in handling the manure produced on farms is badly needed. Much of the fertilizing In the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, 48 Making Money on Farm Crops value frequently is lost before it gets to the land. There is no reason for a great deal of elaborate detail in the way this material is handled. Get the manure to the soil just as soon as you can after it is produced, and use a spreader so it will be ap- plied in the cheapest and best way. That is about ail there is to it. Of course, you should remember that when manure heats and leaches, it loses about all its fertilizing value, and that more good can be obtained by spreading the manure thin, for a greater acreage will be benefited. The Essentials in Soil Management If you get some knowledge concerning the mighty forces that are making- and changing the soils of the world, and how men can aid these forces, and then apply some good, hard common- sense to the proposition, you should be able to get good results from your land. The main essentials are these : Use a rotation that has a prominent leguminous crop, add essential elements, if the soil needs them, and then cultivate the land properly. The most important change that is needed is the introduction of good crop rotations — and do not forget the legumes. CHAPTER II. THE IMPROVEMENT OF FARM CROPS CHAPTER II. THE IMPROVEMENT OF FARM CROPS Crop Breeding Some Results in Plant Breeding Select Seed Corn in the Field Breeding Wheat for Profit Opportunities in Seed Wheat Production Breeding Alfalfa In Regard to Treating Seed Use a Fanning Mill CHAPTER II. THE IMPROVEMENT OF FARM CROPS All cultivated crops have been improved from their wild, original state. Crops have been modi- fied by the selection of suitable plants which ap- proached the type desired. Farmers do not, as a rule, give so much attention to crop improvement as they should. There is too much crib selection of seed corn, and too much selection with a scoop- shovel for wheat and oats. That "like begets like" is one of the oldest of breeding laws, and one of the most fundamental. Plants are the product of two forces,- heredity and environment. Heredity is the characteristics the plant has inherited from past generations. Both are important, but heredity has an importance that is not always considered, which is that it acts without expense. It costs money and work to produce the best environment for the plants to live in ; to plow, to disk, to cultivate, to hoe, all these take energy, and if the forces of heredity are not acting in a favorable way, the work may not be profitable. Scrub corn takes up the land just the same as that which has quality. You must do as 52 Making Money on Farm Crops much work to cultivate it. And in the fall, it is found that the man who has used seed that has been developed by generations of intelligent selecr. tion is the one who makes the greatest profit on the season's work. The breeding of farm crops along scientific lines is a comparatively recent thing. Before then, there had been selection that accomplished great good, and remarkable progress, but results have come much faster in recent years. Crop Breeding The principal things that delayed the breeding of farm crops after great progress had been made with farm animals was that the sex in plants was ^^^^^py$| Breeding plats, Kansas Experiment Station, where new races of wheat are produced. not well understood, and there was a great diffi- culty in controlling the pollen. The control of pol- len is one of the greatest problems of plant breed- Improvement of Farm Crops 53 ers. With animals, the male may be tied up and thus kept confined, and while it is true the pollen of plants may be controlled, it is only at the price of great labor and patience. Plant breeders, how- ever, have the advantage in that they can work with far greater numbers of individuals than breed- ers of animals. In the improvement of plants, the first thing is to get the plant to produce variations. After this. the problem is to select the forms that are the most desirable for the purpose the breeder has in view, and then to test these plants to see whether they will reproduce their kind. One of the hard- est things is the selection of types to be kept. The scientific principles that make up the science of plant breeding are so varied and com- plex that they have a literature of their own. Here, however, we are interested in what a farmer who does not wish to give the time to master all these principles can do to get money-making results. One does not have to follow Mendel's law through all the hazy science and near-science that has been hung upon it to get results in improving crops. Some Results in Plant Breeding, The record of what some breeders of farm crops have done to get the results they have obtained is 54 Making Money on Farm Crops of importance in showing what can be done in working with the types we have today. Take, for example, the history of the Learning variety of corn. This variety was originated by J. S. Learn- ing of Hamilton County, Ohio, from scrub corn growing in that community. He decided what the ideal type should be, and he began a selection toward this type in 1826. He kept up the selection for 56 years, and his son continued the work. His method of selection was to go into the field as the earliest husks began to show signs of ripening, and select ears from stalks that tapered from butt to tassel ; on which the ears were filled out well over the points, with straight rows of kernels, and which ripened in from 100 to 110 days. The Learn- ing corn has been somewhat modified by later breeders, but the general type still is the same. Reid's Yellow Dent Corn was originated by James L. Reid, of Tazewell County, 111. This type offers one of the best examples of corn that was selected in an intelligent manner, for it was graded up from a variety with small ears to the great va- riety that it is today. Robert Reid brought from Brown County, Ohio, to Illinois, in 18-46, a variety known at that time as the Gorden Hopkins' corn. It was a small, reddish variety. There was a fair crop grown the first year, but the stand the second Improvement of Farm Crops 55 year was poor. The missing- hills were replanted with the seed of the Little Yellow corn, which was grown in that community. The seed has not been mixed since then, and the type in this variety is well fixed. The Boone County White was originated by James Riley, Boone County, Indiana. He was Patrons of husbandry. growing" a large, coarse type known as the White Mastodon, in 1876, -and he began a selection at that time. The corn has not been mixed since then, and the results he has obtained have been by selection. Some remarkable results were obtained at the Illinois Experiment Station in breeding corn to in- crease and decrease both the oil and protein con- 56 Making Money on Farm Crops tent. Marked results were obtained. The experi- ment showed clearly that corn could be changed remarkably by intelligent selection toward some desired type. In the breeding of corn, it is the selection of seed that farmers are mainly interested in. The main secret of intelligent selection of seed corn is to know what you wish to select. One of the prin- cipal troubles that is causing poor selection of corn is that farmers do not know good seed, and in many cases when they have a typ.e fixed in their minds, ic is a wrong type. After you determine on the corn you wish to grow, get a score card for this corn, and find out just how the best breeders are selecting their seed. Then, after you get this ideal firmly fixed in your mind, select your corn to conform to this standard as nearly as possible. Select Seed Corn in the Field Of course, field selection should be the rule. There is no excuse for crib selection, for there is very little work connected with field selection of the seed corn needed to plant the acreage on the average farm. In order to make an intelligent se- lection of an ear that will be used for seed the fol- lowing year, it is necessary to know the stalk the ear grew on. Go into the fields some time before 58 Making Money on Farm Crops shucking time, take a sack, and select the corn. Ot course, you can do a good job of selection when you are shucking the corn, too, but the trouble is it takes more time, considering the time that you will spend glancing at the ears, than it does to select it earlier and have it done with, and it also makes it rather late, so it may not be possible to reduce the moisture content of the ears to a proper point for freezing weather. The Department of Agriculture tested the com- parative productiveness of ears selected from good yielding stalks in comparison with good ears of the same variety taken from a crib. The field-selected ears produced 16 bushels more an acre, or 20 per cent more than the crib-selected ears. It is essential to care for seed properly, as this test shows. Four bushels of corn were harvested and divided into two equal parts. One part was well dried and kept dry during the winter in a seed house, and the other was kept in an ordinary corncrib. In the spring, the well-preserved seed was put in one box of a two-row corn planter and the cribbed seed in the other planter box. On rich bottom land planted in this manner the well-pre- served seed produced 18 bushels more an acre, or 27 per cent more than the cribbed seed ; while on poor upland the well-preserved seed produced Improvement of Farm Crops 59 seven bushels more an acre, or 12 per cent more than the cribbed seed. The cribbed seed germin- ated as well as the well-preserved seed, but the re- sulting plants were less thrifty and less productive. Breeding Wheat For Profit The improvements that have been made in the wheats are an inspiration to plant breeders. Wheat originated in central Asia about the time man did, but the types that were known then were far dif- ferent to the ones of today. The kernels were small, and the yields were not high. There are several divisions of economic wheats in addition to the bread wheats, such as macaroni, dwarf and poulard, but bread wheats are by far the most im- portant. Wheat tends to readily adapt itself to changes in environment, and there have been many types developed. Most botanical writers believe that from 900 to 1,000 is a conservative estimate of the number of named varieties now growing in the world. Of course, many of these are similar. The experiment stations have done some fine work in breeding wheats, to increase the yield and the milling qualities. Some splendid work has been done, and is being done by the Kansas Ex- periment Station, where several departments are working together to produce high quality varieties. 60 Making Money on Farm Crops A department of milling industry has been estab- lished, and the milling value of the wheats are tested. It is no secret that there is a great varia- t^kS^mzu ■g . yap ill M'mSmrrm m Wm ':'•,•:;:•?' : " The experimental mill used by the department of milling' industry at the Kansas Agricultural College. Here the secrets of the bread values of wheats are discovered. tion in the milling qualities of wheats grown in a given section, and under conditions that are simi- lar. Millers cannot make the difference in price with these wheats that should be made. One of the worst things is a mixing of types in wheat. If a wheat that is supposed to be hard con- tains a considerable mixture of soft wheat it does not have so high a milling value as if it were pure. Improvement of Farm Crops 61 This would not be so bad if the percentage of mix- ture were constant, but it tends to vary in lots grown by different farmers. The millers often are accused of unjust discrimination against certain wheats, and of being over-particular, but it is no wonder, when one considers the mixed and poor lots of grain they get in the course of a year. The wheats grown in the United States were originated both in this country and in Europe. The Fife wheat, for example, was originated by James Fife, of Ontario, Canada. Some seed wheat was obtained from a friend in Scotland in the spring, and not knowing whether it was a spring or a win- ter variety, he planted only part of the seed. The variety was a winter wheat, and but three heads ripened. These few grains were planted the next year, and they proved to be almost free from rust, in a season when most of the other wheat in that section rusted badly. The seed that resulted from the rust free plants then was carefully saved. This is the beginning of Fife wheat. Opportunities in Seed Wheat Production The hard types have perhaps been bred for purity with greater care than have soft wheats, and they are not so badly mixed. The soft wheat field that does not contain at least one or two per 62 Making Money on Farm Crops cent of mixture is rare. There is an opportunity before the growers of soft wheat, which they should not neglect, to breed up some good, pure races of soft wheat. Under the conditions such as are found in the soft wheat sections of Missouri and Kansas, the hard wheat mixtures in soft wheat seem to stand the excessively hard winters much better than do the soft types, and this means their proportion tends to increase. This aids in increas- ing the demand for seed, and there is an oppor- tunity to produce this seed at good prices. The way to breed out undesirable types in wheat is this : Go into your fields next summer, after the wheat is. headed and before it is cut, and cull out the foreign types you see. That is a fine time to do this work, or to inspect wheat for most purposes. You can tell at that time just what you have. You should remove the foreign types from enough of the field so you will have seed, but if this is too great a task, remove enough to start a good-sized seed-plat. Then, the next year, the for- eign types can be eliminated from this plat, and if this is kept up, the mixtures should gradually dis- appear, and the wheat will become pure. The methods that have been outlined for wheat and corn are well adapted to farm conditions. Of course, the professional plant breeder has the time Improvement of Farm Crops G3 and opportunity to use methods that are more technical and exact, but there is no time on the average farm for the employing of elaborate head- row methods. Breeding Alfalfa Some fine results are being obtained in breed- ing alfalfa. The average stand of alfalfa contains many types, and the ones that are upright are the It is essential that high-class animals be grown along with good crops, if the greatest returns are to be obtained. ones especially adapted for hay. The botanical department of the Kansas Agricultural College has been breeding these so they could obtain races in which all the plants had the upright habit of growth, and they are having good success. 64 Making Money on Farm Crops On through all the field of plant life, it is evi- dent what is needed mostly is the intelligent care in selection by average farmers. They are produc- ing the crops of the country. If the experiment station men are the only ones who pay attention to producing high-quality grains, their work will not have the value it will have if farmers will care for this high quality seed after it is produced. More care and thought on the farms in the matter of seed selection is badly needed. In Regard to Treating Seed One of the best thing-s you can do to increase the profits from crops is to eliminate smut dam- age. This is of great importance in the United States, for there are few sections that do not have some damage done by smuts in grain crops. All smut damage except that of corn can be controlled by treating the seed. The losses from smuts are of two kinds: (1) Those in the field where smut- ted plants take the place of sound plants and (2) those in marketing when noticeably smutted wheat receives a lower grade than smut-free wheat, and is often rejected. The field losses in the United States in 1911, as estimated bv the Office of Grain Standardization, were as follows : From stinking smut of wheat, 1.7 per cent of the total wheat crop, Improvement of Farm Crops 65 or 10,562,746 bushels, valued at $9,232,071; from smut of oats, 4 per cent, or 36,891,920 bushels, $16,- 586,520; from covered smut of barley, 1 per cent, or 1,602,400 bushels, $1,391,820; from loose smut of wheat, 0.85 per cent, or 5,281,373 bushels, $4,616,- 035 ; from loose smut of barley, 1.2 per cent, or 1,922,880 bushels, $1,670,184; a total field loss of $33,496,630. The loss to the individual producers who grow smutted crops is, of course, much greater than the average percentage for the United States. Reducing- expenses by cheapening the cost of hauling. There is a profitable field for the extension) of the use of farm motor trucks. 66 Making Money on Farm Crops In fact, in many of the fields in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Wisconsin and Minnesota more than 10 per cent of the grain frequently is smutted. On the market, wheat affected with stinking smut to any considerable degree brings a lower price than smut- free wheat, because it can not be used for first-grade flour unless it is thoroughly washed and scoured. When the wheat is not too smutty, such cleaning can be done at nominal expense by mills which have the necessary cleaning machinery, but many mills in which such machinery is not installed reject all smutty wheat, and the producer gets a lower price for his product. This loss in 1911, as estimated from figures given in letters from state grain in- spectors and representative millers, was equal to a reduction of one grade for at least 20 per cent of the total wheat crop of the United States, or one grade for 124,267,600 bushels. The price for every bushel is reduced on an average at least 2 cents for every reduction in grade. The loss from this source in 1911, therefore, would be $2,485,352. With this added to the field loss, a total loss of $35,981,982 was suffered by producers because of smuts in small grains during the year. Improvement of Farm Crops 67 Use a Fanning Mill Then comes the important item of eliminating scrub kernels, for they are present even in the best grain. This can be done by the use of a fanning mill, and this implement should be part of the equipment of every farm where grain is grown. In addition to the removal of the light and undesir- able kernels, weed seeds also can be removed by this method. Discard scrub kernels just the same as you would scrub animals. CHAPTER III. PROFITABLE ALFALFA PRODUCTION CHAPTER III. PROFITABLE ALFALFA PRODUCTION It is Easy to Get a Stand Alfalfa Bacteria Must Be Present Use Only Good Seed Drill Alfalfa Seed if Possible Care of the Alfalfa Stand Lime for Alfalfa When Should Alfalfa Be Cut? Curing the Hay Store the Hay in Barns If You Stack Alfalfa Sizes of Hay Presses Grades of Alfalfa Keep the Bales Off the Ground As to the Moisture Content Enemies of Alfalfa Alfalfa Seed Production Which Crop for Seed? When to Cut the Seed Crop Threshing the Seed The Feeding Value of Alfalfa Digestibility of Alfalfa Loss By Weathering The History of Alfalfa The Value of Alfalfa CHAPTER III. PROFITABLE ALFALFA PRODUCTION Alfalfa is, perhaps, the most important legumin- ous plant, considering the country as a whole. It is a crop that first was grown on a large commercial scale in the West, and it has been gradually spread- ing eastward. This is opposite to- the way most cul- tivated crops have gone. From the valley of the Shenandoah northward to New York it is now rap- idly becoming almost as important a crop as on the broader fields of the West. It increases the wave of prosperity wherever it is grown. It is Easy to Get a Stand Alfalfa is easy to grow on soils that are adapted to the plant. You should not have any trouble in getting a stand on good alfalfa land, if you plant good seed in a well-prepared seedbed. This is the condition of a good seedbed for alfalfa : The soil is loose about as deep as the seed is planted, and be- low that it should be firm and make a good connec- tion with the subsoil. Be sure the capillary attrac- tion with the subsoil is well restored after plow- ing. A loose seedbed will not do for alfalfa. 72 Making Money on Farm Crops Alfalfa will succeed on many different soils ranging 1 from sandy soils to heavier types. It will grow best on a deep, fertile loam well supplied with the mineral elements of plant food. The soil must be well drained, for on wet land where the ground water is near the surface, alfalfa will grow very poorly, and the plants soon die. And the crop wil not grow on soils that are deficient in lime, if there is a tendency for the soil to be acid. Alfalfa wi! not live if there is an acid condition in the soil ; anc this is the cause for much of the failure in getting a stand on the older soils in eastern Kansas, and in many other sections. The crop will do very well usually, on limestone soils. It does well on flint} soils formed by the decomposition of flint rock. Take, for example, in eastern Oklahoma, there are, in some sections, flint hills alternating with sand- Jersey cows make a profitable addition to an alfalfa farm,, Profitable Alfalfa Production 73 stone and limestone hills, and around the base of these hills the legumes, alfalfa, clover and cowpeas, all do better than they do on sandstone soils. Some of the land in the corn belt is so worn that it is not in good physical condition to grow the crop, and it may be best to build the soil up by growing an annual leguminous crop such as cowpeas, before alfalfa is planted. In that case, you might put on the soil all the barnyard manure you can get, for it will have time to get into the soil before the alfalfa is seeded. Do not put manure on the soil the same year the crop is planted, for it will inter- fere with the capillary attraction, and not leave the soil in good condition for the crop. Alfalfa Bacteria Must Be Present Much of the failure in growing alfalfa is due to the lack of nitrogen-gathering bacteria in the soil. Bacteria grow on the roots of alfalfa, and gather the nitrogen from the air, which is stored on the roots in little nodules or swellings. Alfalfa will not make a good growth unless these bacteria are present. Nitrogen is an essential element for the growth of all plants, and on most soils it is the element most easily exhausted. And it is the most expensive ele- ment to purchase in the form of commercial fertil- izers. The legumes are the only family of plants 74 Making Money on Farm Crops that can use the nitrogen of the air, and they can not do so unless the bacteria are present and are working properly. All other plants must use merely the supply of nitrogen in the soil, and this usually is the limiting element in the yield of crops. If the alfalfa bacteria are not present, you must supply them, of course. Now, there are many com- mercial cultures advertised that are successful if the conditions are all right, but if all of the condi- tions are not right, they will fail. So it is best to inoculate the land by the transfer of soil from an old alfalfa field. Transfer about 300 pounds of soil to the acre, and spread it over the field to be put in alfalfa, just before the seed is planted. Be very careful that the dirt does not dry out while it is being spread on the field, and harrow it in promptly, to mix it with the other soil. If the soil dries out too -badly, the bacteria may die. And always use soil from an old alfalfa field to inoculate the new field if you can get it, for it is much more certain than artificial cultures. And this is important also: The bacteria that grow on the roots of sweet clover are the same as those that grow on the roots of alfalfa, and you can use soil from a sweet clover patch if you can not get alfalfa soil. Under humid conditions, it usually will be best to sow alfalfa in the fall. Farther west, spring seed- Profitable Alfalfa Production 75 ing is sometimes to be preferred to fall seeding. If the seed is sown in the fall, some of the small grain crops usually will be grown for the preceding crop. In this case, the soil should be plowed early in July, about four inches deep. Harrow the ground after the plow, promptly, in order to break up the clods. Then disk the ground about every two weeks dur- ing the summer, until the seed is planted. Of course, if a drouth sets in and the surface becomes ISiil syyyyy?; A small flock of sheep can profitably b© kept on most farms, dry and loose, you need not disk the soil until a crust forms. These diskings will firm the soil and restore capillary attraction with the subsoil, con- 76 Making Money on Farm Crops serve the moisture and aid in the formation of avail- able plant food. All of this will put the soil in good condition, so the plants can make a good growth to stand the freezing of the winter. . No matter what methods you use, have these conditions when you plant the seed: Have the soil well pulverized about as deep as the seed is planted, and have it firm with a good capillary attraction with the subsoil below that. Use Only Good Seed There is some very poor alfalfa seed on the mar- ket every year. Much of it contains a large amount of weed seed, such as the seeds of dodder, plantain and dock, and with much of it the germination is low. In the buying of alfalfa seed, take this as an axiom to follow : Don't take anybody's word for anything. Always buy on sample, and know just what you are getting. Unless you are familiar with alfalfa seed you had better send a sample of the seed you expect to buy to the botanical department of your state agricultural college. The department will tell you the percentage of weed seeds present, just what these weeds are, and the per cent of the alfalfa seed that will grow. In that way, you can be certain of what you are getting. And you will, of course, have to pay a good price for seed. The Profitable Alfalfa Production 77 good grades of seed always are the cheapest. The colleges will cheerfully do this testing work free of charge. If you desire to make a germination test of the seed yourself, and it is an interesting and important thing to do even if you have the seed tested by someone else, you can do it in this way: Take a cigar box or other small box, and place several folds of wet paper in the bottom. Place 100 seeds in this box that are a fair sample of the seed you desire to test. Cover the seeds with several folds of wet paper, and set the box in a warm place; almost anywhere will do in the summer months. Examine the seed in five days, count the seeds that have ger- minated, and throw them away. Remoisten the paper, and set the remainder of the seeds away for five days more. At the end of that time, count the germination results again, and stop the test. A large percentage of germination for the first five days indicates good, strong seed, while a slow germina- tion indicates a weak seed that will not germinate in the field except under the most favorable condi- tions. The seed should germinate as high as 80 per cent. Drill Alfalfa Seed if Possible If you have planted the alfalfa on a well-pre- pared seedbed in favorable soil, you need not drill 78 Making Money on Farm Crops in so very much seed. Heavy alfalfa seeding is not necessary. Twelve pounds of alfalfa sown on a well prepared seedbed will produce a good stand of the crop. Always drill in the seed, if you can get a drill with a good grass-seed attachment. The drill will put the seed in the soil where the moisture will be available for the germination. Do not plant the seed too deep. Usually the seed should not be put in deeper than one inch, and on heavy soils the seed should be covered less than that. If the seed is planted too deeply, the young plants can not reach the surface, as the amount of plant food that is stored in an alfalfa seed is very small. Care of the Alfalfa Stand A very heavy stand of alfalfa is not so desirable as a medium stand. Ten or twelve stalks to the square foot is a thick enough stand, and it will pro- duce better results than where the stand is thicker. It also is true that thin sown stands of alfalfa last better. Thickly sown stands tend to die rapidly. Alfalfa should be cultivated, under most condi- tions. This is not so much to split the stems and thus increase the stand, as some farmers think, as it is to stir the ground, and aid in the conservation of moisture and the rendering available of plant food. Cultivation early in the spring also destroys x Profitable Alfalfa Production 79 insects, and the eggs of insects that live on alfalfa, and this benefit usually is of great importance. Do most of the cultivating by disking, early in the spring. The first year, do not use the disk, for the plants are not well enough established to stand its use. Generally it will pay, however, to run the peg-toothed harrow over the field. DO' not culti- vate with a disk until after the plants have become A dependable farm team. well established. Set the disks about as straight as possible, for if you do not, the crowns of the plants will be cut off. Generally it will be necessary to weight the disk. 80 Making Money on Farm Crops Lime for Alfalfa Alfalfa absolutely will not grow and produce profitable crops where the soil is sour, or where there is poor drainage. If you have either of these conditions in your fields, you should correct them before alfalfa is sown. Use tile drains to remedy wet conditions, and apply lime for the acid. Usually, the best form in which to apply the lime is ground limestone, for it generally is cheaper, and it does not have so destructive an effect on the humus as quicklime. Do not apply lime to the crop directly but apply it to the land some time before the crop is sown ; a year before if ground limestone is used. The amount of the application will vary with the amount of acid in the soil, of course, but, in general, two tons and sometimes more of ground limestone will be about right. Heavy applications are necessary where there is a great amount of acid. When Should Alfalfa Be Cut? Cut alfalfa when about one-tenth is in bloom. That means the crop should be cut when you can see blossoms here and there as you walk over the fields. This is an ideal stage for harvesting that is not used so much as it should be by alfalfa grow- ers, especially for the first and second crops. These crops, especially in the corn belt, tend to interfere Profitable Alfalfa Production 81 with other farm operations, so the cutting of the crop is delayed. As a result, many growers are harvesting a crop of alfalfa straw instead of hay and the yield also is decreased, for if the first two crops are cut .from a week to ten days, and sometimes longer, later than they should be, the number of cuttings will be one less than if all crops had been cut promptly. In Missouri, five cuttings can be ob- ; ; ;- : i rismt'A By the careful use of modern machinery, alfalfa may be handled with a slight loss of leaves, and the labor can be reduced. tained practically every year, if the cuttings are made at the proper time. But on many farms, this delay is the rule, and the number of cuttings then is reduced to four. 82 Making Money on Farm Crops If it happens that you have hay that practically reached maturity before you cut it, feed it to horses, for, if there is any difference, mature alfalfa hay is not so apt to have injurious effects on horses. When frost has killed a partly matured crop, cut it at once, for the plants will start much better from the stubble than they will 'from the frosted tops. Curing the Hay After one has cut alfalfa at the proper stage, the most important thing then is to cure it so the leaves will not be lost. In common farm practice, quite a large percentage of the leaves are lost, which is about like losing an equal amount of good wheat bran, for the stems, on account of their high pro- tein content, are about that valuable. The aim should be to expose the plants, after they have been cut, to the drying influences of the sun no longer than necessary. Do as much of the curing in the shock as is possible. The reason is this : If the stems are raked into windrows before the leaves are dry, they will continue to pump the moisture out of the stems, and the stems and leaves will cure out together. If the hay is left in the swath, ex- posed to the heat of the sun, the leaves are cooked, they become dry and brittle, and they fall off when the hay is raked. If your hay ever gets in this Profitable Alfalfa Production 83 condition, do not rake it until dew has fallen, and then the hay may be raked without losing so much of the leaves. So this is the general plan to use : Rake the hay after the plants are well wilted, and do most of the curing in the windrow. After the hay is cured, haul it to the barns, and be careful in the handling to lose as few leaves as possible. Store the Hay in Barns There is not the slightest excuse, in this mod- ern age with the high prices of hay, for stacking alfalfa. This high-priced hay does not turn water well, anyway, and if it is stacked, there always is a big loss to the hay, both in quality and quantity. A farmer can make more interest on money in- vested in hay sheds than he can in perhaps any- thing else on the farm, unless it is on money in- vested in machinery sheds. Many types of hay barns are used, and all have their advantages. On stock farms, the type of stock barn that is commonly .used in the West is good. Have the barn comparatively narrow, so there need not be much work done in distributing the hay after it has been dropped from the carrier. Twenty-eight feet is as wide as the barn should be and perhaps 24 feet is better. Have the barn as long as is needed 84 Making Money on Farm Crops to hold the hay of the farm, and as high as economy of construction dictates. The sheds for stock should be on both sides, and have chutes arranged so hay may be thrown directly to the feed bunks, which should be in the shed. This will permit the animals to eat indoors, and thus be protected from the weather. That is important during the cold days of winter, for protection from exposure means that the animals will not need so much feed to keep them in good condition. Arranging the barn so the hay may be thrown directly into the feed bunks is of considerable importance, for it takes a great deal of extra labor to get the hay into wagons, and then pitch it into feed bunks. If You Stack Alfalfa, Keep the centers of the stacks high, if you do stack this crop. Alfalfa does not shed water well under any circumstances, and every effort must be made, in humid sections, to keep out the rain. Build large stacks, if the moisture content of the crop is down so it is safe. Of course, in the irrigated sec- tions where there is little or no danger from rain, all these elaborate precautions are not necessary. Always have stack covers that may be spread over the unfinished stacks at night, to guard against rain. In buying these covers, be sure you get them Eol. 86 Making Money on Farm Crops large enough, and you should get the ones that have been treated with chemicals to make them mildew proof. Cover the alfalfa stacks with coarse grass — the slough grass that grows in most sections ilflis Stacking alfalfa in Nebraska. is all right — to aid in shedding water. This coarse grass sheds water well, and as it does not have a high feeding value, anyway, it can be used with considerable profit on the tops of alfalfa stacks. The high price of alfalfa in the last few years has encouraged many men to go into raising it for the market, and however reprehensible this practice may be, it is an industry of increasing importance. When this is the practice, the hay should be baled in the field, for there is a big loss of leaves if the crop is first put in the barn or stack, and then re- Profitable Alfalfa Production 87 handled in getting it into the bales. Use power, not only on account of greater economy in opera- tion, but also because where the horses go around on the circle of the horse-power baler, the alfalfa Loading alfalfa in Colorado. This is a sure way to exhaust any soil. Feed livestock and save the fertility. will be killed, and there will be unsightly weed patches in the fields. Then, there is no use in knocking out teams on the baler, for they will be needed for other things later. Working on a baler is about the hardest work a team can do. Sizes of Hay Presses At the present time more than 70 makes of hay presses are on the market. As a result of the com- bined efforts of the hay associations and the manu- facturers the sizes of presses have been standard- 88 Making Money on Farm Crops ized within the past few years, making it easier for farmers to decide on the proper size to buy. The sizes in general use now are as follows, ac- cording to the class of bales made : Dimensions of small bales 14x18x38 in., 16x18x36 in. Dimensions of medium bales. ... 17x22x36 in., 18x22x36 in. Dimensions of large bales 22x28x46 in. The length of either size may be greater than the length here given. These sizes, with the excep- tion of the 18 by 22 by 36-inch bale, are those in greatest demand in city markets, and in these mar- kets they are known as standard bales. The va- rious box presses make bales of a miscellaneous assortment of sizes, such as 42 by 18 by 20 inches, 44 by 24 by 22 inches, and 60 by 26 by 24 inches. In respect to weight the standard bales vary as follows : Small bales from 70 to 100 pounds, me- dium from 100 to 150 pounds, and large from 150 to 250 pounds. This variation is due partly to the degree of compression and partly to the length of the bale. Grades of Alfalfa The usual grades of alfalfa on the principal mar- ket centers are : Choice Alfalfa — Shall be reasonably fine leafy alfalfa of bright green color, properly cured, sound, sweet, and well baled. No. 1 Alfalfa — Shall be coarse alfalfa of natural Profitable Alfalfa Production 89 color or reasonably fine leafy alfalfa of good color, and may contain 5 per cent of foreign grasses ; must be well baled, sound, and sweet. No. 2 Alfalfa — Shall include alfalfa somewhat bleached, but of fair color, reasonably leafy, not more than one-eighth foreign grasses, sound, and well baled. No. 3 Alfalfa — Shall include bleached alfalfa or alfalfa mixed with not to exceed one-fourth foreign grasses, but when mixed must be of fair color, sound, and well baled. No-Grade Alfalfa — Shall include all alfalfa not good enough for other grades, caked, musty, greasy, or thrashed. Keep the Bales Off the Ground In humid sections, where the bales are not hauled to the barn so soon as they are baled s they Power balers are the most economical. 90 Making Money on Farm Crops should be piled on sleds that raise the bales off the ground. Then cover the bales with canvas. If you do not- do this, the parts of the bales that are on the ground will be spoiled, if rain falls. If the bales are piled off the ground, and covered, they will not be injured if it does rain, and they will cure better than if they were hauled to the barn at once. As to the Moisture Content There is more danger from moisture on alfalfa than from moisture in it, when it comes to having the hay heat. That means you should be especially careful with dew and rain, for it will have an espe- cially damaging effect, after it is placed in the mow. When alfalfa is first cut, it will range high in water content ; frequently as high as 75 or 80 per cent. When it is well wilted, and at the proper stage to rake, it will contain about 45 per cent. From then on, it loses moisture much slower, and the amount finally is reduced to from 18 to 22 per cent, when the hay is at the proper stage to put in the mow. After it is placed in the mow, the moisture content decreases slowly, and finally gets down to about 12 per cent. It rarely goes lower. There is no absolutely certain way to determine the amount of hay in a mow by measuring it, but a fairly accurate way is to allow a seven and one- Profitable Alfalfa Production 91 half foot cube, or 422 cubic feet a ton, for hay that has been stored for several months. After the hay has been stored for a long time, and is about as well settled as it ever will be, a seven foot cube, or 343 cubic feet is about right. Any method, however, of measuring hay is only approximate, and the only accurate way is to weigh it. Enemies of Alfalfa Alfalfa is comparatively free from plant diseases. The few that do> attack the plant do not have a wide distribution, as a rule. Red root-rot is a dis- ease that has caused considerable damage in Eu- rope, and in parts of the United States. Brown root-rot, which is somewhat similar to the red root- rot, has been reported in Texas, and has done some damage there. Rust and downy mildew some- times bother one crop, but as a rule they do not trouble them all. Gophers bother the fields in some places, and about the best way to get rid of this pest is to poison them. Grasshoppers trouble the alfalfa fields of the West, and the growers there use hopperdo- zers, which are shallow pans containing water and kerosene that are run over the land, just above the plants. The grasshoppers jump into the pans as 92 Making Money on Farm Crops they are moved over the ground, in regular lands, and the insects are killed. The clover hay worm is very fond of and de- votes its entire attention to the various clover and alfalfa hays. The caterpillars usually appear toward the bottom of the stack in early spring, the hay which they infest having a moldy appearance due to the numerous fine silken threads they spin as, they crawl about through it. It is badly cut up and rendered unfit for stock. This insect may be held in check by never stacking clover hay for two suc- cessive seasons in the same place, cleaning out the mow every spring so no old hay will be left over in the barn until the new comes, and never putting new alfalfa hay on top of old, either in stack or in mow. The worms in the hay can, if sufficient care and trouble be taken, be killed in the stack or mow by fumigation, but preventive measures are most satisfactory. Alfalfa Seed Production There is a good profit in growing alfalfa seed where a fair crop can be produced. According to the bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture on growing alfalfa for seed, the factors of greatest importance are thickness of stand, soil moisture, and such climatic factors as rainfall and tempera- ture. The local variation of one or more of these Profitable Alfalfa Production 93 factors accounts for the great fluctuations in seed yield often observed in a given season in a single locality and even on different parts of the same farm. Experiments and observations have shown that thin stands of alfalfa tend to make good yields of seed much more certain. The reason for this lies largely in the fact that a thin stand permits a more complete development of individual plants. The greater amount of sunlight received by every plant in thin stands also tends to increase the production of seed. It is a matter of common observation that isolated plants along roadsides and in fence rows ordinarily produce much heavier crops of seed than do the plants in near-by fields. The moisture content of the land is an important thing. It must be enough to enable the plant to mature its crop but not enough to cause the crown shoots to start while the seed is maturing. This margin between too much and too little water is a small one, and this is one of the principal causes of failure in producing seed. Which Crop for Seed? Usually the second or the third crop is left for seed, depending on the locality. August is a good time to have the plants maturing their seeds. The 94: Making Money on Farm Crops setting- of the seed should be watched carefully, for if there is to be a light and consequently unprofit- able setting of seed, as is often the case, it is im- portant that this be known as early as possible, so the crop may be cut at once for hay, and the suc- ceeding hay crop allowed to begin its development. If the conditions before blooming are such as to produce a rank vegetative growth, it is a fairly sure Luncheon. indication that the chances are poor for seed. If, however, the soil becomes dry just at this time, a fair' seed crop may sometimes be obtained. Also, if the blossoms appear sparingly or if they appear freely but blast or wither without setting pods, the chances for a seed crop are greatly reduced, and the crop should be cut at once for hay. After this Profitable Alfalfa Production 95 cutting, another fair crop of hay may usually be obtained. If the cutting be delayed too long, it will be at the expense of the next crop, as the time for its development may be short. Another indication that a seed crop is likely to be very light is shown when the basal shoots begin to grow in anticipa- tion of the succeeding crop. The development of these basal shoots takes place at the expense of seed development on the older stems. If heavy rains occur or if continued cold, damp, rainy weather conditions prevail when the plants are in full bloom, the prospects of a seed crop are greatly reduced. The chances for seed are good if the reverse of the above conditions prevail, and the plants have made a medium stocky, well-branched growth with an abundance of bloom, especially if the warm, dry conditions continue. It is practically impossible, however, to infallibly foretell the seed crop. The crop is not assured until the plants are well loaded with clusters of well-filled pods. When to Cut the Seed Crop Cut alfalfa for seed when two-thirds of the pods have turned brown. The crop ripens in a very un- even manner, and if it is left much later than this, many of the heads will shatter, and mHch of the 96 Making Money on Farm Crops seed will be lost. The heads that have turned only to a straw color at the time they are cut will make a fair quality of seed that will grow, although it will be somewhat lacking in plumpness. This table shows the result of cutting alfalfa at different stages of maturity. Stage of maturity. Percentage of seed found to 1 t-t o ti s C$ rri >; u o Pods green and not fully filled out Pods green but full size Pods just turning from green to a light-straw color; plump Pods tured to a light brown; plump Pods turned brown; fully matured. 94 73 17 6 27 S3 S9 91 69 68 25 20 23 *The so-called "hard seed" is perfectly good, but the seed coats are so hard that they are unable to take up moisture and sprout promptly. This condition disappears as the seed becomes older and is usually negligible in seed two or three years old. In sowing seed less than one year old, the proportion of seed that will not sprout promptly should be determined, and the necessary increase in the amount of seed to be sown should be provided for. Threshing the Seed Alfalfa may be cut for seed with either a self- rake reaper or a mowing machine equipped with a side-delivery buncher that will place the alfalfa out of the way, so the team and mower will not have to go over it on the next round. The use of one or 98 Making Money on Farm Crops the other of these tools is almost essential for the seed will be shattered badly, if it is handled like hay. Where the crop is not too heavy, it is possi- ble to cut it with a grain binder, and this is the best way. In handling the alfalfa seed crop from the field to the stack, be careful that you do not shat- ter the heads. Use racks that have tight bottoms, to catch the seed that shatters out. An alfalfa huller is the most satisfactory ma- chine to use for hulling alfalfa seed. Where a huller is not available, an ordinary threshing machine can be used with fair results, if it is handled properly. It will be necessary to put up the concaves, and put in a special set of alfalfa sieves. The straw obtained after the seed is threshed has about half the feeding value of the best alfalfa hay, but even this is considerable, and should be carefully saved. The bureau of chemistry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture has compiled the fol- lowing table to show this value : COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA STRAW AS COM- PARED WITH THAT OF ORDINARY ALFALFA HAY. Constituents. Alf alfa. Straw, Pct.| Hay, Pet. Water 6.26 5.13 6.753 47.82 32.20 .84 8.4 Ash 7.4 Protein 14.3 Crude fiber 25.0 Nitrogen-free extract 42.7 Etlier extract (fat) 2.2 Profitable Alfalfa Production 99 The Feeding Value of Alfalfa Alfalfa, where is will grow well, will produce a greater amount of digestible nutrients to the acre than any other crop. It is especially high in pro- tein, and that makes it especially valuable for young animals. But on account of its high protein con- tent, alfalfa is not a perfectly balanced ration or anywhere near it, and other feeds should be fed with it, in order to get the best results. Alfalfa is one of the best feeds for cattle. It is of great importance in fattening cattle, and it also can be fed with great profit to young stock. When On a dairy farm in Pennsylvania, 100 Making Money on Farm Crops it is fed to cattle that are being roughed through, even small feeds have a very beneficial effect, and it is possible to feed large quantities of cheaper feeds and still have the animals go through the win- ter in good condition, if they receive even small quantities of alfalfa. Its value as a feed for dairy cows is so well known that comment is not needed. For hogs, the hay is too bulky to be used for fattening purposes on account of their limited diges- tive capacity. With brood sows, the case is dif- ferent, and good alfalfa hay is rapidly becoming one of the important feeds for them in the winter. Sows that are fed alfalfa usually produce large litters of well formed pigs, in marked contrast to sows that have a ration composed too largely of corn. The value of alfalfa as a pasture for hogs is supreme. It is the best hog pasture crop, in sections where it will grow well. Many farmers believe alfalfa is not a good feed for horses, and it is not when fed in large amounts to horses that are working hard in hot weather, although some farmers report good results even un- der these conditions. But there is no doubt that as a feed to make up part of the ration when horses are not working hard, alfalfa has considerable value, and should be fed, when it can be obtained. Profitable Alfalfa Production 101 Here is the average composition of alfalfa hay grown in Kansas, as given by the Kansas Experi- ment Station : COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA HAY. First stage, Second stage, Third stage, about 10% about one-half full in bloom. in bloom. bloom. Water 8.77 7.71 8.29 Ash 9.54 9.49 7.75 Crude protein 16.88 15.88 13.23 Pure protein 13.56 12.63 10.62 Crude fiber 29.38 31.44 33.11 Nitrogen-free extract 34.01 34.23 '36.34 Crude fat 1.42 L25 1.30 Of course, the composition of all feeds tends to change slightly in different localities. Digestibility of Alfalfa Well matured alfalfa hay is high in the amount of digestible matter. The digestibility of the hays referred to was ascertained, and the following table shows the results : PERCENTAGES OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF ALFALFA HAY DIGESTED. First crop; three stages of growth. Calculated to water- free basis. First stage. Second stage. Third stage. Ash 6.69 5.78 5.16 Crude protein 14.51 12.89 11.37 Pure protein 11.94 9.90 8.57 Fiber 14.51 17.11 17.43 Nitrogen-free extract 28.52 26.96 30.72 Crude fat 98 .42 .75 Total 65.21 63.16 65.43 102 Making Money on Farm Crops "Here it is seen that the digestible protein dimin- ishes markedly as the alfalfa matures, while the digestible carbohydrates increase. A calculation of the nutritive ratio in each case brings out this fact in a concise way. The nutritive ratio of a feed is the ration of the energy of the digestible nitrogen- ous substances to the energy of the digestible non- nitrogenous substances. Making the necessary cal- culations, the nutritive ratios are found to be as fol- lows: First stage, 1 to 3.11; second stage, 1 to 3.49 ; third stage, 1 to 4.38. These are all narrow ratios, but they widen as the alfalfa matures. "A full appreciation of the feeding value of alfalfa cannot be had without comparisons with other feeds. The average percentage of digestible con- stituents in well-known feeds is shown in the fol- lowing table : PERCENTAGES DIGESTIBLE OF FEEDS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE RATIO. Carbohy- Nutritive Feed Protein drates Fat Ratio Corn 77l4 66.12 4^97 1:10.8 Oats 9.25 48.34 4.18 1:6.2 Wheat 10.28 69.21 1.68 1:7.1 Bran 12.01 41.23 2.87 1 : 4.0 Shorts 12.22 49.98 3.83 1:4.8 Timothy hay .... 2.89 43.72 1.43 1:16.2 Red clover . . 7.38 38.15 ^81 1: 5.7 "It will be seen that alfalfa cut at the first stage gave a hay that had a higher percentage of digesti- Profitable Alfalfa Production 103 ble protein than any of the feeds named in the table, and that the digestible carbohydrates — fiber plus nitrogen-free extract — of alfalfa compare favorably with those in the feeds cited, and in some cases ex- ceed them. The nutritive ratios bring out clearly the value of alfalfa as a source of protein, and its great availability in balancing rations." Loss By Weathering It is apparent that alfalfa hay is greatly dam- aged by rain. This is due not only to fermentations that may accompany the process and to mechanical losses, but also to the fact that soluble substances are dissolved out and removed. Observations have been made by the Colorado Experiment Station upon a hay which was exposed in the field for fif- teen days, during which time it was subjected to three rains, amounting to 1.76 inches. The follow- ing table shows the composition of the damaged and of the undamaged hay: PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA FOR AND AFTER DAMAGE BY RAIN. BE- Pro- Ash tein Fiber Nitro- gen-free Extract Fat Original 12.2 18.7 26.5 Damaged 12.7 11.0 38.8 38.7 33.6 3.9 3.8 104 Making Money on Farm Crops The History of Alfalfa Man has cultivated alfalfa for many centuries. It originally was cultivated in the countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the evidence indicates the people there obtained it from central Asia. It was introduced into the United States by the Span- ish settlers, and was grown in the Western States first. It gradually has spread to the Eastern States. The first car of alfalfa received on the Kansas City market arrived in 1892. Alfalfa hay was not graded on that market until 1898. The Value of Alfalfa The importance of alfalfa is now well under- stood by most farmers, and the acreage is increasing rapidly. There will be a much greater extension of the acreage in the future. The acreage in the United States could be doubled with considerable profit. CHAPTER IV. HOW TO GROW CLOVER CHAPTER IV. HOW TO GROW CLOVER Soils for Clover Clover in the Rotation Sowing Clover Seed Medium Red Clover Getting the Stand Yellow Trefoil in Red Clover Seed When to Cut Medium Red Clover Storing the Hay- How to Make a Pole Stacker When Clover Hay is Placed in the Mow Red Clover for Ensilage To Destroy Clover Insects Cutting for Seed Utilization of Clover Straw Enemies of Red Clover The Clover Root-Borer Red Clover for Pasture Bloating of Animals on Clover Red Clover as a Feed Clover for Seed To Destroy Clover Insects Cutting for Seed The Clover Root-Borer Fungous Diseases of Red Clover How About Mammoth Clover? White Clover for Pasture CHAPTER IV. HOW TO GROW CLOVER Clovers are adapted to a great variety of condi- tions, and they are very extensively grown in this country. Their acreage is especially large in the North-Central states, where alfalfa has not taken the field, as yet. The Mammoth Red and Medium Red varieties, which are the most important, con- sidering the country as a whole, can be grown the best between parallels 37 and 49 north latitude. Alsike clover has a range of adaptation that is somewhat similar to that of the Mammoth, and Me- dium red varieties, but it also may be grown farr ther north, and in localities where the soil is wet. Alsike is especially adapted to wet conditions, and should be grown there, but where the land is adapted to the growth of the other two crops, they usually will produce greater returns. Crimson clover grows well in the states east of the Allegheny mountains, and in the South. White clover will grow almost anywhere there is a sufficient amount of moisture. / 108 Making Money on Farm Crops Soils for Clover Red clover grows best on clay-loam soils, but it has a range of adaptation, and is found growing Running the separator. well on soils that range from rather sandy types to very heavy and compact soils. In southeastern Kan- How to Grow Clover 109 sas, where the soil types may change from poor blackjack hill ground that has been formed mostly by the decay of sandstone to heavy hardpan lands in a few hundred yards, clover may be found grow- ing successfully on both types. In this connection, it might be said that the adaptation of clover for sandy lands varies markedly with the subsoil. If the sand is underlaid with a clay subsoil at a depth of not more than 18 inches, the crop will do much better than if the subsoil is sand. Clovers are gross feeders on potash and lime, and the sandy soils often are deficient in these ele- ments. However, by fertilization methods such as those that have been worked out on the poor soils of the Atlantic coast states, this crop may be grown even on almost the poorest of these lands. Clover is not adapted to growing on muck soils, for such land usually is deficient in mineral elements clover needs in abundance. Clover in the Rotation Clover is especially adapted as a rotation crop, for it will add much nitrogen to the land in a com- paratively short time, and in that respect it is ahead of alfalfa, which is not so well adapted to a short rotation. Its place in the rotation will depend largely on the other crops grown, of course, but 110 Making Money on Farm Crops under cornbelt conditions, the best crop to follow it is corn. Clover adds much nitrogen and humus to the soil. It also tends to lessen weed growth, and all these factors make it especially adapted to grow- ing before corn. If the crop is grown before wheat, there may be such a large amount of soluble nitro- gen in the land that the wheat will lodge, and most of it thus be lost. The rotation of corn, oats, wheat and clover is common in the cornbelt, and it is good. In this ro- tation, some of the best money-making crops are grown, and they all make a logical rotation. Clover should be grown with wheat as a nurse crop, if the land is fairly fertile. It is especially adapted to spending its first few months under another crop. Wheat is an especially good nurse crop. The leaves tend to ripen slowly, and let the light and heat in to the clover gradually, and thus when the wheat is cut, the sun is not so hard on the plants as it would have been with some other crops ; oats, for example. The seed may be sown on the last snow, or it may be sown about April 1, and harrowed in. The latter usually will be found to be the best way. If the seed is sown on the last snow, some of the plants will be killed, if there is a warm period in which they are started and this is followed by se- How to Grow Clover 111 vere cold weather. This frequently happens, and many stands of clover have been lost in this way. If you wait until later in the spring, after the dan- ger of severe frosts has passed, and then plant the seed, the plants will not be killed. If the land is harrowed properly, the seed will be placed where it will germinate readily, and the harrowing frequently will be a positive benefit to the wheat. There usually is a crust formed on the land that should be broken in the spring, if the plants are to make the best growth. Sowing Clover Seed There are a few farmers who can do a good job of sowing clover seed by hand, but the proportion is small. Not many of the younger farmers have learned this art well enough so they can do the work well, and the cost of the education of the aver- age man for this work is great, considering the number of poor stands he must sow until he gets experience. It always is best to use a seeder, and there are many seeders on the market that are good. When the seed is to be sown on land that is not in a nurse crop, use a drill with a grass-seed attach- ment. The seed can be placed at a proper depth much better than when it is sown broadcast. 112 Making Money on Farm Crops Medium Red Clover Medium red clover also is known by such com- mon names as common red and broadleafed clover. In many cases it is called red clover, and the larger variety mammoth, to distinguish it. It has a spread- ing-upright habit of growth. Every plant contains several heads, usually many, and a clover field in bloom is a most beautiful sight. Pigs in the clover is one of the principal themes of farm poets. In most of the corn states, this crop is a bien- nial, but on the Pacific Coast it is a perennial. Even in the corn states, however, some of the plants seem to be perennial. And this condition also causes many of the fields in that section to last for more than two years : Wheat cutting, corn plowing and clover cutting come at the same time, in the latter part of June and the first part of July, and clover usually is the crop that must wait. Frequently, some of the seed gets ripe and shatters off when it is raked. Thus the plants tend to reseed the field. Red clover furnishes an excellent grade of hay, and is valuable for pasture, especially in the spring and fall. Most stock raisers pasture the crops early in the spring and in the fall, and they get some valuable feed at a time it is needed badly. Pastur- ing clover in the spring- is a positive advantage where there is trouble in getting it cut at the proper How to Grow Clover 113 time. The pasturing will delay the maturing for some time, until the rush of the harvest is past. And then, on very rich soils, it will tend to prevent the crop falling down. That is one of the disrepu- A Holstein champion. table things clover sometimes will do, where the soil is rich. If timothy is sown with the crop, it will tend to prevent this to a considerable extent, but pasturing also will aid materially. Getting the Stand One of the principal sources of failure in grow- ing clover is poor seed. Good seed is plump and 114 Making Money on Farm Crops bright, with the color ranging from violet to light brown. New seed usually has a hard seed-coat, and it may not be so desirable to sow as older seed. This seed-coat in clover and alfalfa is a deceptive thing. Usually the stand will be increased after the first lot of plants has come up. Many of the seeds, espe- cially if they are not old, have a hard seed-coat, and it takes some time for the moisture to bring about germination. Poor clover seed may be shriveled, and if it is, the germination usually is weak. Such seed gener- ally is dull-brown in color. Frequently the seed is adulterated or contains bad weeds that should pro- hibit its use as seed. The introduction of plantain, yellow trefoil and the like in red clover seed is too common, for a large percentage of such seed on the market contains these weed seeds. The only way to be sure the seed is all right is to have it tested. The botanical department of your state experiment station will do this work free, and you should send a sample to it. Buy clover seed only on sample, and have the sample tested before you accept the lot. The department will tell you the percentage of seeds that will grow, and the weed seeds that are contained. If you merely wish to make a germ- ination test, you can do it yourself. It is an in- teresting thing to do, even if the seed is tested at How to Grow Clover 115 the experiment station. Here is the method recom- mended by the U. S. Department of Agriculture: From the red clover seed, separated from all im- purities, a counted number, as 100, should be taken just as they come. These seeds should be placed between layers of moistened cloth or paper or merely covered in a bed of sand or light soil. The -germinating receptacle should be held at the tem- perature of a living room, varying between sixty- five and eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit. Between the third and sixth days, the sprouting ability of the seeds should be shown. Seeds which at the close of a week are still hard, not yielding to the pres- sure of a knife blade, are "hard'' seeds, and are to be considered little better than dead seeds for sow- ing. It should be borne in mind that the sowing value of the seed is represented by the amount of true clover which will germinate with reasonable promptness. Thus, if four-fifths of a sample is pure clover and but three-fourths of this clover will sprout, then only three-fifths or sixty per cent of the original seed as offered will grow. The exam- ination of the seed is facilitated by the use of a magnifier ; one is easily obtainable for about fifty cents. 116 Making Money on Farm Crops Yellow Trefoil in Red Clover Seed Red clover seed is adulterated with imported yellow trefoil, which resembles clover seed closely, and may easily escape detection. A small quantity of trefoil may appear incidentally in the clover seed. In cases of adulteration, thirty to forty per cent, or even fifty per cent, of the bulk may consist of tre- foil. The mixing of trefoil seed with better seed has practically all been done in this country. The devel- opment of pubHc interest in the matter of seed im- purities made within recent years, together with the publication of the names of dealers found to be handling adulterated seed, has resulted in a marked reduction in the importations of trefoil seed. A corresponding decrease in the quantity of red clover seed adulterated with trefoil has been observed. Tests of red clover seed made at the seed labora- tory of the U. S. Department of Agriculture show that trefoil is used as an adulterant in variable quan- tities, sometimes exceeding fifty per cent. In the majority of cases it has amounted to more than twenty per cent. The close similarity between tre- foil seed and red clover seed renders detection of the trefoil by the average purchaser improbable un- less sought especially with the aid of a magnifier. How to Grow Clover 117 If all seed was bought on sample, and the samples tested, this little graft would be eliminated. Inoculation for Red Clover Clover must be supplied with the nitrogen gath- ering bacteria that store the nitrogen of the air on its roots. If these bacteria are not present, there will be no nitrogen stored, and the clover will not do well. Inoculation for clover may be brought about by the use of pure cultures of the bacteria. This method, however, is rather uncertain, and even a trained specialist has a high percentage of fail- ures. It also is possible to apply the bacteria by spreading the leaves and stems, but the value of this method is not equal to that of spreading soil, from a field that is growing clover well, on the field it is desired to inoculate. Add 300 pounds of dirt from a field where the clover is thrifty and has large tubercles on the roots. Be certain the soil does not dry out while it is being transferred, as this will injure the bacteria. Harrow the field when the dirt is applied, so it will be mixed with the soil in good shape. When to Cut Medium Red Clover Cut the clover for hay just after the stems have passed full bloom. At this stage, there is a maxi- 118 Making Money on Farm Crops mum amount of protein and dry matter present, the leaves are still intact, and the stems are green. If it is cut much sooner, the stems will be sappy ' ^^^^^^^^B ^^^^^^^^^H md Clover on soil that has been limed. and hard to cure. However, where there is a large acreage of clover to cut, it is better to start just a little ahead of full bloom, for it is better to cut clover a little ahead of the ideal stage than too far past it. Clover loses its feeding value rapidly. That is where many farmers are making a mistake in growing this crop. Not only will the hay have a much higher feeding value if it is cut at the proper time, but the next crop will be larger. Handle the hay so it will reach the barn with the least possible loss of leaves, and the least ex- posure to the weather. The leaves, it should be remembered, are only about forty per cent of the crop, but they contain two-thirds of the protein, and that it what stockmen are after. How to Grow Clover 119 Let the hay wilt well in the swath, and then rake it. If it is to be loaded with a hay loader or gath- ered by a sweep rake, it usually is left in these wind- rows until it is ready to put in the stack or mow. Where there is a heavy crop, a tedder should be used on the hay before it is raked. Where rain falls, the hay then must be handled in the best way possi- ble to get the maximum value that remains. And along this line remember this : There is more dan- ger of "mow-burning" hay from the moisture on it than from moisture in it. Be very careful that you do not put hay in the mow or stack until this moist- ure has evaporated. When the crop is raked before the leaves are dried out, the water in the stems will be drawn into the leaves and evaporated. If the leaves do get too dry they should be let lay until dew falls, and they then may be raked without a great loss. Storing the Hay In this century of the world's progress, there is little excuse for stacking clover hay. Money in- vested in hay barns or sheds will return a high rate of interest, for clover hay is valuable, and it does not turn water well when stacked. If it is necessary to stack the hay, make large stacks, for such stacks will keep the hay with a smaller per- 120 Making Money on Farm Crops centage of loss than small stacks. Use a stacker. There are many stackers on the market that are good, and if you have a large acreage it will pay to get one. There are, however, some farms in rough sections where it is hard to use large stack- ers, because of the trouble in moving them. These farmers should use a pole stacker. Such a stacker may be constructed with little work or expense. How to Make a Pole Stacker In making a pole stacker, get a pole at least thirty feet long. This pole should be of timber that is light and strong. It is best to use cedar, but if you do use heavier timber, cut the tree two months before you will use it and put it up on sup- ports where it will dry. Get three wire ropes about forty-five feet long, for guy wires. The pole is revolved on a wooden block that serves as the base, and which has been sunk into the ground ten inches. A piece of steel should be placed on top of the block to make the pole turn easier, and the pole should have a piece of a rod of half-inch steel on the end that will go into the block several inches. This will hold the pole in place on the block. The guy wires are held on the top of the pole by a three-cornered piece of steel which has a place for wires to fasten in each corner. This steel should How to Grow Clover 121 have a hole in the center, and there must be a rod set in the upper end of the pole to go through this piece. The fork is attached to an arm bolted on the pole eight feet below the top. This arm should extend out from the pole twelve feet, with the outer This pole stacker is on runners, and is harder to move over rough ground than the one described. end slightly higher than the end at the pole. Fasten the outer end to the top by a logchain or wire rope. Dig the hole for the block, and place the pole in shape to raise, with two guy wires fastened to stakes on opposite sides of the pole. Then hitch a 122 Making Money on Farm Crops team on the third wire, and raise the pole. It is best to have the team hitched on a wagon that has a good brake, and hitch the guy wire to the wagon, for this gives better control, if it is desired to stop the pole at any certain place, for the weight of the wagon will aid in holding it. While raising the pole, the arm on the pole will swing away from the team, and have a man take hold of the fork rope and hold it to prevent the team pulling the pole past center, and over on the wagon. There should be an extra stake driven into the ground so when the pole is pulled in position the end of the rope fastened to the fork can be pulled tight and fastened, and this will hold the pole until the guy wire which was used to pull the pole up can be taken from the wagon and fastened to a stake. While the pole is being raised, have a man stand with a crowbar at the base to prevent shoving it along the ground before it starts to rise. It is best to put the outer end of the pole up on supports, and place a stake under the guy wire you pull by before you start to pull. Always use wire for the guys. Rope is uncer- tain and is apt to break. Have the wires long enough, and be sure the stakes are driven well into the ground. Having had the pleasure (?) of stack- ing hay when the pole fell down, the author gives How to Grow Clover 123 this advice from the heart. Use as light a fork as you can get, for lightness is much more important in the field than in a barn. Pull the forkful up with a horse, which a boy can lead. After the hay is in the air, swing it on the stack by revolving the pole with a crowbar run through a hole three feet from the ground. If the man who is handling the fork and the stacker will work together, they can place the hay on the stack where it is needed. They can build a big stack with but little more work than a small one. The stacking outfit that has been described is not ideal where there is a large acreage of hay to be stacked, and here a more elaborate machine should be used if it is decided not to put the hay in a barn. But on many small farms, the expense of such an outfit is not justified, and on others the land is so rough that they can not be moved easily. This outfit is especially adapted for such farms. After the stack is finished it should be covered with slough-grass or other coarse hay, which will turn the water better than clover hay. When Clover Hay is Placed in the Mow By far the best way is to place the hay under shelter. Just the reason for the continued stack- ing of a large part of the hay crop of the country 124 Making Money on Farm Crops is hard to determine in view of the well-known fact that when the saving in the quantity and quality of hay is considered, one can pay the interest and depreciation on money invested in barns, and get back the principal in four or five years, and all of the rest of the time the buildings stand they will return net profit. In constructing a hay shed or barn, do not make the mow wider than twenty- eight feet, and twenty-four feet is better. If it is wider, the labor of mowing away the hay is con- siderable. The barn can be made as long as is Mf^mmiMM It is much cheaper to load clover with power. needed. For use as a cattle or sheep barn, the method that commonly is used in the West is good. The hay in this type of barn comes to the ground, so there is no expense for a floor and heavy sup- How to Grow Clover 1&5 porting timbers. The sheds for stock are placed around the mow. In placing the hay in the mow, do not pile it up more than is necessary. If you scatter the hay so it is not piled deeply, it will be possible to place it in the barn when it has a fairly high moisture content, and still it will come out in good shape. When the hay is placed in either the barn or the stack with too high a moisture content, there is con- siderable danger of spontaneous combustion, which will result in the whole proposition going up in smoke and flame. There is no doubt that this "sponifus combusts," as it sometimes is called, would be much more common, especially in mows, if there were air where the ckemical action is going on. The charring of hay in either barn or stack is a common thing. Of course, the remedy for this is curing the hay properly. There is no excuse for having the hay heat. Charred hay has almost no feeding value. As a feed for use other than for hay, J. M. West- gate, agronomist in charge of the clover investiga- tions in the bureau of plant industry, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, has this to say : Red Clover for Ensilage "Red clover may be so readily utilized as pas- ture or hay that as a rule to ensile it usually will 12G Making Money on Farm Crops not pay; but if inclement weather ensues at the time of cutting for hay it is often advisable to ensile if the facilities are at hand. To make an ideal ensi- lage the crop should be cut a little earlier than is customary when cutting for hay, but early cutting is usually impracticable if hay is preferred, as the crop will be left uncut several days awaiting favor- able haying weather. Although the uncured plants are heavy to handle, to ensile them presents the ad- vantage of retaining all their leaves. If sweet silage is desired, it should be dried for an equivalent of three hours of good haying weather before being put into the silo. If a feed cutter is available, the clover should be cut before putting it into the silo. The second crop of clover when ensiled is best if mixed with some of the grasses or with Indian corn. The pure red clover silage is apt to be slimy. The more thoroughly it is packed down in the silo when filling the less likely it is to spoil. Red Clover as a Soiling Crop "Where pasturing is impracticable, red clover is often used as a soiling crop — that is, it is cut and fed green to live stock. Use in this way reduces or eliminates the danger from bloating which attends the use of red clover as pasture. It makes a good early feed, is palatable, and from six to ten tons of green feed an acre is not an unusual yield. How to Grow Clover 127 Red Clover for Pasture "Red clover is a most excellent pasture for all stock, especially when they are growing. For pigs, it should be supplemented with a small grain ra- tion, as this will induce much more rapid gains. The early growth of red clover is less nutritious pound for pound than when nearing or at the bloom- ing stage, since in the early stages of growth it is high in moisture content, thus requiring the ani- mals to eat relatively larger quantities. Further- more, close, early pasturing is injurious to the stand of clover. "Ordinarily, red clover will furnish some pasture during the first fall after spring seeding. It should not be too closely grazed at this time, for the suc- ceeding season's hay crop may be decreased. The plants should be allowed to go into the winter with some growth upon the crowns to prevent their win- ter-killing, and also to enable them to store up ma- terial in their roots for an early, vigorous growth the following spring. Bloating of Animals on Clover "When pasturing cattle or sheep on red clover, care must be taken not to pasture when the animals are very hungry, especially when the red clover is young and succulent or when wet with dew or rain, 128 Making Money on Farm Crops as bloating may result. Should bloating occur, sev- eral remedies are usually at hand which will afford ■mm Herefords on a clover pasture in Missouri. material relief. A large bit, the diameter of a pitch- fork handle, may be tied in the mouth ; a piece of rubber tubing may be passed through the mouth to the first stomach ; or, as a last resort, the animal may be tapped to allow the escape of gas. For this purpose a trocar, such as is used by veterinary sur- geons, is best ; but in the absence of this a small- bladed knife may be used to make the incision about six inches in front of and slightly below the left hip bone. A straw or quill may be used to permit the How to Grow Clover 129 escape of gas. Care should be taken not to allow the straw or quill to work down out of sight into the incision." Red Clover as a Feed All farm animals require protein in some form in order to make their best growth or to produce the best results either in the form of milk and but- ter, as in the case of dairy stock, or as eggs, in the case of poultry. The ordinary roughage, such as corn stover and ordinary grass hay, is low in the necessary protein. On many farms this protein is supplied by feeding such concentrates as bran, oil meal, or cottonseed meal ; but these concentrates are expensive and on most farms should be in large measure replaced by leguminous forage crops, such as red clover, which can be grown on the place. Red clover is one of the most highly nutritious forage plants, either in the green state or cured as hay. This table shows the results of experiments to determine the relative values of several kinds of feeds. Here is the digestible nutrients in and the feeding value of red clover and other forage crops : 130 Making Money on Farm Crops DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN AND FEEDINl. VALUE OF RED CLOVER AND OTHER FORAGE CROPS. m id +J o d ft Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds. c0 3 KIND OF FORAGE. £ °3 o 05 5£ -t-> :,.! ... ^y-^iMtM iflflifiiit In the wheat fields of Ohio. is made to keep livestock, and where meat produc- ing animals are kept, the manure is made available for the use of crops much more slowly than it is in corn sections where there is an abundance of 204 Making Money on Farm Crops moisture. This much is certain: If farmers in wheat sections do not make an effort to maintain soil fertility, the land will be in a worse condition when it is exhausted than the land in the corn belt, for the moisture and soil conditions will make a reconstructive type of farming harder to introduce. Fertilizers for Wheat A large amount of available nitrogen in the land has a bad effect on this crop. An excessive amount of soluble nitrates will cause wheat to lodge, or fail down. This is caused by the forcing of a Marketing wheat in the Palouse country of the Northwest. too rapid growth of the stem, which grows so fast it is not able to support itself. If there is too great an amount of nitrogen, the ground should be planted to corn, or some similar crop that can not be in- jured by too much plant food. Phosphorus is an element removed by wheat to Wheat as a Money Crop 205 a considerable extent, and is most apt to be ex- hausted by this plant. A proper amount of avail- able phosphorus is essential for wheat to mature profitable crops, and if it is not present in the soil, it should be supplied. Preparation of the Ground The seedbed for wheat should be plowed just as soon as possible after the crop that is grown has been harvested. Plowing is still the method most used in breaking the soil, and under most condi- Soft wheat on a field in southeastern Kansas that yielded 46 bushels an acre. The seed of this wheat came from the Kansas Experiment Station. tions it is the best way, although listing is all right under some conditions in the West. Ground for wheat should be plowed about five inches deep, or deeper, if it is plowed in July, but the depth of plow- ing should be decreased as the season advances. 206 Making Money on Farm Crops Probably four inches is the best depth for plowing, if the land is not broken until September. This early, deep plowing is important. Here are the results obtained at the Kansas Ex- periment Station with the seedbed for wheat pre- pared in different ways. On these wheat plats, Bearded Fife wheat was sown with a disk drill, at the rate of one and one-fourth bushels an acre. The wheat was sown on all plats the same day, Sept. 29 : Yield an acre in Cost an Value of Value METHOD OF PREPARATION. acre for prepara- crop at 80 cents less cost of prep- bushels tion bushel aration Disked, not plowed 4.29 $1.95 $ 3.42 $ 1.47 Plowed September 15, three inches deep 14.46 3.05 11.57 8.52 Plowed September 15, seven inches deep 15.79 3.55 12.63 9.08 Double disked July 15; plowed September 15, seven inches deep 23.57 4.35 18.85 14.50 Plowed August 15, seven inches deep. Not worked until Sept. 15.. 23.62 3.55 18.89 15.34 Plowed August 15, seven inches deep 27.74 3.90 22.19 18.29 Double disked July 15; plowed August 15, seven inches deep 32.68 4.70 26.14 21.44 Plowed July 15, three inches deep 33.46 4.45 26.77 22.32 Listed July 15, five inches deep. Ridges split Au- gust 15 34.35 3.75 27.48 23.73 Listed July 15, five inches deep. Worked down.. 35.07 3.70 28.05 24.35 Plowed July 15, seven inches deep 38.36 4.95 30.69 25.74 Wheat as a Money Crop 207 The cost of the various operations was figured as follows : $1.25 an acre for shallow plowing. 1.75 an acre for deep plowing. .75 an acre for listing. .40 an acre for disking. .35 an acre for Acme harrowing. .25 an acre for harrowing. .40 an acre for seeding. These results stated in another form show the following results: Land disked but not plowed cost $1.95 an acre for preparation, and produced four and one-half bushels of wheat an acre. The crop, when sold, re- turned $1.47 an acre over the cost of preparation of the land. Land plowed three inches deep (too shallow) September 15 (too late for best results) gave a yield of 14-J bushels, and a return of $8.52 an acre after paying for the labor required to prepare the ground. Land plowed at a proper depth, 7 inches, Sep- tember 15 (too late) produced 15J bushels an acre, and gave a return of $9.08 an acre after deducting the cost of preparation. Land double disked July 15, to stop the waste of moisture, and plowed seven inches deep Septem- 208 Making Money on Farm Crops ber 15 (too late for the best results, even when land has been previously disked) produced 23J bushels an acre, showing a return of $14.50 an acre after paying for the cost of preparation. Land plowed August 15, worked sufficient to preserve soil mulch thereafter, yielded 27f bushels an acre, with a net value of $18.29 an acre. Land plowed August 15, seven inches deep, not worked until September 15, showed a yield of 23 2-3 bushels an acre, and a return of $15.34 after deduct- ing the cost of preparation. Land double disked July 15, to save moisture, plowed August 15, seven inches deep, produced 34 2/3 bushels an acre, and gave a net return of $21.44. Land plowed July 15, three inches deep, (plowed at the right time but too shallow for the best re- sults) produced 33J bushels an acre, and a net re- turn of $22.32. Land listed July 15, five inches deep, ridges split August 15, gave a return of 34 1/3 bushels an acre, and $23.73 over all expenses. Land listed July 15, five inches deep, worked down level at once, to avoid waste of moisture, gave 35 bushels an acre, from which there was left $24.35 after paying the cost of preparation. Wheat as a Money Crop 209 Land plowed July 15 (the right time), seven inches deep, gave a yield of 38 1/3 bushels an acre, the highest yield in the experiment. After paying for the cost of preparation, there was left $25.74 an acre, the largest net return of any method under trial. These tests show that early, deep plowing for wheat is essential for the highest yields. Cultivate the Soil After the soil is plowed, it should be kept culti- vated during the summer in order to kill the weeds, A wheat field in August. The soil has been well disked, moisture is, being- conserved, soluble plant foods are being formed, and the seed-bed will be in splendid shape for the crop later. conserve moisture, and encourage the formation of available plant food. The ideal seedbed for wheat 210 Making Money on Farm Crops consists of firm, well-compacted soil, and to get this firm seedbed from a soil that has been plowed deeply requires time and cultivation. And remember this about the seedbed — if the seedbed is not fairly firm, if the soil has not been well prepared, there will not be good capillary connection of the soil with the subsoil, and if this capillary attraction is not re- stored, the subsoil water cannot be used by the growing plant. And if the young wheat plants can- not use the soil moisture promptly, they will not make a good growth before the winter sets in. If the wheat does not make a good growth in the fall, the young plants will be injured by the freezing of the ground, for the root system will not get well established. Use the Disk Disk the soil every two or three weeks after it is plowed until the seed is sown, if there is a growth of weeds and a firming of the soil by rain so it needs disking that often. Of course, if there is no rain, the soil need not be disked so often. But keep the ground stirred so the surface is kept loose, and evap- oration of soil water checked. Harrow the land well before the seed is planted. And when you plant the seed have this condition in the soil : H»ave the soil loose about as deep as the Wheat as a Money Crop 211 seed is planted, and below the seed the soil should be firm and have a good capillary attraction with the subsoil. The firm soil below supplies moisture for germination and growth, while the mellow soil above the seed allows a good circulation of soil air. It also aids in warming the soil, as it absorbs the heat from the sun during the day, and acts as a blanket over the soil to conserve this heat at night. Summer Fallowing for Wheat In general, the practice of fallowing should be discouraged, but there are some sections where it is almost necessary, such as under the conditions in western Kansas and Nebraska. Where the rainfall is not sufficient for the maximum production of wheat, good results have been obtained by summer fallowing, a-nd producing a crop once in two years. At the dry farming station at North Platte, Neb., some extensive work has been done in growing wheat in this manner. Five years' results compar- ing summer fallowing with continuous cropping is reported from the Nebraska Experiment Station. The following figures are given here because the information is conclusive for the Great Plains area, 212 Making Money on Farm Crops with respect to the comparative value of the fallow with continuous cropping: RELATION OF YIELD OF WINTER WHEAT TO AVAILABLE WATER. Summer Tilled YEAR. % CD S-< O Available water in upper six feet of soil at seeding time. ah "3 go Q-KM T-H i JH ts * ^ TO 0> Hce.S 1907 bushels 59.0 57.0 57.0 37.6 30.2 inches 7.0 8.2 7.0 7.6 inches 13.74 13.65 13.65 15.80 10.18 inches 1908 1908 20.65 21.85 1909 1910 22.80 17.68 Land Continuously Cropped 1907 .... 24.4 13.74 1908 20.8 1.9 13.65 15.55 1908 29.0 2.2 13.65 15.18 1909 19.0 1.1 15.80 16.90 1910 10.18 In commenting on these results, the writers say "that if the yields on the summer-tilled land for the four years preceding 1910 are divided by two, on account of the land being used two seasons to pro- duce one crop, there will be still three bushels an acre in favor of the summer-tilled land. The sum- mer-tilled land produced six bushels an acre more in two years than that produced on the land not summer-tilled. The seed required to produce two Wheat as a Money Crop 213 crops under ordinary methods of tillage is twice as much as that required to produce one crop on sum- mer-tilled land. The labor required to produce the two crops is much more than that required to pro- duce the one crop." These results do not mean that producing crops once in two years should be the rule where there is a proper amount of rainfall. Not at all. But where the moisture is so reduced that it will not, on an average, produce a good crop every year, growing a crop once in two years often is the most profit- able thing to do. Local Adaptation The country is divided into hard and soft wheat belts by moisture and soil conditions, and if one is in a hard wheat belt he should grow hard wheat, and if he is in a soft wheat belt he should grow soft wheat. Take, for example, the region around Hutch- inson, Kans., which is a good hard wheat country, hard wheat will do better there than soft wheat, and hard wheat should always be planted. But farther east, in eastern Kansas and Missouri, where there is more moisture, the soil is better adapted to growing soft wheat, and soft wheat should be sown. Durum wheat is coming into favor in some sec- tions. It produces larger crops in many places where . _ : Making Money on Farm Crops the rainfall is not large than does other wheat. Millers have discriminated against this wheat in the past, largely on account of trouble in grinding it. II fii The soil was well prepared. It is excessively hard, and most of the machinery that will handle ordinary wheat will not give good results with Durum wheat. There is no best variety of wheat for the whole country. Variety adaptations change with the change in communities, and the effort should be to Wheat as a Money Crop 215 get seed that will produce the largest yields under your conditions. Always be certain, when you buy new seed, that it is adapted to the conditions such as you have in your section. That is important. And the conditions vary markedly, even in short distances. Change in Hardness The degree of hardness in wheat varies mark- edly. There are all grades from the soft, starchy grains of the Pacific Coast wheat fields, in the white wheat sections, to the flinty kernels of Durum wheat. And hardness is not a fixed quality with a variety, either. If a seed of hard wheat is taken from the hard wheat section of Kansas, for example, to the southeastern part of the state, it will become softer. And if soft wheat is taken into a hard wheat sec- tion, it will tend to become harder. Wheat adapts itself to the moisture and soil conditions under which it is grown. The varieties of hard wheat are purer than those of soft wheat. Some varieties of hard wheat, Khar- kof for example, are practically pure. Make an ef- fort to keep the seed of the variety you grow pure. Be certain there is no mixing when your wheat is threshed. There is more mixing of seed wheat in threshing machines than in any other way. This not only happens with farmers on commercial work, 216 Making Money on Farm Crops but it also sometimes happens on experiment sta- tions, when several varieties are being threshed. One of the best ways to aid in cleaning out the separator, and getting it free from grain the neigh- bor grew, is to thresh oats or some other crop be- fore you thresh wheat. If you do have to start on wheat, do not save the first few loads for seed ; sell A Kansas wheat field. them to the elevator. You cannot be sure the ma- chine is free from wheat from the former setting when ten bushels have gone through, or even when 100 have been threshed, although you can be more certain with the higher amount. After you have obtained the seed and have pre- pared the land, the next problem is to plant the seed. Wheat always should be drilled. The depth will Wheat as a Money Crop 217 vary with the soil. For example, wheat may be sown deeper in a sandy soil than in a clay soil. Per- haps the average depth of planting is about one and one-half inches. The best time for sowing is a com- plicated problem, on account of the many factors that enter into it. The time depends on climatic conditions and the Hessian fly mostly. The prepa- ration and richness of the land also has something to do with it. If Hessian fly is bad in your locality, you should put the planting off late to escape it. If there is no danger from this fly, planting may be done earlier. There is no best time that can be stated for any locality, because the problem is so complicated, and the best time even will vary from year to year. The most important thing is to escape the Hessian fly. Amount of Seed to the Acre In general, too little seed is sown. From five to eight pecks is the proper amount under most condi- tions. There are few conditions where a seeding of less than five pecks will return maximum yields. But, of course, the exact amount will vary with the year and the variety, for the kernels in the different varieties vary markedly in size. Always fan wheat before it is sown. Every farmer who sows even a small acreage of wheat can afford to own a fanning mill. Two or more neigh- 218 Making Money on Farm Crops bors, however, should go together to purchase the outfit, and divide the cost. Get a power outfit, if you have a gasoline engine to run it, to reduce labor. Much of the wheat, especially in sections where considerable livestock is kept, is injured by pastur- ing. There are conditions — where the crop is grow- ing too rapidly during a warm period in the winter is an example — that pasturing may help, but these conditions are not common. So be careful with the pasturing, and do not pasture the crop at all unless the wheat has made a good growth. Do not pasture late in the spring in any case. The Enemies of Wheat Cheat is the worst wheat weed. So common is this pest, especially in soft wheat sections, and in such remarkable ways does it appear that it has given rise to the superstition, among some farmers, that wheat can turn to cheat. Of course, this is not true. Wheat will not turn to cheat any more than it will turn to corn. If you plant clean seed on ground free from the weed, and the seed is not scat- tered on the field in some other way, there will be no cheat in the wheat. Cheat seeds very abundantly, and a single plant has been known to produce more than three thousand seeds. This plant will stand more cold than wheat, and it is not attacked by common wheat insects, but it is not quite so vig- ? 220 Making Money on Farm Crops orous a grower. These facts explain why wheat will choke out cheat when it grows well, and why, after a hard winter, most of the fields seem to be cheat. The proper way to guard against cheat is always to sow clean seed. Wheat rust causes quite a bit of damage every year. There is no known remedy. Loose smut is a common disease that causes some loss, but it usually is not bad. The hot water treatment is used for this disease, but this treatment injures the germination power of the seed. Generally it is not necessary to treat the seed for this disease. Stinking smut, or "bunt," does considerable damage, in some sections. This disease affects the grains, which become considerably enlarged, and filled with a mass of spores. When these spores find their way into flour, they make it unfit for food. Losses from stinking smut frequently run from one- fourth to one-half of the crop, and this practically ruins the grain, of course, for there is no practical way to separate the diseased kernels from the sound ones. If this disease is present, immerse the wheat in- tended for seed in cold water, and the smut balls will rise to the surface, and then may be skimmed off. Then immerse the seed for 30 minutes in a solution of formalin, which has been mixed at the Wheat as a Money Crop 221 rate of one pound of 10 per cent formalin to 50 gal- lons of water. This usually will free the seed from smut spores. Insect Enemies of Wheat Chinch bugs are one of the worst insect wheat pests. After this insect gets into wheat, there is no practical method that can be used to eradicate it. The growers must take their loss. then. The de- zzmsmmz r. ■■■:.-,,. Preparing for wheat in Oregon. struction of the winter homes of the insect is one of the best methods of combatting chinch bugs. This has been used with considerable benefit by the department of entomology of the Kansas Agricul- tural College, in Sumner County, Kansas. The de- partment obtained the co-operation of the farmers 222 Making Money on Farm Crops there, and all the grass, stalks and other matter where the bugs could find winter quarters were burned, over many square miles. There was a re- markable decrease in the chinch bug damage the next year in that section when compared with sur- rounding counties. This burning of vegetable matter to destroy the winter quarters of chinch bugs is something that should be handled carefully, and the method should be used with due regard to the humus supply of the land. Practically all land needs all the humus it can get, and the vegetation should not be burned except where the good resulting from the killing of the bugs will more than pay for the loss of humus. There is no doubt, however, that there are many cases where it will pay. But there are other methods that can be used with considerable benefit. If the ground is disked soon after a small grain crop is cut, many insects will be destroyed. And as this is just what should be done to prepare the ground for a wheat crop, this method should be used much more extensively than it is now used. Every effort should be made to keep the bugs from going from wheat fields, after wheat has reached maturity and has been cut, to the corn fields. Tar and dust barriers may easily Wheat as a Money Crop 223 be constructed, so the bugs may be kept out of the corn, and it pays big to use them. The Hessian Fly The adult Hessian fly is a small, almost black two-winged insect which lays its eggs on young wheat in the fall. These eggs produce a larvae which crawls down within the leaf sheaves next to the stem, feeding upon the young plant and finally pass- ing into the pupal stage, which is ordinarily called the flaxseed stage with this insect, because at this stage it resembles a flax seed in general appearance. The insect passes the winter in this stage, and comes out and lays eggs upon the wheat in the spring. These eggs soon hatch, and the larvae produced are responsible for the greatest damage from the Hes- sian fly. The spring larvae go into the pupal stage, and remain in the wheat stubble, coming out as adults in September to deposit eggs upon the young wheat plants. The principal remedy for the Hes- sian fly is late sowing. It is often recommended to sow a catch strip around the field early and allow the eggs to be deposited in this wheat, sowing the rest of the wheat later. This catch strip can then be plowed under late in the season, thus destroying the insects. Rotation of crops also will tend to elim- inate this pest. In addition to the insects mentioned, 224 Making Money on Farm Crops the wheat bulb-worm, wheat midge, and some oth- ers cause damage in some sections. But the chinch bugs and Hessian fly are the two principal insects that damage growing wheat. Insects Affecting Stored Wheat There are many insects that affect stored wheat ; and most of these same insects also bother products that are made from wheat. It is a fight with insects all along the line, from the time the wheat comes up until it is delivered to the ultimate consumers. Fumigation with bisulphide of carbon, which you can purchase at any drug store, is the best remedy for all insects that affect stored wheat, under aver- age farm conditions. In elevators and mills, other remedies are available. Use one pound of carbon bisulphide to every thousand feet of space. When Should Wheat Be Cut? In the humid sections of the United States, wheat usually is cut when the straw begins to turn yellow, and when the grains still can be indented between the fingers, but after they have passed well out of the dough stage. There is an increase in the weight of the grain up until it is dead ripe, but the increase is the fastest up until it has reached the stage where it can be crushed, after it has passed out of the dough state. In the dryer sections, where 4^ ' A well-capped shock of wheat. Wheat will not bleach when it is shocked properly. Note the way the cap bundles are placed. 226 Making Money on Farm Crops there is little danger of damage from rain, wheat can be left for many days after it has become dead ripe, with but little damage. This is not true in humid sections, and it is better to cut the wheat a little green than it is to cut it too ripe, because wet weather may seriously damage the crop, and make the land too soft to carry the binders. Therefore, if one has a large wheat acreage, the wheat should be cut promptly. It always will pay to cap wheat shocks, in humid regions. Shock the bundles in round, medium- sized shocks, and use two cap sheaves. Break the heads and the Jnitts of these sheaves -before you place them on the shock, and then smooth them down, just before you leave the shock. This will tend to prevent the bundles blowing off. Shall We Thresh From the Shock? Thousands of bushels of wheat are lost, every year, by threshing from the shock, after waiting until the weather has damaged the grain. Never wait on a machine that "will be here the first of next week." Too many things can happen to the threshing rig, and there is too great a danger of loss from rain to make it profitable to afford to wait, is an axiom to be followed year after year. Always stack the grain when it is ready. There is not much Wheat as a Money Crop 227 loss of time, anyway, by doing this even if the ma- chine comes just as you finish stacking, when you consider the "deadhead" time of the men and teams while waiting when the machine is moving and when it breaks down. On the contrary, there may be a loss of most of the crop, if it is allowed to stand until a machine finally comes. The author has seen wheat that There is no hurry to get the threshing machine now. was cut in June and allowed to stand until the mid- dle of August, with the promise the machine would come soon. There are many cases like that every year. Effect of Exposure on Wheat L. A. Fitz, professor of milling industry in the Kansas Agricultural College, said, in speaking of 22S Making Money on Farm Crops the damage to wheat in the shock: "In addition to causing the bleached appearance and lowering the test weight, the exposure of wheat to rain and sun while standing in the shock causes many of the ker- nels to sprout, and sprouted wheat will not produce good, sound flour. Furthermore, the indications are that this excess moisture acquired in the field after harvest continues to be a source of injury to the quality until the wheat is dried either artificially or by natural means. "Sweat" in Wheat "Millers, as well as operators of country and terminal elevators, prefer wheat that has gone through the 'sweat.' The millers invariably hold that sweating in the stack improves weathered grain, and is much to be desired. Comparatively little is known as to what the process commonly re- ferred to as 'sweat of wheat 7 consists of. It is known that even after wheat is cut, the straw con- tains sufficient plant food to keep the kernels in a growing condition for some time, and a chemical or enzymic action within the plant by means of which this nutriment is transferred to the grain and stored as starch may continue for a considerable period. When wheat has been threshed before go- ing through the sweat, it is probable that a rear- Wheat as a Money Crop 229 rangement of the chemical constituents of the ker- nels still takes place, and this will account for the sweating of shock-threshed grain in the bin. "As chemical action is generally accompanied by the evolution of heat, this may account for the heat usually generated during the sweating process. The amount of heat generated appears to be influenced by the percentage of moisture present. Grain that has been sufficiently ripened and is also very dry will give little evidence through change in temper- ature that it is going through the sweating process. On the other hand, wheat cut in the hard-dough stage, or containing considerable moisture, goes into the sweat much more quickly when stacked ; the straw becomes very tough and a great deal of heat is evolved. Care should be exercised not to stack wheat of this character before it is allowed to cure out in the shock for a few days ; otherwise sufficient heat may be evolved, even in the stack, tO' injure the grain, in which case 'stack-burnt' wheat will result. "Cutting the grain seems to act as a sort of check upon this biological action, and it appears to remain in a dormant state until the assembling of the gram in large bulk brings on a condition favor- able to activity. When the grain is stacked, the straw permits to a limited extent the circulation of 230 Making Money on Farm Crops air through the stack, and this circulation affords a means of conducting away considerable of the heat generated in stacked grain. Heat-Damaged or "Bin-Burnt" Wheat "If wheat with a rather high moisture content is placed, before going through the. sweat, in a large bulk in a bin where there is very little chance for a circulation of air, and any heat generated by biolog- ical action is retained in the grain until finally the temperature becomes so high as to cause other High-yielding - wheat in Colorado. chemical changes within the kernels, the result is what is commonly known to the grain trade as heat- damaged or 'bin-burnt' wheat. This injury may extend simply into the branny coats and produce slightly heat-damaged or 'bran-burnt' wheat, or it Wheat as a Money Crop 231 may extend throughout the endosperm and pro- duce badly heat-damaged or 'bin-burnt' kernels. Wheat in this last condition is practically unfit for flour-making purposes. "There is little evidence as to whether this change or sweat which takes place in the bin is identical with that which takes place in the stack. It at least appears to have much the same effect on the milling and baking qualities, provided the wheat is not allowed to heat enough to become injured or 'bin-burnt.' Stacked Wheat is Easier to Thresh "If the farmer who properly stacks his wheat secures it against further loss from exposure to weather, while the one who allows his grain to stand in the shock from three to six weeks, waiting for the thresher, runs the risk of having it deterior- ate from No. 1 or No. 2 to No. 4 or even to 'no grade.' "Another gain which may result from properly stacking wheat is that it will come out of the stack dry and thresh out clean from chaff, thus prevent- ing the loss sustained when threshing bundles that are damp and tough from rain or dew. With the bundles in this damp condition, considerable wheat remains in the heads or is blown over as 'whitecaps,' 232 Making Money on Farm Crops and goes to the straw pile. This is usually a total loss, as much of the straw in the Great Plains area is burned. "Improvement in the quality and ^condition of the wheat is not the only benefit derived from stack- ing the crop. In addition to making the crop safe should several heavy rains come after harvest, which would prevent threshing and cause rapid de- terioration, the stack-threshed grain can be placed in tight bins and kept, or it can be shipped direct to market without imminent danger of heating and spoiling* in transit. Also, the shocks are removed from the field, so that plowing may be begun at once, and all good farmers readily agree that such early plowing is productive of good results in the next year's crop." Relation of Moisture Content to Test Weight There is a close relation to the rate of increase in the moisture content and the decrease in the test weight. This relation is not constant, but it is enough so that it can be counted on. And more than this : If there has been an increase in the moisture content, with a corresponding decrease in the test weight, a complete reverse action is not possible. Therefore, if the grain has been damaged by ex- posure or by being stored under improper condi- Wheat as a Money Crop 233 tions, it never will be so good as it was. The moral of this is obvious : Handle the grain properly if you desire the best price. But when the wheat is threshed, no matter whether from the shock or the stack, be certain of the men you have doing the pitching. Many thou- sands of bushels of grain go through threshing ma- Threshing in Kansas. chines and on the strawpiles every year because of "bonehead" pitching into the machine. No make of separator can do good work if the pitchers are slugging it all the time. For one thing, the sepa- rator man can not keep the concaves screwed up 234 Making Money on Farm Crops tight, for if he did, he would have to buy cylinder teeth by the thousand. All he can do, when he strikes an especially rotten bunch of pitchers, is to let the concaves down, in order to keep his machine going at all. As a result, the grain is -not knocked out of the heads. Then, even if it is knocked out of the heads, no machine can do a good job of sepa- ration if the grain is coming in bunches. How to Feed Bundles Into the Feeder Feed the bundles into the feeder in two rows, with the heads of a bundle on one side even with the band on a bundle on the opposite side. Always feed the bundles in heads first, to allow the cylinder a better chance to knock the grain out of the heads, as the bundles go through. If the bundles are fed into the machine in this way, in a steady, uniform manner, the separator man can put the concaves up tight, and the machine will have a chance to knock out the grain. Finally, always get men to do the pitching that you can depend on. For example, it is easy for pitchers who understand the proposition to choke up a machine, if they wish to, especially if the bundles are a little damp. Many of the stops with some machines are caused in just this way, and in others the machine is choked down as a result of just plain ignorance on the part of the pitchers, Wheat as a Money Crop a as Feed the grain into the machine properly, and give the separator a chance. If this is done, there will not be nearly so many green strawstacks on the farms in the fall. In Regard to Selling Wheat Market manipulation of prices has been reduced to a science, and an effort always is made by spec- ulators, who never have grown a bushel of wheat and do not intend to, to make a living from profits that should go to the growers. And they do, too, The man who has a bin is not affected by market manipulation at harvest time. aided by this almost criminal lack of business judg- ment which leads men to "dump" their wheat as soon, as it is grown. There is not the slightest use 236 Making Money on Farm Crops of all this mad scramble to sell the wheat crop every year, for the growers who hold their wheat make money by doing so. But you advance the old, time-frazzled explanation and excuse that "the farm- ers need the money?" Well, what of it? To begin with, not more than 25 per cent of the bell flock who "dump" their wheat really need the money, and those who do> easily can borrow it with the wheat as security. Wheat is good security. What is needed is more wheat bins on the farms. The grain then can be stored until the growers are ready to sell, and the roads are in good condition. When a grower has storage space for the grain he produces, he is much more independent than if he did not have this space. Good wheat bins are not expensive. The History of Wheat Wheat was cultivated in Egypt at least 5260 years ago. At least some grains of the bread plant were found in a brick taken from the pyramid of Dasher, built in 3359 B. C. Many of the writings on the oldest monuments of that country tell of the growing of wheat. The Egyptians called it "br." It was smaller grained than modern wheat. There are many accounts of wheat grain taken from mum- mies, and these grains have been planted, but they never have eerminated. Wheat as a Money Crop 23' The Chinese also cultivated wheat many years ago. In 2700 B. C. they instituted an annual cere- mony, in which the emperor and the princes took part, in the sowing of five kinds of seed, and wheat was one of the grains. Lake-dwellers in ancient Switzerland grew wheat, and they called it "Triti- The start of the trip to the "ultimate consumer. cum vulgare compactum muticum," which was about all the ancients could manage. Just where wheat first originated is an unsettled question, but most of the evidence points to the Euphrates valley, w r hich was the original home of man. From there it has spread over the world, and is the most im- portant bread crop, today. CHAPTER VIII. OATS ON CORNBELT FARMS CHAPTER VIII. OATS ON CORNBELT FARMS Place of Oats in the Rotation The Preparation of the Seedbed Oats for Semi-Arid Conditions Cleaning and Grading the Seed Rate of Seeding Oats Should Be Drilled When to Harvest Enemies of Oats Formalin Treatment for Smut Marketing Oats Preparation for Market Feeding Value of Oats Oats for Dairy Cows Utilization of Oats Straw Oats Crop of the World CHAPTER VIII. OATS ON CORNBELT FARMS Oats is the best horse feed. Its value for colts is especially great, and animals fed a liberal grain ration always have a better coat, and will stand work better than those that do not get oats. For these reasons, there should be an extension of the acreage of oats in the corn belt. The commercial oats of the country should be produced in sections especially adapted to their growth. At the prevailing- prices, farmers in the corn belt can not make so much profit from oats if they are sold on the market as they can from other crops, because if the oats are sold into the markets of the world they have to compete with the crops raised in sections where the moisture and soil con- ditions are especially favorable for oats production. So as a commercial grain, oats should be grown in sections where high yields of heavy oats is the rule, and the growing of this crop in other sections should be for furnishing feed for animals. And for this purpose it should be considered one of the essential crops of corn belt farms. 243 Making Money on Farm Crops Place of Oats in the Rotation Oats is especially adapted to growing between corn and wheat in the rotation. In arranging the rotation, remember this : If there are any natural barriers on your land to the spread of chinch bugs, such as creeks, get them between the wheat fields and the oats fields if possible, for this crop usually ripens after wheat, and many times chinch bugs mKam E^^Wm illlll : - : ililiii •eshing- oats in Montana. will move from the wheat after it has been cut, and do serious damage to the oats. As a nurse crop for clover and other legumes and grasses, oats is not so good as wheat. It is, however, used for this pur- pose some, notably in Illinois. Wheat ripens so it allows the grass or legume crop to become some- what used to the sun before the wheat is cut, and oats does not do this to so great an extent. Oats is somewhat similar to wheat in habit of Oats on Cornbelt Farms 243 growth. The culms, or stalks, are larger, and the tissue is softer. The height of the plant varies markedly with the fertility of the soil. The leg-al weight of a bushel of oats in the United States is 32 pounds, except in Idaho, where it is 36 ; Maine, Virginia and New Jersey, where it is 30, and in Maryland where it is 26. The legal weight in Can- ada is 34 pounds. The weight varies all the way from about 24 pounds to twice that, and usually will vary in every locality every year, except in some regions especially adapted to growing oats. The Preparation of the Seedbed Do not sow oats on land that has an excessively large amount of nitrogen present, or the crop will lodge, or fall down. This is an important point, for there is considerable loss every year in just this way. Take, for example, in fields along the creeks of the Middle West: Oats usually will grow well enough there on the main part of a field, but there usually is land along the creek banks where the sup- ply of available nitrogen is too great, and the crop falls down. Where this is the case, such land should be planted to corn for which it is especially adapted. The type of soil, if the land is not too rich, is of less importance with oats than with other crops. This crop does best on loam or clay soils, largely on account of the superior water-holding capacity of 244 Making Money on Farm Crops these soils. Oats require considerable moisture, but that does not mean they should be planted on ex- cessively wet land. Plow the land for oats in the fall, if possible. While plowing the land in the spring is a common, it does not produce yields nearly so large as fall plowed land. This is because there is not time for the soil to become compact, and in good condition for the crop. Oats do best in a rather firm seed- bed, with an inch or two of mellow soil to top. Seedbed preparation on a big scale in the West. This mellow soil allows the air to get to the seeds, it absorbs the heat of the sun readily, and is favor- able for the germination of the plants. Frequently, where the preparation of the seedbed is delayed until spring, it is possible to prepare a fair Oats on Cornbelt Farms 245 seedbed by disking. The seedbed does not have to be deep, as this is one of the most shallow-rooted crops. Do a thorough job of disking; sometimes a double-disking is enough, but frequently more culti- vation will pay well. Oats Seed At the Kansas station, the leading varieties of oats are : Red Texas, which has yielded an average of fifty-one bushels an acre ; Sixty-day, forty-five bushels ; Kherson, forty-four bushels, and Burt, forty-one. The seed should be drilled in the spring about as early as the ground can be worked. There are winter varieties of oats that are a success in the South, but their value in the middle northern states remains to be demonstrated yet, when they are compared with spring varieties. Oats for Semi-Arid Conditions There are a number of spring varieties of oats that withstand drought to a marked degree. Among the most promising are Sixty-Day, Kherson, Burt, and Swedish Select. These varieties are usually quick growers ; hence they are able to use to the best advantage the early spring moisture and by matur- ing early escape to a considerable extent the severe droughts which occur later in the season. The best basis for recommendations as to varieties for anv 246 .Making Money on Farm Crops given section is furnished by the variety trials con- ducted by the agricultural experiment stations, but these can not always be taken as a guide, as vari- eties which do well on the type of soil represented by the station may not succeed on some other type of soil in the same state. Cleaning and Grading the Seed Seed oats should be carefully screened and graded before sowing. This work is ordinarily done with the fanning mill, the light oats and some of the trash being taken out by a current of air, while the small oats and most of the weed seeds are removed by screens. The process should take out one-third or one-fourth of the oats, but if the seed is light, a much larger proportion should be removed by the fans. Many of the small, light oats will not germi- nate at all, while others produce weak plants, which materially reduce the yield. Screening also greatly reduces the proportion of weed seed, thus prevent- ing the spread of weeds and further favoring the growth of the oats crop. Experimental tests of graded seed naturally fall into two classes, one in which the same weight or measure of all the different grades of seed is sown, and one in which the same number of seeds is sown on the different plats. Most of the tests belong to. Oats on Cornbelt Farms 247 the first class, in which the same rate of seeding by weight is used for all grades. In a test of this kind which was conducted for eight years at the Kansas station, heavy seed gave an average yield of The last load. 30.9 bushels to the acre, common seed 29.9 bushels, and light seed 27.5 bushels. The common seed used was the seed as it came from the thresher, the light and heavy grades being obtained by running the seed through a fanning mill. These grades were 248 Making Money on Farm Crops usually taken from the ordinary seed, but in the last year of the experiment, when the greatest difference was noted, the heavy seed was taken from the heavy grade of the previous year and the light seed from the light grade. In an experiment conducted at the Ohio station for seven years average yields of -46,3, 44.8, and 42.6 bushels were obtained from the heavy, common, and light seed. The yield of straw and the weight were both slightly heavier from the heavy seed than from either of the other grades. At the Ontario, Canada, Experimental Farm even more marked results in favor of large seed were secured, using the same number of grains of each grade to the acre. In a seven-year test average yields of 62, 54.1 and 46.6 bushels to the acre were obtained from heavy, medium and light seeds, re- spectively. In a test in which the heavy seed was selected from the heavy grade and the light seed from the light grade of the previous year, the differ- ence in yield and in weight in favor of the heavy seed continually increased. The test was conducted for twelve years. The difference in weight in favor of the heavy seed in the first four-year period was 3.2 pounds to the bushel, in the second period six pounds, and in the third period 9.5 pounds. The dif- ferences in yield an acre were 10.4, 15.8, and 22A bushels, respectively, for the three periods. Oats on Cornbelt Farms 249 Rate of Seeding The rate of seeding depends on the locality, the condition and fertility of the soil, the method of seeding and the size of the seed. As with other crops, less seed is required in dry than in humid sec- tions. Fertile soils require less seed than poor ones, as on rich land the plants grow larger and tiller more. More seed should be sown on weedy land or on land not well prepared than on clean, mellow soil. Drilling requires less seed than sowing broadcast. More bushels of large-grained than of small-grained oats should be sown on an acre. The number of grains in a measured bushel of oats ranges from 500,000 to 750,000, according to the variety. The large-grained varieties usually grow ranker, and the plants occupy more space than the small-grained ones, but the difference in the size of the plants does not equalize the difference in thickness of stand caused by the greater number of plants produced by a bushel of small-grained oats. In general, the rate of seeding in the upper Mis- sissippi Valley ranges from eight to twelve pecks to the acre, but in the drier sections of the West this rate is reduced by half. In the irrigated sections six to eight pecks is the common rate. Where the usual rate in broadcast seeding is twelve pecks, ten pecks will be sufficient if the seed is drilled. 250 Making Money on Farm Crops Oats Should Be Drilled The seed cannot be put in with a drill if the ground is not well prepared. From one to two inches is the best depth for planting. The depth of planting does not affect the yield much, even if it is deeper than the figures mentioned, but there no reason for putting the seed down in the ground 4 **l^"« liters ' if«li; WSmXmS& Between acts in the drama of harvest. where much of the stored energy must be used in getting to the surface. The drilling of the seed is more important than it usually is supposed to be among farmers. The Kansas station has found there is a difference of from three to four bushels, on an average, in the yields of oats sown with a drill and those sown broadcast. Oats on Cornbelt Farms 251 When to Harvest Through much of the West, rust is one of the worst oats diseases, and causes serious loss. The main thing to do to prevent this disease is to grow varieties that are as nearly rust-proof as possible. The Red Texas variety is fairly rust-proof in Mis- souri. When rust gets in oats bad, about the best thing one can do is to cut them at once. The rust weakens the plant materially, so if there is a wet Place oats bundles in long shocks. period, the plants usually will fall down, and the crop then will be lost. But if the rust does not get in the crop, it should be cut in the hard dough stage. Frequently, the crop is cut in the milk stage, and the resulting hay is used without threshing. This 252 Making Money on Farm Crops produces a feed that has considerable value, and is a method especially good where there is some dif- ficulty in getting the crop threshed. Shock the oats in long shocks, with two bundles opposite each other. Proper shocking is important, and is harder to learn than proper shocking for wheat. The stems, on account of their soft structure and high percentage of water, are hard to cure, and frequently much loss occurs on account of stacking before they have cured properly. Setting the bundles up properly is an art too few farmers have learned. The bundles must be set so the heads fit in properly, but not so' they lean so much that they are apt to twist out of shape. The same principles will apply to threshing this crop as apply to wheat, and the same special care should be given to pitching the bundles into the feeder. Few separators get the grain out of the straw that they would get, if the bundles were fed into the machine properly. Enemies of Oats Weeds frequently damage this crop, for, like all spring-planted grains, weeds have a good chance to grow, especially if the crop starts slowly. Wild mustard is one of the principal weed enemies, and it may be eradicated by spraying at the rate of fifty Oats on Cornbelt Farms 253 gallons to the acre with a three per cent solution of copper sulphate. There is no remedy for rust except the one that has been given ; which is to get a variety as nearly rust-proof as possible. Not so, however, with smut. Smut in oats easily may be controlled by treating with a formalin solution. At the Illinois Experi- ment Station experiments have been carried on with treated and untreated seed for many years, and but 44 per cent of the treated plats ever showed any loss at all, and the damage, in every case, was slight. On the untreated plats grown under the same conditions, the damage has been from one-fourth of a bushel to thirteen bushels of grain, and a lowered quality every year. Therefore it is quite evident that it will pay well, when considered on the law of the average, to treat oats seed. Formalin Treatment for Smut To make the solution, use one pound of forty per cent formalin to forty gallons of water. Mix well by stirring. Spread a layer of oats on a tight floor or in a wagon box to a depth of about four inches. Sprinkle the top of the pile with the solution, stir the oats, and repeat the process until all the grain is dampened thoroughly. When the grains are damp- ened properly, shovel the grain into a pile, and cover 254 Making Money on Farm Crops with an old blanket or a canvas. Leave the pile covered for twelve hours, and then sow. Chinch bugs and grasshoppers are the worst in- sects that attack this plant. One should be espe- cially careful in regard to chinch bugs. These will go from wheat fields to the oats fields when the wheat is cut, and they may seriously damage an oats crop after the wheat has been injured. Tar or dust lines should be constructed to keep them out. Marketing Oats The greater portion of the oats crop of the United States is fed on the farms where it is grown. Ac- cording to the figures of the bureau of statistics of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in the ten years from 1900 to 1909, 28.7 per cent of the crop vas shipped out of the county where it was grown. The average annual shipment for the ten years was 246,- 000,000 bushels. The smallest proporton of the crop shipped out of the county where grown was of the small crop of 1901, 19.5 per cent, and the largest pro- portion was of the crop of 1909, the largest crop on record, 32.7 per cent. The largest shipment of any one crop was of that of 1909, nearly 330,000,000 bushels. Preparation for Market The grade of oats can often be raised by running; the grain through a fanning mill, removing the dirt, Oats on Cornbelt Farms 255 trash, weed seeds and light oats. Little attention is paid to the matter of dirt in market oats, however, either at country elevators or at the central markets, so that at present the farmer is hardly justified in cleaning his grain before marketing. Oats are oc- casionally clipped to increase the weight and the market price. By this process, a portion of the hull is removed from the tip of the grain, but as special machinery is required it is little used except in ele- vators. Bleaching with sulphur fumes or other chemical means is sometimes used in elevators to improve the appearance of oats. By this process grain which has been discolored from weathering or 256 Making Money on Farm Crops from heating in stack or bin is rendered bright and white in appearance. While it is probable that the bleaching process causes little damage to the feeding value of the grain, its germination is often materi- ally lowered, and bleached or purified grain should never be bought for seed without a satisfactory germination test. As weathering or heating usually diminishes the feeding value of grain, chemically purified grain is ordinarily somewhat lower in that respect than its appearance indicates. Feeding Value of Oats Both oats straw and grain have a high feeding value, if they are handled properly. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN OATS, OAT STRAW, AND OAT HAY, AS COMPARED WITH OTHER GRAINS AND GRAIN PRODUCTS. MATERIAL. as I Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds. Protein. Carbo- hydrates Fat. Gram: Oats Wheat Barley Corn Roughage: Oat Straw . . Wheat straw Barley straw Rye straw . . Corn stover . Hay: Oat Hay Timothy hay lbs. lbs. lbs. 89.0 9.2 47.3 89.5 10.2 69.2 89.1 8.7 65.6 89.1 7.9 66.7 90.8 1.2 38.6 90.1 .4 36.3 85.8 .7 41.2 92.9 .6 40.6 59.5 1.7 32.4 91.1 4.3 46.4 8G.8 2.8 43.4 lbs. 4.2 1.7 1.6 4.3 1.5 1.4 Oats on Cornbelt Farms 257 Oats are higher in protein than corn and about equal to wheat and barley. They are higher in ash than any of the other grains, and considerably higher in fat than either barley or wheat. On account of the hulls, oats contain the highest percentage of crude fiber, an undesirable element. Oat straw contains more protein and more fat than corn stover or the straw of any other small grain, according to C. W, Wiarburton of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. By far the larger part of the oats crop is fed to horses. It usually is fed whole. In the feeding of young colts and older animals with poor teeth, grinding or crushing the grain is of benefit. Musty grain should never be fed to stock. New oats should be fed with caution, as they are likely to have a de- cidedly loosening effect on the bowels. When oats are high in price, corn or other grains can be substi- tuted in part in the ration for horses. Oats for Dairy Cows The high protein content and readily digestible nature of oats make them an excellent feed for dairy cows. Often, however, they are too high in price to feed with profit. According to a test conducted by the Wisconsin station, oats, pound for pound, are somewhat more valuable than bran for milk produc- tion. On this basis, with bran at $25 a ton, oats are worth forty-four cents a bushel for dairy cows. The 258 Making Money on Farm Crops grain is usually fed whole, though it is sometimes crushed or ground or fed in the form of corn and oat feeds. Some of the prepared feeds bearing this name, however, contain a large percentage of oat hulls and little of the grain. Oats are excellent for feeding to calves, particularly to those of the dairy breeds. They seldom form an important part of the ration of fattening cattle. Oats are valuable for feeding to sheep, particu- larly to growing lambs and to ewes. While experi- ments show that this grain is only a little lower in feeding value than corn for fattening sheep, better results will be obtained by feeding corn and oats mixed than oats alone. Oats are usually fed un- ground. Breeding ewes should be fed a half pound of oats, bran, or peas daily, the selection of the grain depending on the availability and the relative prices of the different feeds. Sheaf oats make good feed for sheep as well as for other stock. Ground oats can be fed to young lambs with excellent results. Utilization of Oats Straw Oat straw is quite largely used for feeding to horses, cattle, and sheep. As a part of a main- tenance ration, it is of considerable value, being nearly equal to corn stover (the stalks with the ears removed). If the straw is of good quality there will Oats on Cornbelt Farms 259 be less waste in feeding than with stover. It is higher in feeding value and more palatable than the straw from any other small grain. A common prac- tice in feeding oats straw is to allow the animals to run to the stack at will. This is wasteful when lite W9 K'WmffU Stack oats straw carefully, and save all the feed possible. roughage is high in price, as much of the straw will be trampled under foot and worked into the manure. A better plan is to feed the straw from mangers or open racks, as there is much less waste from feeding in this way. Oats Crop of the World The oats crop of the world is nearly 3,700,000,000 bushels annually, most of which is produced in 260 Making Money on Farm Crops Europe and North America. The principal oats-pro- ducing countries are the United States, European Russia, Germany, France , and Canada. In the United States the greater portion of the crop is grown in the upper Mississippi Valley. Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Nebraska are the leading states in the production of oats. The annual crop of the United States is about 900,000,000 bushels. CHAPTER IX. THE SORGHUMS CHAPTER IX. THE SORGHUMS Soils for Kafir In Regard to the Seed When You Thresh Kafir Kafir as a Feed In Growing Milo Distribution of Milo Rate of Planting Milo CHAPTER IX. THE SORGHUMS Kafir, which now is the commonly accepted name of this crop instead of kafir corn, is a plant of comparatively recent introduction. In plant food requirements and feeding value it is somewhat simi- lar to corn, but it will produce larger crops on poor- er soils and with less moisture. That has made it a crop especially adapted to semi-arid conditions, and to thin upland soils that will not produce a large yield of corn. During a drought, the leaves curl up and the plant will stand almost dormant until more moisture comes, and it then will grow almost as well as before. This is an important property corn does not possess. The leaves have the power of closing the openings tighter, so the plant tissues are not so much injured by hot winds. Kansas is the banner kafir state, with about two million acres, and Butler county is the principal kafir county in that state, with an acreage of almost a hundred thousand acres. Kafir is the principal crop of that section, and at Eldorado, in that county 264 Making Money on Farm Crops a kafir festival, or fair, is held every fall that is the most complete thing of its kind in the world. Kafir 111 1 ^nf^^^^^^^^S^^^^B Mill A field of high-class kafir. Note that the heads are uniform; the seed is pure. was introduced into the United States about twenty- five years ago. The Sorghums 265 Soils for Kafir Kafir will grow on almost all soils, but it will do the best, of course, on deep, fertile loams. It will do well, however, even on thin upland soils, for it is able to make a better utilization of available plant food than is corn. It does not get more plant food and moisture by making a deeper growth, for on the contrary, this is a shallow-rooted crop, more so than corn. The roots are all in the first three feet, and most of them in the first eighteen inches of soil. It is drought resistant because of the remarkable de- velopment of fibrous roots in the top soil. This enables the plant to ger about all the moisture in the land. But kafir is not especially "hard" on land. It is no more so than corn. It is true that a crop like corn that is planted early in the spring does not do well after kafir, and the reason is this : Kafir grows late in the fall, and exhausts the land of moisture and available plant food, and as the winter comes soon and stops the development of soluble nitrates, there is a deficiency in the soil the next spring. The solu- ble nitrates will not develop until warm weather comes the following spring, and the land will break up cloddy so long as there is not a sufficient amount of moisture. Thus, early the next spring the land is in poor physical condition, and is lacking in avail- 266 Making Money on Farm Crops able plant food. The thing to do is to put this land in a crop like cowpeas that is planted late in the spring, after there has been time for a formation of soluble nitrates. Ground should be plowed deeply for kafir, and the seedbed should be as well prepared as for corn. Indeed, the killing of all weeds just before the seed is planted is even more important than for corn, for "Friends, Romans, countrymen. The Sorghums 267 the plants make a much slower start. Frequently, tiie grour»d is planted in the fall and winter, and this is a good practice, for it gives the soil time to weather, and there is a much better development of plant food than if the plowing was done just be- fore the seed is planted. Do not be in a hui ry to plant the seed. Kafir will not make a good growth until the soil is well warmed; it is hard on the plants to be planted until the soil is thoroughly warmed, and if they are planted too soon the seed will rot in the ground. The plants will make a slow growth the first few weeks, anyway, and the weeds will get a good chance to cause trouble under the best conditions. In Regard to the Seed Plant pure seed. The average kafir field usually consists of a mixture of three types of kafir seed and some cane thrown in for variety. The yields in these fields are not so great as they would be if good seed was used. It is easy to get pure seed, and if you keep out the mixtures, such as those one gets in a threshing machine, it will stay pure. Smut dam- ages some of the kafir of the country every year, and to be on the safe side, the seed always should be treated. This is the way to do it : Heat the seed for fifteen minutes in water at a temperature of from 268 Making Money on Farm Crops 132 to 134 degrees F., and the smut spores will be killed, while the seed will not be injured. Do not heat the seed higher than this, but it should be raised to that temperature or the smut spores may not be killed. Plant from six to eight pounds of seed an acre for both seed and forage. Cultivate kafir the same as corn. In the first few weeks of their life, the plants make a slow growth, and there is danger that grass and weeds may take the field. This is especially true if the m u^ >4 \i ■il««ilili Preparing- for kafir. weather is damp, for the cultivators will thus be kept out of the field, and conditons will be good for a rapid growth of grass. -Keep the cultivators going The Sorghums 209 all you can, and begin just as soon as you can after the plants come up. It requires from 110 to 135 days to properly ma- ture kafir. If the crop is planted late in the spring, this means it will not be ready to harvest until late in the fall. Much of the crop is cut with a corn binder, and that is one of the best ways to harvest it. If the binder is used, make small bundles, and shock them in small shocks; from twelve to fifteen bundles to the shock is enough. Most of the crop is headed in the fields with a wag"on box header, and the stalks then may be cut with a binder. After the seed is cut, it should be stored in covered sheds, so it will be protected from rain. Slat corn-cribs that are not wider than five feet and are covered are good places to store the seed until it is threshed. There should be no danger of heating with the seed stored in this way. Most of this complant every year about the heating of seed is caused by the seed being stored in too large quantities, or where it will not dry out. When You Thresh Kafir Kafir seed should be threshed without cracking it. Here is an important point about the threshing: Loosen up the machine and take out some of the concaves. If you do not do this, the seed will be cracked badly. Then clean the grain at once, and 270 Making Money on Farm Crops remove all of the dirt and kafir flour that is in the seed, for this will cause heating if you do not. Kafir will ferment when it is heated. Well-cleaned seed will allow the air to circulate freely, and there will be no danger of heating. Kafir as a Feed Kafir will compare well with corn, so far as the feeding value is concerned. The following table shows the relative value of the two grains : Carbo- Protein hydrates Fat Indian corn 7.8 66.7 1.6 Kafir corn 7.8 57.1 2.7 From this it will be seen that kafir corn can take the place of Indian corn as a feed. For comparison in digestibility reference should be made to the table above and to the following one that gives the per- centage of digestibility of kafir corn nutrients : Dry Carbo- Matter Protein hydrates Fat Kafir corn seed 53 46 * 60 46 Kafir corn fodder 61 38 66 61 Kafir corn stover 57 34 60 75 Much of the crop may be fed without heading or threshing, and cattle and horses do* well on this sort of feed, after they have time to get used to it. The grain should be fed separately to fattening animals. The grain is not quite so easy for the animals to The Sorghums 271 digest as corn. Kafir is splendidly adapted as a poultry feed. Figures recently furnished by thirty- three of the leading poultry feed companies of the country show a total annual output of thirty thou- sand tons, and more than ten thousand tons of kafir was used in this feed. In Growing Milo Milo, sometimes called milo maize, has been de- veloped rapidly in the last few years. When intro- i : -w--ry''' : ' ; ' : V:: ;: pp?; : | 1 * A , M- gL_ ; |li ;s g||ii:#;ll 111.-!' :* y ^S^M0^'^ ' 3 » If 1 In Missouri. duced into this country it had several very bad habits that rendered its general use unpopular. It stooled 272 Making Money on Farm Crops too abundantly, the long "gooseneck" heads curled down and there was a rather abundant branching. In the past four or five years, the development of milo as a grain crop has been progressing rapidly along desirable lines. The carefully selected milo of today is a great improvement over the common, unselected crop. Ordinary milo has been reduced by selection to a uniform height of from four to four and one-half feet in the Plains regions lying at an elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea level, or at an equivalent latitude. Through selection and thicker seeding, the heads have been changed from mostly pendent to mostly erect. All heads not lean- ing over more than thirty degrees from the perpen- dicular are classed as erect, since for all practical purposes they are erect. From seventy-five to ninety per cent have been brought to this position in different strains. Distribution of Milo C. R. Ball, in charge of the government sorghum investigations, in speaking of the distribution of milo, said : "Milo can be grown successfully on the lower plains of eastern Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, and southern Nebraska, where kafir varieties are now the leading grain sorghums. In this eastern section The Sorghums 273 of the plains, corn is ordinarily a profitable crop, and the acreage of milo will depend on seasonable variations. In dry years, milo should be largely grown there, but in wet years it will be replaced by corn to a considerable extent. "It seems probable that the limits of successful production of milo can be rapidly extended north- ward and westward from the present area. In 1907 milo was ripened at several points in eastern Colo- rado at elevations of 5,500 to 6,000 feet. It was fully matured at the agricultural experiment substa- tion at North Platte, in western Nebraska. 5 ' Rate of Planting Milo For the highest yields of grain, from five to six pounds of seed to the acre is sufficient, in rows three and one-half feet apart. Where the soil and mois- ture conditions are favorable thicker planting can be done. Several years' tests on the experimental farm of the Office of Grain Investigations, at Amarillo, in the northern part of the Texas Panhandle, show that one plant to every six inches of row gives the high- est grain yields under the average conditions ob- taining there. The soil on this farm is a good clay loam, the elevation is 3,600 feet above sea level, and the average annual rainfall about twenty-two inches. Four pounds of seed to the acre produce under these 274 Making Money on Farm Crops field conditions plants averaging six to eight inches apart — the desired stand. Thicker stands than this have generally been recommended for grain pro- duction, but are not desirable under Panhandle con- ditions. The cultivation and the harvesting will be largely the same as for kafir. Threshing is readily done in an ordinary grain separator. To avoid cracking a considerable pro- A "low-down" farm tractor. portion of the seed, the concaves may be replaced with boards or part of the concave and cylinder teeth removed. The speed of the cylinder should be The Sorghums 275 reduced to about 600 revolutions a minute. Where the threshed seed is intended for feeding to stock, there is no objection if much of it has been cracked in threshing. In fact, milo is usually cracked or Farm tractors are efficient. Power may be applied for all pur- poses, both at the draw-bar and the belt. ground before being fed to stock, because otherwise much of it passes through the cattle without being digested. But where intended for use as seed grain it is, of course worthless if cracked. The sorghums are a valuable group of plants, especially for that section of the country where rain- fall is apt to be scant, and are adapted to such a wide variety of uses that a greater acreage would be profitable. INDEX Page Alfalfa — Acid in soil 72 Bacteria 73 Bacteria, supplying- to soil 74 Baling- 86 Barns for 83 Breeding 63 Cutting 80 Curing the hay 82 Digestibility of 101 Disking 79 Disking seed-bed 75 Enemies of 91 Feeding value 99 For hogs 100 For horses 100 Getting a stand 71 Grades of 88 Grasshoppers in 91 Hay, composition of 101 Hay, loss by weathering 103 Hay measuring 90 Hay, moisture content. . 90 Hay worm 92 History of 104 Lime for 80 Manuring soil 73 Nutritive ratios 102 Production 69 Protein content 99 Seed 76 Seed production 92 Seed, when to cut 96 Soils for 72 Sowing 77 Stacking 84 Storing bales 89 Storing the hay 83 Straw, composition of . . . 98 When to cut ' 74 Carbon bisulphide 150 Cement drains 42 Chinch bugs 222 Chinch bugs in oats 2 54 Clover, adaptations of 107 Animals bloating on 127 Alsike 138 As a feed 129 Composition of 130 Page Enemies 135 For ensilage 125 Fungous diseases 137 For pasture 127 For seed 130 For seed, clipping first crop 131 Getting the stand 113 Hay "mow burning" . . . .119 Hay worm 136 Hay, storing 119 Hay sheds 124 How to grow 105 Huller 134 Clover insects 132 Inoculation for 117 In the rotation 109 Leaf diseases 137 Mammoth 137 Medium red 112 Medium red, when to cut 117 Potash for 109 Protein in 118 Raking the hay 118 Rust 137 Root borer 135 Seed, trefoil in 116 Seed 114 Seed, germination test.. 115 Soils for 108 Sowing the seed Ill As a soiling crop 126 Straw 134 White 139 White, for lawn 140 White, blooming period. .139 Commercial fertilizer, use of 30 Corn, Boone County White 55 Breeding for protein .... 55 Caring for the seed 58 Checking 172 Cultivation of 174 Depth of plowing for. . . .167 Depth of cultivation 174 Ear worm 193 Growing for profit 157 Importance of 159 Insect enemies 192 278 Index Page Insects 194 Judging 194 Land plowed in fall 166 Learning 54 Listing 169 Rate of planting 170 Rotations 166 Seed-bed preparation ...169 Seed, gathering the 160 Seed selection 159 Curing the seed 162 Seed "blood lines" 159 Seed ears 162 Seed, testing 164 Seed selection 56 Shrinkage of 190 Silage 177 Smut 191 Soils 165 Sub-soiling for 168 Time of planting 170 Thickness of planting. . .172 "Variety names 173 Weight of 191 Cowpeas, adaptations of... 143 After wheat 150 As a catch crop 150 As a green manure crop 37 As a rotation crop 141 Bacteria 143 Cultivation 146 Effect on a following wheat crop 38 Feeding value 152 For seed 148 For silage 153 For pasture 151 For green manure 150 Harvesting 147 Hay, stacking 148 Hay, curing 147 In semi-arid conditions 151 In corn rows 153 Planting 144 Seed 145 Seed, threshing 14 8 Seed weevil 149 Seed-bed 144 Varieties 155 Width of rows 145 Crop rotation 19 Crop breeding 52 Curing rack for corn 163 Drains 42 Protecting outlets 45 Drainage helps 40 In relation to drought... 40 Effects of 43 Page Farm crops, improvement of 49 Fanning mill 67 Fertilizers, complete 31 Proper use of 35 Testing soils for 33 Green manures 37 Hay presses 87 Heredity of crops 51 Hessian fly 223 Hogs of cowpea pastures. .151 Kafir 263 As a feed 270 Cultivation 268 Effects on soils 265 Harvesting 269 Introduction of 264 Roots 265 Seed-bed for 266 Seed 267 Soils 265 Smut 267 Threshing 269 Kansas, the banner kafir state 263 Legumes, acid soil for 20 Increased acreage 18 Need of 17 Availability 26 Composition 25 Limestone crushers 24 Ground 25 On Illinois soils 23 Lime, air-slaked 28 Burned 27 Classification 25 Effect on organic matter 2 5 Effect on plants 30 Equivalent weights 28 Hydrated 28 Influence of 21 Methods of application.. 23 Plants in relation to 29 Test for need 22 Litmus test for soil acidity 20 Magnesium carbonate .... 26 Manure 47 Mice in seed corn 162 Milo 271 As a grain crop 272 Distribution of 272 Harvesting 274 Rate of planting 273 Mowing machines 133 Nitrogen for corn 165 Get from air 31 From legumes 36 Oats, bleached 255 Cleaning the seed 246 Index 279 Page Commercial 241 Crop 259 Drilling 1 250 Enemies of 252 Feeding value 256 For semi-arid conditions 245 For sheep 258 For dairy cattle 257 Make long shocks 252 Marketing 254 On corn belt farms 239 Place of 242 Preparation of the seed- bed 243 Preparation for market. .254 Rate of seeding 249 Seed 245 Smut 253 Straw . . .• 258 Use fanning mill 246 When to harvest 251 Organic matter, effect of lime on 21 Phosphorus 32 Plant breeding 53 Pole stacker 120 Potassium 32 In relation to lime 21 Seed, treating of 64 Shredding, cost of 187 Shredding stover 185 Silage cutters 183 Silage for horses 185 For chickens 184 Silos, building 182 Capacities of 183 Cement 180 Cost 181 Kind to build 178 Profits from 177 Stave 180 Smut in wheat 66 Losses from 65 Soil management 48 Soils, flocculation of 21 Muck 32 Potassium in 32 Page Sorghums, The 2 61 Value of 275 Spontaneous combustion ..125 Stack covers 84 Swales 44 Tiles, cement, cost cf 46 Drain land quickly 46 Water, stagnant 41 Wheat, adaptations of va- rieties 213 Amount of seed 217 As a money crop 199 Bins 236 Bin-burnt 230 Breeding of 59 Cap the shocks 226 Change in hardness 215 Cleaning separator 216 Disking the soil 209 Durum 213 Enemies of 218 Exposure of 227 Feeding separator 233 Fertilizers 203 Fife 61 History of 236 Increase due to cowpeas. 38 Insect enemies 221 Milling tests 59 Mixing varieties 60 Moisture content 232 Opportunities in seed production 61 Rotations 202 Rust 220 Seed-bed preparation ..205 Selling 235 Smut 220 Soils, phosphorus for.... 204 Soils 201 Stacked 231 Summer fallowing 211 "Sweat" 228 Table showing yields. ... 39 Threshing 226 Use disk on seed-bed . . .210 Yields 212 The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book tells how to make more money from fruit. The main purpose of the author in writing the book was to set forth the most profitable methods of raising fruit. E. H. Favor, horticultural editor of The Fruit-Grower and Farmer, is the author. The volume consists of 288 pages with 60 illustrations, many of them full page. It is handsomely bound in cloth, and is a fine book for the library table. YOU ARE SURE OF A PROFIT if you follow the instructions of this essential guide. It tells how high-grade fruit may be produced at the least possible cost. It gives the proper ways to handle fruit trees from the time they are set until the fruit is sold. Do you know just the soils that are adapted to the different fruit crops? How the land should be prepared before the fruit trees or vines are set? Can you mix all the sprays, and vary the solutions properly for the various insects and diseases? THIS BOOK TELLS ALL THIS. In this book, the most profitable practices of prun- ing, thinning and cultivation are described. The chap- ter on frost protection alone is worth many times the cost of the book. HOW ABOUT PACKING? This guide tells how to make all the packs that com- monly are found on the markets. Are you interested in box packing? This book gives special attention to the standard box packs, with complete directions for begin- ners. The volume is complete and right up to the minute on all the best methods of fruit-growing. ORGANIZE A CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATION. Co-operation is essential for the best marketing. This guide tells of and gives the constitutions of the best co- operative associations in the country. Study this book, organize a co-operative association, and make more money from your fruit. The price of this volume, with the fine cloth binding, is one dollar, postpaid. Send for it today. Address FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER, St. Joseph, Mo. FRUIT-GROWER The editors of The Fruit-Grower and Farmer are practical farmers, and their principal aim in conducting the paper is to tell of the most profitable farm practices — the kinds that make farmers the most money. There is no space for impractical theory. Greater production and better selling methods are the two things most needed in American farming, for both will increase the profits. And increased profits are needed to buy the home com- forts that are needed to make life really worth while. Did your crops satisfy you last year? Were the money returns satisfactory? This paper will help you in using the best methods of farm practice, and help you in making more money. Don't you want this money during the coming year? MORE THAN ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND Farmers are now taking and paying for this paper. This list is now increasing rapidly, and every edition is larger than the one before. THE REASON IS THAT THE PAPER SHOWS HOW TO INCREASE THE CASH RETURNS FROM THE SOIL. There is much lost motion between farmers and con- sumers. It costs too much to market the food produced in the United States, under average conditions. Some farmers and groups of farmers, however, are using meth- ods that are eliminating the heavy selling cost of farm produce. Much space in the paper is taken up with tell- ing of marketing methods which have been successful. These stories are obtained by members of the editorial department who travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific to get them. ELIMINATE THE MIDDLEMEN by adopting the methods which have successfully been used. Learn of these methods in The Fruit-Grower and Farmer. AND FARMER The magazine is large, the editions frequently con- taining one hundred pages. It is printed on a high enamel paper, and the many cuts that are used show up in fine shape. It is a monthly magazine, and the numbers are mailed on the first of the month. IT IS A PAPER YOU NEED, FOR IT WILL AID YOU IN INCREASING HOME OF THE FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER. THE MONEY RETURNS FROM YOUR PLACE. Send in your subscription or a request for a sample copy today. A sample copy is free. The subscription price is one dollar for one year or two dollars for three years. Address FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER ST. JOSEPH, MISSOURI Best Books on Farming Here is a list of the leading 1 books on the topics that are given. In order to become a leader in the branch of farming you are handling, it will be necessary to get all the information along your line that is possible. Study this list; there are books here that will help you make more money. GENERAL AGRICULTURE American Cattle Doctor, by George H. Ladd, V. S., 367 pages $2.00 First Principles cf Soil Fertility, by Alfred Vivian, 265 pages $1.00 There is no subject of more vital importance to the farmer than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the soil In this book the author has given the gist of the subject in plain language, practically devoid of technical and scientific terms. Illustrated. Feeding Farm Animals, by Prof. Thomas Shaw, 500 pages $2.00 This book is intended alike for the student and the farmer. His book is unquestionably the most practical work which has appeared on the subject of feeding farm animals. Illustrated. How to Co-operate, by Herbert Myrick, 350 pages $1.00 This book tells how to manage a co-operative store, farm or factory, co-operative dairying, co-operative farmers' and women's exchanges, for both buying and selling. The directions given are based upon the actual experience of the successful co-operative enterprises in all parts of the United States. The character and usefulness of the book commend it to the attention of all men and women who desire to better their condition. Illustrated. Swine in America, by F. D. Coburn, 650 pages $2.50 This great book on hog-raising is a guide to every farmer and a text-book to every student. Every phase of hog raising is considered from a practical standpoint. If you have anything at all to do with hogs get this book. Best Books on Farming 285 Meadows and Pastures, by Joseph E. Wing .$1.50 The Book of Alfalfa, by F. D. Coburn, 336 pages 2.00 Clovers and How to Grow Them, by Thomas Shaw, 337 pages 1.00 The Landscape Beautiful, by F. A. Waugh, 336 pages 2.00 He presents a delightful study of the landscape in all its phases. All written in a most sympathetic and fascinating style. Corn Culture, by Plumb $1.00 This is the best book ever prepared that treats of corn culture from a thoroughly practical application of scientific principles. Should be in the library of every corn grower. Farm Management, by F. W. Card $2.00 The Science and Practice of Cheese-Making, by L. L. Van Slyke and C. A. Publow, 520 pages $1.75 Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, by Robinson.... 2.50 Farm Poultry, by Watson 1.50 Making Money on Farm Crops, by Floyd B. Nichols, agricul- tural editor of The Fruit-GroWer and Farmer 1.00 This book consists of 288 pages, and contains 79 illustrations. It is printed on a high quality enamel paper, and is bound in cloth. This book will show you how to increase your yields and eliminate lost motion in cultivating and handling crops. Alfalfa in America, by Joseph E. Wing $2.00 Money in Dairying, by H. B. Gurler 1.00 Systematic Bookkeeping for Farmers, by Fred M. Baird. ... 1.00 This book gives a simple and easily learned method of keep- ing farm accounts. It should be in the hands of all business farmers. Weeds and How to Eradicate Them, by Thomas Shaw $0.50 Fences, Gates and Bridges 50 Physics of Agriculture, by F. H. King 1.75 SOILS Soils, by C. W. Burkett $1.25 In this book, the essential facts of soil management are set forth in a pleasing and attractive manner. This book ought to be in the hands of every farmer in the United States. 286 Best Books on Farming Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, by C. G. Hopkins $2.25 This is a book that is of great value in the solving of soil problems. Soils, S. W. Fletcher $2.00 Soil, The, F. H. King 1.50 FARM MACHINERY Farm Machinery and Farm Motors, by J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase, 520 pages $2.00 Farm Machinery and Farm Motors is the first American book published on the subject of Farm Machinery since that written by J. J. Thomas in 1907. Modern farm machinery is indispensable in present-day farming and Farm Machinery and Farm Motors will fill a much-felt need. Profusely illustrated. Power and the Plow, by L. W. Ellis and E. A. Rumley. . . .$1.50 The first attempt at a complete scientific statement of the problems arising from the introduction of mechanical power to plowing. How to operate and care for tractors. Answers on Automobiles $1.50 Gives clear, concise and practical information on caring, run- ning and repairing. 512 pages with 380 drawings. Gasoline Engines on the Farm, by Zeno W. Putman, 556 pages, 179 illustrations $2.50 A practical treatise on gasoline and kerosene engines. Tells how to run and manage engines — how to apply to all kinds of work to best advantage, Farm Engines and How to Run Them, by J. H. Stephenson $1.00 Traction Engine, The, J. H. Maggard 1.00 FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING Bean Culture, by Glenn C. Sevey, B. S., 144 pages ....$0.50 Celery Culture, by W. R. Beattie, 150 pages $0.50 A practical guide for beginners and a standard reference of great interest to persons already engaged in celery growing. Fully illustrated. The New Onion Culture, by T. Greiner, 140 pages $0.50 A new method of growing onions of largest size and yield, on less land, than can be raised by the old plan. Illustrated. Best Books on Farming 287 Cabbage, Cauliflower, by C. L. Allen, 126 pages $0.50 A practical treatise on the various types and varieties of cab- bage, cauliflower, broccoli, sprouts-, kale, collards and kohl-rabi. American Fruit Culturist, by John J. Thomas, 75S pages. . .$2.50 Containing- practical directions for the propagation and cul- ture of all the fruits adapted to the United States. Richly illus- trated by nearly 300 engravings. Foundations of American Grape Culture, by T. V. Munson, 250 pages $2.00 Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing, by F. A. Waugh, 232 pages 1.00 Small Fruit Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller, 298 pages 1.00 The book covers the whole ground of propagating small fruit, their culture, varieties, packing for market, etc. It's thoroughly illustrated. Grape Culturist, 282 pages, by S. A. Fuller $1.50 This is one of the very best works on the culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions for all departments of propa- gation, culture, etc. With 150 excellent engravings illustrating planting, training and grafting. Tomato Culture, by Will W. Tracy, 150 pages $0.50 Asparagus, by F. M. Hexamer, 174 pages $0.50 Vegetable Gardening, by R. L. Watts, 550 pages 1.75 Principles of Fruit-Growing, by L. H. Bailey 1.50 A complete treatise on the practice of fruit-growing, com- prising an inventory of fruits and a full discussion of the tillage, planting and fertilizing fruit lands and the protection of fruit plants from disease, frosts and other dangers. The Fruit-Growers Guide- Book, by E. H. Favor, horticul- tural editor of The Fruit-Grower and Farmer $1.00 This book is the most practical, up-to-the-minute work ever written on fruit raising for the commercial orchardist, the home gardener and the student. It is an up-to-date, modern book for the man with thousands of trees, as well as for the man with a few trees in his dooryard. It contains information that can be applied every day in the work of handling a fruit planta- tion. It is bound in a handsome cloth binding. 288 Best Books on Farming The Nursery Book, by L. H. Bailey $1.50 A complete guide to the multiplication of plants. A standard work for nurserymen. Revised and enlarged. The Potato, Grubb and Guilford $2.00 Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions, Paddock and Whipple $1.50 INSECTS Economic Entomology, by J. B. Smith $2.50 Insects and Insecticides, by C. W. Weed 1.50 Insects Injurious to Fruits, by W. Saunders 2.00 Insects Injurious to Staple Crops, by E. D. Sanderson 1.50 Injurious Insects, O'Kanc 2.00 All of the listed books will be sent postpaid on receipt of the price. And no matter whether a book is listed here or not, we can get it for you at the publisher's price. Tell us your book wants. Address FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER ST. JOSEPH, MISSOURI WAR 11 1913 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 0002bfll33fc,D i