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THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 A STUDY OF ORIGINS 
 AND TENDENCIES 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK WEBSTER SMITH, PH.D. 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 
 
 JOHN CALVIN HANNA 
 
 SUPERVISOR OF HIGH SCHOOLS, 
 STATE OF ILLINOIS. 
 
 STURGIS & WALTON 
 
 COMPANY 
 
 1916 
 
.5 6 
 
 Copyright 1916 
 By STURGIS & WALTON COMPANY 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916 
 
 DEC 30 1316 
 
 ^CI.A453354 
 
TO MY PARENTS 
 HITHER AND YON. 
 
CHAPTER 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 
 
 XI 
 
 XII 
 
 XIII 
 
 XIV 
 
 XV 
 
 XVI 
 
 XVII 
 
 XVIII 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction ix 
 
 Preface - xvii 
 
 Secondary Education in Primitive Times i 
 
 Secondary Education in Primitive Tribes To-day 21 
 
 Secondary Training in Homer and Hesiod ... 39 
 
 Secondary Education in Greece — Early Historic 
 Period .- 48 
 
 Secondary Education in Greece — Later Historic 
 Period 61 
 
 Secondary Education in Plato and Aristotle . . 73 
 
 Secondary Education in Rome — Early Period . 99 
 
 Secondary Education in Rome — Later Period . no 
 
 Secondary Education in Quintilian and Cicero . 129 
 
 Jesus, Teacher — New Principles of Education 164 
 
 Secondary Education in the Early Christian 
 Centuries 184 
 
 Secondary Education from the Sixth Century to 
 the Early University Period 193 
 
 Secondary Education in the Early University 
 Period 213 
 
 Foundations of a New Secondary School . . . 235 
 
 Secondary Education in the Early Renaissance 240 
 
 Secondary Education in the Late Renaissance . 252 
 
 Notable Contributions of the Renaissance to 
 Secondary Education — a General Summary . 273 
 
 Seventeenth-Eighteenth Century Movements in 
 
 Secondary Education 285 
 
 vii 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XIX Secondary Education in the Nineteenth Century 
 
 — General History 293 
 
 XX Secondary Education in the Nineteenth Century 
 
 — Principles and Practice 314 
 
 XXI The High School — Development of Secondary 
 
 Education in the United States 323 
 
 XXII A Review of the Evolution of Secondary Educa- 
 tion from Different View-Points 343 
 
 XXIII The High School of the Twentieth Century — 
 
 Programs of Studies and Curricula .... 359 
 
 XXIV The High School of the Twentieth Century — 
 
 Principles and Method 409 
 
 XXV The High School of the Twentieth Century — 
 
 Organization, Equipment, Administration . . 421 
 
 Graphic Summary Insert 
 
 Bibliography 443 
 
 Index ; ... 453 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 The high school is coming into its own. Secondary edu- 
 cation has begun lately to assume a prominence and to have 
 a recognized importance such as would be suggested by the 
 priority of its development. 
 
 As the painstaking historical survey in the following chap- 
 ters makes clear, formal secondary education was developed 
 ages before any need for organized elementary education 
 arose. The latter came later as a necessity following the 
 development of written language. Such a historical study 
 of secondary education is of value because it is a study 
 of a great development, an examination of secondary edu- 
 cation as an important and interesting sociological phenom- 
 enon. It is, besides, a practical investigation of the varied 
 applications of means to ends that have been developed in 
 each of the epochs of secondary education. It presents a 
 study of a pivotal institution and of its relations to different 
 times and conditions. 
 
 The aim toward which the present movement in educa- 
 tion is tending is universal complete education within the 
 limits of the public school period. This of course means 
 that the number of high schools must be increased many 
 times, and these high schools, in order to meet present and 
 future social conditions, must evolve out of historic educa- 
 tion. 
 
 The present book may well serve as an aid in studying 
 this great movement and in guiding it with historic judg- 
 ment. To study a problem we must know its roots. The 
 study thus becomes of immediate practical value to every 
 teacher and parent of adolescents. Through its suggestive- 
 ness we may be guided in recognizing the right aims of high 
 school training, in harmonizing practice with sound theory, 
 and in adapting curriculum making, method, and teacher- 
 
 ix 
 
x INTRODUCTION 
 
 training to the actual purposes of the school that the com- 
 munity establishes and maintains for its youth. 
 
 It seems a work of supererogation to insist upon this 
 clearness of view and this honesty and intelligence of effort, 
 but any examination of the high schools of the country in 
 their actual work will reveal in many places a woeful lack 
 of clear vision and of honest, intelligent effort. 
 
 There are two great changes that have come about in the 
 social life of the United States within the last fifty years — 
 one in our population, the other in our education. At first 
 these two changes may seem to be wholly unrelated, and 
 when one attempts to account for them historically he finds 
 himself wandering far a-field and traveling apparently now 
 in one direction, then in another. 
 
 These are the two changes : — In 1867 the United States 
 Commissioner of Education made the statement, in answer 
 to an inquiry, that there were then about forty public high 
 schools in this country. In 19 15 there were eleven thou- 
 sand five hundred public high schools. This is an increase 
 of nearly thirty thousand per cent. The increase in popula- 
 tion in that time was about one hundred and fifty per cent. 
 In 1867, there was one public high school to every nine 
 hundred and fifty thousand of the population, in 19 15 one 
 public high school to every eight thousand five hundred. 
 
 This means that within less than fifty years the public 
 high school idea has become firmly established in this coun- 
 try. At the earlier date only a small proportion of the 
 population believed that it was the duty of the State to 
 furnish free secondary education to the boys and girls of 
 the country. In the minds of most men at that time, public 
 school education included only what we now call elementary 
 education. An overwhelming majority of the voters of this 
 country in 1867 therefore believed that the State had per- 
 formed its full duty toward the rising generation when it 
 furnished free schooling from the age of six to the age of 
 fourteen. Eight years was the highest limit of the average 
 American's conception of a public education. 
 
 At the present time, with an investment of not less than 
 two hundred million dollars in public high school buildings, 
 
INTRODUCTION xi 
 
 with the constant employment of fifty-eight thousand high 
 school teachers at regular salaries, and with a total annual 
 outlay, on high school education, of over sixty million dol- 
 lars raised by general taxation, we may fairly conclude 
 that the average voter believes that it is the duty of the 
 State to furnish to its boys and girls a public school educa- 
 tion that includes four years in the high school, — that the 
 public school should open its doors to the youth of the 
 country from the age of six to the age of eighteen or twenty. 
 Within fifty years therefore the conception held by the peo- 
 ple of the United States as to what constitutes a public 
 school education has increased till the standard length of a 
 boy's or girl's schooling at the State's expense has risen to 
 twelve years instead of eight, — a fifty per cent, expansion of 
 public opinion on this vital matter. This is one change that 
 has come, and it is a most significant and far-reaching one. 
 
 The other great change concerns the character of our 
 population and is equally vital, far-reaching, and significant, 
 though it does not primarily suggest congratulation, encour- 
 agement, and a feeling of optimism. 
 
 All of us Americans — excepting a few Indians — are 
 immigrants or descendants of comparatively recent immi- 
 grants. No American family can trace an American abid- 
 ing place farther back than a dozen generations or so. All 
 of us have ancestors, within a few generations back, who 
 were born " in the old country." 
 
 And the particular old country from which those ances- 
 tors came we can usually name for ourselves, even though, 
 as is frequently the case, we cannot give the Christian name 
 of the original immigrant. In the average American audi- 
 ence of fifty years ago, — and in many rural districts this 
 is still the case, — a speaker could look his audience over 
 and, though all were personally strangers to him, he could 
 name the list of countries and stocks from which their an- 
 cestors came, and this would be the list : England, Ireland, 
 Scotland, Wales, Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, Swit- 
 zerland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Those twelve 
 countries included the old homes of nine-tenths of the fam- 
 ilies of America in 1867. Countries and peoples differed 
 
xii INTRODUCTION 
 
 in detail, and each contributed its element of value to the 
 " melting pot " in which the American stock was being 
 fused. But in all these elements of population there was 
 vastly more of similarity than of difference in the essential 
 things. There was in all of them the possibility of Ameri- 
 canism ; there was good, sound, healthy race stock on which 
 could be grafted the ideas and the ideals that together make 
 " America." There was, moreover, in all of them a devel- 
 opment due to hundreds of years of race training through 
 the great struggle in those lands toward freedom and the 
 ideals which go to make up Americanism, and consequently 
 the material for self-government was ready for the great ex- 
 periment in the new land. The remarkable studies by Pro- 
 fessor Edward A. Ross of the University of Wisconsin, 
 published in the Century Magazine under the title, " The 
 Effect of Immigration upon Race " (and since printed in 
 book form), deal with this matter as the limits set by this 
 chapter will not allow, and far more brilliantly and convinc- 
 ingly than can be done by the present writer. 
 
 Immigration has increased amazingly since that period 
 and has gone on with little interruption until temporarily 
 stopped by the present war. A million immigrants a year 
 have been pouring into the country to become American 
 citizens, — an addition of from one to two per cent, of for- 
 eigners to the total population every year, and a much larger 
 percentage when calculated upon the basis of adult male 
 population. 
 
 While all the countries named above are represented every 
 year in the tide of immigration, their actual contributions, 
 in most instances, and their proportion of the total in nearly 
 every instance, have decreased. As we all know, this is 
 largely owing to the fact that streams of immigrants have 
 been coming in larger and progressively increasing numbers 
 from countries and stocks very slightly represented in our 
 earlier immigration. Italians, Austrians, Magyars, Bul- 
 garians, Roumanians, Russians, Servians, Slovaks, Slove- 
 nians, Ruthenians, Croatians, Bohemians, Poles, Lithua- 
 nians, Finns, Greeks, Armenians, Syrians, Turks, even 
 Arabs and Hindoos, — these are races represented increas- 
 
INTRODUCTION xiii 
 
 ingly, and some of them in very large numbers, in the im- 
 migration of the last half century. 
 
 This change in immigration is bound to have a tremen- 
 dous effect upon the character of the American race. The 
 serious question arises what the effect will be upon Ameri- 
 can ideals, institutions, and customs. 
 
 This is a fair question and one that is not to be construed 
 as a reflection upon any of these newer Americans or the 
 lands from which they come. Just as there are manifest 
 differences between the stocks that came from the twelve 
 countries in the first list named above, so there are differ- 
 ences between the peoples of the second list ; and an honest 
 and impartial examination will convince the student that 
 there are even more manifest and striking differences between 
 the immigrants who come to our shores from these latter 
 eighteen or twenty race stocks and those who came from 
 the others. This certainty is true when one considers their 
 preparation, historically and sociologically, for American 
 citizenship and the likelihood that they will assist in preserv- 
 ing and developing the ideals whose working out has pro- 
 duced what we call " America." The writer believes that 
 such a judgment will receive the support of any educated and 
 fair-minded Italian or Russian or Pole or Greek or Magyar 
 or representative of any other people who has studied Amer- 
 ican institutions. At the same time each new-comer may 
 point out and emphasize, as he should, the strong points 
 of character in the people of his own race and may declare 
 his optimistic belief in a glorious and manifest destiny for 
 the new American that shall come out of this " melting 
 pot," and with this optimism and this faith and this prophecy 
 we have no quarrel. No man knoweth; the future is on 
 the knees of the gods. We are learning more and more to 
 make ourselves the intelligent and loyal instruments in the 
 hands of Providence to fulfill the best of prophecy. " Kis- 
 met " is comfortable as a solace in the face of trouble, but 
 it belongs not to the Occidental mind. Rather do we, with 
 reverence, say : " Our Father worketh hitherto, and we 
 work." 
 
 In view of the immense mass of unprepared material that 
 
xiv INTRODUCTION 
 
 is coming into the digestive system of America, in view 
 of a thousand changes in immigration, in transportation, 
 and in political, sociological and economic conditions, in 
 view of the great unrest of the last decade, we may, with- 
 out deserving the charge of " little Americanism," inquire 
 whether the tremendous change in the character, the pre- 
 paredness, and the moving impulse of this later immigra- 
 tion is not coming about so fast as to warn us of a real 
 danger to free institutions. These institutions are still to 
 undergo their greatest test, and to rouse us to do all that 
 may be done to meet the situation and to solve the problem. 
 
 In those last three words is the real challenge. We may 
 talk of restricting immigration, but it is not likely to be done, 
 — at least not as long as we are governed by political par- 
 ties—unless, indeed, the great war stirs our lawmakers 
 more than seems likely. No political party would seriously 
 advocate any such restriction and attempt to make good such 
 a plank in its platform, for the reason, narrow but potent, 
 that the leaders of that party would be sure to lose the next 
 election. The difficulty lies in the great American compla- 
 cency, the feeling that Uncle Sam can not only " whip all 
 creation," but can, on short notice, receive all comers and 
 transform them without delay into intelligent, loyal Amer- 
 ican citizens. The problem, therefore, is to do this very 
 thing. And there is and must remain one chief factor in 
 bringing about that longed for result, the making of the 
 " oppressed of all the earth " into good American stock fit 
 for self-government. It is the public school, which, in or- 
 der to do its work with any hope of achievement, must have 
 all the wealth that can be spared to it, all the wisdom of all 
 the wise men, and all the devotion of all of us, more or less 
 wise and all loyal. 
 
 And here appears the connection between these two great 
 changes in American life that have been coming about si- 
 multaneously within the last half century, — simultaneously, 
 ;but seemingly with no possible relation to one other, — on 
 the one hand the development of the public high school idea, 
 the increase of fifty per cent, in the conception of the aver- 
 age American citizen as to what he owes in the way of 
 
INTRODUCTION xv 
 
 public free education to the boys and girls of the country ; 
 on the other hand, the great change in the character of the 
 prevalent immigration, with the possible and even probable 
 change in the character of the race itself. 
 
 If it be noble in man to rethink the thoughts of God, it 
 may be right to conceive Him as viewing the great, new 
 chosen land of opportunity and experiment, a land abound- 
 ing in resource and energy and sifted stock, and deciding in 
 His wisdom to give to that land two gifts. One gift is in the 
 form of a burden, responsibility, millions of peasants from 
 untrained races, from unfamiliar nooks and corners of the 
 earth, from lands, some of them, with little of achievement 
 in the world's history, all to be made over into a united 
 people fit for self-government. The other gift is a change 
 in American hearts, a broadening of vision, an increase in 
 the conception of what an education means. Let us say 
 that the Almighty has given us the raw immigrant with one 
 hand, and, with the other, the American public school sys- 
 tem, of which the most vital part is the American High 
 School, a creation unique in all educational history, and 
 that now He demands of us the wise and loyal use of one 
 gift for the development of the other. 
 
 With such a view, we cannot study with too great care, 
 too great open-mindedness, or too great devotion the de- 
 velopment and character of the American Public High 
 School. 
 
 John Calvin Hanna, 
 State Supervisor of High Schools, Illinois. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 One of the most significant phenomena in secondary edu- 
 cation of the present decade is the increase in literature on 
 the High School. This is an indication that the most char- 
 acteristic school in our system is beginning to receive the 
 attention it merits as the determining factor in American 
 education. All the current books however approach the 
 matter principally from the hither side. Even the historical 
 books, most of them devoted to noted individual schools, 
 have described or discussed only the more modern phases 
 of secondary education. These books however have ren- 
 dered a distinct service on the historical side and make it 
 unnecessary to take up the more recent epochs of the sec- 
 ondary school with the same fulness required by earlier 
 epochs. 
 
 We need to approach the subject from both the near and 
 the far side. The present book attempts to study the high 
 school as an evolution. The author has placed himself in- 
 side the facts and conditions of each epoch and has tried 
 to interpret its spirit. This aids us materially in inter- 
 preting the present. We are impressed in a new way with 
 the principles of education, and, as we study the growth of 
 means and ends and the modifications that have been made 
 to meet religious, social, political, and industrial conditions 
 as they have changed at different periods for more than 
 thirty centuries, we gain new view-points for studying pres- 
 ent problems and for adapting secondary education to new 
 times. 
 
 The author hopes he has written a book that cannot be 
 characterized as doctrinaire, that he has succeeded in getting 
 into the life of the secondary school and thus in adding to 
 various chapters qualities of concreteness and reality. In 
 the superintendence of public schools, in teaching and super- 
 
 xvii 
 
xviii AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 vision in high school and academy, in the training of high 
 school teachers in normal school and university department 
 of education, and in supervision of and participation in the 
 training of high school graduates for teaching in elementary 
 schools, he has had opportunity to observe the work of the 
 high school from various angles. His study has brought him 
 into close sympathy with the education of the adolescent and 
 has given him larger faith in its possibilities and a broad in- 
 terest enhanced by the fact that his own boys are just entering 
 or approaching the high school period. 
 
 The author has also had special opportunities to make 
 long and careful investigation of historic secondary educa- 
 tion from many and varied sources, ancient and modern, 
 primary and secondary. 
 
 In gathering material he is under obligations for gener- 
 ous responses by educators in all parts of the country who 
 have furnished him with their latest high school programs 
 of studies. He is under special obligations to Mr. John 
 Calvin Hanna, Supervisor of High Schools of the State of 
 Illinois, who has written the illuminating introduction, to 
 Professor William Estabrook Chancellor, of the College of 
 Wooster, who has read the manuscript and made valuable 
 suggestions, and to Dr. Charles Hughes Johnston, of the 
 University of Illinois, who has supplied an advance copy 
 of the new terminology. For all who have thus assisted 
 and encouraged him the author here records his warm ap- 
 preciation and thanks. 
 
 Prospect, Paterson, N. J., 
 
 October 23, 19 16. 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 As adolescence is the central and determining period in human 
 development, so the High School is the central and determin- 
 ing school in our system of education. It is the key to the 
 future development of the nation. 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN PRIMITIVE TIMES 
 
 The point of view. — If we are to have a comprehensive 
 view of the evolution of educational forms, we must take as 
 our starting point the ideas of tribes that nourished beyond the 
 confines of recorded history. It is therefore the object of this 
 first chapter to discover and examine the acquisitions of these 
 primitive times and discover the means of transmitting and per- 
 petuating them, i. e., the provisions for education. 
 
 It is difficult to gain even a faint conception of prehistoric 
 life and thought. If we can forget our modern modes of 
 thought and shut our eyes to our surroundings, we may hope 
 in some degree to realize the position of primitive peoples. We 
 must get rid of our complexities, of our tendency to pass over 
 steps in processes, — to eliminate in thought parts of a series 
 and bring remote and near together. We must as far as pos- 
 sible place ourselves at the point of view of these ancient tribes, 
 bearing in mind that life, thought, and expression were very 
 simple and moved by short stages; for industrial life, social 
 organization, religious conceptions and feelings, and mental 
 and physical life generally were just beginning, as far as their 
 evolution in the human family is concerned. We must think 
 even more simply and directly than do the plainest of modern 
 men. 
 
 Means of studying primitive times. — There is no highway 
 for reaching prehistoric times, but there are several pathways. 
 Again there is no body of definite information ready made, on 
 which we may lay our hands after indefinite journeyings. Yet 
 the people of these primitive times have left embedded in the 
 strata of civilization, and sometimes in the soil they occupied, 
 various evidences that, through inference and analogy, may be 
 
 i 
 
2 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 used to make out a fragmentary story of their lives. Often 
 some piece of their handiwork comes to view to give something 
 more tangible as to their thought and action. In addition to 
 this, habits of thought, customs, ideals, and forms and formulae 
 in which their wisdom was condensed to make its transmission 
 more secure, were handed on indefinitely. Some of them 
 appear in faded outline, and sometimes in bold relief, in early 
 historic peoples and serve, now as focusing points for investiga- 
 tion, and again as guides along the paths to prehistoric times. 
 Slowly, with unstinted effort, students have forced their way 
 back and have been able to picture in general outline the move- 
 ments and life of the earliest peoples, to tell their story, and to 
 make plain their ideas and modes of doing things. 1 
 
 Organization of primitive society. — The organization of 
 primitive society was based on the family. The family grown 
 large — the ancient clan and tribe — simply continued the 
 characteristic family organization, modifying it enough to adapt 
 it to a larger and more complex unit. Each family, clan, or 
 tribe was an end in itself, an exclusive unit, looking on all out- 
 side as strangers, and virtually as enemies. The " barbarian " 
 of the Greeks and the " gentile " of the Hebrews are relics of 
 this old organization and its attendant thought. The struggle 
 of patricians and plebeians at Rome grew out of the same tribal 
 solidarity. 
 
 The bonds of union of this primitive society were blood and 
 religion. 2 But these two bonds were really one, as they 
 were different sides of the same central force. The primitive 
 family unit and the series of subordinate units bound to it, as 
 sons gained families of their own, 3 were indissolubly bound 
 together and were subject to the many-sided power of the 
 father of the central family. The father was legislator, magis- 
 trate, priest, — the all-pervasive governing force of ' all. 4 
 They looked up to him when alive ; they worshipped him when 
 dead. He controlled their lives in life. In death he still pre- 
 
 1 See Appendix I for a more specific description of sources. 
 
 2 De Coulanges, Ancient City, 15, 16, 49-52, 174. See generally Book 
 I and Book III : 1. 
 
 3 Do., 149, 153; Von Ihering, Evolution of the Aryan, 32 ff. See 
 Appendix II, 11. 
 
 4 De Coulanges, op. cit, 112 ft., 116, 149, 153, 301, 302. 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES 3 
 
 sided over them; and it was one of their supreme objects to 
 secure his favor. 5 The hearth worship, with its lares and 
 penates, that figured so prominently in historical times, had its 
 chief significance in this ancestor worship. The family in this 
 broader sense also included various persons who were depend- 
 ents in one degree or another. The family thus constituted 
 what is called the clan. It had its own worship, its altar, its 
 tomb, and its general organization, distinct from those of every 
 other clan. 8 Altar and tomb were its centers. The clan 
 was a compact and forceful group. The group prescribed and 
 dominated; the individual was entirely subordinate; his life 
 was the life of the group. 7 
 
 Religious significance of acts. — From the very organization 
 of early society it naturally resulted that every act and event 
 had its religious significance, representing either the favor or 
 the displeasure of the gods. 8 
 
 Law an outgrowth of religion. — Even the ordinary rela- 
 tions of life, finally included in political and civil law, had their 
 ground and origin in the universal blood relationships, which, 
 we have seen, were really religious ones. The law was, in an 
 important sense, an outgrowth of religion. 9 
 
 5 De Coulanges, Ancient City, 15, 16, 23, 24 ff., 44, 49. 
 
 6 Do., op. cit., 149-153. 
 
 7 Do., 49-52, 293-98, 301-302; Appendix 11:8, 11. 
 
 € Thus a multitude of forms and rites and their accompanying 
 formulae arose to meet the varied acts of life, and to secure divine 
 favor or ward off divine displeasure. Do., op. cit., 21 ff., 23 ff., 49, 
 217 ff., 223 ff. ; Appendix II : 8. 
 
 In the evolution of the state, religion became differentiated into dif- 
 ferent departments, just as the father's power separated into various 
 functions of government, each presided over by a separate functionary. 
 Religion still dominated the whole life, however, as either a serious or 
 an oppressive influence binding closely to forms and ceremonies, or as 
 a joyful bond of life. 
 
 In time religious influence became less dominant after the manner of 
 primitive modes and types, and even became, at certain times and 
 places, divorced from life to a greater or less extent. But the ideal 
 still was that it should infuse life, giving it meaning and supplying 
 and moulding ideals, though this infusion was entirely different in 
 spirit, form, and attitudes from the earlier type. 
 
 To family religion in course of time was added a more external re- 
 ligion — worship of the powers of nature. The Roman came also to 
 worship various deities representing abstract ideas that had special in- 
 fluence with men — Virtus, Fides, etc. 
 
 9 Do., op. cit., 248 ff. 
 
4 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 What then were the acquisitions that primitive peoples, under 
 this simple and impressive organization, accumulated and must 
 hand on? 
 
 Acquisitions to be transmitted, i. Social and polit- 
 ical. — From their organization itself social and political 
 facts, and correlatively social and political forms, suggested 
 and impressed themselves. Thence came tribal rules and cus- 
 toms. Eventually laws developed. These things, with the 
 more intimate tribal possessions, — its traditions, its rites, its 
 relations and interrelations, its social feelings and bonds, — 
 formed an important body of knowledge and sentiments to be 
 transmitted. 10 
 
 2. Tribal history. — Tribal and national history was 
 forming 11 and was constantly outgrowing itself or modify- 
 ing itself through race amalgamations and confederacies, and 
 so was constantly becoming more intricate. 
 
 3. Nature facts. — Again primitive man was face to face 
 with nature, which suggested operations necessary for his liveli- 
 hood and guided him in them. As he cooperated with nature 
 to supply the needs of existence, various industrial facts and 
 processes drew his attention and were impressed on his 
 mind. 12 As peoples and experience grew, the field of 
 knowledge grew correspondingly. Discoveries multiplied, and 
 crude inventions suggested themselves. To simple nature- 
 knowledge was in time added more complex and scientific 
 knowledge. These acquisitions were not understood, but were 
 grasped in a merely external and practical way. They were 
 however vital and were prized accordingly. 
 
 4. Religious facts. — These classes of facts and relations 
 
 10 Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, II : vii-xv, and preface 
 generally, 1, 2, 87, 88, et passim. De Coulanges, op. cit., 149-153, 154-158, 
 167-176, 248 ff., 301-2; Vedic Hymns, Mandalas I, 114; VII, 56; X, 78; 
 Zend Avesta, Fargard 4; Seebohm, Tribal System of Wales, 64, 71, 87. 
 The last author's English Village Community will also be interesting as 
 indicating the strength of early customs and their relation to tribal integ- 
 rity. Though referring to a much later time than the one we are con- 
 sidering they illustrate in a general way the points here made. 
 
 11 Hewitt, op. cit., I: xiv, 78-83; II: vii-xv, 306; Appendix II: 4. 
 
 12 Hewitt, op. cit., I: xi, 7, 64; II: vii-xv, 1, 2; Vedic Hymns, Man. 
 1 : 43, 165, 168 ; V : 54, 58, 61, etc. ; Zend Avesta, Fargards III, VII ; 
 Appendix II : 3, 7. 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES 5 
 
 had to do with the visible. But primitive man was also face 
 to face with forces that he could not see, but could merely 
 feel, — with mystery, with spirit life, which we characterize as 
 fetishistic. The relations and feelings thus impressed, added 
 to those developed by family organization, were his religion. 
 He must meet them in appropriate ways, — by acts and rites, 
 by formula and sacrifice, by sacred dance, by symbol and 
 altar. 13 Primitive awe, which was perhaps the starting 
 point on this side of life, early grew into these simple and nat- 
 ural forms. The dance is a constant element in primitive 
 religion. Here was rhythm of body. On the other hand 
 appears the rhythm of language in the hymn, 14 which was 
 also an early development. Rhythm impressed and attracted. 
 In fact it would be fair to say that rhythm in one form and 
 another is one of the most fundamental modes of expression 
 and meets with universal response. 
 
 5. The physical. — The physical life 15 also expressed it- 
 self in simple and natural modes, such impulsive and instinctive 
 modes as children adopt. Here again the dance played a part, 
 and games are as old as man, 
 
 6. Art. — Finally a crude art was growing, taking the 
 forms of symbols and rude representations. The starting 
 point here was found in religious forms, as indicated by what 
 has just been said. Primitive man was fond of the symbolic, 
 and it appears again and again in line, circle, spiral, and rude 
 figure. 16 Art grew apace. It was not long, measured by 
 developmental epochs, before art came to serve practical and 
 esthetic ideas by highly artistic forms. 17 
 
 7. Tribal institutions. — In connection with these acqui- 
 sitions there grew up certain organizations and institutions 
 which focussed and enforced the characteristic knowledge of 
 the community. Here came in religious ceremonies and festiv- 
 als, all the social forms in which the social units expressed 
 
 13 Hewitt, op. cit., I : x, xiv, xv, 78, 83 ; II : i, 2, 87, 88 ; Appendix, 
 8, 10; Vedic Hymns, Man. I: 165, etc.; VII: 46; VIII: 7; Zend Avesta, 
 Fargards III, VII, XIV. 
 
 14 De Coulanges, op. cit., 49 ; Vedic Hymns, passim. 
 is Do., Man., V:54. 14; V:s8; VIII : 20. 
 
 is Do., Man., I: 134; V: 53, 54. 60; VI: 66, 
 17 Ripley, Races of Europe, 486 ff. 
 
6 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 themselves, and all official programs connected with social and 
 political organization. 18 
 
 Primitive education. — Thus primitive man slowly accum- 
 ulated a body of knowledge, beliefs, and forms. They were 
 tested and approved by practical use, or enforced by instinct 
 and the impressiveness and mystery of his surroundings, 
 according as the point of view was that of landholding, liveli- 
 hood and community existence, or that of the impingement of 
 the spirit world. His experiences, as he faced the conditions 
 of survival and progress, were intense, impressed by various 
 labors and discomforts and by the joys of conquest that were 
 involved in pioneering the way to guiding-facts of life. What 
 he had gained was naturally held with great tenacity and per- 
 petuated with great care. Its transmission was education. 
 
 Transmission-forms. The myth. — The form which some 
 of the most valued parts of this knowledge took was determined 
 by primitive man's attitude toward the physical world. Nature 
 appeared to him to be full of life, full of marvels. It thus 
 inspired awe and superstition and confronted him with spirit 
 everywhere. As he had constant dealings with these unseen 
 and impressive forces, he must express himself about them, and 
 he naturally spoke of them in terms of life. He readily per- 
 sonified nature. Very early began a kind of folk-lore, which 
 with us goes under the name of myth or legend but was serious 
 fact to the inventors. Primitive ideas were naturally concrete 
 and picturesque, for they followed primitive impulses. The 
 myth was the natural form of expression, as natural for them 
 as the exactness of narrative is for us, and it embodied truth 
 for them as fully as our soberer narrations do for us. There 
 was no self-deception, and no attempt to deceive others, — at 
 least on the part of the masses who perpetuated the myth. 
 
 Growth of myth. — We may trace the growth of myth, 
 which in an important sense, as we have seen, was ancient his- 
 
 18 As to the matter of primitive acquisitions generally see Hall, Old- 
 est Civ. of Greece ; Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece ; Greenidge, Roman 
 Pub. Life, (Chap. I, sections I, 3, 4, 5) ; Seebohm, The tribal Sys. of 
 Wales, 64, 71, 87 ; Barton, Semitic Origins, 80 ff., 95, 98, 314-15, 317, et al. 
 See also various references in Vedic Hymns and Zend Avesta. The 
 various references will show something of the scope of acquisitions and 
 various details. We are here chiefly concerned only with the general. 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES 7 
 
 tory, from the simple nature tale, through tribal and national 
 tales, to the individual hero-tales of the Aryans, 19 with their 
 infinite crossings and transfusions. In the development of this 
 form of thought and expression special conservators of national 
 myths arose, forming groups or classes, wjio, as our refer- 
 ences show, were both directly and indirectly teachers. 20 Again 
 special laws and forms of composition were developed to insure 
 regularity and exactness. 21 
 
 Hero-tales — Ballads. — Some of the most interesting ex- 
 amples of this class of folk-lore are the rhythmic tales that 
 describe the deeds of heroes and heroic tribes and nations. 22 
 They were songs and ballads, which were natural means of oral 
 transmission, appealing to fundamental instincts. We may 
 trace the growth of ballad literature from simple form to grow- 
 ing epic. In connection with the ballad we find the rhapsodist 
 who developed this powerful instrument of information and 
 education to a high degree of efficiency and spread ballad-lore 
 assiduously. There were schools of rhapsodists to foster and 
 develop this form of transmission. 
 
 Proverbs, etc. — Along with the myth-growth various bits 
 of practical wisdom were taking the form of adage and proverb 
 that not only secured conciseness and the verbal exactness 
 characteristic of the oral transmission of specially important 
 facts in primitive times, but attracted attention and aided 
 memory. 
 
 Thus in connection with the various interests and rela- 
 tions of clan life and the life which grew out of it there 
 grew up a large body of folk-lore, — hero-tales, tales of national 
 exploits and movements, songs and hymns, proverbs and 
 maxims, formulae (religious and legal, or better religio-legal), 
 and religious calendars, all of which were to become the posses- 
 sion of the true clansman or tribesman. 23 
 
 19 Hewitt, op. cit., I: xi, xiv, 7, 76-83, 86, 519, 521 ff., 539 ff., 556 ff. ; 
 II: vii-xv, 89 ff., 306; Appendix II: 3, 4, 7. 
 
 20 Story tellers, etc., in different nations. 
 
 21 Hewitt, op. cit., I : xi, xiv, xv, 81 ; II : vii-xv, 306 ; Appendix II : 
 
 3, 4, 7. 
 
 22 Hero tales were a later development than tales of national ex- 
 ploits. 
 
 23 De Coulanges, op. cit., 23, 24, 29-31, 49, 52, 210, 223, 226, 248; 
 Vedic Hymns, Man. VII : 56; V: 59, et al; Miiller's Preface to first ed. 
 
8 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Relics of this folklore, particularly the ballad and the epic. 
 
 — Many fragments of this folk-lore have come down to us, 
 sometimes with various accretions gathered through the ages, 
 sometimes embedded in larger and more modern creations, 
 sometimes transformed, but sometimes again with little or no 
 change or obscuration. Vedic hymns, the Zend Avesta, the 
 XII Tables, and the Laws of Manu give us valuable informa- 
 tion as to the thought and ideals of remote ages. Particularly 
 interesting here are the great national epics that have grown 
 out of the wealth of ballad literature of still earlier ages, when 
 the ballad was the natural mode of literary expression. Thus 
 we have the Ramayana and Mahabharata of India, the Iliad 
 and Odyssey of Greece, and later epics giving corresponding 
 revelations of later peoples, — the Shah Nameh of Persia, the 
 Kalevala of the Finns, the Niebelungenlied and Beowulf of 
 the Teutons, and the French Song of Roland. These epics 
 not only give us insight into the life of the time, but they sug- 
 gest one of the most powerful educational forces. 
 
 Forms of education. — We now see something of the en- 
 vironment of the prehistoric boy. His training, whether nat- 
 ural or artificial, consisted in giving him power over this 
 environment through possession of the knowledge-acquisitions 
 of his race and through practice. What particularly interests 
 us here, however, is the special form that this training took. 
 Here we are met by three typical questions : — What was the 
 end in view? How may we formulate the curriculum for the 
 sake of comparison with those of other epochs? What was 
 the method of training? The brief sketch which is here given/ 
 the marginal references, and the illustrations in the appendix 
 will give some answer to these questions. It is true that the 
 use of these modern terms, end, curriculum, method, may seem 
 anachronous, but rudiments of the ideas which they represent 
 are found in primitive times. More than this, it would seem 
 that these early peoples had quite as clear an idea of these 
 things as we have. 
 
 Ideal and aim. — The ideal in primitive education, as in all 
 
 of Vedic Hymns CXI; Zend Avesta, Fargards I, II, etc.; Hewitt, 
 op. cit., I: x, xiv, xv, 7, 63, 76, 78 ff., ill, 540, 541, etc.; II: vii-xv, I, 2, 
 89 ff; Appendix II: 3, 4, 8, 10, etc. 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES 9 
 
 education, was a reflex of life, but without the vital force 
 which projected life into a fuller future. The social unit was 
 a powerful one, and impressed itself and its ideas on the indi- 
 vidual who had little power of initiative, little power to reject, 
 to add, to carry forward. 24 The tribe was everything, the indi- 
 vidual nothing, absorbed by the overshadowing organization 
 that alone had significance. " The dewdrop slips into the 
 shining sea, " or rather into the sea, for destiny was not ideal- 
 ized. Under these circumstances the possessions of the race 
 were given over, immutable, to the individual. He must accept 
 them exactly. Every syllable, every detail, was essential. 
 Nothing that the race had wrought must slip. The ideal was 
 then emphatically in the present. Power to idealize and gen- 
 eralize had not yet come. Knowledge was empirical. Men 
 dealt with unrelated details rather than an organized body of 
 facts. The aim was to conserve the tribe and all it stood for. 
 The race must progress en masse, so to speak, with painfully 
 slow progress. The lines were evidently clearly drawn, the 
 limits clearly defined. Primitive man was thus the most con- 
 servative of beings. Opportunities to modify and advance 
 ideals were few and perhaps depended chiefly on cataclysmic 
 experiences of conquest and amalgamation. Progress under 
 these conditions would be an accident, a chance discovery, not 
 an organized force based on active individual effort. Society 
 was static, not dynamic. Such was the ideal, and the educa- 
 tional aim accorded with it. 
 
 Curriculum. — When we come to analyze education and 
 determine what we may well call the curriculum, we may make 
 some such outline as the following: 
 
 1. Industrial facts : — Simple and primitive occupations. Practi- 
 cal facts gained through experience and treasured by older men 
 (embodied in proverbs, etc.). 
 
 2. Social and political facts: — Facts and inheritances (customs, 
 beliefs, etc.) as to organization of family, tribe, etc. Simple civic 
 arrangements and regulations of community life. 
 
 3. Religious facts: — General religious facts (animistic) — Fam- 
 ily religion (ancestor-worship). All characterstic religious cere- 
 monies and ritual. Religion an all pervasive force, inspiring joy, 
 sadness, awe, fear. 
 
 24 De Coulanges, op. cit., 293 ; Appendix II : 12. 
 
io THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 4. Folk-lore : — Songs, ballads, tales or stories, from simple 
 nature story, through race-story, to individual hero tales (myth or 
 legend a modern name for these). Symbolical language sometimes 
 used. The rhythmic element here should be noticed especially. 
 
 5. Art: — Rude representations of objects and symbols of wor- 
 ship. Devices on the same. Stone-circles, altars, etc., on sacred 
 grounds carefully marked out for ceremonies. 
 
 6. Number: — Simple concrete facts (treated more fully in 
 Chapter II). 
 
 7. Nature facts: — Much practical knowledge accumulated by 
 the race and handed on with great accuracy and care. 
 
 8. Physical facts: — Dances; physical training incident to com- 
 mon life. 
 
 Method. — As to method, in an age when formal schools 
 did not exist the means of gaining power over one's environ- 
 ment were the natural ones that lay open to all, — observation, 
 imitation, play, participation (or practice). In this connection 
 it should be noted that much of the folk-lore to which reference 
 has been made was in rhythmic form that appeals to one of the 
 most fundamental feelings, so fundamental that one may call 
 it an instinct. Rhythm thus stimulates attention and aids 
 memory. As a considerable part of the acquisitions of the 
 community was thus included in the folk-lore, rhythmic inherit- 
 ances naturally became most powerful educational material, 
 and rhythm became a part of method. Again the tribal rites 
 and festivals and the folk-lore recitals connected with them 
 impressed ritual and history. Equally important as a means of 
 instruction were the exhibitions given by the wandering bards 
 who were characteristic of later prehistoric times and instructed 
 while they delighted, and largely because they delighted, by 
 rhythmic tales of national or individual prowess. 
 
 Rote learning. — But there was another element of early 
 method that needs notice. A part of the knowledge of the 
 community was regarded as more vital than the rest. It had 
 cost much. It must be condensed into special forms and handed 
 on without alteration. 25 There was a taboo against any change. 
 This part of race inheritance sometimes called for special 
 secrecy. It was deposited in symbolic characters, so that a spe- 
 
 25 Hewitt, op. cit., I : x, xi, 64, 74, 76-83, 134 ff. ; II : ix, xi, 306. See 
 the same author's Prim. Trad. Hist., 1 : 97, and Appendix II : 3, 4. 
 Material for the training of adolescents was the object of great care. 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES n 
 
 cial language arose in dealing with it. Some of the most com- 
 mon forms it assumed were the proverb and myth, which were 
 suited to the habits of thought of the people and, besides, were 
 very convenient means of handing on valuable knowledge. In 
 imparting this kind of knowledge the simplest and most natural 
 method for an unreflecting people was rote-learning — mechan- 
 ically committing to memory with no natural incentive to relieve 
 it. It was admirably suited to forms that must remain inviol- 
 able. The descendants of rote schools and rote teachers are 
 found to-day in the native schools of India and China. 26 
 
 Oral and written language. — How early oral tradition was 
 reinforced by written language as a means of transmission is 
 not known. The date has gradually been pushed back, and 
 now there is serious question whether a simple written language 
 did not exist as early as the stone age. 27 However early it may 
 have been developed, it is doubtful whether it was taught to 
 young boys under fifteen or eighteen, because at first that which 
 was committed to writing was probably the most sacred knowl- 
 edge of the tribe. 
 
 Evolution of means of transmission. — As nations and ac- 
 quisitions grew the process of transmission became more exact- 
 ing and complex and more formal. We may roughly outline 
 its growth from the most primitive form as follows: i° A 
 period when the child was left largely to himself and gained 
 by the natural means first noted what the community had to 
 offer. 2° A period when parents exercised more care and 
 surveillance, showing and guiding and more consciously taking 
 children into their life. An interesting phase of this is seen in 
 the matriarchal Dravidian village community. Hewitt tells of 
 the children taught by the elders (uncles) and matrons (aunts) 
 of the tribe 28 the rules resulting from a long series of experi- 
 
 26 Hewitt, op. cit., 1 : 63. — See also Appendix II : 13. Aside from 
 rote teaching that perhaps began with mere boys at this time, as it 
 certainly did later, there was no formal school. Young children could 
 gain all they were expected to learn by the most natural and in- 
 formal means. Formal educational institutions for children arose very 
 late. 
 
 27 Ripley, op. cit, 486. 
 
 28 Hewitt, op. cit., I: xi, 157; II: 1, 2; Appendix, 7. In each com- 
 munity, because of exogamous marriage customs, all men and women 
 of the tribe were brothers and sisters. 
 
12 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 ments or experiences forming their science of agriculture. To 
 prevent error in transmission the rules were put in attractive 
 form and " carefully repeated by each generation after the 
 teachers till indelibly impressed." 29 3° A period when the 
 community made its elders more or less definitely into super- 
 visors or conservators of community interests as related to the 
 perpetuation of community ideals. Very early, " in Kushika 
 times, we find developed the system of education of which the 
 practical physical education of Persia and Sparta were relics. 30 
 Here was the origin of common meals. Here began the cus- 
 tom of regarding the child as belonging to the state, and of 
 bringing the new born child to the elders to determine whether 
 he was to be reared or not." 31 4 A period of guilds, when 
 society was more fully organized industrially, so that a boy 
 could serve apprenticeship in a trade-guild. 32 This was class 
 education that, under favorable conditions, developed into caste 
 education, as under the Aryans in India. Guild-education 
 began very early. 5 A period where society had grown com- 
 plex enough to set aside special teachers, or groups of teachers, 
 priests or laymen, to take charge of the education of children. 33 
 Secondary training distinctive. — But now comes the ques- 
 tion, was there any distinction as to age, or was the older boy's 
 education simply a continuation of the training of the child in 
 the various lines noted ? Here we come upon some of the most 
 interesting points connected with prehistoric education. All 
 the inheritances and acquisitions to which reference has been 
 made were not alike. Some were more sacred and secret than 
 
 29 The first education seems to have been practical, and naturally 
 so. Hewitt, op. cit., 1 : 63 ; Appendix, 3 ; Hewitt, Primitive Traditional 
 History, I: 65-66. 
 
 80 Hewitt, op. cit., 1 : 63 ; Appendix, II : 5. 
 
 31 Hewitt, op. cit., 1 : 297, 298, 410. Here again was the origin of 
 the marriage customs and dual government of Sparta, showing the 
 close connection of influential elements of Spartan population with 
 eastern tribes. 
 
 32 Do. I: in; Appendix, II: 5, 6. 
 
 33 Hewitt, op. cit., I : xiv, 76. Speaking of primitive tribes he tells 
 of village priest-teachers and women-prophetesses who became the 
 national Asipu, the diviners, who not only were repositories of the 
 past, but were also augurs and foretellers who interpreted the flight 
 of birds and the movements of their entrails. They were the ancestors 
 of the augurs of Rome and other priestly classes. 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES 13 
 
 others. There was a kind of esoteric element in primitive 
 knowledge accumulations. Some facts must be guarded more 
 carefully, lest tribal well-being be broken. Some things must 
 be absolutely safeguarded from enemies, i. e., all outside the 
 clan or tribe circle, lest one tribe get some sinister advantage 
 over another. These and other acquisitions must not be risked 
 with children. They required an age which could be not only 
 tenacious, but secretive. This is the adolescent age. 
 
 Evidence of distinctive training for the adolescent. — 
 There is thus strong presumption that there was a distinction 
 in education and that this distinction showed itself, not by 
 differences in degree and amount simply, but by differences in 
 kind, both in matter and method. There is not only presump- 
 tion; there is evidence. i° There are certain customs found 
 in historic times, undoubtedly relics of earlier centuries or ages, 
 that point to such a distinction as has been indicated. 
 2 There are some hints in the early literature of the Aryans. 
 3 There is still stronger evidence found in primitive tribes 
 of to-day who are still untouched by modern civilization and 
 well represent, in their customs, modes of thought, and atti- 
 tudes, the childhood of races. The tribes thus present charac- 
 teristics that may well have ruled in prehistoric days. Putting 
 all the evidence together we are justified in saying that the 
 training of the adolescent differed impressively from that of the 
 child. First, there was a more conscious aim and it was better 
 defined. Second, the community organized itself for a more 
 definite training, prescribed certain forms, and, through charac- 
 teristic ceremonies, gave a peculiar force to the adolescents 
 education that was lacking in that of the child. 34 Here came 
 in "initiation" ceremonies, (naturally religious), and severe 
 physical tests that often extended to body markings. 35 We 
 may summarize this secondary training therefore briefly as 
 follows : 36 
 
 34 De Coulanges, op. cit., 46, 67, 68, 157, 169, 170; Zend Avesta, 
 Fargard IX (Introd), Fargard XVIII, 1 : 9; Appendix, II: 9, 14. 
 
 35 These latter should probably be regarded as originally totemistic 
 rather than as physical tests. This makes them at once more primitive 
 and significant. They will be considered more fully in the next chapter. 
 
 36 Fuller details are reserved for discussions that belong more prop- 
 erly in other chapters. (See II, III, IV.) 
 
i 4 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Summary of the training of adolescents. — The training 
 of the adolescent naturally proceeded in part along the same 
 lines as that of the child. He was getting more extended and 
 fuller knowledge of the life of the tribe in its various directions. 
 He was acquiring more power over his environment and the 
 operations of life. But there was something beyond this. The 
 choicest or most characteristic parts of the acquisitions of the 
 race, the more secret or mysterious bits of knowledge, the more 
 sacred traditions and legends, the more strenuous physical 
 facts, were reserved for the adolescent and were applied to 
 the young men by the elders of the tribe amid impressive cere- 
 monies. 
 
 Secondary school as old as man. — There was, therefore, a 
 kind of secondary education laid out in rather definite fashion. 
 Ends were conscious and means well organized. The second- 
 ary school is therefore, in a sense, as old as man. The high 
 school is the primitive school modernized. This will appear 
 more fully as we proceed. 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 i. The Aryans. — Not many decades ago the most interesting and im- 
 portant part of the investigation of primitive civilization was to seek 
 out in the highlands of Central Asia the cradle of the race that made 
 Southern Europe, study civilization at this center, trace the two lines 
 of diffusion to the East and West, and, again study the two branches 
 of the western migration on European soil. Then the Aryans played 
 a leading role in the development of early civilization. To-day their 
 movements form a secondary episode in the early, though not in the 
 earliest, ethnology of Europe. 
 
 2. Notes on sources.-— The following notes on some of the sources 
 as they appear to the author may be of some interest : 
 
 (a) Hewitt, in his Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, gives us 
 especially valuable and suggestive data for our purpose. He shows 
 us the primitive Dravidians with their primitive organization, the ma- 
 triarchal village community, and the Dravidians, or Dravidian amal- 
 gamations, moving westward and spreading their peculiar land cus- 
 toms and their civic and religious forms that made the foundation 
 of the later Greek and Roman states, and other states as well. It 
 is becoming evident that the basal element of European civilization 
 of the South and West was not the Aryans, but other peoples pressing 
 on from the East. To these peoples, it would seem, were due the ele- 
 ment of law, the conditions that made for settled government and 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES 15 
 
 industrial development, and the peculiar formalism found in the Roman 
 religion. So interesting and full of detail is Hewitt's work that one 
 is tempted to give more data than are essential for our purpose. 
 
 (b) Ripley, in his Races of Europe, has effectively sifted and 
 organized the results of many investigators and has given us a detailed 
 and careful anthropological description of the three fundamental races 
 of Europe. His suggestions as to origins are fairly consistent with 
 those of Hewitt. While his primary purpose is anthropological, he 
 gives us some useful details as to modes of life and acquisitions, par- 
 ticularly in his later chapters. 
 
 (c) De Coulanges, in his Ancient City, has given us a most bril- 
 liant piece of work and specially valuable for getting at the points of 
 view and organization of early society. His aim is rather psychological 
 and sociological than strictly ethnological. His picture of the organiza- 
 tion and culture of the prehistoric community is peculiarly vivid. 
 While his study applies particularly to the fundamental features in the 
 civilization of the classical states, which he probably conceived to be 
 Aryan, it gives much of value in the study of any primitive civiliza- 
 tion, and has been used as generally applicable in a broad sense. 
 
 (d) Other sources more or less valuable are noted on page 6. Still 
 others are reserved for two special chapters which follow. 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 3. Primitive knowledge and the method of transmitting it. Old 
 folk-lore and its modern counterparts. — "The first founders of na- 
 tional education were an agricultural race, and the lessons they had 
 to teach their young pupils were not the rules of the art of war, or 
 the mysteries of religion, but those which embodied the results at- 
 tained by the long series of experiments which had formed a national 
 science of agriculture. To enable these lessons to be transmitted from 
 generation to generation in a form which secured them from distortion 
 they were embodied in mythic tales which were carefully repeated by 
 each generation of scholars after their teacher till they became indelibly 
 impressed on their memory. Every one who has listened to Hindu 
 scholars repeating their lessons after their master will understand how 
 this was done, and it is to this systematic training of the memory 
 that we owe innumerable works which have descended to us in 
 Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit literature." — Hewitt, 1 : 63. 
 
 4. " But when national education was looked upon, as it was amongst 
 the Kushites, as one of the most important tasks of internal policy, 
 and it was found necessary to improve and disseminate more widely 
 than had hitherto been done the knowledge of the history of the 
 country and of the results acquired by scientific research, these were 
 all embodied in myths framed on the model of the seasonal myths 
 which formed the folk-tales of the villagers, these being almost all 
 based on the recurrence of the seasons, the most important subject of 
 
16 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 knowledge to a people whose living- was gained by the culture of plants, 
 which could only be properly carried on when the land was prepared, 
 the seed sown, the fields weeded, and the crops reaped and stored in 
 the proper seasons. It is the story of the seasons which is told in the 
 numerous stories of the three brothers, the youngest of whom, the 
 reaper of the harvest, is alone successful in his quest; and it is they 
 which appear in the Cinderella myth and its variants. ... It is this 
 mythical method of recording the movements of time which appears also 
 in the story of the Briar Rose or Sleeping Beauty. It is tales like 
 these which have always been from time immemorial the favorite modes 
 of teaching among all the races who have successively ruled India." 
 — Hewitt, 1:78-79. 
 
 " It is Sanskrit fairy tales which form the substratum of our Eu- 
 ropean stories ; and no one who has heard, as I have done, the fairy 
 stories of my youth told by a wild Gond in the forests of Sehawa, at 
 the sources of the Mahunuddy in Chuttisgurh, can ever doubt that 
 these stories were originally conceived by the myth-makers of the 
 most primitive tribes in the earliest dawn of civilization. The stories 
 my Gond guide told me could never have reached his tribe from 
 Northern infiltration in historic times, for I was probably the second, 
 if not the first, European he or his people had ever seen; for, as far 
 as I could make out, I was the second European who was ever 
 known to have visited this wild and remote tract. ... It was apparently 
 these people who first formed the skeleton foundations on which 
 later stories were founded, and, being a most practical people, they 
 made them in such a way as to convey valuable instruction in an 
 interesting and easily retained form. Having, like all nations with 
 strong Malay affinities, such as the Chinese, Burmese, and Bengalis, 
 vivid dramatic instincts, and being also, like the Bengalis, great 
 makers of pithy proverbs, they easily and naturally turned these into 
 stories which seemed to be tales told of individuals, and in dramatiz- 
 ing these, either in the story or in mimic action, they made the key- 
 notes of the proverbs the names of the actors in the plot. When 
 these stories were transferred from the village school and the village 
 meetings in the Akra or dancing-place to the guardianship of the 
 royal advisers and were made the groundwork of national history 
 they were protected from alteration by the same taboo which forbade 
 all tampering with the national ritual." — Hewitt, 1 : 80-81. 
 
 5. Method of education with comparisons. — "In order to insure 
 the permanence of their national traditions the Kushikas insisted most 
 strongly on the systematic instruction and education of the young, 
 and they used as their model the Dravidian arrangements for the 
 training of the village children of the matriarchal village. By this 
 systematic method of education the lives of all the younger members 
 of the community were passed in a course of discipline of which 
 the Spartan education, descended from the tribal ancestors of the 
 Dorians, is the best specimen. I have shown . . . how closely the 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES 17 
 
 Dorian customs are allied to those of the Indian Nagas, and the 
 remembrance of these national training-schools still survives in the 
 schools of the Brahmans among the Hindus, in the Greek and Roman 
 education, and in that of the ancient Persians or Parthians. They, like 
 their brethren, the Parthian cavalry of India, were taught to ride, 
 to shoot the bow, and to speak the truth." — Hewitt, 1:63. (See also 
 pp. 297, 298.) 
 
 6. " It was they (the Aryans) who changed the system of trade- 
 guilds and craft-schools, formed under the Kushite government for 
 preserving and adding to the knowledge necessary for the continu- 
 ance and advancement of the crafts of the country, into family circles 
 in which every one remained through life a member of the caste in 
 which he was born, instead of being, as people were in Kushite times, 
 free to enter any other caste to which their inclinations led them, if 
 they could, as in the ancient village, secure the consent of the mem- 
 bers of the guild to their admittance. Thus this Aryan family system 
 had its roots in the old customs of the country." — Hewitt, I: in. 
 
 7. Early folk-lore agricultural.—-" In every village the rising gen- 
 eration was trained by their mothers and maternal uncles, and it was 
 from the teaching instincts thus developed that the folk-tale and the 
 national proverbs which are as ubiquitous as the folk-tale, originated. 
 An analysis of the earliest of these stories, which do not profess to 
 be historical, will show that almost all of them are connected with 
 the explanation of natural phenomena, and that they generally are 
 the product of the brains of agricultural or hunting races who had 
 keen mercantile instincts. . . . Some are too manifestly nature-myths, 
 telling of the course of the year, a subject of vital importance to the 
 farming tribes." (The tale of Demeter and Persephone and that of 
 the Sleeping Beauty are given as Northern descendants of these 
 myths.) — Hewitt I : xi. 
 
 8. Family and clan. Their bonds of union. — "We find in each 
 house an altar, and around this altar the family assembled. The fam- 
 ily meets every morning to address its first prayers to the sacred 
 fire, and in the evening to invoke it for a last time. In the course 
 of the day the members are once more assembled near the fire for 
 the meal, of which they partake piously after prayer and libation. 
 In all these religious acts, hymns which their fathers have handed 
 down are sung in common by the family." 
 
 " Outside the house, near at hand, in a neighboring field, there is a 
 tomb, the second home of this family. There several generations of 
 ancestors repose together; death has not separated them. They re- 
 main grouped in this second existence and continue to form an indis- 
 soluble family." 
 
 " The members of the ancient family were united by something more 
 powerful than birth, affection, or physical strength; this was the re- 
 ligion of the sacred fire and of dead ancestors. This caused the family 
 to form a single body both in this life and in the next. The ancient 
 
18 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 family was a religious rather than a natural association. Religion, 
 it is true, did not create the family, but certainly it gave the family 
 its rules." — De Coulanges, 49~52. 
 
 9. Initiation. — "A sort of initiation was also required for the son, 
 as we have seen it was for the daughter. This took place a short 
 time after birth, the ninth day at Rome, the tenth in Greece, the 
 tenth or twelfth in India. On that day the father assembled the 
 family, assembled witnesses, and offered a sacrifice to his fire. The 
 child was presented to the domestic gods ; a female carried him in 
 her arms and ran, carrying him, several times around the sacred fire 
 (to purify and to initiate into the domestic worship). From this 
 moment the infant was admitted into this sort of sacred society or 
 small church that was called the family. He possessed its religion, 
 he practiced its rites, he was qualified to repeat its prayers ; he honored 
 its ancestors, and at a later period he would himself become an honored 
 ancestor." — De Coulanges, 67, 68. 
 
 10. Forms of religion and their rise. — " When we sought the most 
 ancient beliefs of these men, we found a religion which had their dead 
 ancestors for its object and for its principal symbol the sacred fire. . . . 
 But this race has also had in all its branches another religion, the one 
 whose principal figures were Zeus, Here, Athene, Juno, — that of the 
 Hellenic Olympus and the Roman Capitol." 
 
 " Of these two religions the first found its gods in the human soul, 
 the second took them from physical nature. As the sentiment of 
 living power and of conscience, which he felt in himself, inspired man 
 with the first idea of the divine, so the view of this immensity which 
 surrounded and overwhelmed him traced out for his religious senti- 
 ment another course." 
 
 " Man, in the earlier ages, was continually in the presence of nature. 
 The habits of civilized life did not yet draw a line between him and it. 
 . . . His life was in the hands of nature. . . . He experienced perpetu- 
 ally a mingled feeling of veneration, love, and terror for this power of 
 nature. . . . On first looking on the external world man pictured it to 
 himself as a sort of confused republic where rival forces made war upon 
 each other. As he judged external objects from himself, and felt 
 in himself a free person, he saw also in every part of creation, in the 
 soil, in the tree, in the cloud, in the water of the river, in the sun, 
 so many persons like himself. He endued them with thought, volition, 
 and choice of acts. As he thought them powerful and was subject to 
 their empire he avowed his dependence; he invoked them and adored 
 them; he made gods of them." 
 
 "Thus in this race the religious idea presented itself under two 
 different forms. On the one hand man attached the divine attribute 
 to the invisible principle, to the intelligence, to what he perceived of 
 the soul, to what of the sacred he felt in himself. On the other 
 hand he applied his ideas of the divine to the external object which 
 
PRIMITIVE TIMES 19 
 
 he saw, which he loved or feared; to physical agents which were the 
 masters of his happiness and of his life." 
 
 "These two orders of belief laid the foundation of two religions 
 that lasted as long as Greek and Roman society. They did not make 
 war upon each other; they even lived on very good terms, and shared 
 the empire over man; but they never became confounded." — De Cou- 
 langes, 1 59-1 61. 
 
 11. Solidarity of family. — "Certainly we could imagine nothing 
 more solidly constituted than this family of the ancient ages which 
 combined within itself its gods, its worship, its priest, and its magis- 
 trate" (the father combined the functions of the last two func- 
 tionaries). "There could be nothing stronger than this city which 
 also had in itself its religion, its protecting gods, and its independent 
 priesthood, which governed the soul as well as the body of man, and 
 which, infinitely more powerful than the states of our day, united 
 in itself the double authority that we now see shared between the 
 state and the church. If any society was ever established to last, it 
 was certainly that." — De Coulanges, 299. 
 
 A divergent view. — Von Ihering ("Evolution of the Aryan," page 
 32 ff.) rejects the thought of the compact continuance of the family and 
 of filial affection as applied to the Aryan. He holds that the elder 
 son soon deposed the father and that offerings to the dead were 
 made through fear. At the same time he believes that the Romans 
 were an exception and that among them the father retained his place. 
 In fact the Romans illustrate in great detail the matters summarized 
 above. — De Coulanges holds them as characteristic of the Aryans gen- 
 erally. 
 
 12. Individual and community. — "There was nothing independent 
 in man; his body belonged to the state; ... his fortune was at the 
 disposal of the state; private life did not escape the omnipotence of 
 the state." — De Coulanges, 293. 
 
 13. Reference to teaching in Zend Avesta. — Special references to 
 teacher, learning, method. " If men of the same faith, either friends 
 or brothers, come to an agreement together that one may obtain from 
 another either goods, or a wife, or knowledge ... let him who wants 
 to have knowledge be taught the holy word. He shall learn on during 
 the first part of the day and the last, during the first part of the 
 night and the last, that his mind may be increased in knowledge and 
 wax strong in holiness; so shall he sit up giving thanks and praying 
 to the gods, that he may be increased in knowledge . . . and thus shall 
 he continue until he can say all the words which former JEthrapaitis 
 have said." Fargard IV, ii e. (The customary method of early times 
 seems to be referred to. There is also indication of contract in teach- 
 ing.) 
 
 14. Ceremonies peculiar to adolescence. — There are also some 
 references, or rather some notes, as to a special ceremony for the 
 
20 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 adolescent. "The nine nights" Barashnum "is the great purifica- 
 tion, the most efficacious of all; its performance was prescribed, once 
 at least at the time of the Nu Zudi (at the age of fifteen when the 
 young Parsi becomes a member of the community), in order to wash 
 away the natural uncleanness." — Fargard IX, introductory note. 
 
 The Kosti, " worn by every Parsi man or woman from their fifteenth 
 year of age, ... is the badge of the faithful, the girdle by which he is 
 united both with Ormazd and with his fellow believers. . . . He who 
 wears it becomes a participator in the merit of all the good deeds 
 performed all over the Zarathusian world." Miiller proceeds to de- 
 scribe the curious nature of the Kosti. Note to Fargard XVIII, 1 : 9. 
 
J 
 
 II 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN PRIMITIVE TRIBES TO-DAY 
 
 From this description of primitive education that is immeas- 
 urbaly remote from us in time, as well as in its evolutionary 
 position, we come to a consideration of a primitive education 
 which touches us in time, but is as remote as the other in its 
 evolutionary character. 
 
 Sources of information. — Various primitive tribes to-day 
 either have been untouched by modern civilization, or have 
 been so little affected that their primitive customs can be easily 
 discovered. They thus give us much insight into prehistoric 
 life, as they represent a similar stage of development. This 
 chapter will therefore reinforce important parts of the first 
 chapter and will add new elements. If it repeats somewhat, it 
 does so from new view-points, — first from view-point of actual 
 observers, second from that of new tribes. 
 
 These tribes which are to be considered represent various 
 grades of civilization, all of which may be called primitive, but 
 we need not differentiate, except in certain particulars that will 
 be evident in the course of discussion. As this is not a study 
 in anthropology or ethnology we are concerned only with such 
 details as bear particularly on the matter of training that the 
 community supplied for its children. 
 
 Acquisitions and inheritances. — The most primitive peo- 
 ples with which we are concerned here have advanced slightly 
 beyond the tribal stage to a loose organization, seen in the meet- 
 ings of elders from different tribes to consider general inter- 
 ests. 1 Other tribes have developed ideas of more definite 
 organization, — ideas of nationality, generally of monarchical 
 type. In industrial lines we find the simplest pursuits, whether 
 
 1 Appendix, 2, 5 ; Spencer and Gillen, Native tribes of Central Aus- 
 tralia, 272. See also the same author's Northern Tribes, 24, 27, 70. 
 
 21 
 
22 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 in the domain of agriculture or that of handicrafts. 2 In rudi- 
 mentary science we find, first, simple number ideas 3 that may 
 be best understood by reference to two or three typical number 
 systems. The most rudimentary type seems to be that in which 
 there are no special names for numbers, simply group names, so 
 that reckoning is by " hand " ; (a hand = 5 ; 2 hands = 
 10) ; by " man " (2 hands + 2 feet = 20) , etc. 4 The next type 
 seems to be that in which they have special names for the first 
 three numbers and by repetition and combination reach five or 
 six and then use the devices given above with the aid of the 
 special expressions. A third type would include more special 
 names or a higher counting capacity (say, 200, 300, etc.), or 
 both. The counting power is sometimes steadied and enforced 
 by means of tallies (notches in sticks, knobs, sticks in sand, 
 etc.). Everything therefore is concrete, as might be ex- 
 pected. The abstract is beyond the menal grasp of primitive 
 man. 
 
 Knowledge of nature and the healing art. — Under the 
 head of rudimentary science should also be included their obser- 
 vations of nature that were many and accurate, 5 and the be- 
 ginnings of the medical art, 6 with its magic and supersti- 
 tion. 
 
 Religion. — In religion we find animism and fetishism 
 widespread. 7 One of the most fundamental and striking 
 forces in religion is the totem, 8 from which a whole system of 
 totemic religion has grown. Naturally, with their crude ideas, 
 superstition and magic arts also appear as a part of their re- 
 ligion. But we also find definite ideas of gods apart from the 
 totemic system, at least in certain places, and a belief in a future 
 existence. In connection with all this they have a wealth of 
 
 2 See Ratzel, History of Mankind ; Featherman, Social History of the 
 Races of Mankind ; Letourneau, L'Evolution de L'Education. 
 
 8 Appendix 10. Letourneau, op. cit., 134. 
 
 4 All this indicates that number development was originally digital. 
 
 * See Hewitt, op. cit., Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 24-26, and books on 
 primitive tribes generally. 
 
 6 Letourneau, op. cit., 155', 234. 
 
 7 Appendix 1; Ratzel, op. pit, 11:353, 355-357, 481,' Featherman, 
 op. cit., I: 16 1-2; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit. 123, 124, 138, 310, 311; 
 Letourneau, op. cit., 141, 142. 
 
 8 See Appendix I. 
 
PRIMITIVE TRIBES 23 
 
 religious legends (history to them), and religious ceremonies 
 and ritual. 9 
 
 Folk-lore. — Folk-lore there is in abundance. 10 One de- 
 partment of it has just been referred to. We also find 
 proverbs, aphorisms, riddles, fables, general legends, astronom- 
 ical fables and myths, myths concerning gods, beast-legends, 
 war-songs, hero-tales, and tales that point to migrations and 
 amalgamations. 11 In this connection reference should be made 
 also to pantomimes and burlesques, 12 of which primitive peoples 
 seem fond. The wandering minstrel reinforces local story- 
 tellers 13 in the transmission of the mass of stories that this list 
 suggests. But he is not always the honored guest we find 
 him among the Greeks. Featherman, in his account of African 
 races, tells us of " wandering musicians who dress up in fan- 
 tastic style, put on all the emblematic mummeries of magic art, 
 and recite in recitative strain all the incidents of their travels, 
 but are looked upon with despite as selling charms for hire. " 14 
 However, we may not have here a real " minstrel " correspond- 
 ing in function to the rhapsodist ; but the latter is found among 
 primitive peoples. 
 
 Art. — Rudimentary art is very conspicuous among these 
 tribes. Their interest in graphic expression is instinctive. 15 
 The necessity of expressing themselves finds this one of the 
 simplest and most natural means, as it gives them some of the 
 simplest and most suggestive symbols. They thus readily prac- 
 tice drawing and carving, but in a limited field, for they have a 
 predilection for figures of animals and men ; a landscape passes 
 their comprehension. In some cases they have made great 
 progress in design and show real artistic sense. 
 
 9 Appendix 2, 3, 5, 7 ; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 145, 229-30, 323-24, 
 and generally Chapters VII-VIII. 
 
 10 Appendix 10; Featherman, op. cit., I: 355-56; Ratzel, op. cit., II: 
 276-279, 327, 480; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 145, 229-30, 310, 311, et 
 passim; Letourneau, op. cit., 119, 135, 153, 230. 
 
 11 Ratzel, op. cit., II: 250, 260; Featherman, op. cit., I: 355. 
 
 12 Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 228-30, 334 ff., 336, 352-3, et al.; Feather- 
 man, op. cit., I: 355-56; Ratzel, op. cit., II: 480; Letourneau, op, cit., 
 119, 135, 217, 230; Appendix 10. 
 
 13 Featherman, op. cit., 1 : 355-56 ; Ratzel, op. cit., II : 480 ; Letourneau, 
 op. cit., 119, 135, 217, 230; Appendix 10. 
 
 14 Featherman, op. cit., 1 : 23. 
 
 15 Appendix, 1, 2, 10 ; Letourneau, op. cit., 47, 58, 69, 122-23. 
 
24 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Physical facts. — The physical man is not neglected. Be- 
 sides the spontaneous exercise which his life suggests and 
 enforces, primitive man has universally practiced himself in 
 the dance. 16 Rhythm, as indicated before, is an instinct. Ges- 
 ture wonderfully attracts and meets with ready response. The 
 dances thus minister to religious ceremony, which is highly 
 developed in these tribes, to primitive impulse for the motions 
 involved, and perhaps to the social instinct. At least they are a 
 most characteristic part of life, and every true tribesman must 
 train himself in them. Then the tribe prescribes special phys- 
 ical training for its new members, and lays particular emphasis 
 upon physical tests involving severe physical strain, 17 to which 
 the boy must be subjected before becoming a member of the 
 tribe. Primitive peoples spontaneously provide for certain 
 physical qualities to be developed in new tribesmen. 
 
 It is not necessary for us, in the present connection, to elabor- 
 ate these topics in great detail. It is sufficient to know that the 
 most primitive peoples have accumulated a variety of experi- 
 ences that may be grouped into several classes. 18 
 
 Education of the child and of the adolescent. — Some of 
 the simpler accumulations are naturally and inevitably appro- 
 priated by children. The most vital of them are studiously 
 reserved for adolescents, 19 and their mastery is the culmination 
 of youthful achievement, or the initial step in full manhood. 
 While we are not concerned directly with elementary educa- 
 tion, a brief reference to it will give a better basis for the study 
 of adolescent education and will at the same time help us to 
 gain a clearer conception of it. In order to fully appreciate this 
 earlier stage of education we must keep carefully in mind 
 what was said in Chapter I as to the point of view of primitive 
 peoples, their ideals, and their aims. 20 
 
 16 Appendix, i, 7, 10; Ratzel, op. cit., II: 480; Letourneau, op. cit., 
 120, 134, 217. See also Featherman, op. cit., and Spencer and Gillen, 
 op. cit., 381. 
 
 17 Appendix, 2 ; Ratzel, op. cit., II : 394-5 ; Featherman, op. cit., 1 : 623 ; 
 Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 271-2, 347, 380, 450 ff. ; also Chapters VII, 
 VIII; Letourneau, op. cit., 153-4. 
 
 18 See page 30 f . 
 
 19 Appendix, 2 ; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 145, 229-30, 309 ; Le- 
 tourneau, op. cit., 153-4. 
 
 20 Chapter I, pp. 8, 9. 
 
PRIMITIVE TRIBES 25 
 
 The aim in elementary education. — The aim in primitive 
 elementary education is a general one. Aims do not become 
 fully definite and purposeful till the secondary period. Means 
 are the simplest and most natural. There is, no definite organi- 
 zation. The whole process may be said to be largely spontane- 
 ous. Observation, imitation, play, participation, showing, rote- 
 learning 21 comprise the method, which is ready-made, not 
 studied ; a gift of nature, not planned. In this way are taught 
 the simplest facts and processes needed for life in the tribe, — 
 the elementary and more necessary portions of the race acqui- 
 sitions that have been outlined. 22 
 
 Different types of elementary education. — As was sug- 
 gested in Chapter I the simplest form of education seems to be 
 that which is purely spontaneous, through imitation and play. 
 The initiative comes from the children, 23 as they are left largely 
 to themselves. The next stage is very similar, but has the 
 additional element of participation in the work of parents. A 
 third stage is reached when the parents make definite efforts 
 and plans (family) to teach their children the necessary opera- 
 tions of life. 24 The fourth stage is that in which special teach- 
 ers for training the young, 25 — clan members, elders, priests, — 
 are provided. Education seems to move from the type in 
 which the elders are the repositories of all the learning of the 
 race to that in which priests are supreme. 
 
 Discipline. — It is interesting to note also that in primi- 
 tive life there is no conception of discipline in the sense of 
 supervision and government, including corporal punishment. 
 Corporal punishment is not a relic of barbarism, but a product 
 of civilization. In the most primitive races the children are 
 practically abandoned to govern themselves, and for a consider- 
 
 21 Appendix, 10; Letourneau, op. cit., 134, 151. 
 
 22 Method and scope of training are indicated in Letourneau's ac- 
 counts of Australians, New Caledonians, Hottentots, East and West 
 Africans, Polynesians, Tartars, Malays; in Ratzel's and Featherman's 
 descriptions of African and Eskimo life; and in Spencer and Gillen's 
 Studies of Central Australian Tribes. Appendix 10. 
 
 23 Featherman, op. cit., 1:514-15, 599; Letourneau, op. cit., I33~I34# 
 153; Appendix 10. 
 
 24 Appendix 10; Featherman, op. cit., I: 427. 
 
 25 Appendix 10. 
 
26 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 able distance up in the evolution of education discipline is mild 
 and lax, " douceur," as Letourneau puts it. When, however, 
 training becomes a more conscious process, careful sur- 
 veillance becomes prominent, and punishment, admonition, and 
 exhortation suggest themselves as the readiest means of moral 
 training. 
 
 Secondary education. — Primary education is just what 
 we might expect, natural, informal. We need not dwell fur- 
 ther on it here. Secondary education, while sharing some of 
 its characteristics, is radically different from it. Aims and 
 ideals have become fully conscious and definite. The knowl- 
 edge to be imparted is carefully defined. Method is the object 
 of great care. It has been carefully planned and is very pre- 
 cise. To get at its real meaning it is more essential here than 
 in discussing elementary education to recall and impress primi- 
 tive ideals and aims dwelt upon in Chapter I. 26 Briefly the 
 plan is this : — 
 
 1. The boy is to be capable of representing and supporting 
 clan or tribe mentally and physically. He must master the 
 facts, ceremonies, and lore that are most essential in maintain- 
 ing the forms of life and thought characteristic of his social 
 and political environment. 27 
 
 2. Special localities are chosen for the most impressive 
 parts of the educational process. 28 
 
 3. The boys are separated from the women, 29 who have no 
 part in the most characteristic details of the proceedings, and 
 they are taken in charge by picked men, while the whole pro- 
 ceeding is directed by " headman " and elders. It is interest- 
 ing to find that there is a union of tribes in this course of edu- 
 cation and that the occasion is taken advantage of for inter- 
 tribal meetings of elders. 30 This, of itself, adds force and 
 impressiveness to the ceremonies and to the training that the 
 boys now receive. Amid silence (on the part of the novices), 
 
 26 Chapter I, pp. 8, 9. 
 
 27 Featherman, op. cit., 1 : 413, 514-15, 580, 623 ; Spencer and Gillen, 
 op. cit., 139^40, 213-18 ff., 271-2, 310-11; Letourneau, op. cit., 134; 
 Ratzel, op. cit., II : 370. See Appendix 2, 3, 7. 
 
 28 Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 139-40. See Appendix 2. 
 
 29 Appendix 2. 
 
 so Appendix 2; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 272*. 
 
PRIMITIVE TRIBES 27 
 
 awe and mystery, amid apparent manifestations of the spirit 
 forces, with occasional weird sounds from the bull-roarers in 
 which dwell ancestral spirits, 31 the most vital and carefully 
 guarded items of the tribe's acquisitions and the most sacred 
 part of tribal history are impressed on the boys, and they 
 receive on their bodies the tribal symbols and assume the char- 
 acteristic articles of man's dress. 32 After the special cere- 
 monies it is not uncommon for the boys to pass a time in the 
 " bush " supporting themselves, and sometimes, at least, receiv- 
 ing further instruction from the " elders." 33 During the 
 initiation also the boys may be taught a new name and a mystic 
 language. 34 We must not suppose the exercises are necessarily 
 brief; they are never such. They are sometimes distributed 
 over years. A candidate for tribehood, too, may be, and fre- 
 quently, if not always, is required to be present at more than 
 one such occasion as has just been referred to, before becom- 
 ing a fully initiated " man." 35 He probably is not always 
 required to go through the ordeal a second time, though this 
 fact comes out definitely in one case which is recorded. 
 
 That which forms what we may call the subject matter of 
 this training will be found to connect itself particularly but 
 not exclusively with religion, physical power, and folk-lore. 
 That part of the initiatory proceedings or teaching which is 
 connected with the physical boy is very conspicuous, but not 
 on that account as important as some other elements of the 
 training. 
 
 Physical marks and tests. — This latter topic needs a few 
 additional words to emphasize what, it is fair to assume, is the 
 fundamental conception connected with it. Under the head 
 
 31 Appendix 1, 2 ; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 139 ff., 149. 
 32 Appendix 2; Featherman, op. cit., I: 9, 566-67. 
 
 33 Appendix 2, 4, 5 ; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 347. 
 
 34 Appendix 4, 5, 6 ; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 139, 140. 
 
 When tribe was enemy of tribe and the possession of secrets by 
 another tribe might have tragic consequences, secrecy was a neces- 
 sary tribal policy. Hence it is not strange that women did not partici- 
 pate in the mature business of the tribe, aside from any influence 
 coming from early conceptions of woman's position. In war they 
 would be captives and might jeopardize tribal interests by divulging 
 tribal secrets either voluntarily or under stress. The mystic language 
 may have special significance here, as Mathews suggests. 
 
 35 Appendix 3. 
 
28 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 of physical we may place three classes of experiences, 36 
 1°, body-markings, 2°, mutilations, 3 , severe physical strain 
 or suffering. We may assume that there are two ends in view. 
 Thus, i° and 2° probably have for their object the assimila- 
 tion of the individual to the totem of the tribe ; certain changes 
 of the body (especially of the mouth and head) are necessary 
 to give him some resemblance to the animal that represents the 
 totem. The tattooings of various kinds and degrees, gash- 
 ings, incisions, and cicatrices, are perhaps totemic signs and 
 symbols; at least they are tribal. It has perhaps been com- 
 mon to regard the second class of experience (mutilations) as 
 mere physical tests, to prove the boy before admitting him to 
 the tribe, but it is more significant, and more in accord with 
 what we know of race development, to regard them as totemic 
 in origin. The third class of physical experiences may prob- 
 ably be regarded as purely physical tests or examinations. It 
 is possible that they came in later after the significance of the 
 second class had been lost. 37 
 
 Results of this training. — From what has been said it is 
 evident that the result of such training gives a high degree of 
 efficiency to the powers of observation and to memory, espe- 
 cially the latter. Much of the ceremony of initiation is calcu- 
 lated to stimulate attention incisively even painfully and 
 this is one of the prime conditions for strengthening the 
 memory, or better, the memories. There is practically no train- 
 ing of the intellectual powers further than has been noted, but 
 this secondary education has a distinct effect on moral develop- 
 ment, in fact is intended to have, giving courage, self-control, 
 respect for authority, and other qualities, as Spencer and Gillen 
 show from a study of primitive tribes in Australia. 38 
 
 If it be thought that too much definiteness and purposeful- 
 ness has been assumed in the matter of secondary education 
 among primitive tribes, — that much has been " read into " their 
 plans, that a scheme of education has been " made up," a brief 
 
 36 Appendix 2, 10 ; Featherman, op. cit., 1 : 224, 407, 566-67, 580, 623 ; 
 Ratzel, op. cit., II: 106, in, 394-5, 466, 470; Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 
 272 ; Letourneau, op. cit., 153-4. See also references on page 13, note 35. 
 
 37 Plato, Republic, 413-14. 
 
 38 Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., 272; Appendix 10; Letourneau, op. 
 cit., 199, 217, 221. 
 
PRIMITIVE TRIBES 29 
 
 study will show that the evidence justifies even stronger 
 statements than have been made. Mathews' account of initia- 
 tion ceremonies among Australian savages may be taken as a 
 basis. 39 It shows that there is a very definite course of instruc- 
 tion. Spencer and Gillen's studies show that secondary train- 
 ing initiates the boy into the early (mythological) history of 
 his race, into totemic secrets, and into complicated ceremonies 
 and dances that are, according to their crude notion, vitally 
 related to the prosperity and life of the tribe. These accounts 
 are reinforced by the mass of facts as to primitive life and edu- 
 cation gathered by Ratzel and Featherman in their accounts 
 of African, Australian, and Eskimo life, and by Letourneau 
 in his L' Evolution de U Education} 
 
 Primitive secondary education compared with modern 
 secondary education. — Thus the impression grows that 
 these primitive folk have aims and ideals in " secondary " edu- 
 cation more clearly defined than ours (and naturally so in the 
 absence of such complexity as faces us), that the course of 
 training is sharply defined and fixed and is the object of 
 unwavering faith, and that their method is clearly-cut, uniform, 
 and well adapted to their purpose. Mr. Tozzer of the Peabody 
 Museum, Cambridge, was initiated into the Navajo Indian 
 tribe. His account of the initiation ceremonies of the Yei-bir 
 tsai, which he kindly gave in a personal interview, 41 illustrates 
 and enforces all these points and affords a fine example of the 
 definiteness of primitive adolescent training. The high school, 
 as has been said in Chapter I, is simply the primitive secondary 
 school modernized. The change has come particularly in sub- 
 ject matter and method. The primitive aim and our aim, 
 stated in general terms, would be almost identical, as must be 
 evident from what has been said in this chapter. Their aim, 
 however, has a more definite meaning for them. Their educa- 
 tion is systematized, in a way, as well as ours, and has all, or 
 practically all, the elements that are found in our high schools. 
 The difference between our secondary training and theirs does 
 
 39 Appendix 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 
 
 40 Appendix 10, which gives many references for different items of 
 education. 
 
 "Appendix 7. 
 
30 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 not lie so much in the fact that any of these elements of school- 
 life are absent in primitive education, but in the fact that they 
 have grown in scope and complexity since then, that ideals, 
 subject matter, and method have adapted themselves to chang- 
 ing conditions, though somewhat tardily, because of the con- 
 servative nature of education. 
 
 A variety of illustrative material as to primitive education 
 of to-day will be found in the appendix and marginal refer- 
 ences. If all the evidence is carefully studied, it will be found 
 to support the conclusions as to prehistoric education given in 
 Chapter I. Support will grow stronger as we advance. 
 
 Summary of primitive secondary education. — The main 
 points of this chapter may now be summarized in the follow- 
 ing outline ; but it should be noted that the general classes of 
 subject matter referred to are found in both the primary and 
 the secondary period. The most characteristic parts are 
 reserved for the adolescent boys. 
 
 Education in the secondary period: — 
 
 Aim. — Insight into the choicest knowledge of the tribe. Strong 
 impressions of most important tribal characteristics and cus- 
 toms. Induction into full citizenship. Education into the life 
 of the tribe. 
 Analysis of curriculum: — More serious and secret elements of the 
 following : 
 Industrial facts: — Elements of occupations. (This suggests 
 
 manual training). 
 Social and political facts : — Knowledge of and full participa- 
 tion in clan and tribal life (organization, councils, etc.). 
 (The foundation of civics.) 
 Religious facts : — Primitive ritual. Particularly totemic cere- 
 monies and signs; facts as to Churinga (bull-roarers). 42 
 All characteristic ceremonies. Magic. (The beginnings of 
 religious instruction are seen here, — now made a regular 
 and very important part of the curriculum in several con- 
 tinental systems.) 
 Folk-lore: — Tales of ancestors and histories of totems. 
 Songs. Practical knowledge gained through experience of 
 tribe, treasured by old men and landed on. Sometimes a 
 special totem name with all its significance, was given to the 
 individual; sometimes a new language was taught. (The 
 basis of language and literature.) Note also tabulation on 
 pp. 6 ff., 23, 35. 
 
 42 See Appendix 1, 2, 7. 
 
PRIMITIVE TRIBES 31 
 
 Nature facts : — Close observation of nature enforced and vivi- 
 fied through intense relations of men to natural phenomena 
 and to nature's supplies. Knowledge treasured and trans- 
 mitted in easy formulae. (The rudiments of the natural sci- 
 ences.) 
 
 Number : — Simple concrete facts. Few particular ideas. 
 Limited series, perhaps up to 5, and then by 5's and io's. 
 (The rudiments of mathematics and exact science.) 
 
 Art : — General symbolism of tribe. Participation in mak- 
 ing sacred objects (see sand-paintings of the Navajos). 
 Body-paintings. Drawing. Carving of useful and orna- 
 mental articles. (Beginnings of drawing and art, with fur- 
 ther suggestions as to manual training.) 
 
 Physical training : — Physical tests trying nerve and muscle. 
 Body-markings, — tattooing, incisions, cicatrizing, teeth- 
 breaking, etc. Dances. (An early stage of physical culture.) 
 
 As we follow the training of the adolescent we can thus 
 easily detect our modern curriculum in outline, for its founda- 
 tions are plainly visible. 
 
 Method. — ( 1 ) Observation — imitation — practice — participation. 
 
 (2) Impressive initiation ceremonies exciting the highest de- 
 gree of attention, and thus reinforcing memory. During these 
 ceremonies there is a sustained effort to give definite instruc- 
 tion and practice (of a rude sort) in matters of intimate con- 
 cern to the life of the tribe. 
 
 (3) Full participation in the life of the tribe, — at least after 
 a period of probation. 
 
 General characterization of primitive secondary education. 
 — From the two studies summarized in Chapters I and II 
 it appears that primitive peoples, while leaving the education 
 of young children to nature and natural conditions, had and 
 still have a definite aim and a studied plan of training in the 
 case of boys of secondary age. The plan involves the conscious 
 adaptation of method and matter to the aim, — in a word organi- 
 zation of a very definite sort. The education of adolescents had 
 in view two distinct and yet closely correlated objects, I, the 
 mastery of the choicest knowledge inheritances of the race, so 
 presented as to strike the more fully developed imagination of 
 youth and inspire the boys under training with the importance of 
 the impartations ; 2, vocational and civic training, which, though 
 simple in character and scope, because of the simple and limited 
 nature of tribal life, was as essential for existence as the more 
 
32 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 detailed vocational training of to-day. All this training was 
 conducted by a group of men well fitted by age and experience 
 to induct the new candidates for citizenship into the character- 
 istic ideas and forms of the tribe. This education was thus 
 public, not private. It was a community concern. The organi- 
 zation of education was tribal. In this primitive secondary 
 school the main features of secondary education, which were 
 so familiar in later ages, were already visible. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 I. In connection with primitive tribes it is necessary to keep in 
 mind two characteristic features of their life and thought : — 
 
 A. Totems. — Ideas connected with their totems, — natural objects, 
 generally animals or trees (but not necessarily these only), which they 
 think were their first ancestors. The totems have certain signs or sym- 
 bols that appear conspicuously on men's bodies or on prominent objects 
 in the community. More than this, boys are often assimilated to these 
 objects by dress, arrangement of hair, or bodily changes. The totem 
 is one of the most fundamental conceptions among primitive races. 
 
 B. Churinga, — " Bull-roarers." — The second feature is connected 
 with the first. It is the " bull-roarer." Spencer and Gillen give an 
 interesting account of this object in connection with the Alcheringa, — 
 a name applied to what was to them the beginning of time, the 
 period when their first ancestors were formed. These ancestors were 
 so intimately associated with the totems that one of them is some- 
 times called kangaroo-man or man-kangaroo. The human idea is 
 often sunk in that of the animal or plant from which the man is 
 supposed to have sprung. The history of the tribe began here with 
 these semi-human ancestors having unique powers (as compared with 
 their descendants), which were exercised in part in producing some 
 of the striking geological features of the region. In connection with 
 these Alcheringa ideas, perhaps, or as another version of the doings 
 of those times, we find the story of the creation of men and women 
 from plants and animals through some transformation, making rather 
 inchoate individuals who dwelt in groups along the shore of the Salt 
 Sea that originally covered part of the country. (120 ff., 388.) 
 
 Now early races were impressed with the spirit part of the individual, 
 which they objectified in different ways. The spirits of these Alcheringa 
 ancestors were closely associated with certain rounded, oval or elon- 
 gated, flattened stones and slabs of wood of various sizes (with sides 
 flat and concave, or concave and convex), called churinga. In fact it 
 was supposed that the spirits resided in these objects, and that when 
 a child was born in the tribe, the spirit was reincarnated, the child 
 thus possessing the churinga of the ancestor and of course belonging 
 to his totem, without regard to the mother's totem. Naturally these 
 
PRIMITIVE TRIBES 33 
 
 churinga were decorated with special symbols or devices, the device be- 
 ing "generally a conventional arrangement of circular, semi-circular, 
 spiral, curved, and straight lines, most frequently a series of concentric 
 circles, or a close-set spiral." (145.) They were preserved with great 
 care and secrecy. The location of their depositaries and the stories 
 connected with them became an important part pf the knowledge of 
 the tribe that was kept from all but the duly admitted male members. 
 The smaller of these churinga were called bull-roarers. They, like 
 some of the others, had holes bored in one end, perhaps because of a 
 tradition that the Alcheringa men used to hang them up. Strings were 
 attached to the bull-roarers, and a quick whirling in the air produced 
 weird music that added a striking element in ceremonies. It is well 
 known that such objects have in modern times become playthings. 
 Many a one can look back to them as interesting objects of amusement, 
 another illustration, as Haddon suggests, that serious religious objects 
 of primitive times have become the playthings of modern times. We 
 might say that one early educational force has been transformed into 
 another, which, though less impressive, has still some educational value, 
 — is really a part of a great series of educational forces which are of 
 great import in early years. (This account applies to Central Australia, 
 but it is useful for general knowledge of these objects.) 
 
 2. A primitive secondary school. — Mathews in several articles 
 gives detailed descriptions of initiation ceremonies. Here is an out- 
 line of the Bunan of South Wales that he describes in the American 
 Anthropologist 9 : 327 ff. 
 
 (1.) Ceremonies serving as a signal that a Bunan is to take place. 
 
 (2.) Selection of the place. 
 
 (3.) Meeting to talk over general interests of the tribe and to de- 
 termine details of the Bunan. 
 
 (4.) Bunan ground prepared, the main elements being, (a) a large 
 circular place cleared, surrounded by a low embankment with a single 
 opening; a pathway leading from the opening to a second circle about 
 a sixth of a mile distant made like the first, but smaller; the path 
 bordered on each side by an embankment for a short distance from 
 the circles. This diagram will illustrate some of these points. 
 
 S=o> 
 
 -= *> 
 
 «^> • ^=3? 
 
 (b) Beside the pathway, in the smaller circle, and elsewhere were 
 various figures and devices made by heaping up earth or cutting (these 
 probably representing totem animals and signs, at least in part). 
 
 (5.) Messengers summon tribes to attend. 
 
 (6.) Tribes gather, bringing their novices to be initiated. (The 
 
34 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Bunan is not for the single tribe in whose district it occurs. Various 
 tribes are united in it.) 
 
 (7.) Headmen and followers examine ground and devices. 
 
 (8.) Boys taken away from the women. 
 
 There are eighteen distinct movements up to this point, all attended 
 with characteristic forms. These, or at least the most striking of them, 
 are here grouped under the eight heads. The "bull-roarer" is a com- 
 mon accompaniment for certain parts of the initiation ceremonies and 
 continues to be used throughout the Bunan. Frequent corroborees 
 (dance ceremonies) also are held. 
 
 Now follow various movements and ceremonies with the boys, which, 
 in the case in hand, may continue for three or four days. The boys, 
 till near the end, must have heads bowed, or covered, or both (except 
 of course where the purpose of the Bunan may require a temporary 
 removal of this restriction, if we may judge from a similar ceremony 
 in another place, though Mathews expressly says that in the present 
 case the boys were kept in this position till near the end of the ordeal). 
 During the entire ceremony they must not speak. 
 
 Most of the letters of the alphabet would be required to designate 
 separately all the observances in this part of the Bunan, but they may 
 be condensed and summarized as follows : — 
 
 A. Before leaving the vicinity of the circles they see the devices, 
 peculiar dances about them, and some feats of jugglery by doctors and 
 wizards. 
 
 B. They go into the bush where they observe, amid special forms 
 calculated to impress them, various performances that, for the most 
 part, are probably symbolic, — dances, games, pantomimes, incantations, 
 and imitations of nature. One of these seems unique in this region. 
 It consists of swaying motions in special directions, accompanied by 
 certain sounds, all intended to imitate the " breaking and recoil " of 
 waves on the ocean shore. A tooth is knocked out, with peculiar forms. 
 
 C. Finally they turn toward the original camp, or rather a new one 
 made in their absence by the women assisted by the men left behind. 
 On the way the bull-roarers are placed in the hands of the novices 
 for special examination, — a large one, the jummagong, used in the 
 initiation ceremonies, and a small one, the mooroonga, for general 
 tribal summoning. The boys are now painted, each with characteristic 
 devices peculiar to his tribe (probably totemic symbols), and assume 
 the belt and kilt worn by men. (The men have been painted and 
 decorated earlier, before the beginning of the ceremonies, and now 
 repaint themselves.) The concluding ceremonies of the Bunan gather- 
 ing take place in a special enclosure near the new camp, and in a 
 special camp for the boys where the old men impress upon them 
 certain interdictions as to the flesh of animals (probably totems). 
 
 D. The final ceremonies of initiation however take place at the homes, 
 of the several tribes, when the boys, after a life of perhaps some 
 months in the "bush," winning their own living (and perhaps receiv- 
 
PRIMITIVE TRIBES 35 
 
 ing certain instruction), go through certain forms and are removed 
 from all restraint, but not from all restriction. Before the latter occurs 
 the boys must be present at several Bunans or reach a certain age. 
 
 3. More facts as to the primitive secondary school. — In his arti- 
 cle on initiation ceremonies of Australian tribes, in Proc. of Amer. 
 Phil. Assoc. 37 : 54 ff., Mathews tells us that the novices' view is 
 concealed part of the time. They are shown marks and objects, and 
 taught folk-lore connected with the nation. There are burlesques and 
 songs every day, and there are dramatic representations of a crude 
 nature. 
 
 The novices after initiation are kept under control of their seniors 
 for a considerable time, and must conform to certain rules laid down 
 by the headmen. They must also attend one additional Burbung (the 
 name of the initiation ceremony in this case) or more, before they 
 are thoroughly acquainted with different parts of the ceremonial and 
 are fully qualified as tribesmen. 
 
 4. In his article on the Toara ceremony of the Dippel tribes of 
 Queensland, Amer. Anthropol., 1900: 139 ff., the same author says that 
 while in the " bush " the novices are taught a mystic language under- 
 stood by none but those who have passed through the prescribed course 
 of instruction. 
 
 5. Mathews' article on Phallic Rites and Initiation Ceremonies of 
 South Australian Aborigines (Proc. of Amer. Phil. Soc. 39:622!?.), 
 gives these interesting items : — 
 
 During the long sojourns in the bush (with the old men), after 
 each ordeal, the boys are permitted to see or listen to certain dances 
 and songs, the secret lore of their forefathers, and stories of the 
 traditional customs of the tribe. A mystic language or vocabulary is 
 also inculcated, known only to the initiated. Every man and woman, 
 all animals, plant's, and surrounding objects, and the principal places 
 in their hunting grounds have secret names by which they are spoken 
 of among the initiated, in addition to the general nomenclature with 
 which the women and children are familiar. After the novices have 
 passed through the final stages of the inauguration rites the instruc- 
 tion by the elder tribesmen is continued for many years at the single 
 men's camp at which the catechumens have now the right to be 
 present. 
 
 During initiation in the bush with the old men the boys are shown 
 the sacred bull-roarer and certain crystalline quartz stones supposed 
 to protect, or in some way to bestow magical powers on the possessor. 
 
 6. We should also note the following items from the same writer's 
 article on the Origin, Organization, and Ceremonies of Australian 
 Aborigines, ' in Amer. Phil. Soc. Proc, 39 : 556 ff. : — 
 
 Youths are instructed in customs and traditions (perhaps of their 
 conquerors originally), are shown many things entirely new and are 
 taught another language. Personal names are changed, — kept secret 
 from all women of tribe. Mathews explains a part of the initiation 
 
36 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 ceremonies by supposing they grew out of circumstances attending 
 wars and raids. He suggests that ceremonies are kept secret from 
 women, because in war women belong to the victors and would carry 
 the secrets to the enemy. 
 
 He says also that pubertal boys are deeply scarified on shoulders 
 and on muscles of breast and thighs. 
 
 7. A Navajo school. — Mr. Tozzer of the Peabody Museum, 
 Cambridge, Mass., has been initiated into the Navajo tribe of Ameri- 
 can Indians. He gave an account of initiation ceremonies in that tribe 
 in a personal interview, — from which the following notes are taken. 
 
 Before puberty children pick up in a natural way, through observa- 
 tion, imitation, and showing, the common facts of tribal life, — method 
 of weaving, etc. There is no writing and so no formal education at 
 this period. Young children are present at a ceremony with the " sand 
 painting." The priest utters a sharp cry of the god, gives a drink 
 from a gourd containing the sacred liquid, and transfers his hand from 
 the god's head to that of the child. The latter is naturally awed 
 and even terrified at the ceremony. 
 
 There is a nine-day ceremony called the Yei-bi-tsai or night-chant, 
 during which boys and girls are initiated. The ceremony used in initia- 
 tion must be passed through four times during life, the first time about 
 the age of puberty. In this initiation ceremony the boy sees men 
 dressed in a definite order, the culminating act being the placing of 
 the mask, that really transforms men into gods with the power of 
 gods. Certain rules must be followed as long as the mask is on (there 
 must be no talk, etc.). Before this the novices have supposed that 
 those who appear as gods are real gods who have come down from 
 heaven. The ceremony gives them a new view and a new attitude 
 toward belief. The gods are men personating gods, but still possessing 
 the real attributes and powers of gods when dressed to represent 
 them. The boys also hear and see the complicated ritual, including 
 dances, songs, and prayers, the most vital parts now for the first time, 
 and all at near view for the first time. These things, or at least the 
 most sacred of them, take place in a circular earth hut thirty feet 
 in diameter, called the Hogan. Near by, under the guidance of the 
 old men, they practice all the ritual, till, by constant repetition through 
 this and the succeeding initiations, each practically covering the same 
 points, they become perfected and can conduct the ceremonies them- 
 selves. In the Hogan the boys practice " sand-painting " under masters 
 in the art, and subject to the correction (and even bantering) of master 
 and companions. The painting is planned on a large scale. It is shut 
 in on three sides by feathered poles (representing breath or spirit), but 
 is left open on the east. It represents the gods ; every line almost is 
 symbolic. It is used in healing ceremonies and for the ceremony with 
 young children that has been referred to. 
 
 The real initiation consists of the pollen and yucca ceremony, in which 
 pollen for the girl and yucca fibre for the boy are transferred from 
 
PRIMITIVE TRIBES 37 
 
 the god to the body, touching various parts and even making some 
 figure. Girls are initiated as well as boys, but they take no part 
 in the dances and are excluded from certain parts of the ceremony. 
 They are seldom in the Hogan, except for healing (no one enters it 
 till the initiation period) ; otherwise their initiation is similar to that 
 of boys. 
 
 8. Other descriptions. — "Time after time, when the Ertnatulunga 
 (depository of churinga), is visited, the churinga are rubbed over and 
 
 carefully explained by the old men to the younger ones, who in course 
 of time come to know all that the old men can impart, and so the 
 knowledge of whom the churinga have belonged to and what the design 
 on each one means is handed on from generation to generation." 
 (Spencer and Gillen, 145.) 
 
 9. " The sustained interest " in the Engwura ceremonies, which 
 "were enacted day after day and night after night . . . was very re- 
 markable when it is taken into account that mentally the Australian 
 native is merely a child who acts as a general rule on the spur of 
 the moment. On this occasion they were gathered together to perform 
 a series of ceremonies handed down from the Alcheringa, which had 
 to be performed in precisely the same way that they had been in the 
 Alcheringa. Everything was ruled by precedent; to change even the 
 decoration of a performer would have been an unheard-of thing; the 
 reply, ' it was so in the Alcheringa,' was considered as perfectly satis- 
 factory by way of explanation." At the same time we find that some 
 changes have been made. (Spencer and Gillen.) 
 
 10. Summarized references to Letourneau, with some ideas sug- 
 gested by the study: 
 
 Art instincts,— 47, 58, 69, 114, 125-6, 159, 187 ff., 226. See also 37. 
 
 Discipline; parental control, — 84, 139, 165, 169, 174, 179, 180, 181, 
 199, 206. — Success in moral training as compared with scholastic train- 
 ing,— 54, 217-19, 238. 
 
 Folk-lore ; wandering minstrels ; story-telling gatherings, — 126, 128, 
 135, 153, 203, 230. 
 
 Initiation ceremonies, — 40, 41, 53, 85, 86, 134-5, I53~5, 207-8. 
 
 Instinct for rhythm, gesture, etc., — 126, 158, 205, 213-4, 217. 
 
 Memory, prominence of ; weak attention ; attitude toward abstrac- 
 tions and generalizations; rote-learning, — -44, 54, 59, 127, 128, 203, 232, 
 233, 243, 248, 249. 
 
 Number power,— 37-8, 47-8, 59, 67, 123-4, 146, 184, 200-2, 237. 
 
 Observation, imitation, play, participation, etc., — 39, 46, 60, 66, 74, 
 83, 101, 116, 118, 121, 122, 133, 138, 143, 150, 151, 153, 165, 174, 226, 238. 
 
 Oratory and oratorical training appearing at an early stage in 
 civilization with freer and wider political status. — 84, 85, 126, 135, 176. 
 
 Parental education,— 40, 46, 53, 116, 118, 122, 133, 143, 151, 152, 153, 
 165, 171, 174, 180, 198, 199. 
 
 Special arrangements for education, — 83, 84, 153, 171. 
 
 Spontaneous education,— 39, 58, 60, 66, 74, 101, 121, 134, 138, 142. 
 
38 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 As civilization advances among primitive peoples knowledge, instead 
 of being vested in old men, is vested in special functionaries, — priests, 
 -183. 
 
 A study of education among primitive peoples suggests the idea 
 that making education the privilege of a class is a savage trait, or 
 a characteristic of early stages of civilization. 
 
Ill 
 
 SECONDARY TRAINING IN HOMER AND HESIOD 
 
 Leaving primitive life of to-day and primitive life of pre- 
 historic times, which, in a way, explain one another, we take 
 up the study of records coming to us from the border-land of 
 the prehistoric and the historic, which at once hark back to 
 more primitive times, give a vivid picture of contemporary 
 life, and look forward into the future. 
 
 Educational value of these epics. — The Homeric poems 
 are very interesting from a literary view-point, for they repre- 
 sent the culmination of ballad literature. For our present pur- 
 pose they are interesting because the ballad relics that they 
 contain give us glimpses of the past and afford us some clue to 
 the educational forces at work in early times. The hints as to 
 education that they give, however, apply particularly to the 
 families of the chiefs whose life they portray. " The people's 
 lot was hard," and their education far more limited and primi- 
 tive. Hence, while the education that is outlined in this chapter 
 is of a primitive type and will apply, in its general features, to 
 the whole population, there are many features which concern 
 only the special class. This limitation must be kept before us 
 as we look into the educational agencies of the times. 
 
 Social and political organization. — Organization and ac- 
 quisition in Homeric times have much in common with what 
 we have found in previous chapters, but we have evidently 
 come to a new epoch. Political organization is more complex. 
 Several social and political elements appear, each influencing 
 thought and movement. King, council, agora have become 
 clearly defined. It is to be noted that the general body of the 
 people has its force, however small. That the force is not 
 insignificant appears from a brief and significant Homeric 
 sentence, — " The people's voice is stern." x While the sev- 
 
 1 Odyssey, XIV. 
 
 39 
 
4 o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 eral factors of organization are by no means coordinate, the 
 mere fact that they exist is very suggestive and indicates the 
 appearance of new educational forces and wider participation. 
 
 The family also has grown. The Homeric family has added 
 a slave element of nurture. The slaves were often high-born 
 individuals who had suffered the misfortune of being kid- 
 napped in the freebooting life of the nobles of the period. 
 Later, when formal education had come in, they were often 
 the regular tutors of boys. Now they had their part in the 
 more informal education of the times. With this high-born 
 slave accession and all the attendants of a large estate the 
 family has become a small village, and, with its varied inter- 
 ests, is broader and more educative than the primitive fam- 
 ily. 
 
 Change in ideals. — But changes have gone farther than 
 this. Growth in ideals is seen most characteristically in the 
 fact that the community unit is not so exclusive as in earlier 
 epochs. While we know that it ruled, and ruled insistently, at 
 a much later period than we are now studying, still even here 
 we find the beginnings of individual initiative. The gens is 
 still predominant. It moulds, commands and transmits as 
 before, but with this important difference, that the individual 
 stands out more conspicuously, pauses to consider, puts in a 
 protest or suggestion, or even gives signs of moving in an inde- 
 pendent course, — a spirit that, as the race evolves, is to add 
 individual development to mere tribal acquisition. 2 
 
 Educational aim. — The educational aim is thus a tribal 
 one still, — to train a worthy member of the tribe or clan. 
 But we must, in addition, look for greater individuality, and 
 this perhaps comes out in the Homeric ideals embodied in the 
 expressions, speaker of words and doer of deeds; good man- 
 ager and manipulator of estate or office. 
 
 Growth in race acquisition. — As to accumulations and 
 inheritances in the various lines mentioned in previous chap- 
 
 2 Appendix 3, 17. "And the Assembly swayed like high sea waves 
 of the Icarian main." Iliad, II. " Then to them spake Thoas, son of 
 Andraimon, skilled in throwing the dart and good in close fight, and in 
 council did few of the Achaeans surpass him, when the young men 
 were striving in debate," — Iliad, XV. See also Iliad III, VII; 
 Odyssey, VI, XV. 
 
HOMER AND HESIOD 41 
 
 ters, they have not. merely been increased in number ; there 
 has been a great change in spirit and scope. Industrial forces 
 represent a wider range of power 3 and thought. Practical 
 arts show a striking advance over previous periods. Recent 
 explorations in Crete and Greece have revealed surprising 
 skill and perfection here. Applications to life have passed 
 beyond necessity into the realm of luxury. Work was so thor- 
 oughly and massively done that it has defied time. The fine 
 arts have shared in the advancement. They have taken on 
 new forms and have developed a more pervasive esthetic feel- 
 ing. In fact, over the whole life, even the physical, has come 
 a kind of esthetic power whose real significance is seen best 
 in the idea of symmetry, which Greece is eventually to bring 
 into education. 4 Every nation has some art instinct ; with the 
 Greeks it first comes to full consciousness as an educational 
 force. Religious feelings have lost something of their awe 
 and sternness, 5 but apparently nothing of their impressiveness. 
 They are freer and more social. Folk-lore has entered the 
 bounds of literature. The physical life has become larger and 
 finer and freer. A really wonderful civilization has been 
 developed. 6 It is even declining, so that the period immediately 
 represented by the Homeric literature has been regarded as a 
 decadent one. 6 Early historic Greece was more primitive than 
 the Greece of the Homeric epoch. 
 
 Educational forces. — The educational forces at work are 
 therefore finer as well as more inspiring than those of genuine 
 primitive life, because some of the weights have been removed 
 and individual thought has more outlets. The people respon- 
 sible for this have gathered up the best with new genius and 
 
 s Appendix 6, 19, 21; Iliad, II, III, VI, XI, XII, XVI, XVII; 
 Odyssey, IV, V, VII, VIII, XII, XVII. 
 
 * Appendix 7, 9; Iliad, II, III, XVIII; Odyssey, IV, VI, VIII, 
 XVII, XXIII. 
 
 5 Appendix 4, 18; Iliad, I, II, X; Odyssey, II. 
 
 •See Schliemann's Excavations (Shuchhardt), and Baikie's Sea- 
 Kings of Crete. 
 
 Incursions into Greece of course easily made possible the coexistence 
 of two grades of civilization, a higher one belonging to a conquered 
 people, a lower one due to the vigorous new people pushing on. Under 
 such conditions the social status of a country has zeniths and declines 
 in its cyclic development. At a later time the Roman Empire illus- 
 trated the same variety. 
 
42 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 have made it better. There is new spirit, new outlook, and, 
 correlatively, new insight. 
 
 Method. — The method that goes with this new educa- 
 tion impresses one as freer. There seems to have been less 
 of the awesome, less tension of mental and physical attitude. 
 One feels that the province of rote-learning has been narrowed 
 and that the process probably has now to do with mere form. 
 But educational movements are conservative and retain all the 
 past in method. Modes of procedure, like formulae, are so 
 deeply imbeded in human nature and so impressed through ex- 
 perience that they become natural modes of action and may 
 hold sway far more widely than can be justified, because they 
 do not enter the thoroughfares or even by-paths of thought, but 
 work in the province of the unconscious or subconscious. We 
 shall thus find each epoch clinging to methods that were evolved 
 under other conditions and should have passed wholly, or in 
 large part, with the conditions. It may be true, however, that 
 each epoch contains some of the conditions of all preceding 
 epochs, and that, therefore, we may always find some use for 
 all ideals and methods which have appeared. They form 
 threads in the weaving of the new, but are merely contributory, 
 and find their mission in losing themselves in the new. 
 
 Without discussing the matter at great length, which is un- 
 necessary, after the general discussions of the first two chap- 
 ters, we may summarize the forces at work in this new period 
 and briefly characterize ideals and method. 
 
 Education in Homeric Times. 7 
 
 Prominent features or aims : — Speaker of words and doer of 
 deeds. Good ordering of affairs (at home and in the state) — 
 Kindly and intimate home relations. 
 
 No formal schools. — Education conducted by the following agen- 
 cies: 
 
 I. Education through the family. Family organization patriar- 
 chal, — father, mother, children, slaves (chief slaves whose lot 
 was most happy; common slaves). Children remain long at 
 home, daughters till marriage, sons even after marriage. Hence 
 we have the family in the large sense, really the nucleus of the 
 
 7 Appendix 1-15, (summary of references to the Iliad and Odyssey 
 bearing on the different phases of this topic.) 
 
HOMER AND HESIOD 43 
 
 clan. Close and affectionate family relations very noticeable. 
 Familiar and intimate relations of selected slaves with main fam- 
 ily; slaves sometimes brought up with children. High considera- 
 tion accorded woman; freedom; equality (but relics of marriage 
 by purchase). High degree of culture in many ways. Table man- 
 ners however very crude. — Large estate managed by household. 
 Picture of life of nobles charming, enticing. Sharply contrasted 
 with that of common people. 
 
 Home experiences and surroundings many-sided. Hence exer- 
 cise and training on many sides. Children participate. Depended 
 upon especially to continue line and honor and keep up life of 
 home. Arms inherited and used. 
 
 Care, nuture, and training from parents, attendants; sometimes 
 from guardians and prominent characters like Phcenix. Father 
 chief factor in boy's life; mother in girl's. Tutelage long. 
 
 Home training supplemented by foreign journeys and expedi- 
 tions; guest-friendships, comradeships. 
 
 2. Education through industrial environment: — Many occupa- 
 tions of the simpler sort, — most important being agriculture, pas- 
 toral pursuits, carpentry and ship-building, sea-faring, freebooting, 
 leech-craft, seer-craft, primitive mining, metal work, textile work, 
 household-craft. 
 
 3. Education through social and political environment: — Polit- 
 ical organization simple but suggestive, offering considerable oppor- 
 tunity for training: — 1. King; 2. Council of Elders; 3. General 
 Assembly. Power in each. Power of people indicated in Od. 
 XIV, " The people's voice is stern." 
 
 4. Education through religious environment and into religious 
 knowledge and history : — Many gods, concrete conception ; gods 
 interested in and intimate with men; confident and easy relations 
 of men with gods; close contact influences men intellectually, 
 morally, physically; men instructed, endowed, directed by gods. 
 Gods worshipped by vows, prayers, sacrifices. Special forms of 
 worship. 
 
 Various stories as to gods' history and relations with men. 
 
 Fate. — Spirits of departed. — Omens. — Dreams. — Soothsay- 
 ings, — etc. 
 
 Motives in attitudes toward men and even toward gods often 
 utilitarian. Home virtues strong, beautiful. Community virtues 
 within the class comparatively high. Chivalrous conduct. Larger 
 community virtues low. 
 
 5. Education through esthetic environment: — Palace. — Altars. 
 — Objects of personal and home decoration and use, showing great 
 artistic skill. Note especially textile work and metal work. Care- 
 ful observation of nature aided esthetics greatly. 
 
 6. Education through folk-lore : — Songs, ballads ( foundation of 
 epics), race and hero tales; practical wisdom accumulated as the 
 
44 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 race grew and embodied in business directions, in proverbs, etc. ; 
 careful and accurate observations of nature, — nature-lore. Old 
 men " wise in ancient lore " much sought. The bard here reached 
 his full development as an educational force. 
 
 7. Education through physical environment: — Plays, games, 
 dances, training in arms, etc. 
 
 Method in education : — Observation, association, imitation, prac- 
 tice, participation. — Contrasts between child and adolescent fre- 
 quent; striking characteristics of adolescent noted. — Attractive 
 pictures of home life. Gradual development. 
 
 Suggestions from Hesiod as to Education. 8 
 
 Additional points from Hesiod. — Still no formal schools. Gen- 
 eral educational forces same as in Homer. But Hesiod gives a 
 picture of more homely life. 
 
 Some special points: — 
 
 A definite and systematic account of the origin of gods. A clas- 
 sification of gods. So an organized body of religious lore to be 
 handed on. Also a systematic account of the origin and develop- 
 ment of man, through five races or ages named from metals. In 
 the second race, the silver race, " for a hundred years a boy was 
 reared and grew beside his wise mother." 
 
 A body of precepts as to agriculture, etc., and a calendar in- 
 dicating best days for various things. Altogether a considerable 
 amount of folk-lore to be handed on. 
 
 He speaks of the value of rivalry, necessity of labor, and effort 
 for attainment of virtue, all of which are educational. Hesiod's 
 attitude is that of the practical man dealing with every-day con- 
 ditions of life. 
 
 Education of the adolescent in this period. — All this is 
 of much value for our study of the evolution of secondary 
 education. It is not to be expected that poems, composed for 
 the purposes that are evident in these cases, — especially poems 
 evolving as the Homeric poems have evolved, — would go out 
 of their way to speak of education. But incidentally (and in- 
 cidental things are sometimes the best for our purpose), we 
 get a good deal of information as to the influences at work 
 and the subject matter that surrounded and affected the boy 
 and called him to occupy and use,- — a call which was enforced 
 by custom and by the definite efforts of his superiors. From 
 what we learn of the habits of antiquity, which have already 
 been treated at length, we know that the secondary boy gained 
 
 8 Appendix 16-22. 
 
HOMER AND HESIOD 45 
 
 the best of this curriculum that was pressing on him. In Ho- 
 mer he seems to be regarded as a new individual 9 capable of a 
 power, and requiring an education, different from those of the 
 boy. The relics of ancient custom, which we find in the period 
 to be treated in Chapter IV, also show that he was expected to 
 have a training of his own, — especially, though not exclu- 
 sively, physical, political, and religious training. 
 
 Formal schools there were none, any more than in the pre- 
 historic period ; individual training at home or in some friendly 
 court or by some striking personality form the very simple 
 organization for educational purposes, but back of it and in it 
 was the social organization that gave the larger education. 10 
 The practice of sending the boy to a friendly court or to some 
 skillful man indicates special training for the secondary period, 
 for it is this, evidently, that is referred to in the various state- 
 ments in question, or in many of them. 
 
 Homeric education was not primitive education, but it fol- 
 lowed its general lines. Where it followed, however, it gave 
 something vastly richer and broader. It seems also to have 
 added one new feature. Besides the group of teachers who, 
 as before, were simply men of experience, headmen, we begin 
 to find the individual teacher with special qualifications, a man 
 endowed with superior fitness for teaching young men. Shall 
 we say that private education has been added to public educa- 
 tion? 
 
 If we should go back to primitive Greek education, as we 
 may by Homeric aid, by inference from stereotyped forms 
 found in historic times, 11 and by analogy from parallel condi- 
 tions elsewhere, we should find that adolescent education here 
 was the counterpart of that described in our first chapters in 
 purpose, in course, and in method, which culminated in striking 
 initiation ceremonies. Greek nature, however, may have thus 
 early relieved the austerity, solemnity, and formality which 
 have been noted in primitive training, as it certainly did at a 
 later period. 
 
 9 Appendix 13, 23. 
 
 10 Appendix 10, 11, 22, 23; Iliad, V, IX, XIV, XVI, XVII, XXII, 
 XXIII; Odyssey, XII. 
 
 11 See especially Chapter IV. 
 
46 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Some references to Iliad and Odyssey on various topics. 12 
 i. Ideals : — Iliad, 55, 174. Various parts of the Odyssey emphasize 
 the well-ordering of affairs. Both epics are full of passages showing ad- 
 miration of strength and stature and physical beauty. 
 
 2. Social organization: — Iliad, 43, 117, 137, 210, 262, 452; Odyssey, 
 14, 26, 37, 40, 41, 42, 50, 52, 68, 80, 84, 90, 122, 175, 178, 200, 219, 222, 
 233, 236, 241, 242, 244, 245, 250, 264, 272, 283, 304, 305, 307, 310, 312, 
 321, 353, 378. 
 
 3. Political organization: — Iliad, 2, 3, 16, 2~2, 24, 25, 27, 31, 45, 55, 
 138, I39» 163, 299, 381, 458; Odyssey, 15, 66, 89, 199, 201, 220, 244, 319, 
 328, 383. 
 
 4. Religion, — animism, gods, omens, dreams, seers, etc.: — Iliad, 3, 
 21, 22, 31, 47, 48, 86, 129, 192, 212, 236, 240, 266; references to gods, 
 passim; Odyssey, 13, 20, 46, 166, 183, 246, 269, 304, 305, 308, 312, 318, 
 368, 370, 379. 
 
 5. Instruction by gods: — Iliad, 192, 282, 348, 458; Odyssey 88, 102, 
 124, 278, 279, 317, 363- 
 
 6. Industrial development, — general occupations, arts, crafts, etc. : 
 — Iliad, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 47, 48, 50, 51, 55, 70, 71, 85, 112, 115, 117, 
 120, 124, 135, 169, 204, 205, 209, 210, 218, 225, 239, 243, 277, 329, 337, 
 365, 383; Odyssey, 12, 14, 47, 52, 79, 102, 115, 189, 219, 255, 273, 274, 
 297, 304-5, 373- 
 
 7. Physical development, — . games, etc.: — Iliad, 45, 383-84, 458 ff. ; 
 Iliad has abundance of passages indicating strong physical develop- 
 ment; Odyssey, 6, 45, 89, 90, 91, 113, 118, 281, 291, 362, 373. 
 
 8. Folk-lore and means of propagating: — Iliad, 16, 39, 122, 167, 175, 
 277, 381, 383, 384, 405; Odyssey, 6, 10, 11, 37, 45, 52, 63, 112, ti8, 
 124, 175, 200, 242, 271, 273, 279, 280, 281, 291, 306, 353, 362, 376. Old 
 men as repositories of knowledge: — Iliad, 138, 183, 266; Odyssey, 15, 
 37i, 384. 
 
 9. Art: — Iliad, 53, 61, 120, 215, etc.; Odyssey, 47, 90, 175, 199, 
 269, 363, 372. 
 
 10. Parental education. — Close relations of parents and children, 
 etc.: — Iliad, 2, 84, 119, 169, 225, 226, 259, 260, 266, 282, 351, 367, 395-6, 
 411, 449, 459, 493; Odyssey, 7, 14, 16, 48, 66, 67, 70, 84, 89, 170, 172, 
 178, 189, 201, 209, 217, 219, 234, 241, 248, 252, 253 ff., 261, 266, 292, 307, 
 308, 353, 368, 380, 385. 
 
 11. Education outside the home: — Iliad, 174, 175-6, 209, 226-7, 260, 
 320, 395, 396, 452; Odyssey, 234. 
 
 12. Child-pictures: — Iliad, 301, 314, 322, 367, 449; Odyssey, 26, 380. 
 Much in this section may apply to social organization. Close relations 
 between parents and children are evident. Intimate relations between 
 the family and certain slaves also appear. 
 
 12 Reference to Palmer's Odyssey ; Lang, Leaf, and Myers' Iliad. 
 
HOMER AND HESIOD 47 
 
 13. Recognition of adolescent power, etc.: — Iliad, 209, 299, 411; 
 Odyssey 10, 12, 40, 108, 283, 289, 298, 301, 331, 355, 372-3- 
 
 14. Woman s place : — Iliad, 173; Odyssey, 12, 89, 91, 338. 
 
 15. Observation of nature, — passim.. 
 
 Classification of Various Items Gathered froj^Hesiod: — 
 
 16. Family life and relations, — cruder; picture less charming than 
 that of Homer. But he deals with a different part of society. 
 
 17. Political organization has evidently advanced. See reference to 
 courts: — Works and Days, 37. 
 
 18. Religion: — Body of knowledge as to origins; evolution of 
 gods. Classification of gods. Body of religious precepts. Intimate 
 contact of gods with men, — gods watch, conduct, help, instruct. Spirits. 
 Ethical life rudimentary in some particulars, well developed in others. 
 Woman placed below man in character. Works and Days, 250-55, 
 280-5, 325-35, 340 ff., 375, 460, 705, 730- See also Theogony. 
 
 19. Body of knowledge formed of condensed experience of the race 
 in agriculture, often apothegmatic in nature. Astronomical facts as to 
 times and seasons for agricultural operations. Nature signs for guid- 
 ance. Calendar-lore and superstitions. Such knowledge naturally 
 passed on by oral tradition. Works and Days, 360-70, 380 ff., 450, 
 460 ff., 775. 
 
 20. Body of knowledge or beliefs as to evolution of the human race. 
 Men of the golden race became genii, constantly present with men and 
 guarding them. 
 
 21. Industrial life simple. Agriculture emphasized. 
 
 22. Education domestic and through environment. Teaching power 
 of poets like Hesiod. Rivalry, necessity of labor, effort for attainment 
 of the good are educational stimuli. Works and Days, 22, 40, 185, 
 225-35, 285-90, 300-315. 
 
 23. " Badness, look you, you may choose in a heap ; level is the path 
 and right near it dwells. But before virtue the immortal gods have 
 set exertion, and long and steep and rugged at the first is the way to 
 it, but when one shall have reached the summit, then truly it is easy, 
 difficult though it be before." Works and Days, 285-90. 
 
IV 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN GREECE — EARLY HISTORIC 
 PERIOD x 
 
 Letters the dividing point between primitive and historic 
 education. — The invention of letters marks the dividing point 
 between primitive education and early historic education in 
 Greece. In primitive times letters were not thought of. The lit- 
 tle community was a compact and exclusive whole, intensely de- 
 voted to maintaining and advancing its life and excluding from 
 it all other communities. Communication was of the simplest 
 form. Written symbols beyond the rudest signs, such as 
 notches, straight lines, and spirals, were unknown. Society did 
 not feel the need of them. The germs of literature, however, 
 were present in the different forms of folk-lore, particularly 
 ballad forms. This folk-lore was easily appreciated, and it was 
 readily transmitted by oral tradition. 
 
 As society became more fully organized and the need of 
 communication became more pressing and its forms more 
 varied, written symbols were developed. Crude at first, so 
 that no school was thought of or needed for teaching them, 
 they grew in value, detail, and expressive power 2 till a real 
 alphabet was developed and true phonetic writing and reading 
 were possible. Ballads and hero tales were no longer 
 entrusted to memory, oral tradition, as during the period when 
 Homeric and Hesiodic literature was forming. Books were 
 made, especially books of rhythmic tales, and inscriptions and 
 
 1 In this study Athenian education is taken as the type. Spartan 
 education is very interesting from more than one point of view, but 
 it concerns us little in the direct traditions of the secondary school. 
 
 2 Explorations among the Cretan ruins have shown that long before 
 the Homeric period a " system of writing, syllabic and perhaps partly 
 alphabetic," _ existed, and this discovery has placed the introduction 
 of writing in Greece seven centuries earlier than has commonly been 
 believed. 
 
 48 
 
GREECE — EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD 49 
 
 other forms of writing were common. By this time the need of 
 having all members of the community familiar with the pho- 
 netic elements of language and able to read called for special 
 instruction in such things. Meantime number symbols took the 
 place of the rude devices noted in the previous chapter, though 
 the first symbols were very cumbrous ; these too and the needs 
 to which they ministered suggested formal instruction. 
 
 The letter school. — As has been shown the only formal 
 arrangements for education in early times, whether in the 
 heroic period, or in the ruder times of later Greek life on the 
 mainland, seem to have had reference only to the adolescent. 
 His was the first school, and we have seen that it was clearly 
 defined in the most primitive civilization. But there came a 
 time, before we get far into the historic period, when the neces- 
 sity for " letters " and written speech for practical purposes 
 became so pressing that a new form of instruction and a new 
 school were developed, the school of " letters," the latter term 
 being then interpreted broadly enough to include much more 
 than it does now. The seemingly simple and elementary 
 instruction here involved was naturally applied to childhood. 
 Thus formal elementary education began, — first at the home, 
 and later, as society became more specialized, at some common 
 meeting place, — called significantly axoXrj in Greece, and in 
 Rome ludus and schola. It came in Greece in the seventh cen- 
 tury, in Rome, three centuries later. 3 Progress in " letters " 
 was gradual, toward more and more complex combinations of 
 symbols and of thought beneath the symbolism. Progress in 
 the mastery of letters had a corresponding evolution. 
 
 Characteristics of the Greeks. — As we have now reached 
 the beginning of organized education in Greece it is well to 
 
 3 Herodotus, VI : 27 ; Thucydides, VII : 29. See also the Thurian 
 law as to public education, 6th to 7th century, Diodorus, XII : 12, and 
 Solon's law as to compulsory education, Plato, Crito 50, D ; Plutarch, 
 Themistocles, 10, speaks of a vote to hire teachers. Conf. yElian, 
 VII: 15. 
 
 Aristophanes describes an interesting school scene, — evidently a 
 typical one. He tells of Athenian children, in order, distributed ac- 
 cording to their district, marching in serried ranks through rain, snow, 
 or scorching heat to school; and De Coulanges {op. cit. 295), remarks 
 that " The children seem already to understand that they are per- 
 forming a public duty." 
 
5 o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 glance at the peculiar characteristics of the people which dis- 
 tinguish them from all other peoples. Only in this way can 
 we appreciate their provisions for education. We began to 
 note these characteristics in treating of the Homeric period. 
 Some of them come to view only in the later Greek period, but 
 we may summarize them once for all here and apply them 
 partially or in full, as the case demands. 4 
 
 Fundamental ideas and characteristics of the Greeks: — 
 
 1. Sophrosyne (temperantia). — Arete (virtus). — Courage, love 
 of country (spontaneous, but not deep). — Eukosimia (grace, es- 
 thetic expression in all lines) — Proportion, — harmonious develop- 
 ment of physical and mental elements. 
 
 2. Innate love of freedom and independence (free personality). 
 Self assertion. — Development for individual primary, for state 
 secondary. — Authority of the state from the individual. — Individ- 
 uality through the state and in the state is the composite way of 
 stating it. 
 
 3. Versatility, many-sided activity. 
 
 4. Power to generalize, idealize, universalize, and power to make 
 ideals concrete and objective. — Kept going out from simple life and 
 ideas of truth and proportion to a larger life, and thus heightened 
 capacity and power. — Intense intellectuality and fearlessness in 
 taking up and prosecuting to the end any subject or investigation, 
 regardless of issues. — Love of knowledge for its own sake, un- 
 fettered by form, religion, or caste. — Creative imagination gave 
 form to narrow realities of life. 
 
 5. Religion not abstract. Gods idealized personalities (friendly). 
 — Nature and life full of deity. — A joyful religion of freedom and 
 spontaneity. — Religious concepts, both the simplest and deepest, 
 open to all, not limited, as in Orient. — Saw bright and cheerful 
 side. — Moulded all in esthetic lines. 
 
 6. Viewed a virtuous life as a beautiful and happy one, in har- 
 mony with self and external relations. — No deep religious sense 
 or reverence. No high conception of abstract duty. No strong 
 and steady devotion to principle. Not conspicuous for solidity. — 
 Not highly developed in truthfulness and other social virtues. — 
 Subtle and genial. — In general, showed broad and varied human 
 sympathy. 
 
 7. No genius for order and system. 
 
 8. No strong family life; woman subordinate and inferior. 
 
 9. Education instinctive product of life and people, — spontaneous. 
 
 4 This list is made up from various studies of the Greek people 
 made by various students of Greek life. Various angles of view help us 
 to get broader and more suggestive ideas as to the Greek people and 
 their qualities. 
 
GREECE — EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD 51 
 
 — Also outgrowth of theory and discussion. It was, at its founda- 
 tion, a realization of capacity. Central idea was to produce a 
 balance in the factors of life. Unity, comprehensiveness, propor- 
 tion, aimfulness are conspicuous. — Little system or organization. 
 
 Political and social environment of Greek youth. — Keep- 
 ing these characteristics in mind as a guide in interpreting 
 institutions we may now consider in detail the scheme of educa- 
 tion provided in the period under review. And first as to the 
 ideal. That which began to emerge in Homeric Greece has 
 grown stronger. The state is still supreme, but the individual 
 has grown. In place of a single ruler and his advisory coun- 
 cil, or an oligarchy of rulers, we find a democracy of rulers, 
 but one in which the individual is still dominated by the state. 
 The individual is free to develop himself, to initiate, to mould, 
 though always in the line of characteristic Greek thought. 
 Individual development through and for the state, or, in other 
 words, the realization of capacity for civic life, perhaps 
 expresses the ideal of education as nearly as we can compass 
 it. Here we have combined the two forces, the enveloping 
 state and the developing individual. It is not the first time 
 that personality has counted ; Egypt had seen much of it ; but 
 it is the first time it has had such ideal conditions. 
 
 Aim of education under Greek conditions. — The aim in 
 education in this early Greek period was not merely to train 
 for civic life, but to train in accord with the spirit which has 
 been indicated above. The ideal could be carried out only by 
 the training of a well-balanced individual for state service. 
 Body and mind were to be educated as a unit. The esthetic 
 principle of proportion dominated educational thought, as it 
 dominated Greek thought generally. 
 
 Characteristic elements in Greek education. The curricu- 
 lum. — In connection with the subject matter of school train- 
 ing the Greeks had a fondness for a terminology of a very 
 inclusive nature that has now given place to a narrow and 
 prosaic one. From the earliest times they were devoted to 
 what they called mousike. 5 In trying to interpret this term 
 
 5 Plato, Protagoras, 326 ; Republic, 376 ff., 404, 522 ; Aristotle, Poli- 
 tics, VIII, 3 : 7-12. See also chapter on Plato's and Aristotle's Sec- 
 ondary Schools, Chapter VI. 
 
52 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 we must divest ourselves of all preconceived notions of the 
 word, — forget its association with our word, music, or rather 
 forget the narrow signification of the word with us. It meant 
 that which the Muses blessed and applied to various modes of 
 expression in human life, — whether mental or physical. It 
 included rhythm of body as well as rhythm of language. It 
 applied again to all those symbols and forms that give us 
 access to man's spoken or written thoughts, and finally it 
 applied to that which is suggested by the quantitative relations 
 of society (and which is itself the basis of rhythm), — num- 
 ber. Mousike is seen in the primitive scheme, but it became 
 more organized, more conscious of its educational functions, 
 as time went on. To the simple forms of life to which alone 
 the early boy reacted (if we except the germs of literature 
 that were referred to in earlier pages) were gradually added 
 the higher forms of art, — more elaborate esthetic develop- 
 ment in literature, color, and form. Physical education was 
 correspondingly organized, so that the boy took up at the 
 palaestra 6 a regular course of exercises calculated to make him 
 a perfect physical boy, including grace of carriage as well as 
 symmetry of body. The whole curriculum may thus be 
 summed up by the two expressions mousike and physical 
 training. 7 The course evidently had a double aim, first to give 
 the boy practical command of the facts of life ; second to culti- 
 vate a keen sense of esthetic values expressed in grace of body 
 and grace of mind. All may be comprehended in the words 
 growing citizen worthy of the Greek state. 8 Around all this 
 and permeating it was that education which the boy was get- 
 ting by natural means in the life of the community, an educa- 
 tion both practical and intellectual, the only education of the 
 earlier times. This was giving him increased mastery of folk- 
 lore and of the form, spirit, and special characteristics of com- 
 
 6 This was a private building or enclosure. Secondary school boys 
 were trained in a public building. 
 
 7 Davidson, Aristotle, 72 ff. Lucian in his Anarcharsis gives a more 
 detailed classification. Drawing was sometimes added, at least in 
 later times, — Aristotle, Pol., VIII, 3. As to curriculum, compare do. 
 VIII, 3 : 7-12. For matters of general interest as to the curriculum 
 see Appendix 1, 2. 
 
 8 Davidson, op. cit., 36. 
 
GREECE — EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD 53 
 
 munity life. Esthetic forms here had a very natural and 
 effective ministry. 9 
 
 But it should be noted that old Greek education had a sub- 
 stantial moral and religious element in it. One can feel the 
 moral element in the choice of material for their simple cur- 
 riculum, in the motions of the boys in and out of school, in 
 the strong " discipline " of the boy's school life. It was this 
 element particularly to which later writers harked back in their 
 lamentations over the decadence of education. As to religion, 
 it permeated Greek life. The gods, their symbols and their 
 worship, surrounded and influenced early Greek life, not 
 oppressively, but impressively. 1 * 
 
 Methods in the elementary school. — As to method, read- 
 ing was taught by the barest synthetical method, writing more 
 concretely, but still synthetically. Arithmetic was presented 
 more pedagogically, by objects, finger symbols, and the abacus, 
 though the notation and symbols were so cumbrous that only 
 the most elementary knowledge was practicable, all that was 
 necessary in the earlier and simpler times. The practice 
 books in the formal language work were Greece's great epics, 
 which admirably met children's interests. 
 
 It will be seen that this curriculum represented a natural 
 development. It met the needs and demands of the time in 
 an effective way. This is true in a sense of method, — even 
 the part of it that applied to letters. The forms of language 
 must be learned, and they took the most obvious method of 
 learning them. This does not mean that the method was 
 pedagogical ; it was not, though it had this pedagogical feature, 
 that it gave the child familiarity with a great literature that 
 appealed to his interest, before the forms were learned. It 
 was the product of an unreflecting and unscientific age, before 
 men became conscious of a relation between child-interest, 
 child development, and method. This came out later in the 
 work of some of the educational philosophers ; but the formal 
 method had become so fixed that it probably never yielded to 
 the pedagogical insight and suggestions of reformers. 
 
 8 Conf. Aristophanes, Clouds (Monroe's Source Book, 82 ff) ; 
 Plutarch, Lycurgus; Thucydides, Paricles' Funeral Oration. See Mon- 
 roe, op. cit., 15 ff. 
 
 10 Monroe, op. cit., 82 ff ; Appendix 2. 
 
54 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Results. — All this, as has been indicated, was the work 
 of early school years. It completed the form-work, and gave 
 the keys to the recorded inheritances of the race and power to 
 record current additions to thought and achievement. 
 
 Education for boys only. — Naturally, in accordance with 
 Greek characteristics, even this elementary course was for 
 boys only. Girls were restricted to domestic life, and an 
 extremely narrow domestic life at that. Greece limited her- 
 self here seriously and with serious consequences, but she took 
 special heed of her boys and made education compulsory for 
 them. 11 
 
 So much for primary education. As shown elsewhere it is 
 helpful, if not absolutely necessary, to make brief references 
 to this phase of training ; for to understand the real significance 
 of secondary education it is desirable to see something of its 
 setting and relations. 
 
 Secondary education. — The adolescent boy's education 
 became correspondingly organized. 12 But formal education 
 had been completed in the elementary period; the adolescent 
 had none of it. He doubtless continued his interest in the 
 literary products of his race, whether ballad-song, hero-tale, 
 or epic, and he could recite on occasion. Music still occupied 
 him, but now in a more technical sense. For the most part, 
 however, he gave himself to physical exercises and to training 
 for civic duties. There were special arrangements for his 
 training, but aside from these there was ever present the potent 
 training of a Greek environment. 
 
 Method. — The nature and method of this course of train- 
 ing are striking. The work was more sustained and more 
 serious than that of previous years. But there was freedom 
 from irksome restraint, though the youth was constantly 
 impressed by his relations to a closely organized community 
 that surrounded him, watched his movements, and guided him 
 with definite purpose according to a carefully prescribed gen- 
 eral plan. As formal education of the school had passed with 
 the elementary period, he learned by seeing the things them- 
 
 11 Appendix I, 2; Monroe, op. cit., 82. 
 
 12 Plato, Protag., 326 ; Davidson, op. cit., 85-90 ; Laurie, Pre-Chris- 
 tian Educ, 276, 287; Mahaffy, Old Greek Educ, 
 
GREECE — EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD 55 
 
 selves in full operation, by coming into close touch with them, 
 and later by cooperation and service in them, winning the nat- 
 ural penalties and rewards which attend such service. He 
 learned the laws, but he gained a finer knowledge of them by 
 observation and doing. Civic duties were learned by social 
 contact and participation, and military duties were mastered 
 by a similar method applied to that field of activity. This 
 observation and practice, however, were not optional, but com- 
 pulsory. The great national games, bringing together delega- 
 tions from various sections that were not ordinarily in close 
 touch with one another, brought a new kind of participation, 
 wider observation, and broader social contact. 
 
 When we come to physical education we find an advanced 
 course carried out strictly and systematically in a special public 
 building under a special teacher supplied by the state. It is 
 probable that this work also was compulsory ; it was so in early 
 days. The games again offered stimulus to physical exercise, 
 but only for a very few, so far as actual participation went. 
 
 General estimate. — Adolescent education as a whole was 
 thus largely through observation and doing. The method was 
 concrete and suggestive. The aim was to train a well-balanced 
 individual for service in the state. 
 
 Special ceremonies characteristic of the education of the 
 adolescent. — But there was another factor in method and 
 another course in the curriculum. The boy's induction into 
 citizenship was marked by special forms, his initiation cere- 
 monies. 13 We found that in early times the characteristic 
 part of the adolescent's training took place in this connection 
 and gave him mastery of the most important parts of the 
 knowledge-accumulations of his tribe. They occupied an 
 extended and absorbing period. The ceremonies had now been 
 reduced in detail, but they still must have been a not unimpor- 
 tant means of impressing the youth who were thus initiated. 
 The momentum gained in the ages of their greater prominence 
 still gave them meaning and force. 14 They served to clinch the 
 adolescent's training and helped to make him a true Greek. 
 
 13 Davidson, op. cit., 89, 90; Mahaffy, op. cit.; Appendix 3. 
 14 " On proof of his birth status and his fulfilment of moral and 
 physical conditions prescribed by statute or common law, he was 
 
56 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 General characteristics of Greek education. — All in all 
 Greek training was training for power, for capacity, and not 
 for mere acquisition. 15 It must be remembered, however, that 
 the individual was still distinctly subordinate, especially in the 
 earlier part of the period with which we are dealing. Thus 
 his range was as yet narrow. It was limited by the old forms 
 and bounds that we have found in ancient society (see Chap- 
 ter I). But he had begun to have a broader outlook. Sub- 
 ordination was not that of the old times. The individual was 
 gaining a new position. 
 
 Summary. — The adolescent's education may be summed 
 up in the following outline, and may be compared with that of 
 the elementary period that is given beside it. 
 
 Education for Early Period, Before the Fifth Century. 
 
 Aims: — Development of capacity of the individual and prepara- 
 tion for civic duty in accordance with Greek characteristics. Har- 
 mony and balance; education of body and mind as a unit. A 
 well-balanced individual for state service. 
 
 Curriculum. 
 
 ELEMENTARY 
 
 Reading, writing and sim- 
 ple number work. 
 
 Learning of folk-lore. 
 
 Music, — simple, strong 
 songs with lyre accom- 
 paniment. 
 
 Physical exercise (in J 
 games and palaestra). 
 Aimed at rhythm and 
 grace and soundness of 
 body, — physical excel- 
 lence worthy of Greek 
 citizenship. 
 
 SECONDARY 
 
 M A. Further familiarity with 
 o folk-lore and with great 
 
 u literature of the nation, — 
 
 s through continued reading, 
 
 i recitation, etc. Music, — 
 
 k more definite study. 
 
 e Religious training, — through 
 
 observation and partici- 
 pation in choruses and 
 festivals. 
 Civics — Observation of civic 
 and social life of com- 
 munity. Laws learned 
 and practiced. 
 
 registered in his Deme, his hair was cut, he assumed the character- 
 istic citizen dress, was presented to the Athenian people in public 
 assembly, was duly armed with typical Greek weapons, and at the 
 altar of the canonized daughter of autochthonic Cecrops (a Totem 
 father) took the time-honored oath binding him to the support of 
 his country. Social as well as religious functions attended these initia- 
 tion ceremonies which marked a great epoch in the boy's life." See 
 Appendix 3. 
 15 Davidson, op cit., 72. 
 
GREECE — EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD 57 
 
 Mastery of form, spirit, Gymnastics : — More serious 
 
 and special characteris- and sustained course of 
 
 tics of community life. physical training than that 
 
 given in palaestra. This 
 course given in gymnasi- 
 um. Also games. 
 
 B. Admission as amateur citi- 
 
 zen with religious and so- 
 cial ceremonies, — initia- 
 tion ceremonies. After 
 this, one year of serious 
 military training (com- 
 paratively mild in Greece) ; 
 participation in festivals ; 
 one year of actual service 
 on frontier of Attica. 
 
 C. Full citizenship. Participa- 
 
 tion in all civic functions. 
 Trained by state. This was 
 the graduate course of 
 Athens. 
 
 Method: — 1. In elementary education. — Reading, — synthetic 
 method. — Writing, — imitation, tracing. The pupil made his own 
 reading book; hence reading and writing were correlated. Arith- 
 metic, — sand, counters, abacus. — Geography and History, — 
 through correlation. — Religion and Morals, — through correlation, 
 and through observation of and participation in the life of the com- 
 munity, in an elementary way, etc. — Gymnastics, — under trainer. 
 
 Imparting, memorizing, imitation were prominent. — (Charts, pic- 
 tures, etc., for teaching probably came later.) 
 
 2. In secondary education methods were generally concrete and 
 suggestive. Observation, participation, service were prominent. 
 Some memory work (learning the laws). — Emulation used as an 
 incentive. — Formal training in Gymnasium under scientific train- 
 ing-master. — Youth was generally under careful surveillance. 
 (Later, young men had a civic organization in imitation of state, 
 giving practical training.) 
 
 Notice in secondary education intense physical training, absence 
 of formal training, freedom from irksome restraint, concrete and 
 suggestive work, social contact and social participation, outward 
 look. 
 
 Initiation ceremonies ended one stage of training and introduced 
 another. They impressed certain facts of the past and future. A 
 characteristic educational force. 
 
 Greek secondary education peculiarly adapted to adoles- 
 cence. — It must be acknowledged that this scheme, both 
 
58 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 subject matter and method, was, in many ways, admirably 
 adapted to accomplish the purpose in mind. This will appear 
 more pointedly from a study of adolescent characteristics, 16 
 which differ, not merely in degree, but in quality, from those 
 of other periods of life. 
 
 If we examine the secondary course as developed by the 
 Greeks in the light of these characteristics it is plain that it 
 was adapted to the boy of secondary age in some noticeable 
 features. 
 
 1. It gave opportunity for wider and stronger observation. 
 
 2. It gave expression to adolescent nature and activity in 
 many lines. Adolescent physical life that was rampant had an 
 outlet in healthful physical exercise and occupation. Civic 
 instincts related themselves to the community in vital ways. 
 Esthetic stimulus and patriotic employment gave opportunity 
 for natural development of the emotional life of the adolescent. 
 Stimulating i'deals were all about him, and were handed down 
 from the past in an attractive literature; they could readily 
 objectify themselves in plans by which the youth related him- 
 self to the community. Moral life again had a field for spon- 
 taneous growth, under natural and sensible conditions, but 
 under definite guidance. 
 
 3. The restraint of form and of careful regulation and sur- 
 veillance was there, but mingled with a certain amount of indi- 
 vidual freedom and initiative. Where proportion is duly 
 regarded this makes the best combination for steadying adoles- 
 cent natures. 
 
 4. The tendency was to encourage outlook, rather than 
 excessive introspection. 17 The facts and meaning of human 
 relations were at hand and could be realized in a healthful 
 way, — by interested observation and participation. 
 
 5. Formal training, such as appears in a formal study of 
 language, was relegated to the elementary period which takes 
 kindly to learning mere form. 
 
 By a kind of intuition the Greeks devised a scheme of adoles- 
 
 16 The author has summarized adolescent characteristics gathered 
 from many sources in the Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. 17, pp. 114 ff. 
 (1904-5). 
 
 17 Davidson, op. cit., 85-88 ; Laurie, op. cit., 276, 287 ; Mahaffy, op. cit. 
 
GREECE — EARLY HISTORIC PERIOD 59 
 
 cent education that was, in a rather remarkable degree, suited 
 to the secondary school age. A natural development along the 
 lines it suggested would have perfected the scheme. But tend- 
 encies were at work that served to transform the early sec- 
 ondary education into a formal scheme of training, and to 
 emphasize formal and unpedagogical methods. The science of 
 education lagged behind other sciences. Other matters were 
 waiting for development, and attention was given in their direc- 
 tion intensively. It is only in the last few years that a scien- 
 tific study of the individual and of the relations of the human 
 and the culture subject have begun to make us sensitive to 
 adolescent needs. We are approaching consciously and scien- 
 tifically, though very slowly, the point that the Greeks, and, 
 before them, primitive peoples, reached by intuition. When 
 we actually reach it we shall find that the early secondary course 
 contained the germs of what we are seeking. We shall be able 
 to avoid their inconsistencies and fulfil their prophecies. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 1. Elements of Greek education. — Plato, Protagoras, speaks of 
 early education at home and in the school and goes on to say, " When 
 the boy has learned his letters and is beginning to understand what 
 is written, as before he understood only what was spoken, they put 
 into his hands the works of great poets, which he reads at school; 
 in these are contained many admonitions and many tales and praises, 
 and encomia of ancient famous men, which he is required to learn 
 by heart, in order that he may imitate or emulate these men and 
 desire to become like them. Then again the teachers of the lyre take 
 similar care that their young disciple is temperate and gets into no 
 mischief; and when they have taught him the use of the lyre, they 
 introduce him to the poems of other great poets, who are lyric poets; 
 and these they set to music, and make their harmonies and rhythms 
 quite familiar to the children, in order that they may learn to be 
 more gentle and harmonious and rhythmical, and so more fitted for 
 speech and action; for the life of man in every part has need of 
 harmony and rhythm. Then they send them to the master of gym- 
 nastic, in order that their bodies may better minister to the virtuous 
 mind, and that the weakness of their bodies may not force them to 
 play the coward in war or on any other occasion. This is what is 
 done by those who have the means, and those who have the means 
 are the rich ; their children begin education soonest and leave off latest. 
 When they have done with masters, the state again compels them to 
 
60 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 learn the laws, and live after the pattern which they furnish, and 
 not after their own fancies; and just as in learning to write the 
 writing-master first draws lines with a style for the use of the young 
 beginner, and gives him the tablet and makes him follow the lines, 
 so the city draws the laws, which were the invention of good law- 
 givers who were of old time; these are given to the young man in 
 order to guide him in his conduct whether as ruler or ruled; and 
 he who transgresses them is to be corrected, or, in other words called 
 to account." — Protagoras, 326. 
 
 2. The old and the new. — Aristophanes in his Clouds takes up the 
 matter of education, contrasting the old and the new. The whole 
 picture is of course one of irony, and though the description of the 
 old is a serious one, we may perhaps question whether there is not 
 a temptation to exaggerate and color. Still the account is a useful one 
 to use in connection with other material. Here is a brief summary 
 of certain parts of the passage, showing the nature of the old educa- 
 tion : — The boy was to be quiet. Boys from the same quarter marched 
 in good order to the school of the harp-master naked and in a body, even 
 if it snowed "as thick as meal." 
 
 The master taught the old substantial music, not present quavers. 
 Boys were to maintain a virile, modest, respectful attitude during in- 
 struction, and generally. Bodies were not anointed below the navel, 
 so that they "wore the appearance of blooming health." Strict dis- 
 cipline was customary. 
 
 3. Initiation. — At eighteen, if he fulfilled requirements, moral and 
 physical, he was entered as a regular member of his Deme. After 
 this he was introduced to the whole people at a public assembly, was 
 armed, and took the oath. His induction into citizenship was attended 
 with religious ceremonies that remind us of, and, with other attendant 
 ceremonies, are probably a relic of, prehistoric initiation ceremonies. 
 He now served two years as soldier, the first year drilling near Athens, 
 learning the art, and taking part in public festivals, the second year 
 undertaking more serious military service. It was evidently a " harden- 
 ing process," while it afforded an excellent opportunity for becoming 
 perfectly acquainted with the topography of the country. He may also 
 have taken part in citizen duties in the city, in assembly and courts. 
 At the close of the two years, if he stood a final test, he became a 
 full-fledged citizen. See Davidson, Arist., 89, 90, and Mahaffy, Old 
 Greek Educ. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN GREECE — LATER HISTORIC PERIOD 
 
 Contrasts between the periods of Greek development. — 
 
 Greek life during the period discussed in the last chapter 
 represented an immense advance over primitive life. The city- 
 state had been developed and had already existed for an 
 indefinite period, and culture forms and culture material had 
 advanced conspicuously. But life was still simple. The social 
 and political unit was narrow, confined, self-centered. While 
 individual freedom had made some gains, it had little breadth 
 or scope, to such an extent was the individual dominated by the 
 state. Thought had certainly been broadened and fined, but 
 those simple, strong primitive ideas that we have noted in 
 other chapters still made themselves felt and retained much 
 of their pristine vigor. The Greeks had not penetrated and 
 analyzed the world without, much less the world within. But 
 a fuller entrance into these two worlds was at hand. Psycho- 
 logical development and historical development, reacting on 
 one another, 1 brought a new epoch. The later Greek period 
 was characterized by wider contact with the external world 
 and the world of thought, and by consonant changes in men's 
 relations to these objective and subjective worlds. 2 Athens 
 now became self conscious. As a natural corollary of all this 
 the individual assumed greater importance, — even became 
 dominant. 
 
 Changes in the later Greek period. — In connection with 
 this evolution four points need special notice here. 
 
 I. Greek education had strikingly increased in recent cen- 
 turies. Books multiplied and became the natural repositories 
 
 1 It would be interesting to follow this out in detail and go further 
 into the evolution of a new Greece, but it would not be germane to our 
 main purpose. The general statement as to causes must suffice here. 
 
 2 Appendix I ; Monroe, History of Education ; Mahaffy, op. cit., 84 ; 
 Kirkpatrick, Amer. Jour, of Educ, 24 : 453 ff. 
 
 61 
 
62 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 of the most attractive thoughts and experiences of the race and 
 the most intense thinking of the time. They thus, in large 
 measure, took the place of oral tradition that was character- 
 istic of primitive times. 
 
 2. Language had developed in literary, artistic, and scien- 
 tific lines, becoming more expressive, complex, and philosoph- 
 ical. Hence men turned more to the world of books, less to 
 the world of things. The change brought with it two new edu- 
 cational agencies, one found in contact with and study of 
 books, the other found in the exposition of literature in the 
 free public theatre and at the international literary contests 
 during the celebration of Greek games. 
 
 3. Music and art had changed in character. The signifi- 
 cance and value of detail were better appreciated. Technique 
 and modes of appeal to sentiment and the emotions began to be 
 studied. A wonderful artistic sense had been developed. The 
 broadening process was fully as marked here as in other direc- 
 tions. A new world had been discovered in art, as in other 
 fields of mental effort, — a subjective world. 
 
 4. Physical training received less attention than before; 
 the strict traditional regimen had been relaxed, as related to 
 both the individual and the state. 
 
 The underlying causes. — But all these things were but 
 secondary; they were merely phenomena. There were two 
 far more fundamental matters that give us a deeper insight 
 into the times and help us to understand their spirit : — 
 
 I. More scope for the individual.— The community had 
 ceased to think so fully for the individual and to impose its 
 dictum unalterable upon him. Tribal standards in this sense 
 had passed. There was thus more scope for individual stand- 
 ards. The old unity and compactness of organization had been 
 outgrown. New unities were forming. 3 The reforms that go 
 by the names of Draco, Solon, and Cleisthenes represented one 
 
 3 The new of course required a long development before it could 
 become stable and take hold of the populace sufficiently to produce a 
 solidarity comparable with the old. Meantime social and political life 
 were liable to be ragged and to court temporary disaster. But men 
 did not make the modern mistake of postponing democracy because 
 conditions were not perfect. Democracy is educative. Rightly guided 
 and balanced it grows securely. 
 
GREECE — LATER HISTORIC PERIOD 63 
 
 side of this change, the external. But there was another and 
 more important side, the psychological. The individual had 
 asserted himself, and social organization had become secure 
 enough to allow him more latitude. The community was thus 
 prepared to advance to something higher than was possible in 
 the old tribal days. To these changing conditions again must 
 be added the wider and more complex national relations that 
 called for new power to direct and utilize them. 
 
 The Greek citizen must be prepared to meet these broader 
 relations with the outside world and the opportunities they 
 offered for diplomacy and personal and civic advancement 
 through national and international politics. He must meet also 
 the still greater demands that a new era of thought and indi- 
 vidual freedom made upon him. To do this he must have 
 power of independent thought, power to analyze, compare, 
 judge, discuss, power to throw his personality into new prem- 
 ises and syntheses. In a word, he must have dialectic power, 
 if the community and the individual were to rise above the level 
 of the past. It might be often at the expense of individual 
 damage and even destruction, if not steadied by the balance of 
 a just education that it was the business of the state to give. 
 But these are mere accidents for which a great evolutionary 
 movement is not responsible, and for which it does not stay. 
 The dialectic method was a natural and logical growth and a 
 vital condition for working out the genius of the new epoch. 
 Socrates was not so much its discoverer as a typical exponent 
 of what the times produced. Some of his reported discussions 
 represent a drama in which tradition and newly springing inde- 
 pendence played leading roles. This represented the internal 
 side of the change, — the psychological. 
 
 These conditions required a new linguistic development, if 
 the Greek citizen of the day was to assert himself and meet 
 the situation to which forces without and within were direct- 
 ing him. He must have power to formulate and express his 
 thought effectively, if the power of dialectic was to have due 
 issue in swaying men's minds. This was a sine qua non for 
 personal advancement. 
 
 2. The individual the center. — All this naturally modi- 
 fied Greek ideals. In the buoyancy of the new times, and 
 
64 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 under the spur of individual freedom, whose very newness 
 excited the adolescent spirit of the nation, the tendency was 
 toward individualism, — not the individual for the state, as 
 formerly, but the individual for himself, and the state also 
 for him. This made the individual the center of culture and 
 education and led him to lay siege to everything that would 
 minister to his power and enjoyment. 4 The ideal was most 
 sensitively balanced and led to evil as easily as to good — more 
 easily, because the ideal was only a partial one. Hence the 
 brilliance and tragedy of later Greek history. From the same 
 conditions also came that other individualism whose summum 
 bonum was cultivated leisure (diagoge), which has given us 
 charming pictures of classical life, though marred by civic 
 inaction and the suggestion of decadence. 
 
 Graphic comparison of early and later periods. — Looking 
 at the period as a whole, from about the sixth century to the 
 third, we may make a brief comparative summary of its char- 
 acteristics as follows: 
 
 EARLY PERIOD 5 LATE PERIOD 5 
 
 1. City state small. Citizens I. City state larger. Citizen- 
 
 few. An aristocracy. ship broader. Intense de- 
 
 mocracy. 
 
 2. Eternal relations simple, nar- 2. External relations broader, 
 
 row ; internal relations sim- more complex. Wider con- 
 
 pie, tact with other civilizations. 
 
 Internal relations broader, 
 more complicated. Many- 
 sided life. 
 
 3. Thought simple, concrete, ob- 3. Thought more complex, deal- 
 
 jective, outward. ing more with details and 
 
 meanings of things; sub- 
 jective. 
 
 4 We find here that the new features in social organization and the 
 new element in method beginning to appear in the Homeric epoch, have 
 reached their outermost limit. The new outdid itself and, in a way, 
 developed a virtue into a vice. But this must not obscure the char- 
 acteristic contributions that Greece made to education, — individual in- 
 itiative and opportunities for individual development. 
 
 6 The generalizations are made up from many sources, — Mahaffy, 
 op. et loc. cit.; Kirkpatrick, loc. cit.; Laurie, op. cit., 306 ff. ; Monroe, 
 op. cit., 84 ff., 91 ff. ; De Coulanges, op. cit., 475 et al. ; Aristotle, 
 'Pol., VIII, 1:3; Plato, Rep., 499, 524, 527-30. 532-3 ; Appendix I, 2, 3. 
 See also Botsford and Sihler, Hellenic Civilization. 
 
GREECE — LATER HISTORIC PERIOD 65 
 
 \. Literature expressed great ob- 4. Literature more artistic, 
 jective facts, in simple nar- more philosophical, dealing 
 
 rative, or in simple song. more with inner meanings 
 
 and relations. 
 
 5. Art also more or less objec- 5. In art more attention to de- 
 
 tive, representing general- tail and effect of detail; 
 
 ized ideas in concrete form. more attention to expres- 
 
 Appealed by wholes. sion of emotions. 
 
 6. Norms external, in tradition. 6. Norms within, reasoned for 
 
 self; transferred to others 
 through special method, not 
 by the fiat of tradition alone. 
 
 7. State supreme. 7. Individual supreme. 
 
 Summary of the demands of the new period. — Altogether 
 then the new period shows a new attitude toward inheritances, 
 more individuality, more personal responsibility, greater free- 
 dom of thought. 6 New relations, new interests, new ambi- 
 tions were pressing the young Athenian forward. With these 
 changes had come a richer growth of acquisition in all direc- 
 tions. New studies and new methods also demanded admis- 
 sion to the educational program. Leadership, which might be 
 the aim of any true Athenian, depended upon the effective use 
 of words, — not the old natural language power, but a studied 
 skill. The orator became an ideal. Audiences, whether of 
 the spoken or of the written word, were more intelligent, more 
 critical, more exacting, and acted as an external pressure to 
 supplement the inner stimulus that came to the individual from 
 his higher mental development. Thus larger intellectual attain- 
 ment, more resources for instructing and illustrating, wider 
 and more technical language power were needed. 
 
 A new curriculum and a new method. — As to the schools, 
 a broad and rigid course in linguistics, involving a knowledge of 
 the whole realm of literature, was the natural means of gain- 
 ing the desired end, — training in language such as had never 
 existed before. The sciences of grammar and rhetoric date 
 from this time. The two-fold music e that had formed a single 
 unity in the old curriculum was divided. Each of its parts had 
 become so large that it formed a distinct department in educa- 
 
 6 See De Coulanges' Ancient City (one of the most striking and 
 appreciative studies yet made), 470 ff. 
 
66 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 tion. " Letters " and " music " were henceforth distinct in at 
 least one great series of schools. 
 
 Dialectic. — But ideas must come before expression. For 
 expression a study of dialectics was needed to give it point and 
 effect. The new linguistic training might afford opportunity 
 for much of this, but it must be supplemented by the other 
 study that partook of the nature of psychology and philosophy 
 and provided both matter and method. 
 
 A new curriculum had thus come into being, consisting of 
 the old studies developed and broadened and the new studies 
 rising out of the new conditions. Some one has said that the 
 early Greek curriculum produced habits, but that there was 
 needed a further education on the intellectual side to guide, 
 and free habits. The best of the new could do this. The 
 whole of the new was not found in any one place, and it was 
 found in few schools, but it was a part of Greek life and was 
 calculated to give a more extensive and intensive intellectual 
 development and to produce technical skill. 
 
 New teachers. — But new courses and new methods re- 
 quired new teachers. These were the sophists. Their appear- 
 ance was not accidental nor sudden. They grew nat- 
 urally out of the new times. They offered both wide knowl- 
 edge of things that were attracting attention, and train- 
 ing in thought, thought method, and expression. Their cur- 
 riculum, if it could be called such, was a very inclusive and 
 ambitious one, covering the whole range of knowledge. Their 
 aim was to make the individual supreme. As ever, there were 
 two classes of teachers, — those who were thorough and pro- 
 fessional, and those who were superficial and unprofessional. 
 The former aimed at a thoroughly trained man and founded 
 their work on principles. 7 The others aimed at immediate 
 individual success, made much of short-cut methods, and by 
 their agnostic attitude tended to upset absolute values and 
 standards and make each man his own norm. They were the 
 proprietors of the " thinking-shops." 8 
 
 7 As to the two classes of sophists, and sophists generally, see Ap- 
 pendix i, 2, 3 ; Davidson, op. cit., ioi ft*. ; Kirkpatrick, Laurie, Mahaffy, 
 op. et he. cit.; Monroe, op. cit., 68, 85, 95 ff. ; Plato, Rep., 493, 496, 497. 
 
 8 " I will go myself to the thinking-shop and get taught," — Monroe, 
 op. cit, 68. 
 
GREECE — LATER HISTORIC PERIOD 67 
 
 Two aims. — We can make our ideas of the new education 
 clearer and more definite by analyzing it and distinguishing its 
 aims. In the course of our discussion two ideals have been 
 prominent,- 1, rhetorical supremacy, command of winning 
 forms ; 2, intellectual supremacy, power to discuss reasons and 
 to initiate. Correlatively there were two great objects in 
 life,- 1, influence in public life, power to impress and express, 
 in which self was the center; 2, cultured leisure, in which 
 again self was the center. To be just we should perhaps dis- 
 cover a third object that would combine the other two. These 
 objects defined educational aims. 
 
 Two series of schools, 1. Schools of Rhetoric. — It was 
 thus natural that the Sophist schools should split into two great 
 series:- 1. Schools of Rhetoric, the best type of which is 
 found in the school of Isocrates. 9 This great teacher built on a 
 good secondary course of training in grammar and literature, 
 taken before entering his school. He believed that higher edu- 
 cation should be "practical, rational, comprehensive/' and he 
 emphasized training in three lines, — defining objects, adapting 
 means, and developing power through effort. These schools 
 of rhetoric, with their presuppositions, took the most character- 
 istic parts of the sophist course, linguistic studies, general infor- 
 mation studies, and oratory. Linguistics were the core of the 
 curriculum. 
 
 It must not be supposed, however, from the statement that a 
 rhetorical school built its work upon a course of secondary 
 training, that nothing inside the school was of a secondary 
 nature. It must have been true that instruction in at least 
 some of these schools was partly, and probably largely, of a 
 secondary nature, just as a large part of the early university 
 course in the Middle Ages was of this character and was 
 applied to boys in their early 'teens. 
 
 Method. — Method in these schools was new in some of 
 its elements. It probably still included the traditional prin- 
 ciples of imparting information and memorizing; but in addi- 
 tion there was now built up an elaborate system of language 
 training, including imitation, practice, and drill, with abundant 
 
 9 Appendix 4; Laurie, op. et. loc. cit.; Monroe, op. cit., 98, 100, 105-108. 
 
68 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 rules. Formal language work was elaborated with much 
 detail. 10 
 
 2. Schools of philosophy. — In these schools the con- 
 spicuous leaders were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Plato 
 and Aristotle tried to outline a state and a system of educa- 
 tion that would unite individual and community interests. 11 
 Their work as a whole was opposed to the formal work of the 
 other sophists. It emphasized the development of power 
 rather than mere communication and class-room mechanics, 
 the intellect rather than memory, device, and formal practice. 
 Here were developed those studies and methods that may be 
 characterized as philosophical and scientific. They applied to 
 the acquisition of knowledge of both the outer and the inner 
 world. 
 
 It was in connection with this class of schools particularly, 
 though not exclusively, that one of the characteristic feelings 
 of the Greek race came into the ideals of education. The true 
 Greek had a very keen idea as to what accorded with Greek 
 dignity. Certain things were " liberal," worthy of a free- 
 man ; other things were " illiberal," and to be avoided. Any- 
 thing that was extreme or of a mercenary character was illib- 
 eral. The mean in the non-commercial pursuits and those that 
 involved higher intellectuality was a just object of effort. 
 These ideas colored Greek education and were especially promi- 
 nent in Plato and Aristotle. 12 
 
 Method. — Method here was decidedly less formal than in 
 the first series of schools and was better, but not perfectly, 
 adapted to adolescent interests. It involved thought work 
 (dialectic), active participation of both pupil and teacher, 
 familiar converse, lectures. Method thus became more 
 pedagogical. 
 
 If we should attempt to specify the feature of Greek educa- 
 
 10 Conf . Plato, Protag., 326. 
 
 If we should consider method more in detail and in its wider sig- 
 nification, as it showed itself in later Greek education, we might imagine 
 we had reached modern days. Prize contests, examinations, and 
 various student customs suggest that it is difficult for us to devise 
 anything new as to externals. 
 
 11 Monroe, Lectures on the History of Education. 
 
 12 Aristotle, Pol. ; Plato, Rep. ; Conf. Cicero, De Of., 1 : 42. 
 
GREECE — LATER HISTORIC PERIOD 69 
 
 tion that was most significant for the future we should most 
 appropriately single out that element of method, or form of 
 method, that is called dialectic. It has been characterized gen- 
 erally from the point of view of results. It is better defined 
 as a process. To describe it as the questioning method is very 
 superficial. Dialectic involved, first, development of the indi- 
 vidual as opposed to mass teaching. In the second place, it 
 required participation on the part of the pupil. In the third 
 place, and most significantly, it led to investigation of facts 
 and problems by healthful and stimulating inductive methods 
 till the ultimate truth was reached. Speaking generally it was 
 of course all a questioning process, but of a very comprehensive 
 nature. It was systematic, scientific, thought-stimulating. It 
 involved rigid analysis as a basis for new and sounder synthesis. 
 In this way it exercised all the powers and brought real devel- 
 opment, both from the point of view of the individual and from 
 that of the subject studied. For the first time then the old 
 process of rote-learning had been seriously invaded. While 
 the ancient method was destined to be used for some purposes 
 and to have large influence in some cases and in some periods, 
 the new method was to have increasing influence till it occupied 
 the field. 13 
 
 Differentiation in curricula. — At first secondary and 
 higher education were perhaps not very distinct. It may all 
 be designated as higher education. But in time there probably 
 came a differentiation, so that the secondary curriculum may 
 be regarded as approximating the following form : 14 
 
 13 The method may be described a little more in detail as follows : — 
 It is proposed to discover the truth in a certain direction. At the outset 
 a question is raised as to the first basal fact from which we may pro- 
 ceed toward the end in view. This may be reached directly, or indi- 
 rectly by first removing a false assumption or opinion. Then the sec- 
 ond fact that will serve the main purpose is discovered by a similar 
 process of investigation. And so we proceed by a process of investiga- 
 tion, elimination, suggestion, construction till the final result is reached, 
 which represents in a sense the summation of all the partial results 
 attained along the way. Dialectic is the parent of all objective methods, 
 whether characterized as inductive, developmental, or laboratory. 
 
 14 Aristotle, Pol., VIII, 3:7-12; Plato, Rep., 404, 424, 427-30, 432-3; 
 Laurie, op. cit., 306 ff.; Mahaffy, op. cit., 53 ff., 57 ff., 76, 78 ff.; Kirk- 
 patrick, in Amer. Jour, of Educ, 24: 453 ff. It should be borne in mind 
 that different schools and classes of schools probably made special 
 selections and gave different emphases. 
 
7 o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 A. Linguistics, — grammar, literature, elementary rhetoric. 
 
 B. Science, — arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, geography. Ele- 
 
 mentary, uncorrected, informational work. In later ado- 
 lescence there probably came more systematic science and 
 
 C. The introduction to philosophy, dialectics. 
 
 D. Music. More emotional. More finesse than formerly. 
 
 E. Instruction through theatre and games. 
 
 F. Physical training, changed in form and aims. Less purposeful 
 
 and strenuous. Proportion between bodily and mental educa- 
 tion broken. Man and citizen separated. 
 Method : — In linguistics the so-called classical method, formal, 
 full of " exercises " and drills. The study of elementary 
 science was correlated with that of linguistics. It was acci- 
 dental. (The study of advanced science and philosophy in 
 later adolescence was conducted by inductive and dialectic 
 methods.) 
 
 Greek contributions to education. — Formal schools were 
 now established for both the elementary and the secondary 
 period. The formal school of books for adolescents took the 
 place of the practical school of observation and spontaneous 
 suggestive life. With distinct loss there was, however, distinct 
 gain. The intellectual field was opening. On the curriculum 
 side certain culture subjects were developed that eventually, if 
 we add Alexandrine influence and the Roman genius for gram- 
 mar, were to grow into the " seven liberal arts," — the 
 " trivium " and the " quadrivium." In the realm of method 
 we find that the process of education had become more 
 developmental. 
 
 Problems for the new era. — It remained for coming cen- 
 turies to regulate education in the new field and to make method 
 more pedagogical and healthful. It remained also to enlarge 
 and define aims and to direct means definitely to their fulfil- 
 ment. 15 For with this influx of new subjects and new thoughts 
 it was natural that aims should be imperfect and means inade- 
 quate, and that views as to ends and aims should be unsettled. 16 
 Greek education, however, had inherited and developed certain 
 principles and forms, and above all, a certain spirit, and these 
 had a long rule, 17 reaching on into the new era. 
 
 15 Appendix; Laurie, op. cit., 312 ff. 
 
 16 Appendix ; Aristotle, Pol., VIII ; 2, 3 ; Plato, Rep., 404. 
 
 17 Laurie, op. cit, 311; Aristotle, op. cit., VIII; 3; Plato, Rep., 376 ff., 
 522. 
 
GREECE — LATER HISTORIC PERIOD 71 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 I. The sophists. — Speaking of the change in the strict limits of 
 early ideas and organization and the evolution of new ideals, De 
 Coulanges (in The Ancient City, pp. 474 ff.) says': — "The sophists 
 came afterwards (after Pythagoras and Anaxagoras), and exercised 
 more influence than these two great minds. They were men eager 
 to combat old errors. In the struggle which they entered against 
 whatever belonged to the past, they did not spare the institutions 
 of the city more than they spared religious prejudices. They boldly 
 examined and discussed the laws which still reigned in the state and 
 in the family. They went from city to city, proclaiming new principles, 
 teaching, not precisely indifference to the just and the unjust, but a 
 new justice, less narrow, less exclusive than the old, more humane, 
 more rational, and freed from the formulas of preceding ages. This 
 was a hardy enterprise, which stirred up a tempest of hatred and rancor. 
 They were accused of having neither religion, nor morals, nor pa- 
 triotism. The truth is that they had not a very well settled doctrine, 
 and thought they had done enough when they had attacked old 
 prejudices. They moved, as Plato says, what before had been immov- 
 able. They placed the rule of religious sentiment and that of politics 
 in the human conscience, and not in the customs of ancestors, in im- 
 movable tradition. They taught the Greeks that to govern a state it 
 was not enough to appeal to old customs and sacred laws, but that 
 men should be persuaded and their wills should be influenced. For 
 the knowledge of ancient customs they substituted the art of reasoning 
 and speaking, — dialectics and rhetoric. Their adversaries quoted tra- 
 dition to them, while they, on the other hand, employed eloquence and 
 intellect." 
 
 " When reflection had thus been once awakened man no longer 
 wished to believe without giving a reason for his belief, or to be 
 governed without discussing his institutions. The habit of free ex- 
 amination became established in men's homes and in the public squares." 
 Here was the foundation of democracy. 
 
 " Socrates, while reproving the abuse which the sophists " (better, 
 certain sophists) "made of the right to doubt, was still of their school. 
 Like them he rejected the empire of tradition and believed that the 
 rules of conduct were graven in the human conscience. He differed 
 from them only in this; he studied conscience religiously, and with a 
 firm desire to find there an obligation to be just and to do good. 
 He ranked truth above custom, and justice above law. He separated 
 morals from religion; before him men never thought of a duty except 
 as a command of the ancient gods. He showed that the principle 
 of duty is in the human mind. In all this, whether he wished it or 
 not, he made war upon the city worship. — The revolution which the 
 sophists commenced, and which Socrates had taken up with more 
 moderation, was not stopped by the death of the old man. Greek 
 
72 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 society was enfranchised more and more, daily, from the empire of 
 old beliefs and old institutions." 
 
 (These remarks are exceedingly interesting, especially when taken 
 in connection with the same author's study of the primitive organiza- 
 tion and thought of the Aryans to which his book is devoted. We 
 cannot understand such movements as went on in the later Greek period 
 unless they are considered in the light of a knowledge of primitive 
 culture.) 
 
 2. Some superficial sophist schools. — Character of sophist schools, 
 — learning an easy accomplishment. " I will go myself to the thinking 
 shop and get taught." Monroe's Source Book, 68. Conf. also Mon- 
 roe's Source Book, 67 ff. 
 
 3. The making of an orator. — " What gymnastic is for the body, 
 philosophy is for the mind. In the one as in the other the pupil learns 
 first the technical rudiments, and then how to combine them. The 
 physical and the mental training will alike improve natural powers. 
 But the master of the palaestra cannot make a great athlete, nor the 
 teacher of philosophy a great speaker." To make a great speaker " three 
 things are needed — capacity, training, and practice ; capacity, which 
 includes intellect, voice, and nerve, is the chief requisite; practice 
 however can by itself make a good speaker; training is by far the least 
 important of the three; it may be complete and yet may be rendered 
 useless by the absence of a single quality, nerve. Do not suppose that 
 my claims are modest only when I address you, but larger when I 
 speak to my pupils. In an essay, published when I first began to 
 teach, the excessive pretensions of some teachers are expressly blamed." 
 (Other passages suggest that there are two classes of sophists.) 
 
 Varied results. — " The success of the sophists is in fact equal to 
 that of any other class of teachers. Some of their pupils become power- 
 ful debaters ; others become competent teachers ; all become more 
 accomplished members of society, better critics, more prudent advisers. 
 And what proves the training to be scientific is that all bear the 
 stamp of a common method. Those who despise such culture assume 
 that practice, which develops every other faculty, is useless to the 
 intellect ; that the human mind can educate the instincts of horses 
 and dogs, but cannot train itself; that tame lions and learned bears are 
 possible, but not instructed men." (Isocrates), Monroe's Source Book, 
 91, 94, 104, 105. 
 
 4. Isocrates and Quintilian. — The notes as to Isocrates will in- 
 dicate a connecting link between Greek education and Quintilian. We 
 can trace the decadence from Quintilian down, in Rome, as we do 
 from Isocrates down, in Greece. 
 
VI 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 
 
 Position of Greek theorists in education. — Greek theorists 
 in education have influenced educational thought in other cen- 
 turies and in other countries more than in their own times and 
 country. They probably had little effect upon the secondary 
 schools of Greece. In fact they had little time to do so, 
 before the purely national character and organization of these 
 schools were broken. Historically they represented a reaction 
 against the extreme individualism of the times, which was a 
 disintegrating force. They tried to devise a scheme of educa- 
 tion that might counteract evils and conserve true Greek 
 ideals. From the point of view of the science of education 
 they were the first to analyze the educational process, and they 
 gave us our first books on pedagogy, though it would be too 
 much to call them systematic treatises on the subject. The 
 student of the history and philosophy of education finds these 
 personalities and books of unique interest and value. We need 
 to study them briefly here, not simply because they played so 
 prominent a part in the evolution of Greek educational ideas, 
 but particularly because such a study will give us, from a new 
 view-point, an idea of the main tendencies at work in Greece. 
 
 Comparison of two ways of studying education. — Plato's 
 analysis of the educational process is philosophic, and he works 
 largely by philosophic instinct. His mysticism, added to, or 
 rather forming the motive force of his enthusiastic specula- 
 tions, lands him in the transcendental by a natural process 
 through which it is always delightful to follow him. Aristotle's 
 analysis, on the other hand, is scientific, and his logic gives 
 him a fairly consistent and practical scheme of education, as 
 judged by the views of his time. It is interesting also to note 
 that in his analysis he lays the foundation for the science of 
 educational psychology. We are to ascertain here not all the 
 
 73 
 
74 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 details of these writers' views as to education but the contribu- 
 tions they made to the pedagogy of the secondary school. The 
 two appendices to this chapter will give detailed accounts of 
 their plans and also present graphic summaries that may be 
 compared with those in previous chapters. 
 
 Common basis. — Both Plato and Aristotle built their 
 theories on a civic idea embodied in an ideal state which they 
 made the foundation of their arguments. Plato conceived 
 two states, a transcendental one in his Republic, and a practical 
 one in his Laws. Aristotle, through a double induction, also 
 conceived a practical state, but one inferior to Plato's. 1 Greece 
 always based her education on a civic idea however. We are 
 concerned with this idea here only because it was now first 
 embodied in a definite science of education, as science was con- 
 ceived in those days. In each case education was to develop 
 intellectual power and balance suited to leadership and general 
 civic duties. 
 
 The curriculum purified. — Both writers took the typical 
 Greek curriculum for adolescents, — gymnastic and music (in 
 the wider sense). In the practical working out of this cur- 
 riculum, however, Plato, in particular, tried to give a larger idea 
 to studies, as has been indicated. Both writers tried to purify 
 studies of their weaker elements and to bring them back to 
 something of the simplicity of earlier days and to the grace 
 and balance that accorded with their own ideas. 
 
 Contributions to educational thought and practice. De- 
 velopment emphasized. — But it is in the direction of prin- 
 ciples and method that these writers are most distinctive and 
 suggestive. In their model educational states the two writers 
 anticipated the great general principle that education does not 
 implant, but merely develops, 2 which marks the real dividing 
 line between Occidental and Oriental education. 
 
 1 Plato's state in his Laws comes nearer reality than either of the 
 others, but he allows certain artificialities and limitations that still 
 make it a theoretical state. He recognizes however the impracticability 
 and inimitability of his highest ideals and comes as close as he can 
 to real conditions. Notwithstanding his theory his regulations, includ- 
 ing those for education, seem to grow out of a practical realization, 
 from his point of view, of state conditions. His laws are suggested 
 by social needs and are calculated to develop an all-around good man. 
 
 2 Stated fully by Plato ; implied by Aristotle. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 75 
 
 Harmony and proportion. — Again it is noticeable that 
 they emphasized harmony and proportion of life as one of the 
 guiding principles of education. They made a science of that 
 which before had been a matter of instinct. Harmony and 
 proportion however might be merely external. They could 
 not of themselves produce the stability that Greek genius 
 needed. Greek nature must be steadied by a real search for 
 truth, involving the highest exercise of self-activity. 
 
 Not facts, but ideas. — Plato with fine feeling seems to 
 have discovered this truth. He made the goal of education 
 philosophic insight that opened up the inner meaning of har- 
 mony. Put simply the principle was this, not facts, but the 
 ideas beneath the facts are the objects of quest in education. 
 
 The process of attainment. Dialectic. — The process of 
 attainment was in accord with this great end. It was to be 
 genuinely pedagogical, leading from the concrete and objective 
 to the ideal and philosophic. This was the dialectic process 
 described in the last chapter. This aim, this principle, and 
 this process he brought forward and made the distinguishing 
 features of his work. Put into practice they would take the 
 student into a new world and give him real insight, a distinct 
 and very significant gain. They would affect not only method, 
 but the studies of the curriculum. They involved in the best 
 way the freedom of individual development, and so finally 
 brought into education the idea that best characterized the new 
 epoch. At the same time they were a guaranty against the 
 extravagance of individualism that rises when it is separated 
 from its principle, i. e., they supplied a natural corrective calcu- 
 lated to produce poise and balance for counteracting that nat- 
 ural and excessive mobility of Greek nature that led young 
 men to take sudden flights in unbalanced action and made them 
 self-centered, catching at the advantage of the moment. 
 
 An intuition for adolescent motif. — In suggesting this 
 principle and aim in the secondary period Plato showed that he 
 appreciated the status of the adolescent. The search for the 
 great thought beneath forms and facts, the quest of the ideal, 
 inspires the adolescent and stimulates his best effort. Inspira- 
 tion and appeals to the imagination are wonderful motive forces 
 in secondary school method. Plato thus made a much needed 
 
76 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 distinction between elementary and secondary method. Ele- 
 mentary education in his scheme contents itself with simple 
 learning processes. Secondary education gets at fundamental 
 meanings, relations, ideals, in the learning. 3 This is one of 
 Plato's most typical contributions to the principles of educa- 
 tion. In the formal times that followed it was obscured ; it is 
 now coming into prominence again. 
 
 Aristotle takes up the aim from a different view-point and 
 brings in the culture (diagoge) idea, thus introducing the 
 thought of a liberal education as a means toward a higher civic 
 life. Apparently also he makes it an end. But it is fair to 
 assume that he is thinking of educating men to a high and most 
 productive use of the leisure that all freemen had in one degree 
 or another. 
 
 The teacher. — The teacher is the best part of method. 
 It is natural that thinkers on education should give special 
 attention in this direction. Plato and Aristotle give some of 
 their best suggestions as to teachers. The integrity of their 
 states required special solicitude here. Plato in particular goes 
 into detail concerning the high character and general excellence 
 of his teachers, who are to be possessed of the fundamental 
 ideas and principles on which his scheme of education is built. 
 
 Freedom, not education by the rod. — In pursuing their 
 plan of education both writers insist upon giving the pupil 
 not only freedom, but the right stimulus to take hold of and 
 appreciate and appropriate what is needed in the educational 
 process. In their view the old notion of education by the rod 
 is unworthy of free natures. Yet education was to be com- 
 pulsory. Aristotle, particularly, is very insistent here. This 
 is, however, a matter of school economy, not of school method. 
 There is all the difference in the world between " compulsory 
 education " and education by compulsion. 
 
 " Special training and general ability." — One detail as 
 to method, or rather as to the training value of studies, is inter- 
 esting to note here, in view of the discussions provoked by the 
 theory of education as adjustment. In treating of arithmetic 
 Plato is particular to make it clear that he believes in the special 
 disciplinary value of the study and that he is firmly convinced 
 
 3 Plato, Rep., 537. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 77 
 
 that special training gives general ability. This is probably the 
 first formal statement in educational literature of a doctrine that 
 contains a partial truth, but, stated absolutely, is inherently false. 
 
 Their chief service to method. — The most important con- 
 tribution to method that these authors made was their illustra- 
 tion of the meaning and value of dialectic, which they compre- 
 hended more fully, and consequently applied further, than 
 their predecessors, whose initial development of this method 
 has been explained in the previous chapter. Thought, experi- 
 ment, investigation, search for reality, the inspiration of large 
 ideas and relations, all of them keys to adolescent power if 
 shaped rightly so as to fit the adolescent not the adult lock, were 
 idealized. This meant development. This idea of develop- 
 ment, as contrasted with imparting knowledge, was the most 
 notable characteristic of their method and put them far beyond 
 their times. 
 
 An aristocratic education with limitations. — As to the 
 application of educational privilege, both writers, true to 
 Greek ideas, provide an aristocratic education. But we now 
 for the first time find a reasoned circumscription. Plato 
 develops the more sensible and taking scheme in this particu- 
 lar, making lines of demarcation that are far from rigid. 
 Aristotle is coldly and dogmatically exclusive. Probably both 
 writers, in their attempt to systematize education and to main- 
 tain more regular civic principles, are more restrictive than was 
 the practice of the Greeks. 
 
 Education of both sexes. — In one way, however, Plato 
 broke away from typical Greek ideas, for in his state of the 
 Laws he provided that girls and boys should have substantially 
 the same education. It would almost seem that he was near 
 the line of universal education. 
 
 School administration. — We should note finally that these 
 authors are careful to provide definitely for educational 
 administration. Plato does this rather mystically in his 
 Republic. But the same author in his Laws, and Aristotle in 
 his Politics do it with more definiteness, as a part of state 
 machinery. With " Directors of Education " in the one 
 scheme, and a general " Minister of Education " and a " Min- 
 ister " for each branch of education, in the other scheme, school 
 
;8 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 interests, instead of being left to private judgment, as had been 
 the way generally in Greece, are to be fully regulated by the 
 state, and to have something of the impressiveness and watch- 
 ful care that primitive education had shown. 
 
 The contributions of these noted educators to secondary 
 education have to do with its spirit rather than with its form. 
 Altogether it is as a beginning of what was to be, rather than 
 as an indication of what was, that we consider their work here. 
 
 Summary. — It is perhaps not unfair to say that Greek 
 education, as we saw it in Chapters IV and V, was rather 
 spontaneous than studied. It was an inspiration, an intuition. 
 The Greeks in practice never organized or systematized any- 
 thing in education. From all that has been said, and from 
 other details given elsewhere, 4 we find that these theorists 
 supplied what was generally neglected. But times and condi- 
 tions did not provide an opportunity to make their gains gen- 
 eral, and the theorists were too much educational recluses to 
 impress themselves in practical application on any wide scale. 
 In fact their plans as a whole were of such a nature that it was 
 impracticable to put them to the test then or later. We are 
 thus left for concrete results about where we were at the end 
 of Chapter V. Succeeding educators however were inspired 
 by their work and applied many of their ideas in the new sys- 
 tems of later centuries. 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 PLATO'S EDUCATIONAL PLANS, AS GIVEN IN HIS 
 
 REPUBLIC AND LAWS 
 
 i. Plato's scheme of education as given in his Republic, Books 
 ii-vii. 
 
 Platonic socialism. — The outlines of Plato's ideal state are well 
 known and need not be given in detail here. Suffice it to say that it 
 is highly socialistic, even to .the extent of obliterating the family, and 
 that he organizes it in such a way that classes are distributed according 
 to their characteristics, each following plans of thought and action 
 that he believes accord with the intrinsic fitness of the case; 5 he 
 therefore rests secure in the quiet acquiescence of each class in its 
 destiny, and there is no suspicion of rebellion. 
 
 4 See Appendix. 
 
 5 Class lines however are not absolute. Plato, Rep., 413-14. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 79 
 
 General principles of Plato's ideal state. — Those who have the 
 highest ideals and show themselves capable of the highest attainments, 
 being discovered by a natural process of elimination, are to be the 
 rulers. After a kind of probationary period of ruling they attain the 
 state of pure contemplation, where thoughts are filled with pure ideals. 
 They are typical men thinking in types, the great archetypes. Philos- 
 ophers therefore are to rule ; hence the state may be called a philosophic 
 state. The next class, really an offshoot of the same class, is that 
 designated as the " guardians " of the state, the " auxiliaries and 
 allies of the principles of the rulers." Both classes, however, are 
 guardians, though one of them in a higher and broader sense than 
 the other. 6 Now it is this general class or double class of citizens for 
 which alone Plato seems to provide education, and each one is to 
 continue the course according to his talent or affinities, some dropping 
 out at one point, some at another, each to serve the state according 
 to his capacity. The education of other classes comes in a natural way, 
 through apprenticeship and otherwise. We are concerned here then 
 only with some details as to the education of this highest class, — its 
 aims and means. 
 
 Distinctive features of his course of education. — Though Plato 
 presupposes a Utopian state based on socialistic principles, he cannot 
 break away from the old Greek course of training. But he idealizes it, 
 — making it lead from the concrete and objective to the ideal and 
 philosophic. Crude forms of things, with which one deals in the 
 schools, with him are to lead to typal forms which one sees only in 
 the world of thought or ideas, as he calls it. His ideal is the conser- 
 vation of the state through philosophic education inducting students 
 into real ideas, and his state is to be served in lower capacities, re- 
 quiring more or less education, by those who stop by the way in the 
 long and arduous course toward the philosophic goal. 
 
 Great principle. Development. — His great principle is dialectic. 7 
 Through this he attains his final purpose of living in pure ideas or, 
 as we should say, ideals. In a way dialectic, or dialectic life, is his 
 ideal. This dialectic, which is his talisman, is a straightforward analyz- 
 ing of anything and everything that meets the student, until the real 
 principle or idea of things is reached. The four stages on the way 
 to this supreme process and power, 8 which represent a kind of psycho- 
 logical analysis of method, are, knowledge of shadows, belief, under- 
 standing, and science. His education is to lead pupils to this climax 
 of knowledge. It is not however to put certain qualities or certain 
 knowledge into souls, but to develop latent potentialities ; for, he says, 
 " certain professors of education must be mistaken in saying that they 
 can put knowledge into the soul which was not there before, like 
 
 6 Do., 376, 473, 487, 535-36; citations 2, 3, 4 (last pages of Appendix), 
 
 7 Citations 1, 4; Rep., 539. 
 
 8 Do., 533-34- 
 
80 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 giving eyes to the blind, — whereas our argument shows that the power 
 is already in the soul." 9 
 
 Aim. — From what has been said it is plain that according to Plato 
 the aim of education, briefly stated, is to train for civic purposes a 
 select body of children through a curriculum that each is to continue ac- 
 cording to his talent, the highest degree of this education, attained by a 
 few choice souls, being that which gives philosophic insight and the 
 ruling ability that this produces. 
 
 Plato's ideal is thus a civic one. Indeed he makes great effort 
 to throw himself into the breach made by the recession of civic ideals 
 before personal ends and aims. 
 
 The curriculum. — The means he suggests for producing his ideal 
 are not new. They are, in the first place, the typical Greek agencies, 
 music and gymnastic. 10 Music as usual includes literature, but very 
 limited in amount and carefully defined in quality. 11 Literature is to 
 be simple and to be freed from all matter that would degrade the soul 
 or jeopardize ideals. Therefore Homer must retire from his position 
 of presiding genius of the schools, and much other material must 
 follow him. Strong melodies, Dorian and Phrygian harmonies, meet his 
 approval, and the lyre, the harp, and the pipe are the instruments of 
 his choice. In literature that is exclusively or chiefly poetical, simple 
 narrative or lofty "imitation" is the rule. 
 
 In addition to these simple educational forces he finds that arithme- 
 tic, geometry, and astronomy are required for his purpose, 12 — geometry 
 of a simple sort, for he finds solid geometry in a very undeveloped 
 state. Finally in higher education, which is entered only by adults of 
 thirty years, dialectic 13 becomes the sum and substance of the curricu- 
 lum. 
 
 Gradation. — This is a bare summary of the curriculum. As these 
 studies are applied to different ages however, some very interesting 
 distinctions, as well as some very suggestive elements of method, come 
 to view. i. " Calculation, geometry, and all other elements of instruc- 
 tion which are a preparation for dialectic, should be presented to the 
 mind in childhood" and in the form of amusement. There is to be 
 no compulsion, for " a freeman ought to be a freeman in the ac- 
 quisition of knowledge." 14 This "childhood" would seem to extend 
 to about the age of sixteen or seventeen, and thus to include much of 
 the period of secondary training. 2. Plato provides then for three years 
 of close application to study, though he is rather vague here, as else- 
 where, in the matter of details. In all this early period the sciences 
 are taken up without order. 3. But in late adolescence, when the youth 
 has rounded out a score of years, these subjects are "brought to- 
 gether," so that the youth are " able to see the correlation of them to 
 
 9 Do., 518. 10 Citations 2, 6-8; Rep., 411. 
 
 "Citations 7, 9; Rep., 386 ff., 411. 
 
 12 Citations 10-12; Rep., 510, 524-25, 526-28. 
 
 13 The fundamental idea in dialectic was to be applied also to adoles- 
 cent studies. 14 Rep., 536-7 ; Citations, 16. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 81 
 
 one another and to true being." 15 Herein lies the most important 
 change which Plato introduced into the secondary curriculum. Stu- 
 dents are to go beyond form, beyond the ordinary processes, and to 
 find the great thought beneath, — that which binds them to universal 
 thought, to the world of ideas. 16 This was natural inspiration-ground 
 for youth. The ideal appeals to the adolescent. In' the two periods 
 therefore the sciences are taken up in two different ways, — ways so 
 different as to make the subjects themselves seem different. Two dif- 
 ferent conceptions thus guide the curriculum. 
 
 But there is also gradation in method. Beginning with play, 17 which 
 Plato, following primal educational instincts, emphasizes in his scheme, 
 method grows gradually to the dialectic stage. 
 
 Secondary education indefinite in Republic. — Plato's educational 
 scheme in his Republic is very general, and can satisfy no one who 
 is looking for an organized scheme of education in which details as 
 to age and study are carefully explained. He refers to definite age 
 in the secondary period but once, and this has already been noted. 
 We may, however, make a simple division that he suggests, earlier edu- 
 cation, which is to be "a sort of amusement," thus making it easier 
 to discover the child's " natural bent," 18 and later education, when 
 subjects are taken up more seriously and shown in their relations. 
 This is significant when we consider the psychologies of the two 
 periods. But as a rule we must look in the Republic only for the 
 larger ideas of education and for a minute discussion of the subject of 
 music. We must look elsewhere for light as to grading and organiza- 
 tion. This is found in the Laws. 
 
 Davidson, in his Aristotle, leads us to think that Plato maps out his 
 course carefully as to ages and subjects in the Republic. He has evi- 
 dently combined his suggestions in the Republic and the Laws, which 
 is hardly fair. He even makes Plato more precise than he is. What- 
 ever else the Greek philosopher does, he does not decide finally on any 
 hard and fast lines for our secondary period. 
 
 2. PLATO'S SCHEME OF EDUCATION AS GIVEN IN BOOK 
 VII OF HIS LAWS, WITH BRIEF REFERENCE 
 TO OTHER BOOKS 
 
 Plato's state is here radically different from that of the Republic, as 
 will be seen by the following outline : — 
 
 Outline of State in " The Laws.'V- 19 No communal principles except 
 
 " common tables." Private families and property. 
 Men and women on a par. Training of the two sexes similar. 
 
 15 Rep., 537. 
 
 16 For other pedagogical principles see Citations 12 ; Rep., 526-7. 
 Plato seems to think that special training can give general ability. 
 
 17 Citations 16, 17. 18 Citations 11. 
 
 19 See Plato, Laws, and Jowett's Introduction to his translation of 
 Plato's works, Vol. 4, pp. 8, 9, 17, 142 ff. 
 
82 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 No gold or silver money; simply tokens. Care to promote simplicity 
 and an approximation to equality. The money question perhaps 
 influenced by this. 
 
 Number of families fixed at 5050, the number evidently being selected 
 for its factoring power. 
 
 Land allotted to citizens, each receiving a double lot, one near and one 
 remote ; two residences. " Let the several possessors feel that their 
 particular lots belong to the whole city." Lots to be equalized in 
 value ; each family has at least one lot, and no family more than 
 four ; hence bounds of wealth are fixed within narrow limits. Strict 
 penalties for overstepping. Gods have twelve lots, one each. 
 
 On basis of this limited difference in wealth four classes are formed. 
 " Offices, contributions, and distributions are proportioned to the 
 value of each person's wealth, and not solely to the virtue of his 
 ancestors or himself, nor yet to the strength and beauty of his 
 person, but to the measure of his wealth or poverty; and so by a 
 law of inequality, which will be in proportion to his wealth, he 
 will receive honors and offices as equally as possible, and there 
 will be no quarrels or disputes," 
 
 Electors. — Legislators. — Magistrates, elected by vote or lot. — Courts 
 (graded) ; judges appointed by magistrates. — General and local as- 
 semblies of people also serve judicially, the former as the highest 
 Court of Appeals. Council of 360, to have general supervision of 
 state. 
 
 A " Nocturnal Council " composed of old men and young men who 
 attain the highest education. The old men form the deliberative 
 body. " The younger guardians . . . are chosen for their natural 
 gifts and placed in the head of the state, having their souls all 
 full of eyes, with which they look around the whole city. They 
 keep watch, and hand over their perceptions to the memory, and 
 inform the elders of all that happens in the city; and those whom 
 we compared to the mind, because they have many wise thoughts, 
 that is to say the old men, take counsel, and, making use of the 
 younger men as their ministers and advising with them, in this 
 way both together preserve the whole state." . . . 
 
 Ministers of Music and Gymnastic, and a Minister of Education are 
 chosen. 
 
 The constitution is to be stable. No change. Laws irreversible. 
 
 All freemen to be educated. 
 
 Position of education in the scheme. — In developing this state 
 Plato naturally makes education a part of statecraft, as in the Re- 
 public, but his scheme of education is different from the one just 
 noticed, and it is more clearly outlined. He makes it, even to details, 
 the subject of state law. It has reference also to the practical (as 
 far as Plato can bring himself to the practical), rather than to the 
 transcendental ideal exemplified in the Republic. For this reason one 
 ought not to confound the two schemes or amalgamate them. Glean- 
 ings from the Laws will give us the outlines of his secondary education, 
 as he conceived it at a later date than that of his earlier treatise, and 
 will enable us to make some interesting comparisons. 
 
 Aims. — "The sum of education," he says, "is right training in the 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 83 
 
 nursery. The soul of the child in his play should be trained to that 
 sort of excellence in which, when he grows up to manhood, he will 
 have to be perfected." And he defines his idea of education in such 
 words as these : " For we are not speaking of education in this sense 
 of the word (education for a trade), but of that, other education in 
 virtue, from youth upwards, which makes a man eagerly pursue the 
 ideal perfection of citizenship and teaches him how rightly to rule 
 and how to obey. This is the only training which, upon our view, 
 would be characterized as education. That other sort of training which 
 aims at the acquisition of wealth or bodily strength or mere cleverness 
 apart from intelligence and justice is mean and illiberal and is not 
 worthy to be called education at all." Another remark brings out 
 the typical Greek dualism, which he now proceeds to apply : — " Am 
 I not right in maintaining that a good education is that which tends 
 most to the improvement of mind and body ? " 20 
 
 Periods of education. — The first period of education for which he 
 prescribes is that embraced in the first three years of life. For this 
 period he emphasizes exercise and a careful guarding from fear and 
 sorrow. " If during these three years every possible care were taken 
 that our nursling should have as little of sorrow and fear, and, in 
 general, of pain, as was possible, might we not expect at this age to 
 make his soul more gentle and cheerful?" 21 
 
 From three to six is the period for sport. 22 " Children at that 
 age have certain natural modes of amusement which they find out for 
 themselves when they meet." 23 This is also the time " to get rid of 
 self-will in him, punishing him, not so as to disgrace him." At six 
 comes the separation of the sexes. 23 " Now they must begin to learn, 
 the boys going to teachers of horsemanship and the use of the bow, the 
 javelin, and the sling; and, if they do not object, let the women go 
 too to learn, if not to practice; above all they ought to know the use 
 of arms, for these are matters which are almost entirely misunderstood 
 at present." 23 In this connection he advocates ambidexterity. All this 
 care is to be devoted to physical exercise during these early years, 
 "that all may be sound, hand and foot, and may not spoil the gift 
 of nature by bad habits, in so far as this can be avoided." 2a 
 
 The curriculum. — He now reminds us again that education has two 
 branches, one of gymnastic, which is concerned with the body, 24 and 
 the other of music, which is designed for the improvement of the soul. 
 He includes both dancing and wrestling in the former and advises 
 " suitable imitations of war in our dances." 
 
 Again, he says : " It will be right also for boys, until such time as they 
 
 2 <> Laws, 643-44, 788. 
 
 21 Do., 789-92. 
 
 22 Citations 13, 14 ; Laws, 793-94. One's future work is to be recog- 
 nized in plays ; so these years are formative. 
 
 23 Do., 794-97. 
 
 24 Do., 795 f . ; Citations 15. 
 
84 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 go to war, to make processions and supplications to the gods, in goodly 
 array, armed and on horseback, faster and slower in their dances and 
 marches, offering up prayers to the gods, and also engaging in con- 
 tests and preludes of contests, if at all, with those objects. For these 
 sorts of exercise and no others, are useful both in peace and war 
 and are beneficial both to states and to private houses. But other 
 labors and sports and excessive training of the body are unworthy of 
 freemen." 25 
 
 Music. — As to plays, music, and song, he gives very definite limita- 
 tions. He decides for that which is substantial, established, and regu- 
 lar, the good old fashions as opposed to constant change, and believes 
 such things have close relations with the stability of states. 26 
 
 Physical training. — " Next follow the buildings for gymnasia and 
 schools open to all ; these are to be in three places. In the midst of the 
 city, and outside the city, and in the surrounding country there shall 
 be schools for horse exercise, and open spaces also in three places ar- 
 ranged with a view to archery and throwing of missiles, at which 
 young men may learn and practice. ... In these schools let there be 
 dwellings for teachers, who shall be brought from foreign parts by 
 pay, and let them teach the frequenters of the school the art of war and 
 the art of music." 27 
 
 Letters. — Coming to the "letters" side of musical training he tells 
 us that "a fair time for a boy of ten years old to spend in letters is 
 three years." 
 
 Secondary education begins. — " At thirteen years he should begin 
 to handle the lyre and he may continue at this another three years, 
 neither more nor less, and whether his father or himself like or dis- 
 like the study, he is not to be allowed to spend more or less time in 
 learning music than the law allows." As to the extent of training in 
 reading and writing he does not leave us in doubt. " They ought to 
 be occupied with their letters until they are able to read and write; 
 but the acquisition of perfect beauty or quickness in writing, if nature 
 has not stimulated them to acquire these accomplishments in the given 
 number of years, they should be let alone." 
 
 Selection of material. — On the literary side he follows consistently 
 his idea of conservatism, inclining to a careful sifting according to 
 principles he has laid down. This is in striking contrast with some 
 of the customs of the day that he vividly depicts in these words : — 
 " We have a great many poets writing in hexameter, trimeter, and 
 all sorts of measures, some who are serious, others who aim only at 
 raising a laugh, in which the aforesaid myriads declare that the youth 
 
 25 Laws, 795-6. 
 
 26 Citations 14; Laws, 797 ff. 
 
 27 Citations 15 ; Laws, 804-5. Both boys and girls are to be taught, 
 and taught alike. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 85 
 
 who are rightly educated should be brought up and saturated; they 
 should be constantly hearing them read at recitations, and learning 
 them, getting off whole parts by heart, while others select choice 1 
 passages and long speeches, and make compendiums of them, saying 
 that these shall be committed to memory, and that in this way a man 
 is to be made good and wise by varied experience and learning." 28 
 
 Arithmetic and geometry. — Finally the growing citizen must study 
 " calculation in arithmetic," 29 the measurement of length, surface and 
 depth (geometry), and that which "has to do with the revolution of 
 the stars in relation to one another." But it is not necessary to make 
 a technical and extended study of these things, for he says, " not 
 every one has need to toil through all these things in a strictly scientific 
 manner, but only a few, and who they are to be we will hereafter 
 indicate." But " all freemen should, I conceive, learn as much of these 
 various disciplines as every child in Egypt is taught when he learns 
 his alphabet," by way of " pleasure and amusement," — that is, each 
 one is to gain a simple and elementary knowledge of these arts. 30 
 
 Compulsory education. — This education is to be compulsory, at 
 least part of it, and we may assume that we are to apply to the whole 
 course of ordinary education the following words used in speaking of 
 the " gymnasia and schools open to all " that were spoken of above : — 
 
 " Let them teach the frequenters of the school the art of war and the 
 art of music ; and they shall come not only if their parents please, 
 but if they do not please; and if their education is neglected, there 
 shall be a compulsory education of all and sundry, as the saying is, 
 as far as this is possible, and the pupils shall be regarded as belonging 
 to the state rather than their parents." 
 
 Education for both sexes. — Both sexes are included in this plan, 
 for he continues, " my law would apply to females as well as males, and 
 they shall both go through the same exercises. I have no sort of fear 
 of saying that gymnastic and horsemanship are as suitable to women 
 as men." And again a little farther on he says, " nor will any one deny 
 that women ought to share as far as possible in education and in other 
 ways with men." 31 
 
 Education a serious and strenuous matter. — Studentship is to be a 
 strenuous matter : — " When the day breaks the time has arrived for 
 
 28 Do., 810-11. 
 
 29 Citations 10, 12; Laws, 747, 817-18. Arithmetic is a supreme in- 
 strument of education. 
 
 30 Do., 817 ff. Plato hints at higher studies, but gives no details or 
 information about them, unless we are to interpret some of his words 
 as referring to a little advanced geometry and astronomy. See 
 Laws, 818 ff., 068. The latter reference implies that members of the 
 " Nocturnal Council " are to have a special and higher education, 
 apparently dialectic. 
 
 31 Do., 795, 804-5. 
 
86 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 youth to go to the schoolmasters." "There ought to be no by-work 
 which interferes with the due exercise and nourishment of the body, 
 or the attainments and habits of the soul. Night and day are not 
 long enough for the accomplishment of their perfection and consum- 
 mation ; and to this end all freemen ought to arrange the time of their 
 employment during the whole course of the twenty-four hours, from 
 morning to evening and from evening to morning of the next sunrise. 
 . . . Much sleep is not required by nature either for our souls or bodies 
 or for the actions in which they are concerned; . . . but he of us who 
 has the greatest regard for life and reason keeps awake as long as 
 he can, reserving only so much time for sleep as is expedient for 
 health, and much sleep is not required if the habit of not sleeping be 
 formed." 32 
 
 Administration. — It remains to say a word as to the state ma- 
 chinery for superintending educational matters. The Nocturnal Coun- 
 cil (described in the outline of the state given on page 82), he tells us 
 in Book XII, is "associated with us in our whole scheme of educa- 
 tion." Again, "it will be proper," he says, "to appoint ministers of 
 music and gymnastic, two of each kind, one whose business will be 
 education, and the other for the superintendence of contests. In speak- 
 ing of education the law means to speak of those who have the care 
 of order and instruction in gymnasia and schools and of the going to 
 school and lodging of boys and girls ; and in speaking of contests, the 
 law refers to the judges of gymnastic and music." Then there is to 
 be a " minister of the education of youth, male and female ; he too will 
 rule according to law, being a single magistrate of fifty years old at 
 least; the father of children lawfully begotten, 33 of both sexes, or of 
 one at any rate. He who is elected and he who is the elector should 
 consider that of all great offices of state this is the greatest; for the 
 first shoot of any plant rightly tending to the perfection of its own 
 nature has the greatest effect on its maturity, and this is true also of 
 men. Man, we say, is a tame and civilized animal; nevertheless he 
 requires proper instruction and a fortunate nature,- and then of all 
 animals he becomes the most divine and most civilized; but if he be 
 insufficiently or ill-educated, he is the savagest of earthly creatures. 
 Wherefore the legislator ought not to allow the education of children 
 to become a secondary or accidental matter." 34 
 
 These are good words with which to close the account of the educa- 
 tion of the Laws. Plato is in many ways more interesting here than 
 in the Republic. He comes nearer this world, nearer the practical, 
 and he gives more detail. But there is a certain ideal nature, and 
 a certain inspiration in the Republic which also attract us. 
 
 A brief comparative summary must close this section : — 
 
 32 Do., 807-8. 
 
 33 To-day we put a premium upon the childless. Plato showed the 
 greater wisdom. 
 
 34 Do. 764-66. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 
 
 87 
 
 REPUBLIC 
 
 Aim : — To train conservators of 
 the state. Mind chiefly _ on 
 " supersensuous man." Philo- 
 sophical insight. 
 
 Curriculum (general) : — 
 Gymnastic and music (words, 
 harmonies, literature) . 
 
 Secondary : — 
 " Letters," music. 
 Arithmetic, geometry, astron- 
 omy : — 1, elementary work, 
 uncorrelated ; 2, at 20, cor- 
 related work; ideal element 
 prominent 
 
 Higher education, — dialectics. 
 (For those of largest capacity.) 
 
 Method (general and special : — 
 
 Teachers of high quality. 
 
 Early education an amusement. 
 No compulsion. The child a 
 " freeman in acquisition. In 
 regular education steady de- 
 votion is required. Sleep and 
 exercise unpropitious to learn- 
 ing. 
 
 Education a development. 
 Leads finally to ideas beneath 
 forms, and^ produces har- 
 mony. Studies not an ag- 
 glomeration of facts, but or- 
 ganized ideas. 
 
 Special training may give gen- 
 eral ability. 
 
 Education for " Guardians " only, 
 men only. 
 
 LAWS 
 
 Aim: — To train a good man, 
 perfectly ruling and ruled, 
 liberally educated, not educated 
 for a trade. 
 
 Curriculum (general) : — 
 Gymnastic and music: — 
 
 1 to 3, — exercise; special ex- 
 citement, fear, sorrow 
 avoided. 
 
 3 to 6, — discipline, sport, 
 games (carefully regulated, 
 old). 
 
 6. Separation of sexes. 
 Learning begins. 
 
 Secondary (partly elementary) : — 
 
 Gymnastic. 
 
 Reading, writing, literature. 
 
 Music. 
 
 (Boy of 10 takes 3 yrs. for let- 
 ters, then 3 yrs. for lyre.) 
 
 Arithmetic, geometry, astron- 
 omy. No age assigned. 
 
 In all this curriculum, elemen- 
 tary knowledge, not scholar- 
 ship. 
 
 Higher education. — dialectics. 
 (For select number.) 
 
 Method : — 
 
 Early education an amusement. 
 No compulsion in early years, 
 but strict compulsion later. 
 Incessant and vigorous work 
 carefully supervised. 
 
 Practical ideas of things. 
 
 Education measured by time 
 rather than amount. Strict 
 limitation of years in educa- 
 tion. 
 
 Education for all freemen, both 
 men and women. 
 
88 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 State organization : — State organization : — 
 
 " Guardians " and Dialecticians. Nocturnal Council. 
 Philosophers rulers. Legislators. 
 
 Minister of education. 
 Minister of music. 
 Minister of gymnastic. 
 Education thus to be thoroughly 
 organized, not left to acci- 
 dent or private management 
 at all. 
 
 CITATIONS 
 
 1. Nature of education. — "And surely you would not have the 
 children of your ideal state, whom you are nurturing and educating, if 
 the ideal ever becomes a reality, you would not allow the future 
 rulers to be like posts, having no reason in them, and yet to be set 
 in authority over the highest matters? Certainly not. Then you will 
 enact that they shall have such an education as will enable them to 
 attain the highest skill in asking and answering questions? Yes, he 
 said, I will, with your help. Dialectic then, as you will agree, is the 
 coping-stone of the sciences and is placed over them; no other can 
 be placed higher; the nature of knowledge can go no further. I 
 agree, he said." — Rep., 534. 
 
 2. Qualities of leaders. — " Then he who is to be a really good and 
 noble guardian of the state will require to unite in himself philosophy 
 and spirit and swiftness and strength? Undoubtedly. Then we have 
 found the desired natures ; and now that we have found them, how 
 are they to be reared and educated? . . . Can we find a better than 
 the old-fashioned sort? And this has two divisions, gymnastic for 
 the body, and music for the soul." — Plato, Rep., 376. 35 
 
 3. General qualities needed in those who are to be most highly 
 educated. — Qualities necessary for those who receive the highest edu- 
 cation : — " Preference given to the surest and the bravest, and, if 
 possible, to the fairest; and, having noble and manly tempers, they 
 should also have the natural gifts which accord with their education " 
 (keenness and ready powers of acquisition, a good memory, power of 
 enduring fatigue, solidity, love of labor in any line, whole-hearted in- 
 dustry, love of truth, temperance, courage, magnanimity, soundness of 
 limb and mind). Rep., 535-6. See also 487. 
 
 4. " Until then philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of 
 this world have the spirit and power of philosophy and political power 
 and greatness meet in one, and those commoner natures who follow 
 either to the exclusion of the other are compelled to stand aside, cities 
 will never cease from ill — nor the human race, as I believe — and then 
 only will this our state have a possibility of life and behold the light 
 of day." — Rep., 473. 
 
 35 References are to Jowett's translation, 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 89 
 
 5. Method and tests. — Observation of future guardians from 
 youth upwards ; deeds to be performed ; toils, pains, and conflicts to be 
 prescribed; pupils to be tried by enchantments; to be tested more 
 thoroughly than gold is tested in the fire, " to discover whether they are 
 armed against all enchantments and of a noble bearing always, good 
 guardians of themselves and of the music which they have learned, and 
 whether they retain under all circumstances a rhythmical and har- 
 monious nature such as will be most serviceable to the man himself and 
 to the state. And he who at every age, as boy and youth and in 
 mature life, has come out of the trial victorious and pure shall be 
 appointed a ruler and guardian of the state; he shall be honored in 
 life and death." — Rep., 413-14. 
 
 6. Both sexes to be educated. — " Then women must be taught music 
 and gymnastic and the art of war, which they must practice like men? 
 I suppose that is the inference." — Rep., 452. 
 
 7. Content of curriculum. — " But is our superintendence to go no 
 further, and are the poets only to be required by us to impress a good 
 moral on their poems as a condition of writing poetry in our state? 
 Or is the same control to be exercised over other artists, and are they 
 also to be prohibited from exhibiting the opposite forms of vice and 
 intemperance and meanness and indecency in sculpture and building 
 and other decorative arts ; and is he who does not conform to this rule 
 of ours to be prohibited from practicing his art in our state, lest the 
 taste of our citizen be corrupted by him? . . . Let our artists rather be 
 those who are gifted to discern the true nature of beauty and grace; 
 then will our youth dwell in a land of health, amid fair sights and 
 sounds, and beauty, the influence of fair works, will meet the sense like 
 a breeze and insensibly draw the soul even in childhood into harmony 
 with the beauty of reason." 
 
 Results to be aimed at. — "Is not this, I said, the reason, Glaucon, 
 why musical training is so powerful, because rhythm and harmony find 
 their way into the secret places of the soul, on which they mightily 
 fasten, bearing grace in their movements, and making the soul graceful 
 of him who is rightly educated, or ungraceful if ill-educated ; and also 
 because he who has received this true education of the inner being 
 will most shrewdly perceive omissions or faults in art and nature, and 
 with a true taste, while he praises and rejoices over and receives 
 into his soul the good, and becomes noble and good, he will justly 
 blame and hate the bad now in the days of his youth, even before 
 he is able to know the reason of the thing; and when reason comes 
 he will recognize and salute her as a friend with whom his education 
 has made him long familiar." 
 
 " I have no hesitation in saying that neither we nor our guardians 
 whom we have to educate can ever become musical until we know the 
 essential forms, temperance, courage, liberality, magnificence, as well as 
 the cognate and contrary forms in all their combinations, and can 
 recognize them and their images wherever they are found, not slighting 
 
9 o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 them either in small things or great, but believing them all to be 
 within the sphere of one art and study." — Rep., 401, 402. 
 
 8. Relation o£ body and mind. — " Now my belief is . . . not that 
 the good body improves the soul, but that the good soul improves the 
 body. . . . Then if we have educated the mind, the minuter care of the 
 body may properly be committed to the mind, and we need only indicate 
 general principles for brevity's sake." (He goes on to speak of the 
 necessity of abstinence from intoxication, and other matters. He dis- 
 parages athletic training, and says his guardians must have a finer 
 sort of training.) — Rep., 403~4- See also 410, 411. 
 
 9. Habits to be avoided. Athletic training disparaged. — Danger 
 of innovations in music and gymnastic. " This is what Damon tells me, 
 and I can quite believe him ; he says that when modes of music change, 
 the fundamental laws of the state always change with them." — Rep., 
 424. 
 
 10. Arithmetic " above all." — " No single instrument of youthful 
 education has such mighty power, both as regards domestic economy 
 and politics and in the arts, as the study of arithmetic. Above all 
 arithmetic stirs up him who is by nature sleepy and dull, and makes 
 him quick to learn, retentive, shrewd, and, aided by art divine, he makes 
 progress quite beyond his natural powers. All these, if only the legis- 
 lator by laws and institutions can banish meanness and covetousness 
 from the souls of the disciples and enable them to profit by them, will 
 be excellent and suitable instruments of education. But if he cannot 
 do this, he will intentionally create in them, instead of wisdom, the 
 habit of craft."— Laws, 747. 
 
 11. Geometry. — "And next shall we inquire whether the kindred 
 science also concerns us? You mean geometry? Yes. Certainly, he 
 said; that part of geometry which relates to war is clearly our con- 
 cern. Yes, I said, but for that purpose a very little of either geometry 
 or calculation will be enough ; the question is rather of the higher and 
 greater part of geometry, whether that tends towards the great end, I 
 mean towards the vision of the idea of the good. . . . True, he said. 
 Then if geometry compels us to view essence, it concerns us; if gen- 
 eration only, it does not concern us." — Rep., 526. 
 
 Ultimate ends and aim. — " And do you not know also that, although 
 they use and reason about the visible forms, they are thinking not of 
 these, but of the ideals which they resemble; not of the figures which 
 they draw, but of the absolute square and the absolute diameter, and 
 so on; . . . they are really seeking for the things themselves, which 
 can only be seen with the eyes of the mind? That is true." — Rep., 510. 
 
 12. Value of special training for general ability. — "Those who 
 have a natural talent for calculation are generally quick in every other 
 kind of knowledge ; and even the dull, if they have had an arithmetical 
 training, gain in quickness, if not in any other way." " And in all de- 
 partments of study, as experience proves, any one who has studied ge- 
 ometry is infinitely quicker of apprehension." — Rep., 526-7. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 91 
 
 13. Play in. education. — " According to my view he who would be 
 good at anything must practice that thing from his youth upwards, 
 both in sport and earnest, in the particular way which the work re- 
 quires; for example, he who is to be a good builder should play at 
 building children's houses; and he who is to be a good husbandman, 
 at tilling the ground ; those who have the care of their education should 
 provide them when young with mimic tools. And they should learn 
 beforehand the knowledge which they will afterwards require for their 
 art. For example, the future carpenter should learn to measure or 
 apply the line in play; and the future warrior should learn riding or 
 some other exercise for amusement, and the teacher should endeavor 
 to direct the children's inclinations and pleasures by the help of 
 amusements to their final aim in life." — Laws, 643. 
 
 (Have we here the germs of "gifts and occupations"?) 
 
 14. Stability in play related to stability of institutions. — "I say 
 that in states generally no one has observed that the plays of child- 
 hood have a great deal to do with the permanence or want of per- 
 manence in legislation. For when plays are ordered with a view to 
 children having the same plays and amusing themselves after the same 
 manner, and finding delight in the same playthings, the more solemn 
 institutions of the state are allowed to remain undisturbed ; whereas, if 
 sports are disturbed and innovations are made in them and they con- 
 stantly change and the young never speak of their having the same 
 likings or the same established notions of good and bad taste, either 
 in the bearing of their bodies or in their dress, but he who devises 
 something new and out-of-the-way in figures and colors and the like 
 is held in special honor, we may truly say that this is the greatest 
 injury which can happen in a state; for he who changes the sports 
 is secretly changing the manners of the young and making the old to 
 be dishonored among them and the new to be honored." — Laws, 797. 
 
 15. State teachers. — " Of all these things (dancing, gymnastic 
 movements, military exercises) there ought to be public teachers re- 
 ceiving pay from the state, and their pupils should be the men and 
 boys of the state and also the girls and women, who are to know all 
 these things." — Laws, 813. 
 
 16. Freedom, not compulsion. — "And therefore calculation and 
 geometry and all other elements of instruction, which are a prepara- 
 tion for dialectic, should be presented to the mind in childhood, not 
 however under any notion of forcing them. ... A freeman ought to be 
 a freeman in the acquisition of knowledge. Bodily exercise when com- 
 pulsory does no harm; but knowledge which is acquired under com- 
 pulsion has no hold on the mind. ... Do not use compulsion, but let 
 early education be a sort of amusement; that will better enable you to 
 find out the natural bent." — Rep., 536-7. 
 
 17. "And the education must begin with plays. The spirit of law 
 must be imparted to them in music." — Rep., 425. 
 
92 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN ARISTOTLE'S POLITICS 
 
 Aristotle's state. — Aristotle's state is the basis of his educational 
 scheme. His "politics" and his psychology make a broad foundation 
 for his pedagogy. The state, as he represents it, is the result of a wide 
 induction on his part, — in fact the result of a double induction. From 
 this point of view it may be called a generalized state. From his 
 careful analysis of the individual, who is to give life and reality to 
 his state, it may, like Plato's state, be called a psychologic state. The 
 following outline will indicate some of its main features : — 
 
 Aristotle's Psychologic state. — Politics, chiefly Book VII 
 Outline.— 
 
 Moderate population; all citizens should know each other. 
 
 Territory large enough to be " all-producing," and enable the inhabi- 
 tants to live temperately and liberally in the enjoyment of leisure. 
 
 State to be well-located for defense and other purposes. Various 
 topographical details discussed. 
 
 State to be " self-sufficing " in regard to groups or classes of inhabit- 
 ants. Hence a variety of groups, though under this general limita- 
 tion : — " Conditions of a composite whole are not necessarily 
 organic parts of it." 
 
 Two general groups : — 
 
 A. Governing group: — Citizens. — I. Elders- councilors (also 
 
 priests), with legislative and deliberative power. 2. 
 Younger men,- warriors, with executive power. Public 
 tables provided for this group, by classes. Land allotted 
 by half socialistic scheme; two portions for each citizen, 
 one for public use (religion and public tables), one for 
 private use. Latter divided into two lots, one near city, 
 one on frontier. Land preferably tilled by slaves, some 
 public, some private. Liberty to be held out as a reward 
 for service. Citizens not to engage in any form of pro- 
 ductive industry, — not to do anything "illiberal." 
 
 Public education provided for Group A under charge 
 of Directors of Education. 
 
 B. Governed group : — Artisans, husbandmen, etc. ; non-citizens, 
 
 no land, not educated by state; receive merely education 
 of a trade. 
 
 Various offices ministering to different needs of the body politic. 
 Women not educated equally with men. Probably to have domestic 
 education only. 
 Criticism of his state. — Aristotle thus aims at the ideal, like Plato. 
 He does not however reach the transcendental. Notwithstanding his 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 93 
 
 power of generalization he recommends a state organization which 
 violates both nature and science. His limitations and his arrangement 
 of classes prevent him from realizing the highest ideal. As Davidson 
 says, his ideal is a static one. 
 
 Aristotle thus has in view in his educational plans only a fraction of 
 the population, the class of citizens or " rulers." 36 He arbitrarily 
 excludes all who engage in professional, mechanical, or agricultural 
 pursuits. This is fatal to his state. It does not, however, vitiate his 
 educational laws and principles as far as they go, though it limits their 
 application and leaves noticeable gaps in educational theory and practice. 
 Another limitation appears in the fact that he makes no provision for 
 women's education outside the family. 
 
 This brings us to an analysis of Aristotle's educational scheme, which 
 will give various interesting details and show the distinguishing char- 
 acteristics of his pedagogy. 
 
 Aim. — Aristotle's aim is to develop his exclusive individual on all 
 sides for what he calls "leisure," or better for a cultured life as op- 
 posed to a life of business. He says, " I must repeat once again, the 
 first principle of all action is leisure (diagoge)." 37 The end is a very 
 inclusive one as seen in his remark, " education should not be ex- 
 clusively directed to this (the physical), or any other single end." 38 
 He finds the fundamental principle in man and provides for developing 
 it. On the psychological side this is the expression of self-activity, 
 the " self-determination " of the individual. The outcome is to be 
 civic virtue. 
 
 Education to be public, — the same for all. — As to uniformity in 
 the application of educational principles and the working out of edu- 
 cational ends, " since the whole city has one end, it is manifest that 
 education should be one and the same for all, and that it should be 
 public and not private, — not as at present when every one looks after 
 his own children separately and gives them separate instruction of the 
 sort which he thinks best; the training in things which are of common 
 interest should be the same for all. Neither must we suppose that 
 any one of the citizens belongs to himself, for they all belong to the 
 
 36 See outline of state given above. 
 
 37 Pol., VII, 14:12-18; 22; I5:i-6; VIII, 3'.2,6. 
 
 This quotation is interesting : — " Since the end of individuals and 
 of the state is the same, the end of the best man and the best state 
 must also be the same. It is therefore evident that there ought to 
 exist in both of them the virtues of leisure ; for peace, as has often 
 been repeated, is the end of war, and leisure of toil. But leisure and 
 cultivation may be promoted not only by those virtues which are prac- 
 ticed in leisure, but also by some of those which are useful in business. 
 For many necessaries of life have to be supplied before we can have 
 leisure. Therefore a city must be temperate and brave and able to 
 endure." 
 
 38 Pol., VIII, 4:2. 
 
94 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 state and are each of them a part of the state, and the care of each 
 part is inseparable from the care of the whole." 89 
 Aristotle analyzes his individual as follows : — 
 
 Educational psychology. — " There are three things which make men 
 good and virtuous ; these are nature, habit, and reason. . . . Nature, 
 habit and reason must be in harmony with one another." And again, 
 " Now the soul of man is divided into two parts, one of which has 
 reason in itself and the other, not having reason in itself, is able to 
 obey reason. And we call a man good because he has the virtues of 
 these two parts. In which of them the end is likely to be found is 
 no matter of doubt to those who adopt our division, for in the world 
 both of nature and of art the inferior always exists for the sake of 
 the better or superior, and the better or superior is that which has rea- 
 son. 40 The reason too in our ordinary way of speaking is divided into 
 two parts, for there is a practical and a speculative reason, and there 
 must be a corresponding division of actions ; the actions of the nat- 
 urally better principle are to be preferred by those who have it in their 
 power to attain to both or to all, for that is always to every one the 
 most eligible which is the highest attainable by him." 41 
 
 With these general remarks as to ends and organization, we come 
 to some specifications as to means and order of training. If we expect 
 a complete and detailed account of a system of education calculated to 
 carry out the author's principles, we shall be disappointed. Aristotle 
 is very incomplete and fragmentary here. Such a symmetrical scheme 
 as Davidson guesses at, and presents as rather more than a guess, 
 may or may not have been in his mind. He appears not to have worked 
 his plans out to that extent. But he presents enough to be suggestive 
 and to give a general idea of his pedagogical thought. 
 
 Order of development. — And first as to the order of development. 
 Aristotle is very emphatic here. He says distinctly, 42 " the care of the 
 body ought to precede that of the soul and the training of the appetitive 
 part should follow ; none the less our care of it should be for the sake 
 of the reason, and our care of the body for the sake of the soul." 
 And he impresses it again in these words, " Now it is clear that in 
 education habit must go before reason, and the body before the mind." 43 
 
 Periods of education. — From another point of view, order of de- 
 velopment may be described by means of the periods into which he 
 divides the life of the child. He makes six clearly marked divisions, 
 i°, the pre-natal period; 2°, infancy; 3°, to five years; 4 , five to 
 seven; 5 , seven to puberty; 6°, puberty to twenty-one. 44 We should 
 be fortunate indeed if he were as explicit in describing the training 
 suitable for these different periods as he is in marking out the periods 
 
 39 Do., VIII, 1 : 1-4. 
 
 40 Do., VII, 14:0-10. See also 13:10-12. 
 
 41 Do., VII, 14:10-11. 
 
 42 Do., VII, 15:10. 
 
 « Do., VIII, 3 : 13. See VII, 13 : 13 and VII, 15 : 1-10. 
 44 Do., VII, 17. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 95 
 
 themselves, but we find little said except for the early periods, and 
 our study calls for something on the secondary period particularly; even 
 here however something useful is gained, if we use our opportunity. 
 
 First three periods. — For the first period he prescribes special con- 
 ditions for procreation calculated to secure worthy offspring. For the 
 second and third he merely makes suggestions as to the diet and physical 
 conditions best calculated to produce a proper citizen. As to this 
 second period he says, " No demand should be made upon the child 
 for study or labor, lest its growth be impeded ; and there should be 
 sufficient motion to prevent the limbs from being inactive. This can 
 be secured in part by amusement, but the amusement should not be 
 vulgar or tiring or riotous. The directors of education, as they are 
 termed, should be careful what tales or stories the children hear; for 
 the sports of children are designed to prepare the way for the business 
 of later life, and should be for the most part imitations of the occupa- 
 tions which they will hereafter pursue in earnest." 45 
 
 Crying. — In these words and in others in the same chapter he shows 
 commendable solicitude for the environment of the child, 46 that it 
 shall be made clean and wholesome. Again, he has a word for the 
 crying of the period, believing that " those are wrong who in the Laws 
 attempt to check the loud crying and screaming of children, for these 
 contribute toward their growth and in a manner exercise their bodies. 
 Straining the voice has an effect similar to that produced by the re- 
 tention of the breath in violent exertions." 47 
 
 Fourth and fifth periods. Formal education through " liberal " 
 studies only. — In the fourth period "they must look on at the pur- 
 suits which they are hereafter to learn." The fifth period presumably 
 is intended to be devoted to the more formal side of education. And 
 here it should be noted that Aristotle lays great stress upon liberal 
 as opposed to illiberal studies. " There can be no doubt," he says, 
 " that children should be taught those useful things which are really 
 necessary, but not all things; for occupations are divided into liberal 
 and illiberal and to young children should be imparted only such kinds 
 of knowledge as will be useful to them without vulgarizing them. 
 And any occupation or art or science which makes the body or the 
 soul or the mind of the freeman less fit for the practice or exercise of 
 virtue is vulgar; wherefore we call those arts vulgar which tend to 
 deform the body, and likewise all paid employments, for they absorb 
 and degrade the mind." 
 
 Not too detailed and technical training. — "There are also 
 some liberal arts quite proper for a freeman to acquire, but only in a 
 certain degree, and if he attend to them too closely, in order to at- 
 tain perfection in them, the same evil effects will follow. The ob- 
 ject also which a man sets before him makes a great difference; if he 
 
 «Do, VII, 17:4-5. 
 
 46 Do., VII, 17 : 7-9- 
 
 47 Do., VII, 17:6. 
 
96 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 does or learns anything for his own sake or for the sake of his friends 
 or with a view to excellence, the action will not appear illiberal; but 
 if done for the sake of others the very same action will be thought 
 menial and servile." 48 
 
 That is, anything which smacks of profession or trade is illiberal. 
 Aristotle had the genuine Greek thought as to such things. Free- 
 booting was gentlemanly beside them. 
 
 The curriculum. Four branches. — Regarding the actual studies, he 
 says, 49 
 
 "The received subjects of instruction are partly of a liberal and 
 partly of an illiberal character. The customary branches of education 
 are in number four; they are (i) reading and writing, (2) gymnastic 
 exercises (3), music, to which is sometimes added (4) drawing. Of 
 these, reading, writing, and drawing are regarded as useful for the pur- 
 poses of life in a variety of ways, and gymnastic exercises are thought 
 to infuse courage. Concerning music a doubt may be raised ; in our 
 own day most men cultivate it for the sake of pleasure, but originally it 
 was included in education, because nature herself, as has been often 
 said, requires that we should be able not only to work well, but to use 
 leisure well." 
 
 Physical education not to include athletics. — Most of the remain- 
 ing portion, 50 of the book is devoted to two of these subjects, gym- 
 nastics and music. Both are to be of the liberalizing type. Educa- 
 tional gymnastics, for example, do not include athletics. 51 " Of those 
 states which in our own day seem to take the greatest care of children 
 some aim at producing in them an athletic habit, but they only injure 
 their forms and stunt their growth." 52 And again, " It is an admitted 
 principle that gymnastic exercises should be employed in education and 
 that for children they should be of a lighter kind, avoiding severe 
 regimen or painful toil lest the growth of the body be impaired. The 
 evil of excessive training in early years is strikingly proved by the 
 example of the Olympic victors; for not more than two or three of 
 them have gained a prize as boys and as men; their early training and 
 severe gymnastic exercises exhausted their constitutions." 53 
 
 The kind of " music " prescribed. — Music is with Aristotle, as 
 with the Greeks of all ages, a prime educational force. 54 It may 
 be reckoned under education, amusement, and intellectual enjoyment, 
 he says. " In addition to the common pleasure, felt and shared by 
 all (for the pleasure given by music is natural and therefore adapted 
 to all ages and natures), may it not have also some influence over 
 
 48 Do., VIII, 2:3-6; Conf. Cicero, De Of., 1:42. 
 
 49 Do., VIII, 2:6-3; 12, 5:4. 
 
 50 Do., VIII, 3 ff. 
 5 iDo., VIII, 4:1-3; 5-7. 
 5 2Do., VIII, 4:1. 
 
 53 Do., VIII, 4:7, 8. 
 
 54 Do., VIII, 3 : 8, 9. See also VIII, 5. 
 
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 97 
 
 the character and the soul? It must have such an influence, if char- 
 acters are affected by it. And that they are so affected is proved 
 by the. power which the songs of Olympus and many others exercise, 
 for beyond question they inspire enthusiasm, and enthusiasm is an 
 emotion of the ethical part of the soul." 55 
 As to the kind of music, he lays down the following principles : — 
 
 "Thus then we reject the professional instruments and also the pro- 
 fessional mode of education in music, — and by professional we mean 
 that which is adopted in contests, for in this the performer practices 
 the art not for the sake of his own improvement but in order to give 
 pleasure, and that of a vulgar sort, to his hearers. For this reason 
 the execution of such music is not the part of a freeman, but of a paid 
 performer, and the result is that the performers are vulgarized, for 
 the end at which they aim is bad. The vulgarity of the spectator tends 
 to lower the character of the music and therefore of the performers; 
 they look to him, — he makes them what they are and fashions even 
 their bodies by the movements which he expects them to exhibit." 56 
 
 " But for the purposes of education, as I have already said, those 
 modes and melodies should be employed which are ethical, such as 
 the Dorian, though we may include any others which are approved by 
 philosophers who have had a musical education." 57 
 
 Sixth period — For the last period of education he makes only these 
 general suggestions : — 
 
 " When boyhood is over three years should be spent in other studies ; 
 the period of life which follows may then be devoted to hard exercise 
 and strict regimen. Men ought not to labor at the same time with their 
 minds and with their bodies; for the two kinds of labor are opposed 
 to one another ; the labor of the body impedes the mind, and the labor 
 of the mind the body." 58 
 
 It is to be greatly regretted that he has not given more on this period. 
 We may assume that he refers here to the adolescent life from 12 to 
 21, but this is merely a plausible conjecture. Again we may reasonably 
 assume that the studies are the typical ones that Greece assigned to 
 this period, — science, perhaps advanced work in literature (though 
 both Plato and Aristotle are very strict in defining the limits of litera- 
 ture), and dialectics. But how much science, whether the double 
 course of the Republic or the more elementary course of the Laws, 
 we are not told. We may believe, however, as the end of education 
 lay in the contemplation of pure reason, in " theoria," and in culture 
 rather than practical life, that he inclined more to the idea of the Re- 
 public than to that of the Laws. 
 
 End in view. — It is certainly interesting to find him making a special 
 feature of adolescence and prescribing for it a special regimen. His dis- 
 ss Do, VIII, 5 : 14-16. See also VIII, 6 : 8. 
 56 Do, VIII, 6:15-16. 
 "Do, VIII, 7:8. 
 68 Do, VIII, 4:9. 
 
98 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 tribution of intellectual work and physical training is also significant. 69 
 But while his view seems sound, considering his premises, we should 
 substitute for his plan here a pedagogical combination of the mental 
 and physical. 
 
 The individual and the state. — In Aristotle's state the individual is 
 still the center. His scheme thus bears the stamp of the period. But 
 his educational plan, which is more systematic, more purposeful, and 
 far better organized than those of his day, would relieve the danger 
 of individualism. He provides for developing physical and psychical 
 powers so as to make a balanced individual, a man of poise, able to 
 live by reason. Hence the state would never be distraught by the 
 unleashing of undisciplined forces in his educated circle. In this way 
 his scheme was a corrective. It would have been a larger one, if he had 
 enlarged the scope of its application. Outside the narrow world for 
 which he planned this education dangers still stalked in all their native 
 power. 
 
 To sum up in the form of a scheme the educational details of the 
 Politics we have the following outline : — 
 
 Education of a moiety of the male population. No provision for 
 women. 
 
 State Education. 
 
 Aims : — Development of the whole man for culture and for civic life. 
 
 Body training before mental training, 
 ist period- prenatal period- best conditions for procreation. 
 2nd period - infancy - careful diet; exercise; allow to cry. 
 3rd period,- to 5 -suitable exercise; no demand for study or labor; 
 
 special care to have wholesome environment. Sports preparatory 
 
 for life. 
 4th period,- 5 to 7,- they are to look on pursuits they are hereafter 
 
 to learn. 
 5th period- 7 to puberty- study : - reading, writing, music, drawing, 
 
 gymnastics (not severe). Athletics discountenanced. Studies 
 
 " liberal," as opposed to " illiberal." 
 6th period,- puberty to 21,-1. "other studies," perhaps the basis of 
 
 the later trivium and quadrivium; 2. severer physical training. 
 
 59 Do., VIII, 4:9; 5:4. 
 
VII 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN ROME — EARLY PERIOD 
 
 Differences in race between Romans and Greeks. — A psy- 
 chological analysis of the Greeks and Romans reveals striking 
 differences between them. Characteristics differ not merely 
 in proportion, but in kind. The once reputed oneness of race 
 breaks down even at a cursory glance. Some of the contrasts 
 between the two peoples are brought out by the following com- 
 parison in which various characteristics are summarized. 
 
 Contrasts in Greek and Roman Characters. 1 
 
 Greeks 2 Romans 
 i. Sophrosyne (temperantia). i. Virtus (fortitude, etc.). 
 
 Arete (virtus), "courage, Prudentia. Justitia. Tem- 
 
 love of country" (spontan- perantia. Constantia. Hon- 
 
 eous but not deep). Eu- estas. Gravitas. Prosaic 
 
 kosima (grace, esthetic ex- and practical ideas, 
 
 pression in all lines). Energy, governing power, in- 
 
 Proportion, harmonious de- tense personality, conscious 
 
 velopment of physical and worth ; stronger elements of 
 
 mental elements. character prominent. 
 2. " Innate love of freedom and 2. Bound up intensely in social 
 
 independence" (free per- unit and its expansion, the 
 
 sonality). Self assertion. state. Free and intense 
 
 Development for individual, public life. " Respect for 
 
 primary, for state, secon- authority and established in- 
 
 dary. stitutions." 
 
 1 Compiled from different studies of the Greeks and Romans. Forti- 
 fied from original sources and classical history. It is unnecessary, 
 even impracticable, to give detailed references. Those familiar with 
 the studies and authors will easily trace. 
 
 These are general characteristics that became conspicuous as the two 
 peoples developed. 
 
 It will be interesting here to refer to Chapter I which gives some hints 
 as to the origin of the differences between the two peoples. 
 
 2 See chapter IV, page 50. Repeated here to facilitate contrast. 
 
 99 
 
100 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Individuality through the 
 state and in the state. Au- 
 thority of state from the in- 
 dividual. 
 
 3. Versatility. Many-sided ac- 
 
 tivity. 
 
 4. Power to generalize, idealize, 
 
 universalize, and power to 
 make ideals concrete and 
 objective. " Kept going out 
 from simple life and ideas 
 of truth and proportion to a 
 larger life, and thus height- 
 ened capacity and power." 
 
 Intense intellectuality and 
 fearlessness in taking up 
 and prosecuting to the end 
 any subject or investigation 
 regardless of issues. " Love 
 of knowledge for its own 
 sake, unfettered by form, 
 religion, or caste." 
 
 " Creative imagination gave 
 form to narrow realities of 
 life." 
 
 5. Religion not abstract. Gods 
 
 idealized human personali- 
 ties (friendly). "Nature 
 and life full of deity." 
 
 A joyful religion of freedom 
 and spontaneity. 
 
 " Religious concepts, both the 
 highest and simplest, open 
 to all," not limited as in 
 Orient. 
 
 Greeks saw bright and cheer- 
 ful side. Moulded all in es- 
 thetic lines. 
 
 6. " Virtuous life a beautiful and 
 
 happy one," in harmony 
 with self and external rela- 
 tions." 
 No " deep religious sense or 
 reverence. No high con- 
 ception of abstract duty." 
 No strong and steady devo- 
 tion to principle. No genius 
 
 State existed in and through 
 the individual. 
 
 3. Stability, persistence. Rath- 
 
 er narrow interests. 
 
 4. A strong tendency to the ab- 
 
 stract and formal (devoted 
 to set forms). "Disin- 
 clination to speculation and 
 esthetics," but power to de- 
 velop a certain strength in 
 these directions. 
 
 Pure intellectuality did not 
 appeal strongly. 
 
 Lack of imagination. Ro- 
 mans occupied with things 
 as they were and their re- 
 lations. 
 
 5. Religion abstract, formal, un- 
 imaginative, awe-ful, seri- 
 ious. Gods not " idealized 
 personalities." 
 Romans saw a deep spiritual 
 side to everything. 
 
 6. Strong moral nature. " Love 
 for directness and truth." 
 Felt obligation to law, duty, 
 justice. Genius for order 
 and system. 
 But Romans were utilitarian, 
 practical, cold, calculating, 
 unsympathetic, formal. 
 
ROME — EARLY PERIOD 
 
 IOI 
 
 for order and system. Gen- 
 ius took other directions. 
 
 Greeks " subtle and genial." 
 Not conspicuous for solid- 
 ity. Not highly developed 
 in truthfulness. 
 
 Showed broad and varied hu- 
 man sympathy. 
 
 7. No strong family life. 7. "Real family life," strong, 
 
 Woman subordinate and in- compact. Elements mu- 
 
 ferior. tually helpful and regardful. 
 
 Woman an important and 
 influential factor, a com- 
 manding figure, coordinate, 
 not subordinate. 
 
 8. " Education instinctive pro- 8. Education natural. Devoted 
 
 duct of life and people ; to practical ends, 
 
 spontaneous." Also out- Careful attention to secure 
 
 growth of theory and dis- results for self, friends, 
 
 cussion. state. 
 
 At its foundation, a realiza- Order and system prominent, 
 
 tion of capacity. 
 
 Central idea to produce a bal- 
 ance in the factors of life. 
 
 " Unity. Comprehensiveness. 
 
 Proportion. Aimfulness." 
 
 Little system or organization. 
 
 Most prominent characteristics of Romans. — The most 
 striking characteristic of the Romans evidently was their genius 
 for organization, their predilection for system and for work- 
 ing out formal details. It is not necessary to prove it, for it 
 has been recognized by the world through all the centuries 
 since Rome was an active power. To attempt to explain it 
 at length would be interesting, but it would be beyond our main 
 purpose here. We accept it as a fact and must expect it to 
 give character to Roman education. We may say that sterility 
 of soil, a location not specially conducive to commerce, but 
 strategic for military purposes, and the happy union of tribes 
 and warring elements in her early history made Rome a mili- 
 tary nation and directed her naturally to empire building not 
 only for her own safety, but as an outlet for her strong quali- 
 ties. 3 Empire building requires and develops practical organ- 
 
 3 See Ihne's Rome, 1-2. 
 
102 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 izing power. But this is only a surface explanation. The 
 quality was in the basal race before it reached Rome; it was 
 not merely a result of circumstances after that event. 4 With 
 such contrast in character between the Greeks and the Romans 
 we should expect to find striking contrasts in their schemes of 
 education. Such contrasts there were. Especially should we 
 expect to find Roman education well organized. 
 
 Two epochs in education.— Roman education is naturally 
 divided into two epochs, i, that in which old Roman ideas 
 ruled exclusively, or practically so; 2, that in which foreign 
 influence profoundly modified Roman thought and aims. The 
 first extended, roughly, to the Punic Wars, or to about 250 
 B. C. The second reached onward from this time to the early 
 Christian centuries. The dividing point was the period when 
 Rome began that intimate contact with Magna Graecia and 
 mother Greece that meant eventually the fall of Greece and a 
 fusion of Greek and Roman ideals into a culture that was to 
 be the dominant influence in the West. Though in fixing this 
 dividing line the characteristics of the two epochs overlap 
 somewhat, it is the most logical bound. The two periods are 
 so distinct that they are easily discriminated. 
 
 For the sake of comparison and to get a more appreciative 
 idea of secondary education we find ourselves here, as in Greek 
 education, urged to give brief attention to elementary educa- 
 tion before touching the secondary period. 
 
 Elementary education. — The educational aim in the early 
 period of Roman education just referred to was to develop a 
 hardy, practical youth, capable of maintaining family tradi- 
 tions and the state. The state was undoubtedly supreme, but 
 we can perhaps discern a greater tendency to individual initia- 
 tive than in Athens. At least there was family initiative. 
 Perhaps if we could compare the two cities at exactly the same 
 dates their predominant units would be found the same. 
 
 Practical nature of studies and educational material. — 
 
 4 The characteristics in question were found in Dravidians and a 
 Dravidian amalgamation, known as the Kushika race, that spread west- 
 ward and left its influence in Italy. There is a Semitic element in 
 Roman thought. Rome was distinct from Athens in the elements of 
 her population. She was more comparable to Sparta in this respect. 
 See Hewitt, Ruling Races, I: XIV-XVI, LXI, 296 ft. 
 
ROME — EARLY PERIOD 103 
 
 From what has been said we should expect that the training 
 employed to carry out this Roman ideal would be very prac- 
 tical. From the nature of the case, reading, writing and num- 
 ber, from the point of view of utility, would be jelatively more 
 prominent in Rome than in Athens. In reading the Romans 
 at first used material very different from that found in early 
 Athenian education, but material entirely in keeping with the 
 Roman type of mind. It consisted of the XII Tables that 
 must be learned by heart. 5 It was not long however before a 
 Latin Homer came in to claim a share of the children's atten- 
 tion, and eventually indigenous Latin literature furnished read- 
 ing matter. 6 In these standard subjects the standard meth- 
 ods described in Chapter V were used. 7 We should expect 
 this, even the primeval rote learning, which we found still 
 lingering there. Such methods easily adapt themselves to 
 unpedagogical times. 
 
 Moral training. — But the Romans made more of moral 
 training than of that which has just been noted. This would 
 be expected of a practical people. Their method here was the 
 best that has ever been devised for perpetuating national 
 ideals, — training through imitation and careful guidance and 
 surveillance. 8 Their models were those of their environment 
 and those cherished in their folk-lore and were well calculated 
 to appeal to young minds. If an over-dose of precept is found, 
 we certainly find with it elements of method well adapted to 
 young and growing citizens. As in later times, moral senti- 
 ments probably met the boy also in his writing copies. 9 
 
 Discipline and incentives. — Discipline must always be 
 considered a part of method, even of that which applies to 
 ordinary studies like reading and writing. All testimony goes 
 
 5 Horace, Ars Poet, 322 ft.; Monroe, op. cit., 399 (see also 333~4) I 
 Pliny, Epist, VIII, 14. 
 
 " Discebamus enim pueri duodecim, ut carmen necessarium, quas jam 
 nemo discit," Cicero, Leg., II, 23 (Becker's Gallus). 
 
 6 " Meam (orationem) in ilium pueri omnes tamquam dictata perdis- 
 cant," Cicero, Q. R, III, 1:4; Monroe, op. cit., 398. 
 
 7 Becker's Gallus, 189; Pliny, Epist, VIII, 14; Conf. Tacitus, Or.; 
 Monroe, op. cit., 362, 398. 
 
 8 Juvenal, Sat, XIV; Monroe, op. cit., 319 f. (see also 401). 
 
 9 Horace, Sat., I, 4; Pliny Epist, III, 3; Juvenal, Sat, XIV; Tacitus, 
 Or.; Monroe, op. cit., 362-3, 396, 411, 420. 
 
104 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 to show that discipline was harsh in Rome. 1 * Learning was 
 not an easy nor a honeyed task. Plautus (Bac. Ill, 13) says, 
 " And then when you were reading your book, if you made a 
 mistake in a single syllable, your skin would be made as spotted 
 as your nurse's gown." On the other hand, it is quite prob- 
 able that emulation and the stimulus of prizes had their appli- 
 cation in this early education. 11 They would not be discord- 
 ant with early Roman ideas. What we find in later times in 
 this direction is perhaps a developed custom, not a new 
 discovery. 
 
 Home education. — In early Rome instruction was fre- 
 quently, if not generally, carried on in the home, which was a 
 strong one. It was much stronger than the Athenian home, 
 because the mother had a more substantial position and was 
 an influential factor in her children's education. 12 Two 
 strong teachers made the home an impressive school. Another 
 indication of the changed position of woman, which is appro- 
 priately mentioned here, is the fact that this education of the 
 elementary period was shared by both sexes. 
 
 Ludi. — Schools for both sexes. — There were also from 
 an early date outside schools to which children could be 
 sent, 13 — simple affairs, but in accord with Roman ideas. We 
 have a record of them as early as the fourth century B. C, and 
 they seem then to be a regular institution, so that they probably 
 began at a much earlier date. Here too provision was made 
 for both sexes, and it is significant that school privileges were 
 extended to girls even beyond what is technically called pri- 
 mary education. 14 
 
 10 Horace, Sat, I, 3:117ft; Epist., II, 1:70; Arts Poet, 343; 
 
 11 See Clarke's Educ. of Children at Rome, and general reference 
 books. 
 
 12 Cicero, Brutus, 210; Monroe, op. cit., 362, 410-11; Pliny, op. cit., 
 Ill, 3; VIII, 14; Tac. Or., 28. 
 
 13 Martial, Epigs., IX, 8; Monroe, op. cit., 399-400. See Livy, III, 44, 
 "Virgini venienti in Forum (ibi namque in tabernis literarum ludi 
 erant) minister decemviri libidinis manura injecit," — quoted in Becker's 
 Gallus; Conf. Livy, V, 27 (do.). 
 
 14 Before Rome introduced her common sense way of looking at 
 things, girls were practically left out of account in educational schemes, 
 except in primitive tribes, and they played a minor part there. After 
 a few centuries, especially after the early and fresher centuries of 
 Christianity had passed, education again dropped them from its rolls, 
 to a large extent, and became one-sided once more. 
 
ROME — EARLY PERIOD 105 
 
 Physical training. — But we must not forget physical 
 training. The hardy Roman character would make this one of 
 the most natural parts of education. Mention of this has been 
 reserved for this place, because it was not a part of the school, 
 technically regarded, as in Greece. It was of a simple nature, 
 and the appliances were also simple, much simpler and more 
 practical than in Athens. There seems to have been no formal 
 plan such as that found in the palaestra. Spontaneous games 
 and exercises and the father's and mother's guidance and 
 teaching were probably sufficient. There was no attempt at 
 the esthetics of physical training. Health and power were the 
 ends. 
 
 Education from environment and folk-lore. — Aside from 
 this training in the three lines indicated there was always that 
 spontaneous education coming from impressive Roman life and 
 environment, as well as that coming from the folk-lore of the 
 people, which, though differing in quality and perhaps in 
 amount from the body of folk-lore in Greece, yet formed a 
 substantial body of educational material that became a posses- 
 sion of the trained Roman. 
 
 Results. — The elementary years gave the child posses- 
 sion of simple forms and the means for practical communica- 
 tion with his fellows, — all that was necessary for the early 
 Roman state. As there was little literature, — nothing beyond 
 the Laws and some indigenous forms of literature of a rudi- 
 mentary type, — little was needed in the way of linguistics. 
 Elementary training in reading and writing for practical pur- 
 poses of business or simple records (inscriptions, etc.), and 
 enough arithmetic for simple operations, with such proficiency 
 as came from imitation and practice in common life, were 
 enough. A study of science in these early times was unneces- 
 sary. The Roman's practical sense gained through practical 
 observation gave all that was required. The principle of 
 apprenticeship would fulfil the demands in this direction. 
 
 Secondary education — initiation. — Formal training was 
 the work of primary education. Something different was pro- 
 vided for the adolescent. It is true that he probably took 
 pleasure in the old folk-lore, which appealed to him in new 
 ways, but his principal business was to master the institutions 
 
106 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 of his country and round out his training for military service. 
 In short, his was a special training in the most essential features 
 of citizenship attendant on, or supplementary to, his initiation 
 into the citizen body, the most significant ceremony in his life. 
 At the end of his fifteenth or sixteenth year, on a festal occasion 
 called the Liberalia, which occurred on March 16th, " the con- 
 clusion of boyhood was commemorated, as among the Greeks," 
 by special forms. The insignia pueritice and the bulla were 
 dedicated with a sacrifice to the Lares at the domestic hearth. 
 The toga prcetexta of boyhood was exchanged for the toga 
 inrilis (or pur a or libera) with a ceremony at the home and 
 a second one in the Forum. It was not till the toga virilis was 
 taken that the name (given on the ninth day after birth) was 
 confirmed, — another indication that full manhood was reached. 
 The occasion was also distinguished by a special tunic called 
 recta. After the home ceremonies the boy was escorted to the 
 Forum, the center of the Roman state and of Roman politics. 
 The company then proceeded to the Capitol to offer sacri- 
 fice. 15 
 
 Year of probation, and final stage of education.— Now 
 began the boy's tirocinium or novitiate, the introductory stage 
 of his public life. 16 " There was a year of transition or proba- 
 tion during which the behavior of the adolescent was care- 
 fully noted." In ancient times at least, the cohibere 
 brachium and exercises in the Campus Martius were pre- 
 scribed for him, 17 and to this we must add, it would seem, more 
 extended physical exercise or drill, on this same field, that 
 was naturally attractive to the adolescent. 
 
 Following a model. — But the youth must have more than 
 physical training; there was a life in the city as well as a 
 life in the field. During the introductory period he " fre- 
 quented the tribunals in the Forum ; . . . He was often under 
 the guidance and direction of some striking personality, selected 
 by his father, to whom he attached himself," following, ob- 
 serving, imitating. Under these conditions he gained a very 
 
 15 See Appian, B. C, IV : 20. 
 
 16 " Cotta eo ipso die quo togam sumpsit virilem protenus ut e Capi- 
 tolio descendit C. Carbonem, a quo pater eius damnatus fuerat, postu- 
 lavit." — Val. Max., V, 4:4; Suetonius, Claud., 2. 
 
 17 Cicero, Cael., 5. 
 
ROME — EARLY PERIOD 107 
 
 practical acquaintance with the vital elements of public life. 18 
 In very early times the ceremonies were perhaps of a simpler 
 character and the father was probably oftener himself the at- 
 tendant and director in public life. One cannot help admiring 
 this personal solicitude for the pupil and the careful indi- 
 vidual work done for him. The contrast with " mass " work 
 is striking. 19 
 
 Results. — Considering Roman intensity and self-con- 
 sciousness it must be confessed that the boy, on entering pub- 
 lic life at eighteen or nineteen, had a pretty definite training 
 fitting him for Roman citizenship, and that it was attained by a 
 method that appealed to the adolescent. There was little for- 
 mal discipline, but there was much concrete training touching 
 the intellectual, ethical, and physical sides of life. Suggestive 
 ideals were impressed through models from Roman history, 
 past and current, that were persistently held before the view, 
 thus enforcing character and guiding to political efficiency. At 
 the same time it should be noted that this represents the fully 
 developed education of the early period. Back of it was, of 
 course, the still simpler education typified by the schemes in 
 Chapters I and II. 
 
 Summary. — A summary in graphic form, as in previous 
 chapters, will enable us to bring the facts together and to make 
 some comparisons. 
 
 18 " The youth who was intended for public declamation was in- 
 troduced by his father or some near relation, with all the advantage 
 of home discipline and a mind furnished with useful knowledge, to 
 the most eminent orator of the time, whom henceforth he attended on 
 all occasions. He listened with attention to his patron's pleadings in 
 the tribunals of justice and his public harangues before the people. 
 He heard him in the warmth of argument, he noted his sudden re- 
 plies, and thus on the field of battle, if I may so express myself, he 
 learned the first rudiments of rhetorical warfare." See Tacitus, Or. ; 
 Monroe, op. cit., 368; Becker's Gallus, 198. See also Quintilian. 
 
 The quotation perhaps contains some late details, but it illustrates 
 the general practice. The references generally are from late authors, 
 but the customs referred to were, in their fundamental ideas, un- 
 questionably old. 
 
 19 In addition to other sources the standard Classical Dictionaries 
 have been used. They furnish various primary references. 
 
io8 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Aim. — To train in a practical way a true Roman member of the 
 family and the state (civic and military). — A strong, moral, pa- 
 triotic, and (under the limitations of state supremacy) independent 
 man. 
 
 Curriculum and Method. 
 
 Elementary (Girls and Boys) 
 
 Language : — ( i ) Familiarity 
 with folk-lore. (2) Reading 
 (practical not esthetic). Ma- 
 terial : — songs, hymns, hero- 
 tales, XII Tables, 20 rudimen- 
 tary Latin literature. (3) 
 Writing. 
 
 Number, — simple calculation. 
 
 Mastery of form, spirit and spe- 
 cial characteristics of com- 
 munity life. 
 
 Games. 
 
 All education profoundly re- 
 ligious. 
 
 Early course advocated by Cato 
 (a typical Roman) : reading, 
 writing, Roman law, physical 
 exercises (walking, riding, 
 swimming, boxing) . 
 
 Method : — Companionship, ob- 
 servation, observance (imita- 
 tion and practice). 
 
 Formal studies : — Reading, — 
 synthetic method; (1) name 
 and order of letters; (2) form 
 and use. Attention to expres- 
 sion. Memory work. 
 
 Writing synthetic plan, — imita- 
 tion, tracing, etc. 
 
 Morals, — precept, suggestion 
 through literature, etc., emu- 
 lation. 
 
 Education domestic. Mother 
 prominent. 
 
 20 These laws are found in Wordsworth's " Fragments and Speci- 
 mens of Early Latin." Oxford, 1874, and (in part) in Allen's " Rem- 
 nants of Early Latin," Boston, 1880, and (in translation) in Monroe's 
 " Source-Book." 
 
 They show advanced political and social organization, but a rather 
 simple industrial development. Ideas of justice are high. 
 
 Secondary 
 Boy assumes toga virilis at 16 
 with special ceremonies (re- 
 ligious, etc.). Is enrolled. 
 Training in public and private 
 life. Continues learning of 
 rudimentary literature, etc. 
 (See elementary course.) 
 
 Chants national songs. 
 
 Gymnastic exercises in C. M. 
 for military purposes. — Prac- 
 tical end, as opposed to the 
 larger idea of Greeks, who in- 
 cluded an esthetic purpose. 
 
 Method : — Companionship of 
 father in Forum, streets, etc. 
 
 In later times was added com- 
 panionship of model man 
 chosen by father. 
 
 Observation and practice. 
 
 Carriage watched, 
 
ROME — EARLY PERIOD 109 
 
 One section deals with the patria potestas, showing the extensive 
 power of the father. The son could not be free from the father till 
 three sales and emancipations had been consummated. Family organ- 
 ization was excessively strong. 
 
 " Three successive sales of the son by the father release the former 
 from the patria potestas." Tab. IV. 
 
 One passage deals with wrongs inflicted by a tutor on his pupillus. 
 Two passages place those above and those below puberty on a different 
 footing. 
 
 He who during the night furtively either cuts or depastures his neigh- 
 bor's crops, if of the age of puberty, shall be devoted to Ceres and put 
 to death ; if under that age, he shall be scourged at the discretion of 
 the magistrate and condemned in penalty of double the damage done. 
 Tab. VIII. 
 
 A thief taken in the act, if a freeman, shall be scourged and made 
 over by addictio to the person robbed, but those under the age of 
 puberty shall, at the discretion of the magistrate, be scourged and con- 
 demned to repair the damage. Tab. VIII. 
 
VIII 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN ROME — LATER PERIOD 
 
 Changes in the later period.^— In the second period of 
 Roman education Rome underwent changes similar to those 
 we have traced in Greece, similar, but not the same, for there 
 was a difference in stock and in circumstances. 
 
 Rome came into ever-widening contact with other peoples 
 and conditions. It was not the contact of a cosmopolitan 
 people nor of a great commercial people with reciprocal influ- 
 ences, cultural and practical, but first of all a contact of domi- 
 nation and Romanization. Every new state Rome touched — 
 and touching was to gain — she at once organized as a part of 
 her great imperial system that was developed long before the 
 Empire came. She at once started the machinery for govern- 
 ing and assimilating. Hence the effect was more political than 
 cultural. Yet the cultural was bound to be an element in the 
 new acquisitions, for the larger part of the territory into which 
 Rome penetrated in her early expansion was charged with it. 
 However slight an impression it made at first on the new mili- 
 tary power in the West, the spirit of culture is always tenacious 
 of life and is sure to grow even on inhospitable soil. But 
 Roman soil was far from being inhospitable. On the contrary 
 it was distinctly favorable, though it would never produce the 
 same quality of culture as Greece. This, however, was neither 
 necessary nor desirable. 
 
 Thus Roman ideas were broadening generally, in cultural as 
 well as in political and practical lines. Mere living in the 
 midst of such a thoroughly organized system, involving widely 
 separated and divergent peoples and states welded by master- 
 ful Roman ideas, gave a broader education. Much more did 
 it require a broader and more technical education to partici- 
 pate in it. 
 
 As far as education was concerned the greatest influence in 
 this world-wide contact came from Greece, first from Italian 
 
 no 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD in 
 
 Greece, which was early incorporated with Rome, then, intensi- 
 fied and enlarged, from Old Greece itself. Hence came lit- 
 erary ideals and culture ideas that were at first reluctantly, 1 
 and then eagerly, absorbed. 
 
 Changes therefore came from the growth and expansion of 
 Rome and from the stimulus of other culture nations. But 
 it should be remembered that greater and more vital changes 
 came from the natural development of indigenous Roman 
 qualities such as we have referred to more than once. From 
 the combined influences at home and abroad came the follow- 
 ing significant results that should be noticed, if we are to 
 understand the changes in education now taking place: — 
 
 1. Democracy. — There was a notable growth in Roman 
 democracy with its intricate system of assemblies, giving play 
 to the political energies of all the people. This growth fol- 
 lowed the exigencies of the moment rather than any logically 
 arranged plan, just as the English constitution has grown. 
 Every movement therefore was an educational episode. Be- 
 yond this was the organization of the provincial government, 
 which was systematic and logical, made by trained minds, and 
 occupying them in its execution. 
 
 2. System of law. — In connection with local and provin- 
 cial government Rome had developed a system of law, with 
 its machinery, that made a model for the world. It was with- 
 out precedent, a genuine Roman product, a natural outgrowth 
 of her organizing power. Trained minds made it. It 
 required trained minds to man it. 
 
 3. Language and literature. — There was a wonderful 
 growth of language and literature. First, indigenous Roman 
 literature made considerable progress before more finished 
 Greek models supplanted it. The latter, however, quickly gave 
 a form and spirit that native genius alone would probably 
 never have given, because the Roman bent was not that way. 
 A wealth of literature was thus quickly at command. It was 
 a great educational force and at the same time served as a con- 
 spicuous aim in education. Some of it was borrowed out- 
 right, some of it was produced through imitation, an imitation 
 however into which Roman genius and personality were 
 
 1 See page 116. 
 
ii2 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 injected. A nation may advance more, and more quickly 
 secure rich educational material, through such imitation than 
 through unaided effort, if it is fortunate in its models, and 
 Rome was fortunate. 
 
 4. Practical arts. — Great strides were made in practical 
 arts and the sciences on which they were founded. Rome's 
 public works still excite admiration. Such accomplishments 
 would give greater emphasis to practical studies than was 
 found in Greece. 
 
 5. Roman art had a marked development. Though she 
 added some conspicuous features to architecture, her art was 
 generally copy. But it was good copy from good teachers and 
 afforded still further culture material. 
 
 6. Individual development. — With it all, the period de- 
 veloped an individualism comparable with that of Greece, but 
 somewhat more stable, because not unanchored. The state 
 was a stronger influence in Rome than in Greece. Men could 
 not so easily set it aside. But Roman individualism was nar- 
 rower than the Grecian; the latter was both intellectual and 
 utilitarian, with emphasis on the intellectual; the other was 
 primarily practical. In each case it gave more freedom in 
 education and accelerated progress. 
 
 We may divide the most characteristic changes into two 
 groups, 1, changes in Roman thought, feelings, and activities, 
 due to Greek influence ; 2, changes due to the natural expansion 
 and growth of Rome herself and all that Rome stood for. 
 There was something distinctly Roman, a kind of Roman 
 genius, that remained and gave character to everything. 
 Nowhere is this more evident than in education. 
 
 Comparison of early and late conditions in Rome. — The 
 main changes in the second period of Roman education as com- 
 pared with the first may be seen graphically and a little more in 
 detail by reference to the following table of comparisons as to 
 civic and social ideas in the two periods into which we have 
 divided Roman history for our present purpose. 
 
 Early Period Late Period 
 
 1. State, small, compact, — at 1. Rome imperial in size and 
 most confined to Italy. power, though not in gov- 
 
 ernment till the end of the pe- 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD 
 
 113 
 
 2. Attention engrossed by class 
 contests within, settlement 
 of the scheme of govern- 
 ment, contests with sur- 
 rounding peoples. Objects 
 of effort therefore were in- 
 ternal life and Italian su- 
 premacy, not culture. Ed- 
 ucation simple, practical. 
 
 3. Thought simple, direct, mat- 
 ter-of-fact. 
 
 4. Art simple, practical; reli- 
 gious architecture, city 
 walls, etc. 
 
 5. Language and literature un- 
 
 developed ; folk-lore, — f ab- 
 ulse Atellanse, mimus, sat- 
 urse. Only rudiments of 
 literature, but indigenous. 
 Of rude scenic nature for 
 most part. 
 
 6. Individual devoted to state. 
 
 This is the fundamental idea 
 of life. Intense civic life. 
 
 7. Ideal. — Preparation for state 
 
 service. 
 
 riod. Relations more com- 
 plex. Wider contact with 
 other civilizations (Greek). 
 
 2. New interests and new ideas 
 
 come to view. 
 
 Old Roman character (see 
 above) so strongly rooted 
 that new culture forces its 
 way slowly and takes on a 
 distinctly Roman type. 
 Colored by Roman traits. 
 
 Civilization wider, more com- 
 plex. Education practical. 
 Broader, more complex 
 than before. 
 
 3. Thought simple and direct, 
 
 but operates in a wider field. 
 Concerned with wider 
 knowledge. Greek civiliza- 
 tion influences. 
 
 4. Art has grown under Greek 
 
 stimulus and in part through 
 Greek artists. Period of 
 civic and private esthetics. 
 Real Roman art practical, 
 substantial, dignified. 
 
 5. Language developed for lit- 
 
 erary purposes. A new lit- 
 erature ; translations, imi- 
 tations, original productions 
 grow rapidly. Some genu- 
 ine esthetic feeling in litera- 
 ture. 
 
 6. Individual devoted to state, 
 
 but less strenuously in later 
 years. 
 
 7. Ideal. — The orator. 
 
 A Roman ideal. — Under these conditions the ruling ideal 
 is not far to seek. More than in Greece the power of words 
 was the key to influence and preferment. From the time of 
 the irrepressible conflict, when the Plebs burst into the old 
 exclusive organization of the Patricians, 2 skill in debate became 
 increasingly prominent and increasingly exacting. The hust- 
 
 2 De Coulanges, op. cxt., 252, 258, 307, 360. 
 
H4 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 ings, advocacy of measures in the various assemblies, the 
 lawyer's profession, success in provincial government, all 
 suggested and demanded it. 3 Rome was full of action and 
 expression. The quiet ideals of the scholar were not for her. 
 Romans became statesmen of a practical type, and became as 
 naturally orators. Public speaking as a leading object of 
 effort was emphasized by the very concentration of Rome's 
 interests. Thought would be focused on this object more 
 fully in a purely martial and political republic than in a many- 
 sided democracy that supplied more means of influence. 
 
 Requirements for meeting the new aim. — However it may 
 be explained, men's thoughts fastened on the orator as an ideal, 
 beyond anything seen before. As in Greece, so in Rome, the 
 scope of his position grew to be so large and the needed equip- 
 ment so broad and detailed that an elaborate and thorough 
 course of training was required, — for the technique of his 
 profession to give his speech form, for general culture and 
 information to give it substance, and for mental training to 
 give it effect. So the orator in his studies must cover the 
 whole range of human knowledge. The old natural training 
 of early Rome, all-sufficient then, was no longer enough. 
 Language power had become a fine art. It required a more 
 thorough training than in Greece, for public speaking had evi- 
 dently become a more exacting profession. It was likely to be 
 more thorough, because thoroughness was a native character- 
 istic of the Romans, while brilliance characterized the Greeks. 
 The calling of the lawyer emphasized qualifications similar to 
 those of the orator and thus required a similar course of train- 
 ing. In fact the two callings became identical in preparation. 
 
 Influence of the art of authorship. — With the growth in 
 language and literature, literary culture and the art of author- 
 ship also demanded an advance in training to meet the higher 
 requirements. The orator's education, from the very nature 
 of Rome's broad conception of her ideal, admirably met these 
 demands of literature, for it involved a very definite study of 
 literary ideals and broad and intense work in composition. 
 
 Need of a new school. — Everything points therefore to 
 the need of a new school, new studies, and new methods, to 
 
 3 Appendix 2 ; Cicero, Murena, 14 ; Tactitus, Or., 36, 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD 115 
 
 supply the rather formidable requirements of the times. A 
 well defined elementary school had been established in the 
 early epoch. In the period under review it was somewhat 
 modified by the new spirit that was strongly influencing educa- 
 tion. What was needed, both from the logic of growth and 
 from the demands of the " orator," was a well equipped sec- 
 ondary school. The secondary age was just the one to be 
 inspired by the orator-ideal and get a good grasp of it. 
 
 A model at hand. — Greece had already developed the 
 more detailed and technical curriculum needed to meet the 
 new conditions in Rome. It was found in her grammar and 
 rhetorical schools. 4 With other Greek contributions, wel- 
 comed and absorbed by the new Western culture, these schools 
 would naturally come to Rome. The Romans themselves had 
 the ability to invent the needed school under the pressing 
 stimulus of the times. But they had a model at hand that only 
 needed developing and adjusting to meet Roman thought and 
 conditions. Rome was able to give system and organization to 
 the training of the orator. It is hard to tell which is most 
 responsible for the new school, Greek models or Roman 
 character. 
 
 In thinking of this advance in school training we are attend- 
 ing merely to the practical demands of the situation. We 
 must not forget, however, that education has inherent power 
 of growth for its own sake, and that, with the general growth 
 of a people many push on in education without regard to the 
 practical. 
 
 Character of the secondary school. — From the emphasis 
 on language power the secondary school quite naturally was a 
 grammar school. Its name and curriculum were perpetuated 
 in the grammar school of the Middle Ages, and the name still 
 survives in the great Grammar Schools, or Public Schools, of 
 England. This school developed gradually from small begin- 
 nings in the third century B. C. to the fully organized gram- 
 mar school of the first century. 5 
 
 Beyond this school was the Rhetor School that was partly 
 
 4 See Chapter V. 
 
 5 Appendix 1 ; Becker, Galltis, 191-2. This was for boys only, though 
 the education of women had advocates even in those times. 
 
n6 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 secondary. The lines of separation between the two schools 
 were not always, if ever, hard and fast ones. There was fre- 
 quent overlapping, one school taking some of the matter and 
 functions of the other. 6 
 
 Opposition. — The new education, particularly the art of 
 rhetoric, naturally had its critics and opponents. The criticism 
 was often just, for the laxer morals and looser methods of the 
 schools, the apparently superficial work of the teachers of the 
 speaking art, and the shading of the old practical civic ideal 
 naturally excited strong prejudice in the sober, practical minds 
 of the Romans. Opposition went so far sometimes that it 
 resulted in state prohibition. But the new came in to meet a 
 definite need. While details may have been bad, its main pur- 
 pose was a logical and wholesome one. It quickly became 
 popular and secured permanent standing, 7 and at its best could 
 claim as much dignity and moral stamina as the older forms 
 and processes. The old civic ideal and the old morale had not 
 vanished. They still had influence enough to steady new 
 forms. 
 
 Core of the curriculum. — The core of the Grammar School 
 curriculum was linguistics, both Latin and Greek. 8 Rome was 
 the first nation to make a formal study of a foreign language 
 a conspicuous part of school life. Very early, not far from 
 the beginning of the fourth century, 9 a knowledge of Greek 
 was a convenience, if not a necessity. 
 
 Greek the leading language at first. — At first Greek was 
 probably studied privately by certain people; the grammar 
 school was not yet developed or was in its infancy. But by 
 
 6 Quintilian, Inst. Orat, II : i ; Suetonius, Lives of Gram. (Monroe 
 op. cit., 351-2.) 
 
 7 Quintilian, Inst. Orat., II, 1:1; Suetonius, op. cit., (Monroe, Source 
 Book, 352-3). 
 
 Ancient discipline in the broad sense had become demoralized. Boys 
 ruled. There was inattention on the part of those who pretended to 
 give instruction. "The mischief began at Rome, and has overrun all 
 Italy." See Tactitus, Or., 28, 31-2, 35 (Monroe, op. cit., 360 rr*.) ; 
 Plautus, Bac, III : 3. 
 
 For other criticism see Quintilian, op. cit., II: 10; Juvenal, Sat., VII, 
 XIV (Monroe, op. cit., 416 ff.). 
 
 8 Quintilian, op. cit., I. It was significantly called literatura, thus 
 showing something of its scope, Do., II, 1 : 4. 
 
 9 Laurie, op. cit., 344. 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD 117 
 
 the second century, or earlier, it was a commanding part of 
 the school program, coming in perhaps with Greek grammar- 
 ians. 10 At first Greek was the only language taught in the 
 grammar schools, 11 probably because the early grammatici, or 
 at least the best of them, were Greeks. Cicero (Brutus, 90) 
 says, 
 
 " I constantly declaimed in private with Marcus Piso, Quintus 
 Pompeius, or some other of my acquaintances, pretty often in 
 Latin, but much oftener in Greek, because the Greek furnishes a 
 greater variety of ornaments and an opportunity for imitating 
 and introducing them into Latin; and because the Greek masters, 
 who were by far the best, could not direct and improve us unless 
 we declaimed in that language." 
 
 But in time Latin came to take the precedence. In fact Latin 
 rapidly developed as a literary and oratorical language with 
 high possibilities. 
 
 Favorite authors. — The Latin authors most read at first 
 were those of the golden age, Vergil, Horace and Lucan; but 
 later, about the time of Quintilian's death, came a change that 
 brought into favor old masters of prose and verse, — Gracchus, 
 Nsevius, Plautus and others. 12 
 
 Studies. — The curriculum thus included first of all lan- 
 guage. It was studied intensively, and included orthography, 
 grammar (with little syntax), pronunciation, literary style and 
 content, artistic reading, declamation, composition, literature, 
 in many schools elementary rhetoric and delivery, 13 and even 
 music, which was thought to have special power to give quality 
 to oral and written language. The curriculum included also 
 geography and astronomy, which won favor both as informa- 
 tional and as practical subjects; geometry, which was taken 
 up for its disciplinary value and its utility in common life ; 14 
 arithmetic, of a practical nature; and history. Of these sub- 
 
 10 Do., 359; Quintilian, op. cit., I. 
 
 11 Harper's Die. of Clas. Antiq., sub. voc, education. 
 
 12 Smith's Die. of Greek and Roman Antiq, sub voc., Ludus Literarius. 
 
 13 Quintilian, op. cit., I, 4-1 1, (study of literature, I, 8; composition 
 I, 9; Rhetoric, II, 1). 
 
 14 " In summo apud eos honore geometria f uit ; itaque nihil mathe- 
 maticis inlustrius. At nos metiendi, ratiocinandi utilitate huius artis 
 terminavumus modum," — Cicero, Tusc, I, 2, 5. 
 
n8 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 jects astronomy, geography, and history 15 seem to have been 
 correlated subjects, being taken up in connection with lan- 
 guage study. The language subjects were thus the ones that 
 were developed with the greatest care and system. Other 
 subjects were subordinate and often of a very elementary 
 character. Science, including geography, was probably quite 
 primitive, though the latter subject with its appliances would 
 doubtless compare favorably with its counterpart in compara- 
 tively modern curricula. It should be noted also that the 
 Roman attitude toward subjects was in strong contrast with 
 the typical attitude of the Greeks who had more of the ideal in 
 their dealings with them. 16 
 
 Physical training. — But there was another side to the 
 curriculum, — physical training, which, though relatively more 
 important in early Rome, held an important place in the adoles- 
 cent's training at this time. It was even regarded as a useful 
 and necessary part of the orator's training. Physical form 
 and grace of manner and carriage had their force in com- 
 mending him to hearers. 17 Beauty was a means, not an end 
 as in Greece. Hence we now find schools of exercise in addi- 
 tion to the regular Campus Martius exercises referred to 
 before, and they seem to have something of the Greek idea 
 in their conduct. 17 
 
 Moral training. — Ethical training continued to receive at- 
 tention. Roman educators, true to the old Roman feeling, 
 still made the subject one of absorbing interest in the cur- 
 riculum. But the evidence tends to show that the old Roman 
 ideal had been weakened here as in other matters. 18 Such 
 schoolmasters as Quintilian, however, more than revived the 
 older thought, — they revived and systematized it, so that 
 moral values were constantly considered in making out the 
 pupil's course of training. 19 
 
 15 History occupied a larger and more important place than the 
 others. 
 
 16 Laurie, op. cit., 357 ff. ; Quintilian, op. cit., passim; Cicero, Brutus, 
 
 9i, 93. 
 
 17 " Nobis quidem olim annus erat ad cohibendum brachium toga con- 
 stitutes et ut exercitatione ludoque campestri tunicati uteretur," Cicero, 
 Cael., 5. 
 
 18 Plautus, Bac. Ill, 3; Tacitus, Or. 28, (Monroe, op. cit., 360 ff.). 
 19 Quintilian, op. cit., I: 11. 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD 119 
 
 Teachers. — The designations of teachers who were in 
 charge of Roman schools were significant, — grammatici and 
 rhetores. In Greece both would have come under the general 
 class of sophists. Rhetores were termed sophists at Rome. 
 Teachers came to be held in high honor, for the practical 
 Roman ideal of the period gave them a place that few teachers 
 have occupied. They were in reality the center of the Roman 
 political development. Quintilian's finest passages lay great 
 stress on the fundamental duty of choosing teachers with great 
 discrimination, especially for early work. 20 
 
 Method in language elaborate. — The typical method 
 was a formal one as far as language proper was concerned. 
 It included dictation exercises, 21 reproduction, grammatical 
 drill, paraphrasing, translation, 22 a critical study of the lan- 
 guage and literary qualities of poets, the exegesis of the poets, 
 and memory work. But, in general, mastery of rules, imita- 
 tion, including a careful study of literary models, and abundant 
 practice were the characteristic features of method. Clarke 23 
 describes a combination reading, language and literature lesson 
 as follows : 24 
 
 Language and literature. — " Before the pupil read his lesson 
 the teacher probably first read it over for him (praelegere), in 
 order to show him how he wished it to be done. Then he made 
 the sense of the passage clear, knowing that the first requisite 
 of good reading is a thorough understanding. Difficult words 
 and historical and mythological allusions were explained, and 
 attention was called to poetical licenses, foreign words, figures 
 of speech, unusual turns of expression, and the varying senses of 
 the words according to their context. Occasion was taken to 
 impress on the pupil's mind the importance of orderly arrange- 
 ment, and of the suitable treatment of different subjects and 
 characters, to point out beauties of sentiment and diction, and to 
 explain how in one place diffuseness, in another brevity, is de- 
 sirable. To insure his perfect understanding of a passage the 
 
 20 Quintilian, op. cit., 1 : 1 ; II : 2-3. 
 
 21 Cicero, Q. F., Ill, 1:4; Horace, Epist. II, 1:69 ft*. ; Laurie, op. cit., 
 368 ff. These dictation exercises^ were useful also in performing part 
 of the function of text books in the early days, when books were 
 scarce. 
 
 22 Pliny, Epist. VII, 9 ; Monroe, op. cit., 413 ff. 
 
 23 Clarke, op. cit., 112 ff. 
 
 24 Cicero, Brutus, 89, 91; Appendix to Chap. IX; see also reference 
 22, 
 
120 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 pupil was required to give a prose paraphrase of it, and to ex- 
 plain the metrical construction. Moral lessons were drawn from 
 the words of the poet, and it was explained how the poet's fancy 
 might make use of fictitious situations and characters to present 
 valuable truths." 25 
 
 " Thus the reading lessons from the poets were made the means 
 of instruction in many different subjects — practical ethics, gram- 
 mar, composition, elocution, geography, mythology, and history." 
 
 It is to be noticed that poetry was the standard literature 
 for the Grammar School ; 26 prose was relegated to the Rhetor 
 School. Whether intended or not, poetry did not ill-suit the 
 age of grammar, i. e., secondary, school, pupils, though selec- 
 tions from prose literature were also desirable and essential. 
 
 So much for methods in language work. The main fea- 
 tures and principles have been given here. Much interesting 
 matter as to details will be found in the following chapter and 
 its appendix, where they can be more appropriately taken up. 
 
 Rhetoric. — In rhetoric there was concrete work in con- 
 nection with literature, if we may infer that Quintilian's 
 description of method represents the general practice. 27 There 
 were also text-books and schemes ("topics") to guide pupils 
 in developing themes or f orensics. An illustration of the latter 
 is given in the appendix. 28 
 
 Geography and history. — Some hint of method in geog- 
 raphy and history has already been given in saying that they 
 were correlated subjects. History came through the reading 
 of Roman and Greek historians, through following allusions 
 in language work, and through the idealization of Roman 
 heroes. In all this the Roman boy got a vivid and impressive 
 idea of Roman achievements and Roman political ideals, and 
 must also have mastered the main facts of Greek history. As 
 to geography it is interesting to note that map work was the 
 conspicuous means of teaching. This was the only practical 
 method. 
 
 25 Such a minute study of literature at the adolescent period would 
 have killed real interest in it, if there had not been some intense ob- 
 ject in view, making even such martyrdom tolerable. 
 
 26 Quintilian, op. cit., I, 8, g ; II, 4, 5, 7 ; Smith's Gr. and Rom. Antiqs. 
 See Appendix 3. 
 
 27 Quintilian, op. cit., I, 8; II, 5. 
 
 28 Appendix 5. 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD 121 
 
 Moral instruction. — The method of moral instruction was 
 the most concrete of all, because there was a wealth of illus- 
 trative material here. Training was given impressively 
 through literature and history, and through living models to 
 whom Roman boys were attached for the purpose of learning 
 their methods of public speaking. 29 
 
 Group teaching. — As to organization of instruction, there 
 was doubtless the ordinary class work, but it is very interest- 
 ing to find reference to group teaching for the sake of meet- 
 ing individual qualities and stimulating emulation. For such 
 purposes group teaching offers better opportunities than class 
 teaching. It is still more interesting to find a number of refer- 
 ences which indicate regard for the individual without thought 
 of emulation. They show that early secondary schools made 
 the adolescent the basis of their work, at least that they had 
 a sympathetic regard for him. 3Q Quintilian's description of 
 the best school practices throws strong emphasis upon indi- 
 vidual work. 
 
 The new school a prototype. — There has thus been es- 
 tablished, — in part developed, and in part adopted and 
 adapted, — a formal school program for the adolescent in place 
 of the free and natural training of the early period. This was 
 the Grammar School. It was presided over by the Gram- 
 maticus, the Roman grammar master, prototype of the more 
 modern grammar masters in the secondary schools of Europe, 31 
 particularly of England, and of the early grammar masters of 
 this country, in our earliest secondary schools. This Gram- 
 mar School became at the end of the first century a well-organ- 
 ized, a well-systematized, and a powerful institution, a great 
 moulding force in the Roman world. Practical aims were 
 prominent in these Roman schools at their best period, but at 
 the same time cultural ideas and opportunities were there and 
 had no inconsiderable influence. 
 
 The typical form. — Schools varied in scope and program. 
 
 29 "Long is the path through moral preaching; short and efficacious 
 that through example." Sen., Epist. VI : 5. 
 
 30 Quintilian, op. cit., I, 2 : 23. See also Appendix to Chapter IX. 
 
 31 A European Grammar School takes pupils earlier and keeps them 
 longer than our High School, so that comparisons as to names, ages, 
 and curricula cannot be exact. 
 
122 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 They probably varied in method and spirit as well. 32 The 
 fundamental branches with language and literature, music and 
 geometry are said to have formed the curriculum for the 
 majority. The typical school however was the Grammar 
 School whose program has been described on the preceding 
 pages. It was the center and determining influence of the 
 Roman school world, the distinctive product of the period. 
 Variations only illustrate the type. 33 
 
 This school gave the preliminary training for the summum 
 bonum 34 of the ambitious Roman, the orator. To carry out 
 this aim in full, however, regularly required additional study 
 and training. This was supplied by the Rhetor School 35 for 
 which the Grammar School was preparatory. 
 
 The Rhetor School. — The Rhetor School continued the 
 work in composition, elocution, and mnemonics, making it 
 more intensive. It developed style and effectiveness in writing 
 and confidence in delivery that were preparatory to entering 
 the Forum. 36 It evidently included at least two years of sec- 
 ondary work corresponding to the last two years of our high 
 school curriculum. But it included also higher, or, as we 
 should say, university training through studies not specified 
 in the lower curriculum, and taken up there, if at all, only in a 
 correlated and very elementary and concrete way, — studies 
 like psychology and philosophy, essential for giving a solid 
 
 32 There were of course various kinds of schools as to breadth, 
 standards, and thoroughness. Then again there were schools that 
 gave themselves sensibly to their appointed tasks, suited to the pupils 
 under their charge, and schools that aped higher schools and grasped at 
 some of their tasks. All this was to be expected under private initia- 
 tive before the days of uniform state aims.' It should be noted also 
 that some pupils went from the grammar schools to other professions 
 than that of the orator, and for them a simpler curriculum may have 
 been sufficient. See Laurie, op. cit., 361. 
 
 33 Suetonius, Lives of Gram. (Quintilian). See Smith's Die. of 
 Antiq. 
 
 34 Tacitus, Or., 36; Cicero, Mur., 4. See Clarke, op. cit. 
 
 35 Appendix 2 ; Becker, op. cit., 192. 
 
 Young men sometimes went directly from the Grammar School to 
 the Forum, thus abbreviating their curriculum and proportionally 
 weakening it. Then as now, they hurried toward the goal, and often 
 missed it. Suetonius, Lives of Gram. ; Monroe, op. cit.; Quintilian also 
 refers to it. 
 
 36 See below, pp. 125-6. 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD 123 
 
 basis for oratory, and studies like civil law, needed by the ora- 
 tor on the technical side in his capacity as lawyer. This school 
 will be considered more in detail in the next chapter. 37 
 
 Rome and Greece compared. — In Greece we found two 
 typical schools, the practical language school, or school of 
 rhetoric, and the philosophical school. The Romans devoted 
 themselves especially to the first. They, however, combined 
 with it, for practical purposes in giving finishing touches to 
 the orator, the main features of dialectic, but rather in form 
 than in the philosophic spirit of the Greeks. Diagogic educa- 
 tion was foreign to the ideals of Rome, except for the special 
 few. 
 
 A brief summary in tabular form will give a general view 
 of Roman secondary education of this period. It is not neces- 
 sary to go further into details here. An extended and minute 
 description of the fully developed secondary school under 
 Quintilian is given in the Appendix to the next chapter. 
 
 Roman Education of the Second Period. 
 
 Aim: — A practical one. To prepare for a career in State or 
 Forum is the most practical idea. All else is subservient. In 
 spite of the practical aim, however, a high degree of culture re- 
 sulted. 
 
 Women enjoyed elementary education and something more. 38 
 
 The curriculum: — 
 
 Elementary — Ages J-ll Secondary — Grammar School 
 {Girls and Boys). — Ages 12-15 
 Similar in subjects to education Language: — Reading (ad- 
 of the early period. But more vanced), — diction and ex- 
 attention to rapid writing ad- pression emphasized; reading 
 vocated by Quintilian. as a fine art. 
 Greek added, — taught conversa- Grammar (Greek and Lat- 
 tionally. (Greek became the in), with minute philological 
 prominent language in educa- treatment of at least Latin 
 tion.) grammar, but not much syn- 
 Form and expression em- tax, and no parsing. Dicta- 
 phasized in reading. Hon exercises (supply the 
 
 place of text-book, etc.). 
 
 Material: — XII Laws, Homer, Literature (extracts from 
 
 37 See Chapter IX, Appendix, p. 142. 
 
 38 See Appendix 4, and Chapter VII, p. 104. 
 
124 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Coun- 
 
 ballads, etc. Maps, 
 ters and abacus. 
 Child more under attendants 
 and in school. So more at- 
 tention to formal education, 
 which was of rather a severe 
 type. Domestic forces weak- 
 ened. 
 
 poets memorized). "Critical 
 study of language and literary 
 qualities of poets " ; also " ex- 
 planation of poets." 
 
 Composition, Declamation, 
 Elementary Rhetoric, and Or- 
 atory. 
 
 Writing (parchment and pen 
 now; wax-tablet is the stu- 
 dent's "scratch book)." 
 
 Mathematics, — arithmetic, ^ ge- 
 ometry, astronomy (simple 
 and concrete). 
 
 History, — correlated. 
 
 Geography, — correlated. 
 
 Music, — rhythm and mQter. 
 Contrasted with Greek 
 ideas. 
 
 Gymnastic exercises, — for 
 health and military pur- 
 poses. End a practical, not 
 an educational one. 
 
 Material : — Writing utensils. 
 Maps. Books, — JEsop, Ho- 
 mer and other poets; also 
 prose works; but poetry espe- 
 cially emphasized. 
 
 Linguistic training the core of 
 secondary education. All else 
 subordinate. Latin growing 
 as a culture language and win- 
 ning first place. 
 
 In addition to this the boy des- 
 tined for oratory (the legal 
 profession) had two secondary 
 years in the Rhetor School 
 studying composition, elo- 
 cution, and literature, and 
 other years of higher work 
 elsewhere. 39 
 
 Method in the Secondary school: — Language and literature. 
 Artistic work in reading. Dictation. Reproduction. Paraphras- 
 ing. Grammatical drill. Prosody and verse writing. Translation 
 (including cross-translation). Interpretation or exegesis of poets 
 
 39 Varro's curriculum was grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, 
 astronomy, dialectic, medicine, architecture, music. 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD 125 
 
 ("explanation of the poets"). Close, critical study of literature. 
 — Elementary Rhetoric and Oratory : — Scheme and specimens 
 for guidance and training; also text-book work.— Geography, 
 map work. — History, correlated with language work. Quintilian 
 advocates concrete and correlated work. — Ethical teaching: Cor- 
 related with writing, etc. Emulation, rewards. 
 
 Outside of literature text-books instruction was chiefly oral. 
 Work often superficial except in linguistics. 
 
 Memory work, imitation, and practice were the prominent fea- 
 tures of method. 40 
 
 Initiation ceremonies.— But we must not allow this con- 
 spicuous and engrossing program of study and training to 
 occupy the field of vision so fully as to hide the old forms. 
 The typical ceremonies of the old adolescent course still 
 remained. The formal exchange of togas, the sacrifice at 
 the Capitol, the " entering of the Forum," with other charac- 
 teristic forms, were all present. These ceremonies, or at least 
 some of them, had probably increased in elaborateness and 
 detail, but decreased in real meaning and in vital relation to 
 characteristic instincts. In the lapse of time instincts them- 
 selves had become quiescent or had been supplanted. The old 
 was rather present as a persistent form ; the new represented 
 the actual and real for the training of Roman youth, except so 
 far as sentiment and ceremony served to give significance to 
 changes that occurred at the adolescent period, when the young 
 Roman assumed a new attitude toward work and life, — par- 
 ticularly toward the state. There was one part of the old, 
 however, that remained in vigor. This was the special feature 
 
 40 Method in higher education. See page 122. 
 m Specialized, and conducted in different places calculated to give prac- 
 tical training for different pursuits. Study for scholarship attracted 
 some. For those who entered public life the higher education was 
 advanced training in oratory in rhetorical schools. Training here was 
 given in great detail, following naturally from the secondary course; 
 an . intensive course of work, essentially literary, or linguistic, but re- 
 quiring the whole range of knowledge, to give foundation and sub- 
 stance. Mathematics, law, and philosophy were studied under special 
 teachers, but not regarded as essential factors in rhetorical schools; 
 they were useful for an orator however (see Quintilian). They were 
 " merely touched," except by the few. Law and oratory were the sum 
 and substance of the curriculum for public life. Post-graduate work 
 was sometimes carried on at Athens, Rhodes, etc. See Cicero Ad At 
 XII, 32. 
 
126 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 of the old secondary training represented in the expressions 
 "in Forum venire," "Forum attingere." The Roman youth 
 depended much on this for his practical grasp of Roman public 
 life. 41 
 
 Net results of the period. — The last chapters show that 
 with the rise of letters the elementary school came as an intro- 
 duction to secondary work, and that the higher school was 
 added on the other side to give the technique for professional 
 work. The typical secondary school, shown most character- 
 istically on Roman soil and in Quintilian's time, thus became 
 a formal institution related above and below and accordingly 
 modified in function and curriculum. Its function was a 
 double one, looking on one side toward culture, and on the 
 other toward preparation for the one profession that monopo- 
 lized attention at the time. In effect it was a vocational school, 
 or rather an introduction to vocational study. It was cultural, 
 because success as an orator involved the highest degree of 
 culture. The old thought, however, that centered in civic de- 
 velopment and patriotic mastery of the inheritances of the race 
 was still evident, both in initiation ceremonies, preserved in 
 semblance at least, in great feeling for state service, even 
 though largely a matter of personal ambition, and in enthusi- 
 asm for the achievements of the city-state in literature and 
 politics. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 I. " Grammar." — " The science of grammar was in ancient times 
 far from being in vogue at Rome ; indeed it was of little use in a rude 
 state of society, when the people were engaged in constant wars and 
 had not much time to bestow on the liberal arts. At the outset its pre- 
 tensions were very slender, for the earliest men of learning, who were 
 both poets and orators, may be considered as half-Greek. I speak 
 of Livius and Ennius who are acknowledged to have taught both 
 languages, as well at Rome as in foreign parts. But they only trans- 
 lated from the Greek, and if they composed anything of their own in 
 Latin, it was only from what they had before read." 
 
 " Crates of Mallos . . . was in our opinion the first who introduced 
 the study of grammar (of course in the Roman sense) at Rome." This 
 was about 157 b. c. 
 
 41 Cicero, Amic. 1 ; Becker, op. cit. Probably the passage quoted 
 from Tacitus on page 107 has more force here than in the first period. 
 
ROME — LATER PERIOD 127 
 
 "The appellation of Grammarian was borrowed from the Greeks, 
 but at first the Latins called such persons Literati." — Suetonius, Lives 
 of Gram.; Monroe, Source Book, 349-50. 
 
 2. Subject matter of the orator. — Tacitus in his Dial, de Or. says 
 that " the old orators did not think it necessary to declaim in the 
 schools, and to exercise their tongues and their voices alone upon 
 fictitious controversies, remote from reality, but rather to fill their 
 minds with such studies as concern life and manners, as treat of moral 
 good and evil, of justice and injustice, of the decent and the unbecoming 
 in actions, because these constitute the subject matter of the orator." 
 
 3. Services of poets. — " The tender lisping mouth of a child the poet 
 forms ; even in their early days he turns the ears of the young from 
 evil words ; presently he fashions the heart by kindly precepts ; he is 
 the corrector of roughness, of malice, of anger; he tells of virtuous 
 deeds ; the dawn of life he furnishes with illustrious examples ; the 
 helpless and sad of soul he comforts. Whence could the pious boys 
 and virgins learn their hymns of prayer, had not the Muse granted 
 us a bard? The chorus prays for aid, and Heaven's presence feels, 
 and in set form of persuasive prayer implores rain from above, averts 
 disease, drives away dreaded dangers, obtains peace and a season rich 
 with its crops. Appeased by hymns are gods above and gods below." 
 — Hor., Epist. II, 1, 126 ff. (Monroe, op. cit., 398.) 
 
 4. Education of women. — Musonius speaks of the education of 
 women, and thinks that as far as the culture of virtue is concerned 
 they should have the same education as men ; and again he says, " only, 
 as regards any of the most important matters, let not the one be taught 
 differently from the other." He admits however that each sex has its 
 appropriate field, and he would make some exceptions in education, such 
 as omitting gymnastics for women. But he sets great store by philos- 
 ophy (the science of matters regarding life) for both men and women. 
 See quotations from Musonius given by Laurie, op. cit., 427 ff. (Mon- 
 roe, op. cit., 401.) 
 
 5. Scheme for composition. — " It is not to be supposed that the 
 Roman boy had thrown on him the impossible task of producing the 
 exercises above referred to without help and guidance." He was aided 
 in this by "topics" ("loci"), which "had for their object the fixed 
 development of a subject in a certain form and the art of finding 
 arguments. Without entering into details, which however are interest- 
 ing educationally, I shall borrow from Professor Jullien a statement 
 of the topical hints for an exercise on a chria, i.e., dictum or pregnant 
 sentence ascribed to some distinguished man: e.g., Plato says 'the 
 Muses dwell in the soul of the cultured man.' " 
 
 1. A laudation of the writer to whom the utterance or deed was 
 
 ascribed. 
 
 2. The paraphrase, in which the thought was expanded. 
 
 3. The motif or underlying principle, which explained and justified 
 
 the truth of the thought. 
 
128 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 4. Comparison, i.e., the comparison of the thought with other 
 
 thoughts like or unlike, just as Plutarch compares characters 
 in his Lives. 
 
 5. The example, which was furnished by some distinguished man. 
 
 6. Witnesses to confirm the dictum, i.e., quotations from authorities 
 
 who had said the same or a similar thing. 
 
 7. Conclusion, which often took the form of an oratorical exhorta- 
 
 tion. 
 
 So guided, and with models of similar exercises before him, often 
 written by the master, the boy could scarcely fail to produce a fairly 
 good essay or declamation, especially as the learning by heart of the 
 poets had stored his mind with words and felicitous expressions." 
 Laurie, op. cit., 370-1. 
 
IX 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN QUINTILIAN AND CICERO 
 
 From the general characteristics and ideals of Roman edu- 
 cation that have been discussed in previous chapters it does 
 not seem strange that the most prominent writers on Roman 
 pedagogy whose works we possess were a consummate orator 
 and an equally consummate teacher of orators. They can 
 hardly be called theorists, as was the case with the two writers 
 on Greek education whom we considered, for the work of one 
 of them grows out of actual educational practice, and perhaps 
 largely out of his own experience, while that of the other is 
 based on existing school programs and on his own work as 
 teacher. 
 
 Cicero and Quintilian compared. — We need not dwell on 
 Cicero here, for he contributed little, if anything, that was new 
 in secondary school polity. He was a lay writer chronicling 
 school customs of his day and giving us an attractive auto- 
 biography for the period of school life, with some reflections 
 suggested by it. In some respects he is all the more interest- 
 ing for these reasons. He deserves a distinct place in the his- 
 tory of education. But since he has given us practically 
 nothing that is not included in the educational scheme of the 
 great school man, Quintilian, detailed consideration of his 
 suggestions as to education will be omitted, except for a few 
 notes in the appendix, and the chapter will be given specifically 
 to Quintilian. Cicero is the orator giving a general disquisi- 
 tion on the education of an orator. Quintilian is the educator 
 describing scientifically, and with a wealth of detail and illus- 
 tration, the course and method of training for what Nettleship 
 rightly calls the great liberal profession of Rome, — the profes- 
 sion of lawyer, senator, statesman combined. We have in 
 effect a masterly account of the training of the liberally edu- 
 cated and professionally educated man. It must therefore 
 
 129 
 
i 3 o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 cover the whole range of school life, — elementary education, 
 secondary and higher education, and professional education. 
 
 Estimate of Quintilian. — In a way Quintilian summarizes 
 ancient education and lays the foundation for modern peda- 
 gogy. He is one of the few great master teachers of the world. 
 His really wonderful book is the first systematic treatise on 
 pedagogy. Through this and his own personal influence as a 
 teacher he impressed himself deeply on school life in general 
 and especially on the secondary school. So deeply did he 
 impress himself on the latter that for many centuries it was 
 largely the embodiment of Quintilian's curriculum and method ; 
 even to-day it bears unmistakable resemblance to his model. 
 Secondary school pedagogy does not go beyond Quintilian, 
 except as Quintilian inherited from beyond. The rest were 
 forgotten; his impress alone was acknowledged. 
 
 His qualifications for writing on education. — Quintilian's 
 success as a writer on education is largely, if not wholly, due 
 to the fact that he was a practical school man. That he had 
 gained practical experience in the Forum, had been a teacher 
 for many years in Rome and perhaps also in Spain, and had 
 been master of the first state school or college at Rome placed 
 him in the best possible position to write, not only intelligently, 
 but also scientifically, on the subject in question. 
 
 Altogether Quintilian is more worthy of close study in this 
 connection that any writer on pedagogy in the history of the 
 secondary school, — at least down to the nineteenth century. 
 However, only a general discussion of his main contributions 
 to secondary education will be in place here. An appendix 
 will supply a full description, with citations, for those who 
 wish to see more in detail what this great master of his art has 
 given us. 
 
 Characteristic features of his secondary school. His aim. 
 — The great end of his training was the Roman ideal that 
 has already been sufficiently emphasized, the development of 
 the complete orator : 
 
 " A man, who, being possessed of the highest natural genius, 
 stores his mind thoroughly with the most valuable kinds of 
 knowledge; a man sent by the gods to do honor to the world and 
 such as no preceding age has known, a man in every way eminent 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 131 
 
 and excellent, a thinker of the best thoughts and a speaker of the 
 best language." x 
 
 " No man," he says, " will ever be thoroughly accomplished in 
 eloquence who has not gained a deep insight into the impulses of 
 human nature and formed his moral character on the precepts of 
 others and on his own reflection." ..." I should desire the 
 orator whom I am trying to form to be a kind of Roman wise man 
 who may prove himself a true statesman, not by discussions in re- 
 tirement, but by personal experience and exertions in public 
 life." 1 
 
 Practical efficiency. — Such is the ideal that his fine edu- 
 cational imagination pictures to him. In his scheme of educa- 
 tion, however, he takes the ordinary material of the school and 
 sets himself the task of training to the highest standard pos- 
 sible. His aim is to make an effective man of high character, 
 able to maintain an honorable place in Roman life. It is thus 
 an intensely practical one that should appeal to present day 
 educators whose main thought is practical efficiency. 
 
 Curriculum. Composition the central subject. — In his 
 curriculum we should find nothing striking to distinguish it 
 from what has already been given. In fact Quintilian plays 
 an important part in the chapter that summarizes Roman edu- 
 cation for the later historical period, though largely without 
 name. It is in detail and in spirit that we find his real contri- 
 butions. These appear especially and typically in his treat- 
 ment of composition. Writing was the great medium and 
 means of training. Quintilian cannot say too much for it. 2 
 It is his main dependence in the training of an orator. He 
 therefore lays out a detailed and thorough course in it, which 
 he describes with great fulness, showing how to begin and 
 the various steps to be taken to give a complete training. Side 
 by side with this, causa exemplorum, goes an equally compre- 
 hensive and appreciative study of literature, ancient and mod- 
 ern, Greek and Latin, that of itself would give a liberal educa- 
 tion. His remarks as to values and purposes here are both 
 interesting and helpful in understanding his ideal. Literature 
 
 1 See Quintilian, XII, 1, 2. Appendix 2, page 139. 
 
 2 " In writing are the roots, in writing are the foundations of elo- 
 quence. By writing resources are stored up, as it were in a sacred 
 repository whence they may be drawn forth for sudden emergencies, 
 or as circumstances require," X, 3:3. See Appendix for details. 
 
i 3 2 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 is his most important study for training in composition and 
 language. With it, and chiefly correlated with it, goes a care- 
 ful study of arithmetic and geometry, for training and infor- 
 mation rather than for practical value; of astronomy and 
 history, as making for general intelligence and affording a key 
 to the interpretation of allusions; of rhetoric and music, as 
 giving form to thought and style to language; and of elocution 
 and physical training, which add grace to voice and person. 
 His scheme was therefore well-rounded, and its parts were 
 carefully related. 
 
 Method. — But he contributes more to pedagogy in his 
 treatment of method than otherwise. His books are rich in 
 minute details as to conducting class work. He explains the 
 manner and spirit in which composition should be guided and 
 corrected; the various kinds of exercises in literature for meet- 
 ing the ends of discipline and information, and especially for 
 supplying models, ethical, literary, grammatical, and rhetorical ; 
 the kind of training in reading that is adapted to pupils of this 
 age; the line of teaching that must be applied to rhetoric to 
 make it a live subject; the method for training pupils in voice, 
 carriage and manner in declamation; and the principles that 
 underlie sound memory training. Much of this is refreshing 
 reading even now, especially his remarks on composition, read- 
 ing, rhetoric, and memory training. He can hold his own 
 with the best modern pedagogical writers on such topics. In 
 rhetoric he could give the average teacher points that would 
 put him far in advance of his present method of teaching. 3 
 
 Feeling for the boy. Child psychology. — But Quintilian 
 had real feeling not merely for his subject, dear as that was 
 to him, but also for the boy. There was to be no cold dealing 
 out of rules and manipulation of practice and drill, as was 
 often, probably generally, the case. He knew his pupils so 
 thoroughly that his knowledge became intuition, and he inter- 
 wove in his scheme many a human element and fine feeling for 
 the child. His estimate of teachers from this point of view 
 was correspondingly keen and appreciative. Quintilian thus 
 had two schemes of * concentration " in his educational plan, 
 one in which everything was grouped around his " core," 
 
 3 For details of method see Appendix. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 133 
 
 linguistics, and the other in which the boy was the center, and 
 culture and training material were related to him. Through- 
 out the discussion there is a play back and forth between these 
 two ideas. 
 
 Training, not nature. — Quintilian had a genuine enthu- 
 siasm for his subject. He treats it broadly and thoroughly, as 
 a means to a great end that calls for the best from teacher, 
 pupil, and curriculum. No catch-penny methods or superficial 
 short-cuts, such as some sophists used, received any counten- 
 ance from him. He had also a genuine faith in the power of 
 training. Not nature, but training was, in his opinion, the 
 chief factor in the finished product. At the opening of his 
 book he says: 
 
 " You will find the greater number of men both ready in per- 
 ceiving and quick in learning, since such quickness is natural 
 to man. . . . But dull and unteachable persons are no more pro- 
 duced in the course of nature than are persons marked by mon- 
 strosity and deformity; such are certainly but few. It will be 
 a proof of this assertion that among boys good promise is shown 
 in far the greater number; and if it passes off in progress of 
 time, it is manifest that it was not natural ability, but care that 
 was wanting, — " 4 
 
 which reminds us that in all ages backwardness in school is 
 generally due to bad teaching at some stage of the child's 
 school life, or to bad habits and bad environment. The high 
 aims of education were never more strikingly and simply stated 
 than by Quintilian. 
 
 Characteristic features of his school. — So much for a gen- 
 eral statement of Quintilian's contributions to education. To 
 formulate a little more specifically we may give the following 
 tabulation of the characteristic features of his school. This 
 will place them before us a little more pointedly and will give 
 a clearer idea of Quintilian's genius in pedagogy. 
 
 A. His curriculum: — Linguistic work, with great stress 
 upon grammar, composition, declamation, and literature, is 
 predominant, — in fact practically comprises the secondary 
 course. All else is ancillary and, for the most part, corre- 
 lated. 
 
 4 Quintilian, op. cit., I, 1 : 2. 
 
i 3 4 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 B. His methods — 
 
 1. The individual is to be studied. Quintilian makes the 
 psychology of his pupil one of his guides in method, whether 
 for the sake of the boy or for the sake of his subject. 
 
 2. Talent 5 lies at the foundation, but precocity is decried. 
 
 3. Memory is the key to education. Through it the pupil 
 stores a vast amount of information, forms, and models, of all 
 kinds, to weave into his linguistic life. " The chief symptom 
 of ability in children is memory." 6 
 
 4. Habit, as a factor and determinant in education and its 
 subject matter, is emphasized. Memory is the storehouse, 
 habit is the safety-valve in education. 
 
 5. Imitation is the beginning and center of intellectual life. 
 Hence the imperative need of a careful choice of teachers and 
 of subject matter in teaching. 7 
 
 6. Stress is laid on the principle of interest as determining 
 the character of at least the early exercises. 
 
 7. Provision is made for concrete, objective teaching, broad 
 in scope, splendid in conception. 
 
 8. But, after all, close application and persistent work 
 come to the forefront as the real keys to success, especially in 
 the two directions to be noted in the following sections. 
 
 9. He insists on extensive and intensive reading of 
 literature for general culture, but more particularly for moral 
 training, and as a means of developing linguistic power. The 
 latter purpose is accomplished characteristically through study, 
 imitation, practice, and original work, the first three supplying 
 a foundation and stimulus for the last. 
 
 10. Great emphasis is placed upon practice, but he has 
 regard also for rules. His is a disciplinary course of the most 
 refined and scientific sort, leading up to refined and effective 
 habit. But it is not the formal discipline, sometimes found, 
 that gives a culture forced from without, but rather one that 
 develops personality from within, by which a balance is set up 
 between the external and the internal. How far he is removed 
 
 5 But talent only as supported by industry. Talent is less powerful 
 than training. 
 
 6 Do., I, 3 : 1. 
 
 7 Do.; also II, 2: iff; X, 2:1. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 135 
 
 from the former is indicated by various passages showing his 
 care for developing personality and individuality. 
 
 11. His scheme is therefore marked by careful insistence 
 upon the development of individual judgment and creative 
 power, and it includes careful directions for this purpose. 
 
 12. He advocates a discipline that draws, rather than 
 repels, stimulates rather than depresses or represses, — one that 
 harmonizes pupil and teacher. 
 
 It thus appears that Quintilian emphasizes, particularly, 
 memory work, imitation, practice, drill, and individual work. 
 On these lines he builds up an elaborate system minutely out- 
 lined and splendidly described and illustrated. Education with 
 him has become not only a science, but an art. His thought is 
 based not only on empirical knowledge, but on principles drawn 
 from his own experience and from the work of previous educa- 
 tors, and on the philosophic insight of the trained mind. The 
 tone that comes from the practical school man gives it added 
 charm. His book is so full of substance that it is no easy 
 matter to abbreviate and summarize ; for Quintilian is evidently 
 " one of the moderns." He gives us, in germ at least, practi- 
 cally all that modern pedagogy has evolved. 
 
 Final influence. — But, taking his Institutes as a whole, his 
 plan of teaching clearly shows a uniformity of formal train- 
 ing. Even his elaborate program of literary study has more 
 or less of the formal in it. Those interesting touches that 
 reveal an appreciation of child nature and of educational devel- 
 opment, however, relieve and temper the formality. If it 
 seems surprising that, with these germinal truths that appear 
 frequently, the real nature of education and the educational 
 process was not realized earlier, we must remember that ele- 
 ments of the larger educational life were not brought together, 
 so as to make a lively center of influence for those who were 
 to follow. 8 Thus, though the Quintilian school was as 
 advanced for its time and as well adapted to its time as can 
 be claimed for any school in history, some of its more sig- 
 
 8 Even if this part of Quintilian' s pedagogy had stood out most 
 prominently, the political and social conditions, as well as the intellectual 
 bent, of the following years were not favorable to progressive pedagogy. 
 The Grammer Schools copied rather than initiated. But a force was 
 at work that would eventually produce a marvelous reform. 
 
136 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 nificant principles were lost sight of. They must wait for 
 a more scientific age to bring a higher unity of educational 
 aims and plans. 
 
 Formal discipline. — Whatever may have been true of 
 Quintilian, his followers took the formal system and made it 
 uniform through the whole period of education, — developed 
 and intensified it so that it almost took on the nature of divin- 
 ity. Quintilian but dimly, if at all, realized education as a 
 subjective process; still less did his followers seem to realize 
 it. Following a path he made so clear they made education a 
 form pure and simple, and this for nearly two thousand years. 9 
 
 Formal training has generally been thought to give some- 
 thing called mental discipline, though the claim may be 
 doubted. It surely did not get at the source of power. After 
 a time came reform in elementary education, and reform has 
 spread to some extent beyond this limit. A part of education 
 has been remodeled according to sound educational science, 
 while a part is still more or less in the shackles planned by 
 Quintilian and forged by his successors. 
 
 Ancient and modern oratory. — The Romans made the 
 orator the supreme specialist, the only one who really made 
 himself tell on the world. We have changed matters. The 
 qualities of the orator are being added to real specialists and 
 investigators in all lines, who must not merely make them- 
 selves felt by what they discover and know, but must win a 
 hearing by ability to express and to move men in their special 
 fields. On the other hand the orator does not have the same 
 importance, nor hold the same relative position, as that claimed 
 by the orators of Cicero and Quintilian. In one sense the 
 orator's art has been enlarged; in another sense it has been 
 dissipated ; or rather it has been divided and its parts scattered 
 over the world of thought and action, each part having grown 
 into something greater than the original whole. 
 
 Post-Quintilian development. — We have now before us 
 the first fully developed secondary school of which we have 
 
 9 Now and then appeared a man or school of a different temper. 
 Bernard, Da Feltre, Montaigne, Ascham, Comenius, Milton broke away 
 in a degree from this formal education, but secondary education as a 
 rule remained fast. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 137 
 
 detailed record. Though, as we have seen, there were other 
 well-developed secondary schools in earlier times, no complete 
 account has come down to us, — little more in fact than some 
 more or less general statements. Then, too, they lacked that 
 purposeful practical environment that gave peculiar force and 
 momentum to the Roman school, and they belonged to a people 
 who were far from being practical organizers. 
 
 Public secondary education. — It remained to make the 
 secondary school public. The movement began at an early 
 date, — - about Quintilian's time, 10 when Grammar Schools were 
 already widely scattered. At that time some schools were sup- 
 ported by the state, some by municipalities, some by private 
 funds, while the wandering teacher and private tutor still plied 
 their professions. 11 By 425 A. D. an edict made the state sole 
 authority and forbade the opening of schools by unauthorized 
 persons. 12 We are not however to suppose that all schools 
 were state schools in a literal sense, simply that all were under 
 general state supervision, some in one status, some in another. 
 
 Decline of the secondary school. — But the growth of im- 
 perialism took away some of the intense motives that ruled in 
 earlier education. 13 Rhetoric was thrown back on itself; it 
 became an end rather than a means. Form became the promi- 
 nent feature. The Roman Grammar School, like many other 
 civic and social achievements, was declining. A weak institu- 
 tion would have suffered permanent decline. Not so this one. 
 It suffered eclipse, but it still lived. 
 
 The source of the modern secondary school. — A real sec- 
 ondary school tradition had thus been started. Through strong 
 organization and powerful influences it eventually became so 
 firmly fixed that the secondary school described in this and 
 the preceding chapter became a dominating model for cen- 
 turies and a permanent influence. From it modern sec- 
 ondary school influences take their rise. The line of descent 
 
 10 Suetonius, Vesp., XVIII (Monroe, op. cit., 400). 
 
 11 Pliny, Epist, III, 3; IV, 13 (quoted by Laurie); Laurie, op. cit., 
 420 ff. See Monroe, op. cit., 377 ft. 
 
 12 We find some reference to jobbery in spending public money. Pol- 
 itics entered the schools early. 
 
 13 Cicero, Brutus, 96-7; Dill, Roman Soc. in the Last Cent, of the 
 West. Emp. 
 
138 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 of the secondary school passes directly to Rome. It is prob- 
 able that the organization of the secondary school there, — the 
 enterprising and vigorous handling of the curriculum, and the 
 prosecution of method, — had more to do with defining sec- 
 ondary education for many centuries than any other school 
 agency whatever, and for obvious reasons. The secondary 
 school plan, as finally developed and organized there during 
 this period, ruled the West exclusively down to the time when 
 it had lost its practical nature and Hecker, Francke and their 
 followers began to lead a movement for a new practical cur- 
 riculum. It continued as the predominating influence long 
 afterwards. This does not mean that Rome originated all, or 
 even many, details, but she took up the tradition, put her stamp 
 upon it, and held it so long and impressed it so vividly that her 
 influence was paramount. Roman pedagogy at its best, 
 Quintilian's pedagogy, found lodgment in many of the great 
 teachers who followed him. The Grammar Schools them- 
 selves, many of them, did not die; they were transformed. 
 Though lost to sight, perhaps, they influenced the structures 
 which were built over or into them. Some of the Cathedral 
 Schools of later times could have disclosed the Roman model to 
 one who cared to look within the shell. More than this, they 
 could have shown a continuous tradition from Roman times. 
 The Roman Grammar School was the strongest moulding 
 force the secondary school had, in form, curriculum, and 
 method, down to the middle of the nineteenth century. 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 A quotation from Nettleship 14 will serve as an introduction to an 
 outline of Quintilian's Institutes : — 
 
 A Roman Ideal. — " To be a great statesman at Rome it was neces- 
 sary, besides being a soldier, to be an orator; a master not only of 
 the cultivated style which would appeal to the forty or fifty educated 
 senators and equites who might meet to try a case in a court of law, 
 but of the broader effects which alone could make an impression upon 
 the great contiones. Oratory (not rhetoric) bade fair, in the hands of 
 a comprehensive genius like Cicero, to absorb the whole field of knowl- 
 edge and education. To Cicero, if we may trust him in the De Oratore, 
 knowledge is the necessary condition of eloquence, but knowledge 
 must be subservient to eloquence. One can hardly complain of him 
 
 14 Lectures and Essays, Second Series, by H. Nettleship, p. 6j. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 139 
 
 for adopting a point of view which, after all, was the prevalent one 
 with the mass of educated men in classical antiquity. For, with them, 
 literature^was subordinate to life. The idea of investigation, of pain- 
 ful study, undertaken merely for the sake of ascertaining the truth in 
 regions of fact such as history or natural science, was comparatively 
 unfamiliar to the literary aristocracies who ruled the ancient Graeco- 
 Roman world." 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF QUINTILIAN'S COURSE OF TRAINING FOR 
 THE ORATOR, OR THE EDUCATED MAN OF ROME 
 
 Prefatory Note : The aim in giving so full an outline is to provide a 
 convenient and authoritative resume of Quintilian's great work and thus 
 make his rather formidable treatise, twelve books in length, more 
 accessible to students of pedagogy. 
 
 The whole outline deals with the secondary school, but the latter 
 part would seem to apply to what corresponds to the upper forms of 
 the typical English secondary schools of fifty years ago, 15 the last 
 years of whose curriculum we are inclined to compare with early col- 
 lege work. 
 
 The end in view.— In stating his aim we find Quintilian's statements 
 practically identical with Cicero's, for the most part. The end in 
 view is the perfect orator, "who cannot exist unless he is a good 
 man." 16 
 
 Qualifications of the Orator. — " Let the orator therefore be such a 
 man as may be called truly wise, not blameless in morals only, for that 
 in my opinion, though some disagree with me, is not enough, but ac- 
 complished also in science and in every qualification in speaking : a char- 
 acter such as perhaps no man ever was." 17 
 
 Quintilian in another passage lays stress on having ideals embraced 
 in the heart and thinking in conformity with them, and thus having 
 a very practical hold on them. 18 
 
 2. Four periods in his scheme. — As to the grading and curriculum, 
 Quintilian divides his course of training into four parts, — 1, ante-school 
 training ; 2, elementary education ; 3, secondary education ; 4, higher or 
 professional education. In making these divisions it is to be noted 
 that Quintilian does not distinguish by ages. At the very outset he 
 shows that he has no sympathy with those who would make artificial 
 divisions between parts of school life, for he combats the idea that 
 seven should be the age for beginning school work. He says there is 
 
 15 Eton, Harrow, Rugby, and others of that famous group of " Great 
 Public Schools." 
 
 16 Preface to his Institutes, 9. 
 
 17 Do., 18. 
 
 18 For other strong statements of Quintilian as to ideals see Chapter 
 IX, pp. 130-31. 
 
i 4 o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 no such beginning, that school life represents a continuity ; and again he 
 says that the time for sending to the higher school is when the pupil 
 is qualified; he may enter even before finishing the lower secondary 
 school. 
 
 As to the extent of education in the community, Quintilian says 
 nothing. He does not mention the education of girls, if we except the 
 fact that he emphasizes educated parents. But this is natural from the 
 nature of the case. He is writing of the education of the orator and 
 his end colors his whole scheme, but we may easily apply the most 
 essential features of his earlier course to girls, who were readily ac- 
 corded education at Rome. 
 
 Curriculum for each period. — Coming to details of the curriculum, 
 then, we first take up the study and training of the 
 
 Ante-school period which is just as systematically provided for as 
 any, through the careful selection of attendants. The chief lines of 
 training here are language (Greek and Latin), writing, ethics, and 
 general information. Greek, he says, should come before Latin, be- 
 cause it is the original of the Latin, and because the boy will learn 
 Latin any way. But Latin is to follow apace, so that the exclusive 
 practice of either may not " impede the other." 19 
 
 The elementary school period 20 seems to continue the work already 
 laid out. Quintilian's efforts are directed especially to two points: i, 
 a discussion of the question of public and private schools, in which 
 he emphatically decides for the public school with a proper number 
 of pupils, as best for both pupil and teacher; 2, a consideration of 
 management and instruction. 21 This school takes the boy till he is 
 about twelve. 
 
 The secondary school, — junior section. The Grammar School. 22 We 
 may fairly conclude that this school took the boy about the beginning 
 of his twelfth year and kept him till about the beginning of his six- 
 teenth year, though Quintilian has no regard for years ; he measures by 
 qualifications. In quality and scope the work seems to correspond 
 fairly well with that of the last grammar school years and the 
 first high school years with us, if we take into account the difference 
 in the educational development of the two epochs. 
 
 The central subject is grammar, 23 in the ancient sense. We do not 
 
 19 Quintilian, op. cit., I, 1 : 12-14. 
 
 20 Quintilian' s arguments here are interesting and thorough. See 
 
 1,2. 
 
 21 See later pages under method. 
 
 22 A typical secondary school of the European type. Compare the 
 English Grammar Schools of to-day, whose curricula are more ex- 
 tended than those of our High Schools, providing for both younger 
 and older pupils. 
 
 23 The old name for grammar was literatura, showing that the sub- 
 ject included something besides the abstract technique of language. 
 The grammar pupil, as the most vital part of his subject, took language 
 in the concrete as well, i.e., literature. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 141 
 
 need to come down to modern times to get a good idea of concen- 
 tration, for the organization of Quintilian's curriculum, with grammar 
 as the core, gives us an excellent example, as far as subjects of study 
 are concerned. Grammar here includes first, the technicalities we 
 usually associate with the subject, — sounds, divisions, relations, limita- 
 tions, modifications, derivatives, and historical changes of letters; sec- 
 ond, the inflexional and formative elements in a language, i.e., all 
 the technicalities of words, making a most abstract and abstruse study; 
 third, all facts and principles associated with the art of " speaking and 
 writing correctly," and thus syntax and composition. But it is 
 much larger than all this. As a basis for composition it carries with 
 it literary study, or, as Quintilian calls it, the " illustration of the 
 poets." This is itself a very broad study, for it gives a knowledge of 
 words and matter, structure and style, and involves knowledge of 
 philology, music (meter and rhythm), and history, 2 * in order to ex- 
 plain allusions or otherwise elucidate the text. Such an intensive study 
 under the direction of the master of grammar constantly stimulates 
 thought along various lines. "Grammar" in Rome even extended 
 its limits beyond this and assumed some functions connected with the 
 theory and practice of eloquence. 25 Legitimately this phase of gram- 
 mar must be regarded as belonging to a separate subject, the second 
 fundamental of the secondary curriculum, elementary rhetoric (except 
 in so far as it comes in incidentally in connection with the study of 
 literature just referred to). Rhetoric and grammar are naturally ac- 
 companied or supplemented by some elementary work in elocution, 
 including articulation, pronunciation, and expression; for after learn- 
 ing to " distinguish words and meanings," the boy must learn " to ex- 
 press meaning." In connection with this literary and linguistic study 
 comes a carefully chosen course of reading, both Greek and Latin, in 
 prose and poetry, to furnish models. This course is to be selected with 
 special reference to ethical values at first, till morals are formed. 
 Quintilian believes that music 26 is closely related to oratory, that 
 it is calculated to cultivate the voice and give form for language and 
 gesture for the body. So he naturally makes it a prominent part 
 of his curriculum. Wholesome, manly music is his choice, " those strains 
 in which the praises of heroes were sung and which heroes themselves 
 sang ; not the sounds of psalteries and languishing lutes, but the knowl- 
 edge of the principles of the art that is of the highest efficacy in excit- 
 ing and allaying the passions." Geometry is chosen as another essential 
 study in his school, both for its subject matter and for its training 
 value, for he believes that it excites the thinking powers, sharpens 
 the intellect, quickens perception, affords training in logic, and at the 
 same time gives useful knowledge that delivers one from embarrassing 
 errors. It is interesting to note that under geometry Quintilian in- 
 cludes "numbers" and astronomy. 27 
 
 24 I, 8. 26 I, I0< 
 
 25 II, I. 27 I, 10. 
 
142 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 But Quintilian lays most stress, as we shall find, on writing (com- 
 position), 28 as a means of forming his ideal. His elementary course 
 includes grammatical drill, reproduction, paraphrasing, and narrative 
 work. 
 
 Finally comes some elementary training in delivery 29 (elocution), 
 involving rules for pronunciation, expression, grace and propriety of 
 motion, but not theatrical effects. It thus brings in physical instruc- 
 tion in the palaestra for graceful carriage, and some training under 
 an actor for elocutionary purposes. 
 
 Secondary School, — second period. The School of Rhetoric. 50 The 
 youth entered this higher school sometime about the beginning of his 
 fifteenth or sixteenth year. This and the quality and content of the 
 curriculum offered seem to show that we have here at least two years 
 corresponding to the later part of our high school course of training. 
 As already said Quintilian does not care for fixed limits of age. He 
 complains that pupils go to the School of Rhetoric too late, the 
 grammar masters having usurped some of the functions of the teachers 
 of rhetoric, so that old bounds between the two schools have been 
 removed, or at least disturbed. Thus teachers of the higher courses 
 now confine themselves only to a part of their legitimate work, and 
 pupils are kept in the Grammar School too long. He would have each 
 school keep its proper functions. 31 
 
 The School of Rhetoric provides advanced training in composition 
 and delivery to supply a broad and practical foundation for the public 
 activities of the orator. It provides also special memory training which 
 Quintilian emphasizes particularly in his school plans. Quintilian lays 
 out a very inclusive course in composition, in which he sets the 
 roots of eloquence. 32 Beginning with simple narration he advances 
 to somewhat technical forms of composition that have to do with the 
 final aims of the orator. He cordially indorses Cicero's thought as to 
 the relation of writing to oratory: — 
 
 " In writing are the roots, in writing are the foundation of eloquence; 
 by writing resources are stored up, as it were, in a secret repository, 
 whence they may be drawn forth for sudden emergencies or as cir- 
 
 28 I, 9- 
 
 29 I, ii. 
 
 30 See Book II and following books, especially X. 
 
 With Quintilian's informal grading it is difficult to draw the lines 
 in secondary education. The previous period (Grammar-school period) 
 would seem in part to include training corresponding to that of the 
 lower " forms " of the English Public School. For the rest it was 
 secondary. The Rhetorical School again should not be regarded in 
 all its parts as beyond the secondary mark. It evidently included 
 both secondary and higher training. 
 
 31 It is interesting to find one school usurping the functions of 
 another. It was as vicious then as ever to imagine that higher grade 
 work was higher work and carried more distinction with it. 
 
 3*11,4. Conf. X, 5. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 143 
 
 cumstances require. Let us above all things get strength, which may 
 suffice for the labor of our contests and may not be exhausted by us." 33 
 
 In writing Quintilian emphasizes pure Latin ; care of words and 
 utmost care of matter; the significance, form, and measure of words; 
 adaptation of words; expression, in which, he says, lie the faults and 
 excellencies of oratory; and arrangement, in regard to which he aptly 
 suggests that the order of words, the typical divisions of the oration, 
 and the effective marshalling of all depend upon the situation. 34 Nat- 
 urally in connection with this work in composition, as in his Gram- 
 mar School program, he has a wide course in reading, 35 including both 
 Greek and Roman writers, — poets, historians, philosophers, orators. 
 Here he gives characterizations of each writer in his list and explains 
 the limitations in the orator's use of poetry and history. For train- 
 ing in delivery 36 he provides a graduated course, — simple declama- 
 tion, fully prepared beforehand and growing in difficulty, half ex- 
 tempore speaking, i.e., speaking after premeditation, and finally ex- 
 tempore speaking. In this connection he suggests exhaustive training 
 as to voice and gesture, in which he again includes work with the actor 
 and in gymnasium or palaestra. This is the climax; it represents the 
 completion of the orator's development. In this and in all the training 
 of the Rhetor School he significantly urges vigorous preparation for 
 what is needed in the Forum, the center of interest for every active 
 Roman. As to memory training 37 Quintilian is interesting, suggestive 
 and enthusiastic. It is a favorite topic with him. But he does not 
 favor an artificial system of mnemonics like that of Simonides. He 
 suggests rather a simple, common sense plan in which he lays stress 
 on order, arrangement, and method (elsewhere defined). 
 
 Now we may justly assume that the more elementary parts of this 
 curriculum were distinctly secondary, occupying the secondary years 
 that have been referred to as belonging to the rhetorical school, because 
 it took adolescents that had barely entered their sixteenth year. 38 The 
 more intensive and technical work of the different courses that have 
 been outlined belonged to what we may call higher education, and to 
 them were added psychology, or the part of it that has to do with the 
 emotions, 39 philosophy,* a three-fold subject, including "natural phi- 
 losophy," ethics, and dialectics, all of which Quintilian believed useful 
 and even necessary for the end in view, and civil law.* 1 
 
 33 X, 3:1-3. 
 
 3 *II, 13; VII, 1; VIII, Introd., 17-32; X, 1:5-15. 
 
 35 X, 1 ; see XII, 2 : 29. 
 
 36 XI, 3. 
 
 37 See XI, 2, et al. 
 
 38 See above, p. 142. The typical European secondary school differed 
 and differs very materially, not to say radically, from the American 
 High School in age-groupings. 
 
 39 VI; XII, 2. 
 4° XII, 2. 
 
 41 XII, 3. 
 
144 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Such is the outline of the different schools which Quintilian includes 
 in his scheme of education. We come now to some points as to method. 
 
 Principles and methods. — Where Cicero is weak Quintilian is nat- 
 urally strong. In method his books are noticeably rich and afford scope 
 for an interesting and suggestive study. For clearness it is well to 
 take up the four periods separately, making four groups of suggestions 
 as they occur in the several sections of the work dealing with the 
 different parts of school life. It will be interesting to see how, when, 
 and how often Quintilian makes his various pedagogical observations. 
 Later the matter can be condensed into a general outline that will give 
 his main principles. If some of the statements appear not to bear 
 strictly on method, they are at least suggestive in that direction. 
 
 I. The ante-school period. — Principles and method. 
 
 1. Memory : — " The chief symptom of ability in children is memory." 
 — " The elements of learning depend on memory alone, which not only 
 exists in children, but is at that time of life even most tenacious." 
 " It is almost the only faculty, in early years, that can be improved by 
 the aid of teachers." 42 
 
 Imitation, in Quintilian's judgment, is the foundation of method. 
 Memory is the chief stay of method, — a growing means of carrying it 
 out. He naturally has something worth reading as to the cultivation of 
 this power. Here is a brief summary of his suggestions : — 
 
 (a) The fundamental condition of good memory power is good 
 health. 43, (b) The second condition is good training. 
 
 Memory may be trained by learning a piece by parts ; by learning 
 from the same tablets on which one writes ; by learning aloud for the 
 double stimulus of speaking and hearing; by learning from another's 
 reading, with frequent tests to avoid slips ; by " division and arrange- 
 ment." He assigns a minimum value of systems of mnemonics and a 
 good deal of value, for certain purposes, to more or less natural as- 
 sociations with signs and symbols. 43 The " only and great art of 
 memory ... is exercise and labor." By beginning in childhood with 
 a small but interesting memory task, increasing it a little each day, and 
 keeping up the exercise persistently through different periods of life 
 in serious tasks, the orator may accomplish almost " inconceivable 
 results." 44 
 
 2. The child is imitative. Habits formed early are permanent. " The 
 next symptom (of ability) is imitation." 45 ... "A great portion of art 
 consists in imitation." 45 Everywhere this is his basal principle in 
 method. It will be found giving character and direction to the work 
 of each period in his system. Quintilian follows his principle out logi- 
 
 42 I, i : 19, 36; 3:1. 
 
 43 XI, 2:35. 
 
 44 XI, 2:27ff., 41. 
 
 45 I, 3 : 1 ; X, 2 : 1. What is said in the following paragraphs on this 
 topic comes from statements found in different parts of the Institutes. 
 There will be specific additions as the different periods are taken up. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 145 
 
 cally; for he insists upon great care in choosing those who are to 
 take charge of the child, — attendants, nurses, slaves, paedagogi, for 
 whom good language, good morals, and some knowledge are prime es- 
 sentials. Parents are to have as much learning as possible. 46 All the 
 subject matter of the boy's course is to be selected wisely to furnish 
 suitable models for developing vocabulary, expression, style in speak- 
 ing and writing, and substantial moral qualities. 47 The principle would 
 also prescribe equal care in selecting the living model whom, accord- 
 ing to the old Roman custom, the boy was to choose and follow for the 
 purpose of perfecting himself in the art of oratory. 48 
 
 Quintilian, however, does not have in mind any narrow or formal 
 principle. Models are not to be merely copied, but studied with a 
 view to getting at their excellencies and defects and using them as a 
 basis for modifying, adding, and improving, and thus for developing 
 independent power. Judgment and discretion are to be superior to 
 all rules and models, and Quintilian's methods are calculated to develop 
 these qualities. 49 While therefore the principle provides for training 
 the boy in the best the world has produced and thus tends to per- 
 petuate modes and styles in oratory, it provides also for judgment 
 and originality as modifying factors. 
 
 " If it is not allowable to add, , . . how can we ever hope to see the 
 complete orator? . . . Even those who do not aim at the highest excel- 
 lence should rather try to excel than merely follow their predecessors." 
 Otherwise, he points out, one will fall behind his ideal ..." He who 
 shall add to these borrowed qualities excellencies of his own, so as to 
 supply what is deficient in his models and to retrench what is redundant, 
 will be the complete orator whom we desire to see." 50 
 
 It is however imitation of the simple sort, child imitation, that he 
 applies in the early school. Later schools built up judgment and 
 originality. 
 
 3. Quintilian has high regard for talent and natural aptitudes. But 
 he has a higher regard for the magic power of training. 51 
 
 4. Those' of tender years are not to be urged severely, and the 
 principle of amusement in instruction and that of emulation and re- 
 wards are to be used. Having provided formal instruction for these 
 early years, he must make special provisions lest it miscarry. 52 
 
 "It will be necessary above all things to take care lest the child 
 should conceive a dislike to the application which he cannot yet love, 
 and continue to dread the bitterness which he has once tasted, even 
 beyond the years of infancy." 
 
 46 I, 1. 
 
 47 I, 8; II, 5; X, 1,2, 5; XII, 4. 
 
 48 X, s : 19, 20. 
 4 9 II, 13 ; X, 2. 
 so X, 2 : 9, 28. 
 
 si I, 3:1; II, 4 :9ff.;8: 5 . 
 
 62 I ? 1 ; 20, 
 
146 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 5. Quintilian gives an important place to the physical. It is the 
 highway to success and successful method. 
 
 " It is common alike to learning by heart and to composition that good 
 health, excellent digestion, and a mind free from other subjects of care 
 contribute greatly to success in them." 53 
 
 And, speaking of the work of older students particularly, he says, 
 
 " But in every kind of study, and especially in such nocturnal appli- 
 cation, good health and that which is the prime means of securing it, 
 regularity of life, are necessary, since we devote the time appointed 
 us by nature for sleep and the recruiting of our strength to the most 
 intense labor; but on this labor we must not bestow more^ than what 
 is too much for sleep and what will not leave too little for it." 
 
 6. Coming to the matter of the child's school work, we find that 
 Quintilian would teach reading 54 by the time-honored synthetic method, 
 though he makes some improvement on it. The common practice was to 
 learn the names and order of letters before their shapes. He advocates 
 learning appearances and names first. Imitation and tracing are the 
 means, and children may use ivory letters in play. Syllables follow, 
 and they are to be learned by heart, even the most difficult. "There 
 is no short way," he says. 55 Then comes the formation of words from 
 syllables, and phrases from words, and so on to reading. Training in 
 pronunciation is to include practice in hard combinations of sounds that 
 remind us of the old " Peter Piper." Quintilian is very careful as to 
 progress in reading. He urges teachers to avoid haste, so as to pre- 
 vent interruption, hesitancy and distrust. A good reader must be able 
 to attend to the words at hand and look ahead at the same time. 
 This must become a habit and the habit requires slow and sure work. 56 
 
 In writing, the tracing method is to be followed. Quintilian lays 
 stress on rapid writing. So the subject is to receive a different kind of 
 attention from that which had been customary in Rome. 
 
 " For, as writing itself is the principal thing in our studies, and that 
 by which alone sure proficiency, resting on the deepest roots, is se- 
 cured, a too slow way of writing retards thought, a rude and confused 
 hand cannot be read." 5r 
 
 But correlation relieves some of the abstractness in his system, for 
 rich subject matter is to be chosen for writing and memory work 
 and also for reading, giving good words and thoughts and useful knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 53 XI, 2:35; X, 3:26. 
 
 54 I, 1 : 24 ff. 
 
 We must remind ourselves here that Greek comes before Latin in 
 the curriculum, though it precedes only by a little. 
 
 55 There is, however, an easier and more pedagogical way. 
 
 56 I, 1 : 33. 
 
 57 I, 1 : 28. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 147 
 
 II. The elementary school period. — Principles and method. 
 
 1. The public school is preferred for pedagogical reasons; it makes, 
 he believes, better pupils and better teachers. 58 This is surely an ele- 
 ment of method; for the whole environment is to be considered. 
 
 2. Here again great care is to be exercised in choosing teachers. 
 As to the attitude of teachers, instruction is to be guided by affection 
 more than by duty. 59 The management of the school is to be definite, 
 systematic, and impressive, with strong moral results, 60 but Quintilian 
 would have no corporal punishment. Strong and sane arguments against 
 it are given in one of his finest passages. 61 
 
 3. The teacher must study the pupil, to learn his capacities and 
 disposition. This evidently gives the basis for another fundamental 
 and far-reaching principle that is implied or expressed in various 
 passages, — that amount and quality of work, the qualities of the 
 teacher, and his method of teaching should be adapted to the capacity, 
 development, and disposition of the pupil, as well as to the general 
 qualities of boyhood. 62 
 
 4. Relaxation is necessary. Quintilian cordially advocates it within 
 due bounds. 61 In this connection he says significantly : " In their 
 plays also their moral dispositions show themselves more plainly." 63 
 
 These are general principles of method. As to special method, since 
 the subjects of the ante-school period still continue and the two 
 periods really make one, we may assume that the methods in the 
 special subjects were similar to those before described. 
 
 III. The Grammar School period. The secondary school — first 
 part. — Principles and method. I. After learning to distinguish words 
 and meanings comes learning to express meaning. Here Quintilian 
 wishes pieces of worth and of benefit to the reader to be chosen. He 
 calls for care as to ethical values, advising that doubtful works be 
 postponed till morals are formed. The value of content is thus sug- 
 gested, apart from the formal training in the subject. 
 
 " Those writings should be the subjects of lectures for boys which 
 best nourish the mind and enlarge the thinking powers; for reading 
 
 58 I, 2. 
 
 59 I, 2 : 15. 
 
 60 This appears elsewhere. 
 
 61 I,3:i4ff- 
 
 That moral training is not weak or superficial and loses nothing from 
 the absence of corporal punishment the following passage clearly 
 shows : — 
 
 "A child is as early as possible therefore to be admonished that he 
 must do nothing too eagerly, nothing dishonestly, nothing without 
 self-control; and we must always keep in mind the maxim of Vergil, 
 " Adeo in teneris consuescere multum est." I, 3 : 13. 
 
 62 I, 2 : 28 ; 3:6. See also II, 2 : 14 ; 4 : 4 ff. ; 5:1; 6:4; X, 2 : 20 ; and 
 especially II, 8. 
 
 63 I, 3:8. 
 
i 4 8 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 other books that relate merely to erudition advanced life will afford 
 sufficient time." 64 
 
 All this shows true pedagogical insight. It is the period for ideals. 
 Quintilian, true to principles like these, is very selective in the books 
 he recommends. 
 
 2. On the formal side, literature is to be taken up so as to give a 
 many-sided study, including interpretation, analysis, grammatical points, 
 figures, different significations of words, disposition of parts, adapta- 
 tion of literary treatment to the requirements of the subject, and 
 allusions. 65 Pronunciation and expression are to receive attention 
 in reading, the actor supplying some instruction here. Gesture and 
 general carriage are also important, and here he recommends the use 
 of the palaestra. 66 
 
 3. Composition work involves the telling of the stories of the poets 
 and the fables of ^gsop, the paraphrasing of poetry, narratives from 
 poets, sentence work, and drill (by sentences) on inflections. 67 
 
 4. Following his main thought that the orator is trained through 
 writing and speaking, Quintilian provides for both methods here, as 
 in later courses. The pupil is to " speak pieces," portions of speeches 
 that he has committed to memory, " in a loud voice and exactly as he 
 will have to plead," all this under a " skilful tutor." 68 It would 
 also appear that he is to be trained in oral reading, using both poetry 
 and prose from a selected list suitable for young boys. 69 
 
 In addition to these central subjects there are other studies, cor- 
 related or supplementary, that with them make an extended curricu- 
 lum. They are history, music, and geometry, as we have already seen. 70 
 But Quintilian occupies himself in discussing the value of these sub- 
 jects rather than in giving details of method, except for showing that 
 he would teach history through correlation. As to the whole plan 
 for this period however he makes the reassuring statement that there 
 is no danger of crowding the curriculum, for the time is long and it 
 is easy to take many studies at once, especially as "variety refreshes 
 and recruits the mind." Not all the minutiae are to be given, but 
 more general knowledge. And yet the curriculum is not a soft one. 
 It requires strong, patient work. Quintilian thinks however that it 
 will appeal to such as have a genuine interest in " eloquence, the queen 
 of the world," not a mere fondness for the returns that their studies 
 will bring them. 71 
 
 64 1, 8:8. 
 
 65 I, 8:i3ff. 
 
 66 I, 11. 
 
 67 I, 9. 
 « 8 X, 11:14. 
 69 1, 8. 
 
 70 1 : 10. Probably geography correlated with literature is also in- 
 cluded in his plan. 
 71 1, I2:i6ff. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 149 
 
 IV. The secondary school — second part. — Principles and 
 method. 
 
 1. The very best teachers are to be selected at the outset. He uses 
 these significant words as to some of the needed qualifications : — 
 
 " I do not consider him who is unwilling to teach little things in the 
 number of preceptors ; but I argue that the ablest teachers can teach 
 little things best, if they will; first, because it is likely that he who 
 excels others in eloquence has gained the most accurate knowledge of 
 the means by which men attain eloquence; secondly, because method, 
 which, with the best qualified instructors, is always plainest, is of great 
 efficacy in teaching; and lastly, because no man rises to such a height 
 in greater things that lesser fade entirely from his view." 72 
 
 Morals are of prime consideration now, and are to be investigated 
 with special care in the case of these teachers, not because he does 
 not consider that the same examination should be made, " and with the 
 utmost care, in regard to other teachers, — but because the very age 
 of the pupils makes attention to the matter all the more necessary; 
 for boys are consigned to these professors when almost grown up and 
 continue their studies under them even after they become men; and 
 greater care must in consequence be adopted in regard to them," so 
 as to secure each age against the dangers peculiar to it. The master 
 must be an example, and he must " regulate also, by severity of disci- 
 pline, the conduct of those who come to receive his instructions." He 
 is to take the attitude of a parent, and pupils are to look to the teacher 
 as to a parent. He must take the proper mean between austerity and 
 an affability that is too easy, so as to avoid both dislike and contempt. 73 
 
 "Let him discourse frequently on what is honorable and good, for 
 the oftener he admonishes, the more seldom will he have to chastise. 
 Let him not be of an angry temper, and yet not a conniver at what 
 ought to be corrected. Let him be plain in his mode of teaching and 
 patient of labor, but rather diligent in exacting tasks than fond of 
 giving them of excessive length. Let him reply readily to those who 
 put questions to him, and question of his own accord those who do not. 
 In commending the exercises of his pupils let him be neither niggardly 
 nor lavish; for the one quality begets dislike of labor, and the other 
 self-complacency. In amending what requires correction let him not 
 be harsh, and least of all reproachful ; for that very circumstance, that 
 some tutors blame as if they hated, deters many young men from their 
 proposed course of study. Let him every day say something, and even 
 much, which, when pupils hear, they may carry away with them, for 
 though he may point out to them in their course of reading plenty of ex- 
 amples for their imitation, yet the living voice, as it is called, feeds 
 the mind more nutritiously, and especially the voice of the teacher 
 whom his pupils, if they are but^ rightly instructed, both love and rev- 
 erence. How much more readily we imitate those whom we like 
 can scarcely be expressed." 74 
 
 72 II, 3 : 5. 74 II, 2: 5 f, 
 
 73 H, 2 : 2. 
 
150 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 It would be hard to find a passage of this length packed with more 
 good pedagogy. 
 
 Again he says, in a chapter in which he writes delightfully on the 
 relations between pupil and teacher, — 
 
 " Neither can eloquence come to its growth unless by mutual agree- 
 ment between him who communicates and him who receives." 75 
 
 The teacher is to show his worth and his appreciation of the pupil's 
 position also in another way, — by a plain and simple manner of teach- 
 ing, so that the learner may not be deterred by complicated presenta- 
 tion, and thus lose interest in his study. 76 
 
 These suggestions of Quintilian not only tell us about the teacher, 
 but also give us much information about his method. Quintilian cer- 
 tainly has a clearly cut idea of the instructor who is to come up to 
 his standard. The qualities of the secondary school teacher might 
 be summed up in the two words, learning and sympathy. 
 
 2. On the part of the pupil he chooses a modest attitude and dis- 
 approves of demonstration, " standing and showing exultation and 
 giving applause/' to be " repaid in kind." 77 
 
 3. In the direction of individual work we may note the following 
 points, most of them suggested by passages already quoted : — We are 
 to understand the nature of the child at work; to suit instruction to 
 individuals; to separate ages; to adapt training to different ages; to 
 observe differences in ability, ascertain the direction in each case, and 
 direct accordingly, 
 
 "because nature attains greater power when seconded by culture; 
 and he that is led contrary to nature cannot make due progress in the 
 studies for which he is unfit, and makes those talents, for the exercise 
 of which he seemed born, weaker by neglecting to cultivate them." 78 
 
 But Quintilian defines his thought on such topics as follows: — 
 
 " To distinguish peculiarities of talent," he says, " is absolutely neces- 
 sary; and to make use of particular studies to suit them is what no 
 man would discountenance. For one youth will be fitter for the study 
 of history than another ; one will be qualified for writing poetry, another 
 for the study of the law, and some perhaps fit only to be sent into 
 the fields. The teacher of rhetoric will decide in accordance with these 
 peculiarities, just as the master of the palaestra will make one of his 
 pupils a runner, another a boxer, etc. 
 
 " But he who is destined for public speaking must strive to excel, not 
 merely in one accomplishment, but in all the accomplishments that are 
 requisite for that art, even though some of them may seem too difficult 
 for him when he is learning them. . . . Yet I would not fight against 
 nature; for I do not think that any good quality that is innate should 
 
 75 II, 9:3. Another significant passage is found in II, 4:12. 
 
 76 VIII, Introduction, 1-5. 
 
 77 II, 2:9-10, 11. 
 "11,8:5; 11,4:9-14. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 151 
 
 be detracted, but that whatever is inactive or deficient should be in- 
 vigorated or supplied. 79 
 
 It is to be noted that Quintilian is not speaking of general talent 
 here, but of interests. We are likely to confuse ideas if we do not 
 discriminate in this way. We have already referred to Quintilian's 
 creed as to talent. As to the boy's interests, modern pedagogy, as far 
 as education is concerned, would lay more stress upon acquired in- 
 terests than upon natural interests. One cannot determine his real 
 interests, 80 nor detect the direction of his best ability, till he has come 
 into contact in a genuine educational way with many things. Education, 
 to be truly selective, must select from the multitude, not from the few. 
 Hence the multitude must go to school. 
 
 4. So much for general observations. We come now to some peda- 
 gogical directions as to a special subject, — composition, that we may 
 with advantage remind ourselves is the key-subject in his curriculum. 
 
 (a) The teacher is to begin with that to which the pupil has learned 
 something similar under the grammarians (i.e., in the previous school). 81 
 
 (b) His feeling for the boy is shown by his attempt to meet his 
 qualities. He has the real boy in mind with his crudeness and his real 
 characteristics. 82 Here is a characteristic passage: — 
 
 " That temper in boys will afford me little hope in which mental effort 
 is prematurely restrained by judgment. I like what is produced to be 
 extremely copious, profuse even beyond the limits of propriety. Years 
 will greatly reduce superfluity; judgment will smooth away much of it; 
 something will be worn off, as it were, by use, if there be but metal 
 from which something may be hewn and polished off, and such metal 
 there will be, if we do not make the plate too thin at first, so that deep 
 cutting may break it. . . . 
 
 " Above all therefore, and especially for boys, a dry master is to be 
 avoided, not less than a dry soil void of all moisture for plants that 
 are still tender. Under the influence of such a tutor they at once 
 become dwarfish; . . . while they think it sufficient to be free from 
 fault, they fall into the fault of being free from all merit. Let not 
 even maturity itself therefore come too fast." 83 
 
 The principle for guiding correction of exercises with reference to 
 different ages is well indicated in passages quoted on earlier pages. 8 * 
 
 (c) Care, not haste, is the desideratum in this work of composi- 
 tion. 
 
 (d) Poetical narrative came in the previous school; now comes 
 historical narrative, which has, he says, more of truth, more of sub- 
 
 79 II, 8 : 6-10. Compare this with Cicero's view as to the relative 
 worth of genius and diligence, — De Or. II, 35. 
 
 80 Note also that Quintilian lays stress on culture and emphasizes 
 practice. His book is full of passages suggesting these things. 
 
 81 II, 4:1. 
 
 82 II, 4:4, 5. 
 
 88 II, 4:7-8. 
 
 8*1, 3:6; II, 4:i2ff. See also II, 6:4ff. 
 
i 5 2 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 stance. Good grading is a part of good method, and Quintilian is 
 strong here as elsewhere. From simple narrative he proceeds through 
 various stages of argumentative and judicial writing, including briefs, 
 much of it of a simple type, to be compared with the average high 
 school senior's efforts of the present day. The work requires close 
 study and very definite training. That a considerable part of it is ele- 
 mentary and preparatory will be seen in this significant passage, which 
 occurs in connection with his description of the first stage of writing : — 
 
 " There will be a proper time," he says, " for acquiring facility of 
 speech; . . . but in the mean time it will be sufficient, if a boy with 
 all his care and with the utmost application of which his age is capable, 
 can write something tolerable. To this practice let him accustom him- 
 self and make it natural to him. He only will succeed in attaining 
 the eminence at which we aim, or the point next below it, who shall 
 learn to speak correctly before he learns to speak rapidly." 85 
 
 Perfection of style is not the object at this stage. 
 
 With writing is to go practice in the oral reading of history and 
 speeches, with a careful study of passages from the points of view of 
 language, rhetoric, and literature. Quintilian thinks the teacher would 
 contribute much to the advancement of pupils, 
 
 "if, as the explanation of poets is required from teachers of gram- 
 mar, so he (the rhetoric teacher) in like manner would exercise the 
 pupils under his care in the reading of history, and even still more in 
 that of speeches." But long custom, he tells us, has established a 
 different mode of teaching. For himself, however, he says, and this 
 is an indication of the greatness of the man, " though I should make a 
 new discovery ever so late, I should not be ashamed to recommend 
 it for the future." 86 
 
 (e) What Quintilian advises in the study of the selections is finely 
 indicated in the following passages : — 87 
 
 " But to point out the beauties of authors and, if occasion ever pre- 
 sents itself, their faults, is eminently consistent with that profession 
 and engagement by which he (the teacher of rhetoric) offers himself 
 to the public as a master of eloquence, especially as I do not require 
 such toil from teachers that they should call their pupils to their lap 
 and labor at the reading of whatever book each of them may fancy. 
 For to me it seems easier as well as more advantageous that the mas- 
 ter, after calling for silence, should appoint some one pupil to read, 
 (and it will be best that this duty should be imposed on them in turns), 
 that they may thus accustom themselves to clear pronunciation ; and 
 then, after explaining the cause for which the oration was composed, 
 (for so that which is said will be better understood), that he should 
 leave nothing unnoticed which is important to be remarked, either in 
 thought or language, or in argument and rhetorical features for forensic 
 purposes." 
 
 8511,4:15-17. 87H ? 5:5 ff, 
 
 ••11,5. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 153 
 
 "In regard to style, he should notice any expression that is pecu- 
 liarly appropriate, elegant, or sublime; when the amplification deserves 
 praise; what quality is opposed to it; what phrases are happily 
 metaphorical, what figures of speech are used, what part of the com- 
 position is smooth and polished, and yet manly and vigorous." 
 
 " Nor will the preceptor be under obligation merely to teach these 
 things, but frequently to ask questions upon them, and try the judgment 
 of his pupils. Thus" carelessness will not come upon them while they 
 listen, nor will the instructions that shall be given fail to enter their 
 ears ; and they will at the same time be conducted to the end which is 
 sought in this exercise, namely that they themselves may conceive and 
 understand." 
 
 This is a lesson in rhetoric, as well as in literature and composition. 
 It is concrete, correlated rhetoric, — rhetoric of the best and most 
 educative sort, because it shows it in its natural environment, is prac- 
 tical, not theoretical. Quintilian well says, — 
 
 " I venture to say that this sort of diligent exercise will contribute 
 more to the improvement of students than all the treatises of all the 
 rhetoricians that ever wrote; which doubtless, however, are of con- 
 siderable use, but their scope is more general; and how indeed can 
 they go into all kinds of questions that arise almost every day? ... In 
 almost every art precepts are of much less avail than practical experi- 
 ments." 88 
 
 Here again, then, Quintilian, true to his principles, provides for a 
 study of literature as an essential part of his method, which includes 
 imitation, practice, and the exercise of judgment for the purpose of 
 modifying, adapting, adding to, and even exceeding, one's models. He 
 shows his practical bent and sound judgment, which are everywhere 
 manifest in his book, by advising the best authors from the beginning: 
 
 " I would choose the clearest in style and most intelligible, recom- 
 mending Livy, for instance, to be read by boys, rather than Sallust, 
 who, however, is the greater historian." 
 
 Pupils at this age are more likely to look at externals; hence the 
 need of intelligent care in selecting. As to style, he recommends, for 
 early years till tastes are formed, something between the crudeness and 
 dryness of early writers and the florid style of some of the later ones. 
 When the danger period is past, however, he recommends them 
 
 "to read not only the ancients (from whom, if a solid and manly 
 force of thought be adopted, while the rust of a rude age is cleared 
 off, our present style will receive additional grace), but also the writers 
 of the present day, in whom there is much merit." The latter must be 
 selected with care. " Who they are is not for everybody to decide. 
 We may even err with greater safety in regard to the ancients ; and 
 I would therefore defer the reading of the moderns, that imitation may 
 not go before judgment." 89 
 
 88 II, 5:14. 89 H, 5:i9ff. 
 
154 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 (f) To return to writing, there are two general modes of procedure 
 in giving the training in this work that forms his chief means for 
 developing the orator: i. Directions with illustrations by the master 
 before writing; 2, directions (outlines) before writing, with additions 
 and emendations after the writing. He believes that both modes have 
 advantages but he thinks that, 
 
 " if it should be necessary to follow only one of the two, it will be 
 of greater service to point out the right way first than to recall those 
 who have gone astray from their errors." 90 
 
 (s) Quintilian deals very discriminatingly with "rules." The pupil 
 is to be a thorough master of principles and details. But rules must not 
 be abused. Care must be exercised not to make them an end. Judg- 
 ment and proportion are to influence in the matter. Principles must 
 become a part of one's own nature, and one must consult his own 
 personality apart from instruction and rules. 91 
 
 "He must exert his own powers and acquire his own method; he 
 must not merely look to principles, but must have them in readiness 
 to act upon them, not as if they had been taught him, but as if they 
 had been born in him. For art can easily show a way, if there be one ; 
 but art has done its duty when it sets the resources of eloquence before 
 us ; it is for us to know how to use them." 92 
 
 Practice is to make a kind of intuition for work that will obviate 
 constant reference to rules. 
 
 One of Quintilian's most striking passages, in which he criticises 
 some of the education of his day (easily paralleled in modern, and 
 even in present-day education), puts the matter very clearly: — 
 
 " In the meantime I would not have young men think themselves 
 sufficiently accomplished, if they have learned by heart some of those 
 little books on rhetoric which have been handed about. The art of 
 speaking depends on great labor, constant study, varied exercise, re- 
 peated trials, the deepest sagacity, and the readiest judgment. But it 
 is assisted by rules, provided that they point out a fair road and not 
 a single wheel rut, from which he who thinks it unlawful to decline 
 must be contented with the slow progress of those who walk on ropes. 
 . . . The work of eloquence is extensive and of infinite variety, pre- 
 senting something new almost daily; nor will all that is possible ever 
 have been said about it." 93 
 
 (h) Akin to this, but from a slightly different direction, is his 
 statement as to the relative importance of some of the elements of 
 
 90 II, 6:2-6. 
 
 81 II, 13; VIII, Introd., 28; VII, 10:14. Order, judgment, method 
 are three favorite general rules; but he is not speaking of rules of 
 this kind. See also page 153. 
 
 92 VII, 10 : 14, 15. 
 
 93 II, 13 : 15-17. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 155 
 
 oratory. He recommends, as already noted, " care about words, and 
 the utmost care about matter." 94 He seems to imply that there is a 
 tendency to emphasize words too much and to neglect things that he 
 makes the foundation. 
 
 "The best words generally attach themselves to our subject, and 
 show themselves by their own light. . . . They are to be found close 
 to the subject. . . . The best expressions are such as are least far- 
 fetched and have an air of simplicity, appearing to spring from truth 
 itself." 95 
 
 In keeping with this is the caution that sentiments spring from the 
 subjects themselves and cannot be manufactured beforehand, as some 
 seem to think. 
 
 (i) But though Quintilian lays particular stress upon the funda- 
 mental elements, and upon the simple and practical in oratorical train- 
 ing, it must not be supposed that he was averse to embellishment, as 
 some passages might seem to indicate. Quintilian paid due attention to 
 ornament. Even in the statement of facts, which might seem as prosy 
 as anything, he says: 
 
 " I think that the statement of fact requires, as much as any part 
 of the speech, to be adorned with all the attractions and grace of 
 which it is susceptible," and the manner of presentation must vary 
 with the case. 96 
 
 One can easily detect a Quintilian touch in Webster's presentation of 
 a case, by comparing some of the latter's language with some of Quintil- 
 ian's directions. 
 
 5. There is to be a vigorous preparation for the Forum. Quin- 
 tilian finds the present exercises in the schools tame and weak. He 
 would have his pupil 
 
 "aspire to victory in these schools, and learn to strike at the vital 
 parts of his adversary and to protect his own. Let the preceptor exact 
 such manly exercise above all things and bestow the highest com- 
 mendation on it when it is displayed." 
 
 Another criticism of the schools is found in the suggestion that 
 school training, as practiced, is too confining, that there is minute 
 and careful training, but that it tends to fix in certain lines that affect 
 one badly when the actual test comes. 97 
 
 A similar thought is enforced in several passages in which he con- 
 tends that formal training is not the sum of preparation for the orator, 
 that training must be real and vital, brought into close touch with life. 
 One must try the Forum, even while a pupil. Writing is the "great 
 modeler of excellence" in the orator, but another step is necessary to 
 reach the end. Power to speak crowns the efforts of a teacher. 98 
 
 9 *VIII, Introd., 20. 97 II, 10; V, 12:22. 
 
 95 VIII, Introd., 21-23. 9 » X, 1 : 3. 
 
 96 IV, 2:116. 
 
156 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 It was customary for pupils to learn by heart what they had com- 
 posed and repeat it on a certain day. Quintilian disapproves of this, 
 for "proficiency depends chiefly on the diligent cultivation of style." 
 In committing and declamation he recommends " select passages from 
 orations and histories, or any other sort of writing deserving of at- 
 tention." This provides for memory work, supplies models of the 
 best compositions that will work silently in forming style, and gives 
 command of a fine vocabulary (a three-fold one, consisting of words, 
 phrases, figures) that will offer itself spontaneously in future work." 
 But he also provides for declaiming one's own compositions occasionally, 
 and so shows his good pedagogy by appealing to adolescent quali- 
 ties. 1 
 
 Declamation is "the most recently invented of all exercises and by 
 far the most useful. For it comprehends within itself all those ex- 
 ercises of which I have been treating and presents us with a very close 
 resemblance to reality." 
 
 But he tells us that the exercise has degenerated and so has been one 
 of the chief agencies that have corrupted eloquence. He would bring 
 it back to its possibilities. 2 
 
 Some principles of method for the final stage of training. — The 
 boy now " knows how to invent and arrange his matter " and " has also 
 acquired the art of selecting and disposing his words." Quintilian 
 would next instruct him " by what means he may be able to practice in 
 the best and easiest possible manner that which he has learned." 3 
 Here begins the final instalment of his training in the art of oratory. 
 This may perhaps be regarded as the post-secondary part of his School 
 of Rhetoric. Once again following his spiral system he recurs to his 
 three-fold division of work and brings the spiral one turn further up. 
 Here are some of his points : — 
 
 (a) Constant reading of standard literature for a more critical study 
 of models, in order to develop expression and style. 
 
 " For a long time none but the best authors must be read and such 
 as are least likely to mislead him who trusts them, and they must be 
 read. . . almost with as much care as if we were transcribing them." 4 
 
 " While we receive all language first of all by the ear," 5 he thinks 
 there is special value in reading and digesting carefully, as it gives a 
 more deliberative mastery of language. This critical study of literature 
 is to give, first, words, 6 — not merely vocabulary, but facility in adapt- 
 ing words to situations, — then expression and style. He lays special 
 stress on argumentative style, but not narrowly, as seen by the wide 
 range of his literature course. 
 
 99 II, 7 : 4- 4 X, 1 : 20. 
 
 1 II, 7 : 5. 5 X, 1 : 10. 
 
 2 II, 10. ex, i:6ff. 
 3 X, 1:4. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 157 
 
 In this connection comes in again his fundamental psychological prin- 
 ciple, imitation, broadly interpreted. 
 
 (b) Development of judgment and initiative, which Quintilian pre- 
 sents with striking force. Here we have his final school work for 
 developing individuality. 
 
 (c) Constant practice in writing, following a carefully graded 
 course. 7 
 
 (d) As writing is the key to excellence his further pedagogical ob- 
 servations on the subject will be of interest. First then we note some 
 general principles : — 
 
 1. " By writing quickly we are not brought to write well. By writ- 
 ing well we are brought to write quickly." 8 
 
 2. " Let our pen be at first slow, provided that it be accurate. Let 
 us search for what is best and not allow ourselves to be readily pleased 
 with whatever presents itself. Let judgment be applied to our thoughts, 
 and skill in arrangement to such of them as the judgment sanctions. 
 . . . The weight of each (word) must be carefully estimated, and then 
 must follow the art of collocation; and the rhythm of our phrases 
 must be tried in every possible way, since any word must not take its 
 position just as it offers itself." 9 
 
 3. Practice and method assist in giving readiness. Method is work- 
 ing according to the nature of the subject, nature of the characters con- 
 cerned, disposition of the judge, and requirements of the occasion. 10 
 
 4. " I consider that the greatest facility in composition is acquired 
 by exercise in the simplest subjects. . . . But the great proof of power 
 is to expand what is naturally contracted, to amplify what is little, to 
 give variety to things that are similar, and attraction to such as are 
 obvious, and to say with effect much on little." 1X 
 
 Quintilian also gives some interesting suggestions as to means, con- 
 ditions, environment, and mechanics of writing. 
 
 1. He suggests practice in translation and similar exercises as defi- 
 nitely helpful for his main object, (a) translation from Greek into 
 Latin for matter and art, in which Greek excels. Such an exercise 
 assures, he believes, better choice of words and secures figures for 
 ornament, " because the Roman tongue differs greatly from that of the 
 Greeks." 12 But Latin excels Greek in certain things, and its real genius 
 is to be brought out. (b) He would have his pupil convert Latin into 
 other words, (c) He recommends turning poetry into prose for ele- 
 
 7 See X, 3 : 13. For grading conf . X, 5, where Quintilian gives some 
 very interesting suggestions. Order of development is seen in his 
 statement that power comes first by speaking, next by imitation, and 
 last by " diligent exercise in writing." " But, ... as our work pro- 
 ceeds, those things that were of the greatest importance begin to appear 
 of the least." X, 1:3, 4. 
 
 8 X l3 :io. 10 X, 3:1s. 12 X, 5:2,3. 
 
 9 X, 3:5. "X, 5:10, II. 
 
158 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 vation of style, for training in exactness, through getting at the real 
 prose equivalent, and for general broadening of expression by compar- 
 ing the two languages and studying expression-rivalry between them. 13 
 (d) Paraphrasing Latin orations helps in gaining language power, 
 encourages care in study and writing, and stimulates ambition to excel 
 the original. 14 (e) " It will be serviceable also to vary our own (lan- 
 guage) in a number of different forms, taking certain thoughts for the 
 purpose and putting them as harmoniously as possible into different 
 shapes." 15 
 
 2. He makes several practical suggestions as to the method of writ- 
 ing. . 
 
 (a) He would have one be his own amanuensis, because it gives 
 better conditions for thinking with some deliberation. In the case 
 of dictating, with a rapid amanuensis it tends to bring haste and care- 
 lessness in composing, while with a slow amanuensis it obstructs the 
 course of thought and dispels its fire. Besides, it destroys the privacy 
 needed for vivid thinking. 16 
 
 (b) He would avoid running through the subject and getting a rough 
 copy and then revising. Better use care at the outset and then polish, 
 he thinks. 17 
 
 (c) For better connection repeat the last words of what has just 
 been written; 
 
 " for besides that by this means what follows is better connected 
 with what precedes, the ardor of thought that has cooled by the delay 
 of writing receives its strength anew, and, by going again over the 
 ground, acquires new force." 18 
 
 (d) As to environment, the best condition for writing by day is 
 not retirement amid nature's charms, which are diverting, but Demos- 
 thenes' secluded place, " where no voice can be heard and no prospect 
 contemplated"; — at night a closed chamber with "the silence of the 
 night . . . and a single light for company." But one must also accustom 
 himself to " set all interruptions at defiance " and must be able to secure 
 a kind of privacy for thought anywhere. 19 
 
 (e) There are certain principles for correction which he likes : — 
 <'(a) After the writing is done lay away the copy, (b) Do not correct 
 too much. There are some, he says, 
 
 "who return to whatever they compose as if they presumed it to 
 be incorrect, and as if nothing can be right that has presented itself 
 first; they think whatever is different from it is better and find some- 
 thing to correct as often as they take up their manuscript, like surgeons 
 who make an incision even in sound places ; and hence it happens that 
 their writings are, so to speak, scarred and bloodless and rendered 
 
 13 X, 5:4. 17 X, 3:17, 18. 
 
 14 X, 5:Sff. 18 X, 3:6. 
 
 15 X, s : 9. 19 X, 3 : 22 ff. 
 
 16 X, 3:19. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 159 
 
 worse by the remedies applied. Let what we write therefore some- 
 times please, or at least content us, that the file may polish our work 
 and not wear it away to nothing." Again he says, " Nor do I think 
 that those who have acquired some power in the use of the pen should 
 be chained down to the unhappy task of perpetually finding fault with 
 themselves." 20 
 
 (f) Quintilian also brings in some details of an external nature. 21 
 (a) He advises writing on wax-tablets, for ease in erasing and for 
 quickness (unless eyes require parchment), and he suggests that some 
 leaves be left blank and that some space be left vacant for jotting down 
 odd thoughts that may occur to us on other subjects (which reminds 
 us of De Quincey's method of writing), (b) Again the pupil's tablets 
 should not be too broad, "having found a youth," he says, "otherwise 
 anxious to excel, make his compositions of too great a length, because 
 he used to measure them by the number of lines," and the fault could 
 not be corrected without altering the size of his tablets. The modern 
 teacher often finds length usurping the place of substance. 
 
 3. Speaking. The Forum. — But writing is not enough. There 
 must be speaking, if the orator is to have the needed practical training. 
 So Quintilian emphasizes a new series of declamations " made similar 
 to actual pleadings." 22 The student must come to real life ; reality 
 tells. In addition to what he has already provided in declamations 
 the young aspirant is to choose an orator and attend on him carefully. 
 He is to be present at as many trials as possible. He is to set down 
 real cases in writing and to handle both sides of the question. 
 
 "The young man will thus be sooner qualified for the Forum whom 
 his master has obliged to approach in his declamation as nearly as 
 possible to reality and to range through all sorts of cases." 23 
 
 4. The pupil is now well on the way to extempore speaking, which 
 represents the highest degree of oratorical power. But there is an 
 intermediate step between his present status and that. " Next to writ- 
 ing is meditation," i.e., thinking a matter out instead of writing it, to 
 be followed by speaking. But much practice in writing gives " a certain 
 form of thinking . . . that may be continually attendant on our medi- 
 tations." A habit of thinking must be gradually gained by a method 
 like that noted in his treatment of memory. The student is to gain 
 such latitude in meditated speaking that he will not be chained to a 
 fixed scheme, but will be able to incorporate a "happy conception of 
 the moment " without confusing his plans. 24 
 
 Extempore speaking is the final field of effort for the orator, who 
 must have power to meet sudden calls where preparation is impos- 
 sible. Quintilian continues his description of the course of training 
 for this final end with the same masterly detail found throughout his 
 work. We may sum it up by saying that by study, art, and practice 
 
 2 °X, 3:10; X, 4:3. 22 X, 5:14. 24 X , 6. 
 
 21 X, 3 : 3i-3. 23 X, 5 : 19 ff- 
 
160 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 a kind of intuitive method in speaking is developed to relieve the mind 
 of pressure and allow it to expend its force constructively so that, 
 
 "while we are uttering what is immediately present to our thoughts, 
 we may be arranging what is to follow, . . . and our prospect may 
 advance no less than our step," — a power " such as that by which the 
 hand runs on in writing and by which the eye in reading sees several 
 lines with their turns and transitions at once, and perceives what foU 
 lows before the voice has uttered what precedes." 25 
 
 But notwithstanding his regard for extempore speaking he remarks 
 significantly that he would never wish, for his own part, to have such 
 confidence in his readiness to speak 
 
 " as not to take at least a short time, which may almost always be had, 
 to consider what he is going to say. . . . We must study at all times 
 and in all places ; for there is scarcely a single one of our days so oc- 
 cupied that some profitable attention may not be hastily devoted, dur- 
 ing at least some portion of it, . . . to writing or reading or speak- 
 ing." 26 
 
 In connection with speaking Quintilian expresses his " full approba- 
 tion of short notes and of small memorandum books which may be 
 held in hand." But he disapproves of written summaries as likely to 
 weaken memory power. He forgets nothing. 27 
 
 It will be fitting to close this summary with two very pertinent and 
 admirable suggestions of Quintilian that show the man : — 
 
 i. " No portion even of our common conversation should ever be 
 careless. . . . Whatever we say, and wherever we say it, should be 
 as far as possible excellent in its kind." 
 
 2. " As to writing, we must certainly never write more than when 
 we have to speak much extempore; for by the use of the pen a 
 weightiness will be preserved in our matter, and that light facility of 
 language, which swims as it were on the surface, will be compressed 
 into a body." 28 
 
 Good advice for modern language teachers. 
 
 The two final books, which need not concern us in detail here, give 
 emphasis to " delivery " and the training by which it may be attained, 
 and to the higher studies of the orator, — the professional side of his 
 work, — and his psychological and philosophical studies. — They take up 
 also a discussion of different styles of oratory and a characterization 
 of prominent orators. 
 
 Quintilian has given us an enterprising course of training, broad, 
 strong, thorough, and illuminated with a wealth of detail and illustra- 
 tion. His great pedagogical treatise has left its impress on all succeed- 
 ing centuries. 
 
 Brief outlines and a table of comparisons follow. 
 
 l 5 *>7- 27 X, 7:31,32. 
 
 26 X, 7:20, 27. 28 X, 7:28. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 161 
 
 Topics and References. — Cicero's De Oratore. 
 
 Education as conceived by Cicero. (General treatment — Omits elemen- 
 tary education) 
 i. Aim: — Complete Orator: — 1:8, 26 f; 111:22. 
 
 2. Analysis of Complete Orator. 
 
 (1) Character necessary. — II : 20, 43, 82; III: 14, 18. 
 
 (2) Wise, educated, cultured man. Language power and memory 
 enforced: — I: 2, 5, 6, 8, 11-16, 25, 26, 28, 32, 34, 36; II: 1, 2, 
 8, 9, 15, 16, 23, 25, 27, 51 ; HI : 13, 14, 19, 20, 25, 31 i., 35, 49 f., 51. 
 
 (3) An appreciation of relations of life and disposition to throw 
 himself into the circumstances and exigencies of life, public, and 
 private: — 1 : 10, 11; 11:9, 16; III: 17. 
 
 (4) Special and technical qualities of orator needed : — capacity 
 to make word meet time, occasion, person, subject matter. Mas- 
 ter in public debate and private conversation — 1 : 5, 8, 
 12, 21, 28, 31, 34; II : 25, 27, 31-2, 58 f., 79; HI : 11, 12, 14, 45 U 
 49 f-, 51. 56 f. 
 
 (5) Judgment, self-control, confidence. Dignified, yet approach- 
 able; cosmopolitan, yet incisively Roman. Individuality. 
 
 Summary: Liberally trained man and professionally trained man 
 combined, each brought to highest perfection. 
 
 3. Relations of orator. 
 
 (1) Personal ascendency: — 1:4, 8, 33; 11:8. Brutus 15, 54. 
 
 (2) Public interests, etc.: — 1:8, 9, 11, 36; 11:9, 16; III : 1-2, 17. 
 
 4. Subject matter for training. No systematic treatment. (Grouping 
 
 of scattered statements.) 
 
 (1) Language, — vocabulary, grammar, rhetoric, composition: — I: 
 5, 12, 21, 31, 32, 33, 34; 11:23, (38) ; HI:7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 19, 
 
 25 f., 44 f., 49, 51. All linguistic elements. 
 
 (2) Literature (formal value; culture value): — 1:5, 28, 34; III: 
 10, 13. 
 
 (3) Philosophy and practical psychology (emotions) : — 1:3, 5, 12 
 14, 15, 28, si, 52; II: 81; 111:35- 
 
 (4) Law,— civil and general : — 1 : 5, II, 14, 15, 28, 34. 
 
 (5) Music: — 11:8; III: 44 f- 
 
 (6) History: — 1:5, 34; H : 15- 
 
 (7) Mathematics : — 1 : 14 ; II : 15. 
 
 (8) Military affairs and politics : — I: 11, 14, 15, 34. 
 
 (9) Delivery (all elements) : — 1:5, 28, 31; 11:45; III: 11, 12, 49 f., 
 56 f. 
 
 (10) Everything within range of human intelligence: — 1:4, 5, 6, 16, 
 34; II: 1, 2, 15, 16. 
 
 5. Pedagogical principles and method: — (General and unscientific.) 
 , a. General pedagogical principles : — 
 
 (1) Relation of art to power. Helpful, but subordinate to talent: 
 — 1:23, 32; 11:3, 7, 35; Relation of talent, art and diligence. 
 Diligence supreme, II : 35. 
 
 (2) Careful attention to individual: — II: 20; 111:9. 
 
 (3) Inadvisable to separate training in thought power, etc., from 
 training in delivery and rhetoric : — III : 6, 15 ff., 19, 20. 
 
162 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 (4) Anti-specialization : — III : 5, 6, 33. 
 
 (5) Roman traditions desired: — 1:6. 
 b. Special principles guiding method : — 
 
 (1) Talent (relation to education) : — 1:25, 28, 32; 11:7, 35- 
 
 (2) Imitation : — II : 21, 22, 23. 
 
 (3) Memory training, (memory-storehouse). Practice; mnemon- 
 
 ics : — 1 : 5, 34 ; II : 86-88. 
 
 (4) Relation of literature to education : — 
 
 a. Subject matter for imitation and absorption: — 1 : 21, 34; 
 III : 10, 19. 
 
 b. Training value (read, turn over, praise, censure, inter- 
 pret, correct, refute) : — 1:34- 
 
 (5) Composition (writing most excellent modeller and teacher of 
 oratory) : — 1 : 21, 33, 34 ; II : 23 ; III : 44 f ., 52. 
 
 (6) Value of translation. 1 : 34. 
 
 (7) Generalization needed. " Common places," etc. II : 16, 27, 30, 
 31, 32, 34, 4i; 111:30. 
 
 (8) Ability to see and discuss both sides : — 1 : 34. 
 
 (9) Extempore work subordinate to deliberate preparation and 
 dependent on it : — 1 : 33. 
 
 ( 10) Humor : — II : 54 ff. 
 
 (11) Practice, drill, — key to all efficiency: — 1:4, 3 2 , 33, 34; II : 20, 
 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 35. 
 
 All studies taught from practical standpoint. 
 Summary: — Main principles of method, — talent, imitation, habit, 
 
 memory, practice; formal training. 
 Agents of Education: 
 
 Parents and nurse (correct form of speech). Some train- 
 ing from specialists ; some from familiar converse ; some from 
 practical observation (Forum). Some from foreign travel 
 and study, if possible. 
 In his Brutus Cicero shows with enthusiasm his training from the 
 age of 16, — attending the Forum; studying hard (reading, writing, 
 private declamation); pursuing the studies of philosophy and logic; 
 taking rhetorical instruction under Molo, the principles of jurispru- 
 dence under Scaevola ; trying his abilities by undertaking at an early 
 age the " management of causes, both public and private " ; foreign 
 travel with renewed study of philosophy and oratory; contact with and 
 training under the most distinguished orators of Asia. His earnestness 
 in study may be seen from a statement made in the midst of his de- 
 scription of his course of training^ — "In the meanwhile I pursued my 
 studies of every kind day and night with unremitting application." 
 Brutus, LXXXIX-XCL. 
 Here is one of his fundamental principles in work : — 
 " Since then in speaking three things are requisite in finding argu- 
 ment, genius, method. . . . and diligence, I cannot but assign the 
 chief place to genius, but diligence can raise even genius itself out 
 of dullness. ... It is capable of effecting almost everything. . . . Art 
 only shows you where to look and where that lies which you want to 
 find; all the rest depends on care, attention, consideration, vigilance, 
 assiduity, industry, all which I include in that one word that I have 
 so often repeated, diligence, a single virtue in which all other virtues 
 are comprehended." De Or., II, 35. 
 
QUINTILIAN'S SECONDARY SCHOOL 163 
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 Tabular Summary 
 
 I. Roman Ideals in Education — Quintilian. 
 
 Aim 
 
 Perfect Orator, 
 
 High Character, 
 
 Liberally educated, 
 
 Professionally trained, 
 
 Working for (state, general public), and himself. 
 
 Practical Ideal. (Oratory end in itself) 
 
 II. Subject matter — Curriculum. 
 (Age Limits Indefinite.) 
 
 Curriculum described in great 
 
 detail. See preceding appendix. 
 Ante-school period : — 
 
 Language — 1. Greek. 2. Latin. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 General information. 
 
 Ethics. 
 Elementary school period : — 
 
 Language — Writing — Num- 
 ber (?) 
 
 Composition, elementary. 
 
 General information. 
 
 Ethics. 
 Grammar school period : — 
 
 Grammatics : — 
 
 1. Art of speaking and writ- 
 ing correctly. 
 
 2. Literature (culture- value; 
 
 formal value). Many sided 
 study. 
 
 3. Very abstract study of in- 
 tricacies of grammar. 
 
 Elementary composition. 
 
 Elementary Rhetoric. Ele- 
 mentary Elocution. Music. 
 Arithmetic. Geometry. As- 
 tronomy. 
 
 Delivery (elementary). 
 Higher School: 
 
 Advanced composition (style; 
 elaboration). 
 
 Wide course in literature. 
 
 Philosophy, — ■ physics, ethics, 
 dialectic. Mnemonics. De- 
 livery. 
 
 (All learning) 
 
 METHOD 
 
 Talent 
 
 Individual attention 
 
 Interest 
 
 Imitation 
 
 Habit 
 
 Memory, — information storing. 
 
 Objective work. Much concrete- 
 ness. 
 
 Rules -f practice based on imita- 
 tion. 
 
 Correlation prominent. 
 
 Generalization power developed. 
 
 Development of initiative. 
 
 Most prominent elements of 
 method : — 
 
 Practice and drill. — Formal Dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 Exercises for developing initia- 
 tive. 
 
 Writing, — composition, — the chief 
 instrument of training. 
 
 Discipline 
 Mild 
 Firm 
 Wise 
 Teacher + Pupil 
 
 Choice of teachers and attendants 
 made much of. Teacher the 
 best part of method. 
 
 Public Schools preferred. 
 
X 
 
 JESUS, TEACHER — NEW PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 
 
 Decadence of Roman schools. New aims needed. — As in- 
 dicated in the last chapter, the old Roman schools, which con- 
 tinued vigorous longest in Gaul, soon lost their life, because 
 they lost their vital relations with the life of the Empire. 
 Freedom was gone. The opportunity for individual initiative 
 had passed, and there came what always must come when 
 the individual and individual responsibility are sunk in large 
 aggregations, — decadence. In education, as already noted, 
 linguistics occupied the field, and they became an end in them- 
 selves. Thus form ruled, and decadence naturally came here, 
 as in the Empire at large. Education needed re-objectifying 
 in order to recover its life ; some new and vital touch with the 
 world must be found, and language as the supreme element in 
 education, according to Roman pedagogy, must find something 
 to do and something worth doing, if it was to regain its vital- 
 ity. It had not long to wait. A new order of life and thought 
 with new aims and new view-points was forming, which 
 eventually gave infinite scope to old elements of education and 
 suggested new elements. 
 
 A new religious and educational force. — In the eighth 
 century of Rome and the twentieth of Israel, according to 
 traditional chronology, just as the ancient schools, typified by 
 those of Greece and Rome, had reached their zenith in organi- 
 zation and efficiency, a new force that was simply a new view 
 of life came into the world. It appeared suddenly, for it was 
 so unlike its surroundings that its appearance was like an 
 unheralded event. Of course we can see a slow evolution 
 toward this supreme moment, and a few at that time were not 
 unprepared for it ; but for the world at large it was far other- 
 wise. The new force was Christianity, not a new religion, but 
 
 164 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 165 
 
 a new phase of religion. It was to revolutionize education. 
 Its principles were to make a new pedagogy. 
 
 It will contribute toward an appreciation of its force and its 
 power of growth to note the circumstances that surrounded its 
 advent and the fundamental idea that characterized it. At 
 any rate it will be interesting and suggestive to do this. 
 
 Circumstances surrounding its advent. — The Roman Em- 
 pire was at its best. It was passing through the happiest, most 
 buoyant, most hopeful period that it saw in its long history. 
 With its conquered world organized with a matchless system 
 that became the model for all succeeding centuries, both in state 
 and in church, it was enjoying a peace that is aptly described 
 as golden. 
 
 " No war or battle's sound 
 Was heard the world around ; 
 The idle spear and shield were high up-hung." 
 
 There were no circumstances distraught and distressing that 
 urged men's minds to seek new faith and new religious ideas 
 for solace and deliverance. There was abundant leisure for 
 new study, it is true, and a new religious form was a curiosity 
 to be examined with interest and to be discussed like any other 
 curious phenomenon, and perhaps to win some signs of adher- 
 ence. The religion of Jesus, however, was apparently too 
 humble and suggested too much self-forgetfulness, too much 
 subordination of self to one's work, to influence the educated 
 and the leaders. 
 
 On the other hand, the proud peoples that had been subdued 
 by Roman arms were looking for deliverance, for a liberator 
 who should bring them back to their pristine vigor and restore 
 their autonomy. Of these proud peoples the Hebrews were 
 the proudest. But while they were looking for a new order 
 their very ambition made them scrutinize the ideas and meth- 
 ods of any would-be leader with a discrimination and intensity 
 that were very natural, though they have been misunderstood. 
 If the new ideas did not square literally with national aspira- 
 tions they had no chance of being accepted readily. Strong 
 preconceptions absolutely forbade a spiritual interpretation of 
 the nation's destiny. A politically restored Israel, a new 
 
166 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 realization of a great people's prestige, a new opportunity to 
 develop initiative were aims held with an intensity we are in 
 no danger of overestimating. New religious ideals had little 
 chance in these conditions. 
 
 The very constitution of the Roman world, conquerors and 
 conquered, was thus distinctly unfavorable for any rapid con- 
 quests by the ideals of Jesus. The new ideas must win by 
 their own inherent force and by a gradual and cumulative 
 process. 
 
 Two fundamental characteristics. — The two fundamental 
 characteristics of the " new religion " that disclose at once its 
 inherent strength, its genius, and its method, by which it has 
 won its way from that time to this, are its simple reasonable- 
 ness and its appeal to the individual. It aimed first of all at 
 individuals, not at masses. Its real mission was to rouse indi- 
 vidual thought and initiative. Each individual was thus a 
 vital force, and the cumulative effect was a multitude of forces 
 banded in a great movement that was finally resistless. First 
 a few Israelites ; then a few Romans and Greeks ; numbers 
 grew at first slowly, then rapidly. But in it all the method 
 was first and chiefly individual. 
 
 Pedagogy of the Gospels. — All this however does not 
 really explain the influence and power of the new leader. To 
 understand his genius we need to study his personal attitudes 
 and relationships and his principles of work. In other words 
 we must study the pedagogy of the Gospels, the foundation of 
 all modern pedagogy. 1 
 
 1 A brief resume of a larger and more detailed study. It is based 
 on a collation of more than four hundred teaching episodes of Jesus. 
 
 References are made to all the Gospels, but chiefly to the three 
 Synoptics that represent Jesus in the concrete. This is a natural rather 
 than a studied plan. It will be noted that these references are sufficient 
 to illustrate the points. Allusions to the Gospel that bears the name of 
 John support and add to the others. This is true whether we are to 
 believe that, with dramatic instinct and in Thucydidean spirit, words 
 supporting the central fact of Jesus, which the writer was trying to 
 express in the fourth Gospel, are placed in the mouth of the great 
 Teacher, or whether episodes in His life not gathered by others, but 
 perhaps found in the numerous Christian Gospels current at the time 
 and ascribed to the Apostles, have been culled and used by this later 
 writer. (Conf. "What I believe and Why," by W. H. Ward, in 
 Independent, 81 : 207.) We are here studying simply the Teacher. 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 167 
 
 Jesus preeminently a teacher. — Jesus of Nazareth was 
 preeminently a teacher. This was appropriately so for two 
 reasons. First, a new ideal of life, a new type of religion, a 
 new philosophy, if you will, were to be incorporated into the 
 life of the world, to become vital elements in both individual 
 and civic thought and action. This required the function of 
 teaching more than that of preaching; for the many-sided 
 training needed to make the new a real part of the world's 
 forces comes of slow, patient, resourceful teaching, rather 
 than of the swifter, briefer and more intermittent action of 
 preaching. Second, the new required supporters, specially 
 trained men, intimate with the author and expounder of the 
 new, devoted to Him, and capable of continuing the tradition 
 of His life and principles. Such agents are the products of 
 teaching. So both the general ends to be attained and the 
 special means for furthering the ends suggested the teacher. 
 The attitude of Jesus was that of the teacher in almost every 
 episode we recall in His life. It is true that in a few cases 
 we seem to have a discourse, but this is not inconsistent with 
 good teaching under proper conditions, and in the most con- 
 spicuous case, the Sermon on the Mount, " His disciples came 
 unto Him," which of itself implies teaching. 
 
 His principles. — The principles taught by this marvelous 
 teacher, or implied in His teaching, were capable of revolu- 
 tionizing education. His method of teaching and His teach- 
 ing qualities were new and striking, involving, for those who 
 could interpret them, a complete change in pedagogy. 
 
 It is sufficient here to outline these matters briefly, as the 
 aim is not to analyze exhaustively the pedagogy of the Gos- 
 pels, but merely to suggest certain points that would naturally 
 affect education of that day and of succeeding days. We 
 should formulate then these two general principles as the most 
 important in this connection : — 
 
 1. There is no hierarchy of souls. All things are open to 
 all. 2 Education, which has hitherto been for the few, is now 
 
 2 His teaching relations had infinite range. Doctors in the temple at 
 Jerusalem (Luke 2:46), and the multitude in nature's temple by the 
 sea (Mark 4); judge and ruler (Mark 5:22, John 18:36ft.), and the 
 outcast subject (Mark 23:39ft".); high ruler of the synagogue (John 
 3), and despised alien (Luke 19, John 4); strong, reasoning rabbi, 
 
168 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 in all its grades to be the prerogative of all who will. The 
 record teems with instances in which He was approached by- 
 all classes and conditions of men, or in which His masterful 
 spirit went out spontaneously to meet special educational 
 needs. There is not a single instance in which any one who 
 took even a half-hearted learning attitude went away empty. 
 2. There is no restriction in means. 2. Each is to receive 
 that which is most needed to educate him for the Kingdom of 
 God, which was the supreme end, and which, duly interpreted, 
 is to-day regarded as the supreme end everywhere. Two things 
 are involved here: — I. There is infinite scope for the cur- 
 riculum. To the old abstract studies others of a different 
 nature are inevitably to be added, if the principle is to maintain 
 its vitality. The spirit of the Gospels would welcome the best 
 everywhere, but in union with the supreme end that has just 
 been referred to. 2. Outside of certain general principles, 
 there are no hard and fast lines of method that each must fol- 
 low. Christ suited His material and His manner of using it 
 to the mind with which He had to deal. Thus individual 
 teaching was involved. This idea was not perhaps absolutely 
 new, but it was presented so vividly and with so many prac- 
 
 (Luke 10:25 ft.; Matt. 22: 34 ff.), and the defective youth (Matt. 
 I7:i4ff.); orthodox (Matt. 15; Mark 12), and heterodox (Mark 
 12: 18 ff.) ; rich young man (Matt. 19: 16 ff.), and blind beggar (Mark 
 10:46 ff.) ; familiar friends (John n; Luke io:38ff.), and strangers 
 broadcast (Matt. 11:7; Luke 6:17; John 12:20); the mature man 
 (Mark 9:i7ff. ; John 3), and the little child (Mark 10:3),— all re- 
 ceived His definite attention and teaching influence. 
 
 As to quotations from John here and elsewhere see note 1. 
 
 3 The passages quoted in the last note indicate a wide range of 
 means. Jesus approached the matter to be taught in various ways. 
 For method and illustrations He drew from the Book of Law 
 and the Book of Nature, (Mark 12; John 5; Luke 6) ; from past and 
 present, remote and near (Mark 2:23; 12:41 ff. ; Luke 4: 16 ff.; 13, 14, 
 15, 16); from the abstract and the concrete (Matt. 5, 6, 7; Mark 
 4; John 14, 15) ; from books and from persons and things, (Luke 4, 
 6, 13, 17; Matt. 21:16; Mark 12; John 10). He impressed by swift 
 sentences and by careful exposition, (note the condensed epigrammatic 
 beatitudes, which by their very form win attention, and compare them 
 with the ultra-concrete teaching of Luke 18 and the expository method 
 of Luke 8) ; by metaphor, parable, allegory, and choice illustrations ; 
 (Matt. 5, 13, 6:22, 13, 21; Luke 10; John 10); and especially by 
 applying everyday matters and incidents that were easily grasped 
 and were calculated to clear away any mystery or mysticism, (Matt. 
 I3:33ff.; Mark I2:42ff.). 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES ■ 169 
 
 tical applications that it was essentially new. There was thus 
 infinite scope also for method. 
 
 Qualities of the teacher. — Coming now to the character- 
 istics of the teacher and his method in greater detail, these 
 qualities stand out : — 
 
 1. Personal Power. — Power that comes from conscious 
 union with the highest in the universe, so that the two become 
 one indivisible working force. 4 This gives inspiration. As an 
 element in teaching it makes a trinity of teaching power, the 
 teacher, God, the pupil being united in the process. There 
 is a reaching out on one's own level to serve human interests, 
 and a reaching up. This is a right angle of forces, and the 
 resultant is the diagonal that takes the teacher, his service, 
 and the objects of his service to a plane above the dead level. 
 High aims and high endeavor result. This combination is 
 characteristic of all the best teaching the world has seen. 
 Called by different names, perhaps, looked at in different ways, 
 it is the same thing fundamentally, akin to the spiritual union 
 of the Great Teacher and God that is emphasized in the Gos- 
 pels. Drop this element in teaching and we sink to the most 
 perfunctory and mediocre work. 
 
 2. Knowedge. — Absolute command of the matter to be 
 taught. 5 Christ knew Jewish life, literature and tradition. 
 Historical allusions were at His command to illustrate His 
 points. As compared with those who were supposed to be 
 absolute in their mastery of these things He easily showed that 
 His knowledge was deeper, broader, keener, and hence richer, 
 than that of any of theni. He could outquote any as far as 
 concerned accuracy of insight into His quotation, and thus as 
 
 4 Matt. 6, 11:25, I2 ; Luke 10:21; John 1:51, 4, 5, 8, 14:20, 16:32; 
 et passim. Note the spirit and confidence of intimate cooperation as 
 shown in Matt. 11, John 10, and the sublime homing feeling, instinct 
 with inspiration, that is inherent in the always beautiful " Our 
 Father," (Matt. 6), and My Father's house, (John 14). 
 
 5 Matt. 5, 12, 15, 19, 22; Luke 11, 13, 14, 15, 17; et passim. 
 
 No passages better illustrate His commanding knowledge and insight 
 than Matt. 5 and 6, where He repeatedly quotes ("Ye have heard how 
 it hath been said," etc.), and immediately illumines the quotation by 
 the most appreciative interpretation, " But I say unto you, love your 
 enemies," etc. Compare also His absolute mastery of the spirit and 
 letter of the great Book of Knowledge in silencing the superficial argu- 
 ment of a sect (Matt. 22). 
 
i;o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 far as concerned a just estimate of values in quotation. He 
 could quote more aptly, because He not only knew more fully 
 the points at issue, but saw more clearly the real significance 
 of the words He used. No surface application, no quibbling 
 would He countenance. He immeasurably supassed the Jew- 
 ish masters in their own specialty. His power to relate a bit 
 of learning to the great whole of life broadened and supported 
 His knowledge, so that the narrow application faded before 
 the larger one (see Mark 10). This sweep of vision placed 
 Him beyond the bounds of the ordinary quoter whom He met. 
 
 In this connection it is interesting to note that He was a 
 student of marked ability. Among the very few references to 
 His early life two deal with this side of His nature. I. He 
 studied and discussed with doctors. 2. He " increased in wis- 
 dom " as He increased in stature. We may infer that He 
 gained much from quiet thought and reflection. He got at the 
 real heart of things. In all this He was a model for teachers, 
 though in much of it He has had few followers. 
 
 3. Insight into men and things. — He had an equally won- 
 derful knowledge of men and things* — insight we might better 
 call it. He appreciated the condition in which He found a 
 pupil and built on the pupil's power and interests from the 
 point He had already reached, and thus built confidently and 
 unerringly. The value of this knowledge of the human sub- 
 ject, in addition to that of the culture subject, has been largely 
 neglected, or recognized in a dilettante and partial manner. 
 The matter has received more attention in recent years and 
 is to-day regarded by a few as worthy of scientific treatment 
 and as one of the most important conditions of good teaching. 
 It is beyond question that without this knowledge, which the 
 Gospels illustrate most pointedly, no teaching worthy of the 
 name is possible. Child-study, or better pupil-study, had its 
 origin in the Gospels. 
 
 If it be true that Christ's immediate and closest disciples 
 
 6 Matt. 5, II, 12, 26; Luke 7, 10:25, 13, 15; John 1, 6, 8; et passim. 
 
 Note particularly His judgment as to John (Matt. 11); Nicodemus 
 (John 3) ; Simon (Luke 7) ; Herod (Luke 13) ; the Pharisees, (Matt. 
 5 and 6). Conf. Matt. 16 and John 13 for other evidences. Note also 
 the various parables whose very point depends upon accurate and 
 appreciative knowledge of things and apt application of this knowledge. 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 171 
 
 were adolescents, we have still stronger evidence of His knowl- 
 edge of men. Adolescents are most easily stimulated and 
 inspired by altruistic principles, and attach themselves ardently 
 to causes, when rightly approached. 
 
 4. Vital grasp of the law of apperception. — The point 
 just noted is closely related to the principle that has some- 
 times been called apperception. From the pupil's point of view 
 it is based on past experience. From the teacher's standpoint 
 it is based on knowledge of his pupils. No one ever used this 
 principle or denned it so aptly as Christ, — " to him that hath 
 shall be given . . . ; from him that hath not shall be taken even 
 that which he seemeth to have." 7 Not merely was He careful 
 to build on some basal thought when at hand ; when not at hand 
 He awakened it. Discussion, which He frequently excited, 
 reinforced it. He had power to stimulate thought and to make 
 it intense. Many passages finely illustrate the principle, but 
 especially the episode in which the lawyer came to Him for 
 instruction (Luke io), 8 for it impresses two points connected 
 with our topic : 
 
 (a). Christ brought vividly before the lawyer, or rather 
 led him to bring vividly before himself, what he already knew 
 and actively believed, — believed with an intensity produced by 
 the warm sentiment of Jewish tradition and the thought of an 
 honest and inquiring mind. 
 
 (b). Christ did not give any new points till the man had 
 an opportunity to think, — till he actually felt and expressed 
 the desire for something more, — and He skilfully placed him 
 where he had this opportunity to feel, and feel in something 
 more than a superficial manner. 
 
 The general principle of apperception, which involves inter- 
 est, is the key to modern pedagogy. There must be some basis 
 for appreciation and interpretation, or nothing results. A vig- 
 orous germ of thought that is one's own grows under direction, 
 
 T Matt. 25:29. 
 
 8 Illustrations of this same principle are found in abundance. See 
 Matt. 5-8 (several passages), et passim. Some notable illustrations of 
 fine apperception building are His teaching episodes with Nicodemus 
 and the woman at the well, (John 3 and 4) ; the parables, (Matt. 13) ; 
 His cautionary lesson as to the Pharisees. (Matt. 16) ; His interpreta- 
 tion of the ideas "mother and brethren," (Matt. I2:46ff.). 
 
172 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 and may even be transformed without friction. A foreign 
 thought dies. 
 
 Following this pedagogical plan, Christ, by a natural process, 
 built from the germ of thought that He used as His founda- 
 tion to constantly broader thought and principles. He had 
 power also to present the subject from many points of view, 
 so that the truth could flash from many sides. Many might 
 thus see one flash; some would see many. The principle 
 requires such application when there is but one pupil, much 
 more when there are many. 
 
 But there is a still higher application of the law than any thus 
 far touched upon. Christ used it in His teaching so extensively 
 that it gives tone to His whole method. How should He lead 
 men to some conception of God — lead them from the familiar 
 to the mysterious unknown, from the primitive horizon to 
 larger and remoter horizons? Man must be interested in fel- 
 low man, must live in him, must serve him; must appreciate 
 nature and feel it; must see God in both man and in nature 
 before he can venture intelligently into remoter regions. He 
 must go step by step apperceptively from the near to the remote. 
 Hence it was through the conception of fatherhood that Jesus 
 led men to the Father, — not in that way exclusively, but in that 
 way conspicuously. Have we not tried partly to reverse the 
 process and partly to check the process at inopportune stages ? 
 Adolescence is religious vantage ground. Christ knew how to 
 use it. 
 
 5. Sympathetic contact. — Closely associated with what 
 has just been said is Christ's power to come into close and sym- 
 pathetic contact with His pupils, 9 meeting interest, desire, earn- 
 estness, and appreciating insight on their part, whether it had 
 to do with the main point at issue, or with some related point 
 that He could use to lead up to His object. Interest, sympathy, 
 love, however, were mingled with broad, keen thought, unhesi- 
 tating knowledge, strong attitudes. 
 
 9 Matt. 6, 8, 11, 15; Mark 10, 12; Luke 2, 9, 13, 19; John 11, 13; 
 et saepe. _ Two of the best illustrations are his contact with Zacchaeus 
 and his intimate teaching of Nicodemus, (Luke 19; John 3). Pro- 
 fessor Palmer's first qualification of an ideal teacher, — an aptitude for 
 vicariousness,— - is shown at its highest in Jesus. 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 173 
 
 6. Master of pedagogy of interest. — A further word 
 should be given to one point just noted. Jesus was a master 
 of the pedagogy of interest. 10 " He knew how to use it and how 
 to develop it. No studied plan, i. e., no studied series of les- 
 sons, or course, is manifest, but, by plying the principle of 
 interest, as occasion showed it to Him or gave Him the condi- 
 tions for germinating it, He impressed on men His most insist- 
 ent thought. Education is barren and dreary when we desert 
 this principle and pin our faith to formal training. It is the 
 binding and unifying force in all educational laws and prin- 
 ciples. We have wasted time by seeking and using something 
 else in its place. 
 
 He not only knew how to use interest in the one to be 
 taught; He recognized interest on the part of others. He 
 welcomed the third party in education. 11 Isolation of school 
 would be farthest from His thought, if He were present in our 
 system. Correlation of school and home would grow from 
 this attitude. 
 
 7. The individual, not the subject, the center. — All this 
 indicates that He had not so much a subject to teach as an indi- 
 vidual to be developed. The subject is best served through 
 individuals. If a teacher can choose the stimulus best adapted 
 to the individual and his needs, can make the right impression 
 on the delicate nerve mechanism of the pupil, and thus rouse 
 self-activity to work in promising directions under wise guid- 
 ance, he has the conditions for real educational work. Such 
 power had Christ. It appears everywhere in His teaching epi- 
 sodes. The individual is thus the starting point, the center, 
 
 10 Matt. 19; Mark 1; Luke 4, 13; John 4, 8, 10. 
 
 Various illustrations noted on previous pages show this. Jesus 
 projected interest and developed interest. Everywhere He had in- 
 terested and attentive pupils. Even those who were not in sympathy 
 with Him showed one edge of interest intensely (Matt. 19). 
 
 11 Matt. 9 ; Mark 7, 8 ; Luke 5. No incidents in the Gospels are more 
 interesting than those that present Andrew and Peter, Philip and 
 Nathaniel, (John 1) ; parents bringing children (Luke 18: 15) ; friends 
 bringing a sick friend (Luke 5 : 18) ; the woman sceptic, after her 
 interest was aroused, summoning the villagers (John 4). In edu- 
 cation not merely a good conductor for the transmission of power 
 and interest, but also interested agents to bring to^ the center of 
 power and interest those that would otherwise miss it, are essential 
 factors, if ideas are to reach larger masses most effectively. 
 
174 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 and also the end in view. How different this from the average 
 teaching of succeeding centuries ! Again, supposing His 
 apostles were adolescents, how finely adapted was His teach- 
 ing to that age. Great inspiring truths, rather than petty- 
 details, appeal to the adolescent mind. Stimulating think- 
 ing in elementary lines suits the case better than the dry 
 forms of abstract teaching. The Gospels are full of these 
 things. 
 
 8. Objective work. — But another principle of method is 
 needed to give full effect to the principles and qualities already 
 noted, to provide a psychologic point of contact between pupil 
 and teacher. Teaching may slip by a pupil in spite of strong 
 personal qualities, if the material of instruction (we call it 
 study-content) is too remote and abstract or too extensive and 
 detailed. To clarify the teaching of a new topic the teacher 
 must first of all get away from the abstract and formal. He 
 must come within the experience and development of the pupil. 
 Objective contact with a new idea is absolutely essential to suc- 
 cess. Nothing interests and stimulates the pupil more and 
 clears the way better than to bring him face to face with the 
 object that embodies the new idea, directly, if possible, if not, 
 indirectly through some device. Then the pupil really thinks 
 because the point at issue is within his power. He sees ; he 
 knows. Jesus was a master in objective teaching a millennium 
 and a half before it took effect with the " Reformers " in edu- 
 cation, who imperfectly caught up the idea that the Master 
 Teacher had pushed into the foreground long before. With 
 them it was a vision to be worked out in a more or less crude 
 and labored way. With Him it was an intuition working itself 
 naturally and effectively. Everywhere in the Gospels we find 
 Jesus introducing something objective to make His thought 
 plain. Many times since He pointed the way method has 
 become so abstract, teachers have so selected study-material 
 of education from an adult point of view, have so far trans- 
 cended the experience and development of pupils, — in short, 
 have come so far from appreciating real child and adolescent 
 life, and have so far sacrificed objective training to so-called 
 formal discipline at a critical age, that education has lost a very 
 appreciable part of its meaning and effect. Every time reform 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 175 
 
 has taken hold of the educational process it has pushed it 
 toward the objective and intensely human ideals of Jesus. 12 
 
 Illustration. — A special form of Jesus' objective teach- 
 ing is seen in His marvelous illustrations.™ These illustra- 
 tions through their simplicity and directness lead straight to 
 the idea and make it plain. They both illumine the thought 
 that Jesus is trying to present and focus the light, so that they 
 not only make clear but excite curiosity to go further. 14 
 Hence they add a new force to method by putting thought- 
 power into larger action, making pupils active agents toward 
 the larger consummation of the lesson. 15 
 
 These principles and elements of method, which have appli- 
 cation in education without limit of time or space, clarify 
 teaching, because they open the windows of instruction and 
 let the light in. They are thus the means of giving real effi- 
 cacy to knowledge and the other teacher-qualities that we have 
 noticed. They give easy access to the ideas to be inculcated 
 and the thoughts to be stirred, so that one is put simply and 
 clearly on the highway to truth; more than this, they inspire 
 initiative and supplementary thinking along the road. 
 
 9. Compass. — But the compass of a lesson conditions 
 the value of objective teaching. It may be so great that the 
 child's activities are discouraged and lost. It may be so small 
 that they are not given due exercise. It is noticeable that in 
 Jesus' lessons there was a single point so simple and clear, so 
 free from hampering and befogging detail, that it could not 
 slip the mind. And Jesus made the point so big, impressive, 
 suggestive, that it not only set thought at work but gave it an 
 inviting field for excursions beyond the limits of the lesson. 
 What a rebuke for our modern school courses, so overcrowded 
 with detail, in both secular and Bible schools, — courses too 
 often dictated by adult rather than child interest. 
 
 Strong closing — Climax. — The effect of this fine propor- 
 
 12 Examples of objective teaching are found everywhere in the Gos- 
 pels. Something objective will be found in every teaching exercise of 
 Jesus. For prominent examples see Matt. 6:28; 12:46-50; Mark 
 12:13-19; Luke 7:36-50; John 10. 
 
 13 Taken up from another view-point on page 177. 
 
 14 E.g., the "widow's mite" (Mark 12) ; the well (John 4); wheat 
 and tares (Matt. 13) ; good Samaritan (Luke 10). 
 15 See parables like "the sower" (Matt. 13). 
 
176 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 tion observed by Jesus in the extent and content of a lesson 
 was enhanced by the climax. The close of His lesson was a 
 psychological one, not a mechanical one that our method so 
 often involves. It was not an end, but a stopping place for the 
 teacher just where the main thought was at its strongest, not 
 exhausted but still vital enough to attract further activity of 
 the pupil, and well within his range because of the wonderfully 
 vivid and effective initiation that Jesus had already supplied. 16 
 Given such an initiation the mind may go on and on. With- 
 out it the mind takes a more or less quiescent attitude or comes 
 to a distressing state of bewilderment. A teacher need not 
 exhaust a subject to be thorough. His chief claim to genius 
 lies in his ability to leave something for the pupil to do by 
 himself and to put him on vantage ground to do it. Jesus 
 shows here one of His strongest teaching qualities. 
 
 io. Power to universalize. — Power to universalize 17 is 
 conspicuous. This gives His teachings their broad power and 
 applies them to all time. His presentation of general prin- 
 ciples that carry their own detailed application is found every- 
 where. The Greeks had, beyond all other nations, the power 
 to generalize and idealize and then objectify their ideas in the 
 eyes of the Greek race. No one ever showed such power to 
 generalize from life and concretely picture as is found in the 
 parable of the pharisee and the publican, which is a classic 
 among realistic presentations of generalizations. 18 
 
 People have been misled because certain civic and personal 
 evils were not even mentioned, much less scored by Jesus. 
 This is a striking tribute to the universality and immortality 
 of His teachings. He developed and enunciated principles 
 that would destroy every specific evil known or to be known 
 by man. 
 
 16 See the story of the laborers (Matt. 20) ; the Lawyer's question 
 (Luke 10:25-37). 
 
 17 Matt. 5, 8; Luke 11, 18; John 4; et saepe. 
 
 18 This is a generalization, not a particular case, as its form may 
 suggest to a hasty observer. We may compare also other incidents 
 equally striking — the exposition of neighborliness in the "Good Sa- 
 maritan" episode, (Luke 10) ; of the principle of giving in the " wid- 
 ow's mite", (Mark 12), an example of swift seizing of a chance in- 
 cident and turning it into a most vivid lesson. Again note his dis- 
 crimination in service seen in the tribute scene, (Matt. 22). Matt. 6 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 177 
 
 No quibbling. — It is also to be said, taking a little dif- 
 ferent point of view, that pettiness had no place. Christ struck 
 at the real matter and discarded the side issues. 19 Educa- 
 tional padding here receives no encouragement, but this does 
 not apply to accessories that forward the pedagogical process 
 and lend it vividness and interest. 
 
 11. Language power. — Another quality, one that has 
 been the ambition of teachers for ages, was supreme in Christ, 
 though it has received but partial recognition. This was His 
 language power. 20 In the first place we are attracted by the 
 clarity, 21 the deliberate force, and the perfect form of His lan- 
 guage. This in itself is a rare accomplishment. Again we 
 marvel at His power of illustration. Illustrative language is 
 found in great variety and shows marvelous command. 22 His 
 illustrations themselves are unique. They are familiar, but a 
 freshness of insight accompanies them that makes them new. 
 Sometimes they argue their own point, so aptly are they chosen. 
 It is important also to notice that He uses series of illustra- 
 tions that give the means of reaching many different types of 
 mind at once. 23 They are always to the point, and the point is 
 a pivotal one. But this is only one side of language power. 
 We find besides a frequent use of epigrammatic or apothegmatic 
 language, 24 which arrests attention and excites thought, and 
 thus is an important, though nowadays too little used instru- 
 
 and similar chapters contain various striking generalizations put in 
 striking form. 
 
 19 See His impatience at quibbles, trifles, and superficialities of His 
 time, and His swift striking at the main issue in Matt. 19 : 16 ff. ; 23 : 25 ; 
 Luke 18 : 18. He had no use for mere externals, the " outside of the 
 platter," the wordy prayer and the prayer of words, the trifling de- 
 tails of rules that miss the real point, the " Lord, Lord " ; He sought 
 the heart of things. See Matt. 7:21, Matt. 25, etc. 
 
 20 In the Gospels passim. A good illustration is Matt. 6, Luke 12. 
 This appears even in translation. The original always enhances a 
 language characteristic. 
 
 21 This was partly because He spoke in the " vernacular." This does 
 not mean that He spoke in the dialect of the people merely, but that 
 he used their simple, everyday vocabulary. 
 
 22 E. g., Luke 10, 18, et saepe. His lessons are filled with illustra- 
 tions of various types and from various sources, — simile, metaphor, 
 parable, and plain illustration. 
 
 23 See Matt. 13 ; Mark 4. 
 
 24 See Sermon on the Mount ; also Matt. 20 : 16. Illustrations occur 
 everywhere. 
 
178 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 ment in teaching. Again there is a frequent recurrence of 
 suggestion 25 in place of definite statements, which also is a part 
 of good educational economics. It gives scope for reflection, 
 an opportunity for personal development of germinal thoughts, 
 and so produces intellectual and spiritual fibre. 
 
 Dialectic is a special type of language power. It was a 
 method, a typical educational contribution, of the best educated 
 race of the time, as we have seen. 26 But Jesus had a dialectic 
 swifter and keener than any yet seen. 27 His power of ques- 
 tioning and of logical investigation was such that He could 
 strike at once the main point and make it clear. No round- 
 about or antagonistic series of steps was needed. One or two 
 questions sufficed and yet they upheaved a truth that was clear 
 and powerful, — no trivial truth, but a massive one. It is well 
 suggested that He asked " great questions." Minor interroga- 
 tions did not encumber nor overshadow those that went to the 
 heart of things. 
 
 And Jesus had command of beautiful language. He could 
 be poetical in the finest way. 28 He could reach truth by the 
 swift inspiration of esthetics and rhythm, as well as by the 
 more deliberate method of prose. 
 
 This language power left little room for formal didactic 
 teaching, and immeasurably added to His teaching power. 
 
 12. Breadth — adaptation. — There is another important 
 quality that is essential for a strong teacher. Christ showed 
 that He commanded all the relations of life, and so was a mas- 
 ter in influence. In this He strikingly contrasts Himself with 
 the partial qualifications of some, probably many, teachers. 
 He could give and receive. He could command and obey. 
 Service was a central thought in is creed. 29 He was thus a 
 fully developed, well-rounded teacher. 30 
 
 25 A good example of suggestion is John 2 : 19. Perhaps a better one 
 is Matt. 6 : 22. Various good examples are found in Matt. 5, 6, 7, and 
 in Luke 10 : 30 ft". 
 
 26 See Chapters V and VI. 
 
 27 Matt. 6; 12: 11; Luke 10:36 ("Which one of these three thinkest 
 thou was neighbor? ") ; 13 : 15 ; 14 : 5 ; John 7 : 23 ; 21 : 15. 
 
 28 E. g., " Consider the lilies," Luke 12 : 27. 
 
 29 See Luke 2 ; Matt. 25. 
 
 30 We here analyze Christ as a teacher. This best makes Him a 
 leader and an example. — brings Him into closest touch with teachers. 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 179 
 
 13. Poise. — Nothing is more noticeable than the quali- 
 ties that may be summed up in the term poise, zl and nothing in 
 the teacher's equipment is so valuable, so telling in all the deal- 
 ings of education. Poise not only gives time to work, allow- 
 ing educational forces to perform their legitimate functions, 
 but it removes unfortunate conditions that are the source of 
 friction and destroy relations. It thus tends to avert ill-con- 
 sidered action and views. It gives thought free play. It puts 
 everybody and everything in a position to realize the best. It 
 recognizes the educational value of difficulty and opposition. 
 In this quality are gathered calmness, dignity, confidence that 
 begets confidence, and a pedagogical patience that is careful 
 not to excite premature development, a patience that regulates 
 the pace of events in accordance with the nature of the case. 
 Compare Christ's calmness with the flurry and perturbation 
 of His disciples on different occasions. 32 Even when He seems 
 to break His calm we find the same power, — a kind of delibera- 
 tion that finds and emphasizes the vital point at issue, rather 
 than excites a surface indignation. The former wins, the lat- 
 ter loses, whether in social contact or in school discipline. 
 There is also a noticeable absence of the spectacular, a constant 
 sinking of self below the truth that the self is presenting, an 
 attitude that gives real power to truth and to teaching. 33 
 
 14. Dynamic qualities. — Devotion, persistence, fearless- 
 ness, earnestness gave point and force and steadiness to all His 
 
 Such analysis, however, is consistent with all theology, and it does 
 not detract from, nor offer any impediment to, analysis from any other 
 view-point. 
 
 31 Matt. 4 ; Luke 4 ; John 2 ; et passim. It is perhaps best expressed 
 in the parable of the tares, " Let both grow together till the harvest," 
 because Jesus here not only shows teaching-calm and poise, but per- 
 haps quite as significantly indicates His belief in the necessity of diffi- 
 culty and opposing ideas in developing power. Poise is again shown 
 in the poetic passage, Matt. 6 : 25. ff. 
 
 32 Compare the impulse to vengeance on the part of James and John 
 with Jesus' calmness (Luke 9:54); the perturbation of the chosen 
 pupils under stress of tempest with the self possession and naturalness 
 of Jesus (Mark 4: 35 if.). Compare the striking passages of Luke 
 22 : 50 ff. and Mark 14 : 50 ff., describing scenes accompanying the ar- 
 rest of Jesus, and note how this calmness endured in times of great- 
 est stress, when others gave way entirely. The climax came in the 
 final scene with its " Father, forgive them." 
 
 33 Matt. 6:4; I2:i4ff.; 16:20; 26:39. 
 
i8o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 teaching, or rather they were its sureties. Examples of these 
 traits occurred frequently. An appreciative study of them 
 should banish from teaching all superficialities, all temporizing, 
 all compromising, and give to it a rich genuineness consonant 
 with its high ends. 
 
 15. Various passages in the Gospels tell us of solitary 
 hours and temporary withdrawal 34 in out-of-the-way places. 
 In spite of His effort to secure quiet meditation, however, 
 crowds sometimes gathered and even camped in these places 
 for the sake of teaching and help, and because of the attraction 
 of Christ himself, — His magnetism, to use a rather hackneyed 
 and ill-defined term. Later monastic and hermit life made 
 permanent what was occasional and temporary with Christ. 
 Jesus' work was emphatically in the midst of life, and the soli- 
 tary hours were tributary to it. 
 
 16. Impressive personality. — The qualities thus briefly 
 enumerated, with others more or less definable, were elements 
 in a strong and striking personality that drew and influenced. 
 Personality is not a simple thing or a single power, though it 
 may be regarded substantially as such by those who do not stop 
 to analyze. As a matter of fact it is not necessary or desirable 
 for those who are being influenced to analyze at the moment. 
 They need only to feel. But if one is to develop power, 
 analysis is necessary in order to direct effort productively. 
 Analysis here reveals more impressively the personality of the 
 teacher. Personality wins. It supports and renders effective 
 other teaching qualities. 
 
 Implications. — To summarize some of the suggestions 
 of this study it appears that new forces were prominent, calcu- 
 lated to change, 1, the form of schools; 2, the curriculum and 
 method; 3, the aim and the scope of the school's ministries. 
 We have potentially universal education. We have potentially 
 also a broad and generous curriculum. In the direction of 
 method the pedagogical principles involved bring in the best of 
 modern method and tend to emphasize the true direction of 
 education, — from the human subject to the culture subject, thus 
 making the pupil, rather than any " study," the center of 
 thought. We find also substantial ground for urging the study 
 
 34 Matt. 4, 14 ; Mark 6 ; Luke 4, 9 ; John 8. Examples are frequent. 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 181 
 
 of the psychology of childhood and adolescence. The peda- 
 gogy of the Gospels enforces scholarship as well, — knowledge 
 of the full meaning and possibilities of the subject to be 
 taught, 35 including a knowledge of its psychology. This gives 
 us a third psychology. Interpreting the educational principles 
 of Jesus generously and genuinely we have all modern educa- 
 tion. This is literal fact, not fancy, to one who will take the 
 pains to examine. 
 
 Partial application of His principles in the period follow- 
 ing Jesus. — Now it was natural, because evolutional, that 
 at first the new forces should be but partially appreciated and 
 imperfectly interpreted, — that only one side of man's spirit 
 should be made the object of effort, and that the curriculum 
 should be correspondingly narrow. Pedagogy would be still 
 less adequately developed. Old methods would be less obnox- 
 ious than old matter. Men have generally thought more of 
 the what than of the how. The most available educational 
 method that suggested itself would be likely to be seized upon. 
 Men had little inclination to think along pedagogical lines. 
 Still less did they care to study men. To know that man had a 
 soul and that an institution was to be subserved and forwarded 
 was enough. Many of the plain suggestions of the Gospel as to 
 pedagogy were therefore to wait long for just recognition. 
 
 Even this partial interpretation slow. — The conquest of 
 even the narrow interpretation of the new ideas was slow. 
 The first step will be the subject of the next chapter. But 
 before taking up this topic it will be well to glance at the atti- 
 tude of the Fathers who were a connecting link between the 
 old and the first settled forms of the new. 
 
 Pedagogy of the Christian Fathers. 
 
 The fathers looked both ways. — It would be natural to 
 expect that the Christian Fathers would look both ways in edu- 
 cation. Old associations would cling, but new religious affilia- 
 tions and new inspiration would color them and in time modify 
 them. 
 
 35 This is a three-fold knowledge, — knowledge of the facts compre- 
 hended in a subject, a knowledge of the history of a subject, and ability 
 to adapt a subject to different ages and conditions. 
 
182 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 The Fathers were regularly educated in the old Greek and 
 Roman schools, which were found everywhere in the Empire. 
 They studied, in secondary and higher work, grammar, rhetoric, 
 literature, dialectics and philosophy, music, geometry, astron- 
 omy, natural philosophy, architecture and jurisprudence. 
 Rhetoric was particularly prominent. Sophist ideas that 
 originated in Greece were still found. In Roman schools and 
 schools that followed Roman tradition, Quintilian's pedagogy 
 was, of course, still a power. 
 
 Policy of the Fathers as to learning — The new learn- 
 ing. — The majority of the Fathers, particularly those from the 
 East and from Alexandria, kept alive the old studies, but they 
 added to them studies connected with the new religion, to which 
 they showed great devotion and in which they were often volu- 
 minous writers. Much has been made of the opposition of 
 Jerome, Tertullian, and Augustine to classical literature, and 
 they certainly did express their disapproval; but at the same 
 time it must be noted that these same Fathers, or some of them, 
 may be used also in support of the old learning 36 guided and 
 regulated. One of the strongest indications of opposition is 
 found in "Apostolic Constitutions" of the fourth century in 
 such directions as this : 
 
 " Refrain from all the writings of the heathen, for what hast thou 
 to do with strange discourses, laws, and false prophets, which in 
 truth turn aside from the faith those that are weak in understand- 
 ing." 
 
 The interdiction does not, however, seem to have been fully 
 carried out in the lives of a majority of the Fathers. 
 
 Results. — The old curriculum was still in great favor 
 among the educated classes generally, and was not rejected, or 
 was definitely favored, by a majority of those most intimately 
 concerned with leadership in the new order of religion. But 
 while decided opposition to classical literature showed itself in 
 strong places, so that " Pagan " learning in time came under 
 the ban and Christian Latin literature came to the front, too 
 much has been made of this disfavor. Other causes con- 
 tributed to this retreat of learning. The ban was official, but 
 
 36 West, Alcuin, 17. 
 
NEW PRINCIPLES 183 
 
 was probably not universally active, nor was it a finality. The 
 votaries of classical learning never ceased, and substantial 
 schools continued the Roman tradition to more favorable times. 
 New forms of education. — But a study of the lives of the 
 Fathers 37 indicates plainly that new educational forms were 
 coming in, and that new schools were germinating. The terms 
 catechetical, catechumen, reader in Christian service, and 
 church teacher occur and are very significant. There are many 
 references also to ascetic and monastic life that was gaining 
 great influence and making rapid headway. The first mon- 
 astery in the West was established by St. Martin, about the 
 middle of the fourth century. 
 
 37 See Farrar's Lives of the Fathers, which is full of allusions to 
 new forms and ideas and full also of evidence that the Fathers got 
 the best in the old Greek and Roman Schools. The feelings of the 
 Fathers, whether in opposition or favor, or in alluring memories, are 
 not difficult to find or appreciate. 
 
XI 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CENTURIES 
 
 Tendencies of the new era. — The spirit of the new era 
 on which we are entering tended to revolution and reorganiza- 
 tion, not of a cataclysmic sort, but quiet, steady, patient, per- 
 vasive, in accord with its motto of peace. Relations of capital 
 and labor, ideals and practices of professional life, principles 
 of national progress, ideas of philanthropy — society as a 
 whole, — were to feel and respond to the new order. The 
 theory and practice of education, as the fundamental agency 
 for working out these changes, must themselves catch the spirit 
 of the new force. This was the work of the first Christian 
 centuries. 
 
 Conditions and forces, i. The Roman Grammar School. 
 — The conditions are plain. On the one hand we have the 
 Roman Grammar school, which had adopted and adapted all 
 of Greek education that appealed to the West, in matter, 
 method, and ideals. It was a school marvelously perfect for 
 the times in organization, method, and form. It was dis- 
 tinctively Roman, charged with Roman genius, a notable illus- 
 tration of Roman executive power, — one of the type schools 
 in the history of education. It was the embodiment of the 
 national conscience and ideals, the darling of national solici- 
 tude and pride. As the institutes of law became a model for 
 Christendom in one direction, the " institutes of education," as 
 embodied in the Grammar School, became a model for schools 
 of succeeding ages. In Rome, not in Greece, was the parent 
 school of the West, as we have already noted. 
 
 Spirit of the new. — On the other hand there was the 
 spirit of the new times whose ideal was growth, not acquisi- 
 tion, service, not domination, deeds, not words, gentle but per- 
 sistent persuasion from within, not oratorical brilliance and 
 
 184 
 
THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CENTURIES 185 
 
 marshalled argument from without, — though it was capable 
 of using and tempering all means. 
 
 Thus two ideas, that of the old Greco-Roman schools, and 
 that of the pedagogy of the Gospels, were at work, in part 
 influencing one another, in part antagonistic. 
 
 Results of the educational revolution. — Two courses are 
 open to revolutionary ideas, first, the making of new forms with 
 which to propagate the new, free from all contamination with 
 the old ; second, the use and transformation of the old. As is 
 always the case, the new times at first took both these courses, 
 according as they appealed to groups and individuals. Thus 
 we have new forms of schools, and old forms modified by 
 new ideas. 
 
 Various classes of people as related to the new religion. — 
 It is very interesting to note the variety and kind of variety 
 that existed in these transition years. The very growth of the 
 new faith made variety inevitable. As Christianity became 
 popular men attached themselves to it with varying degrees of 
 intensity. Some entered seriously and with full purpose into 
 the new. Some affiliated in greater or less degree with the 
 Christians, but attached themselves more lightly to the new 
 religion. Outside of these were a wavering class and a class 
 as yet untouched. 
 
 Educational tendencies of different classes. — Some of 
 these classes clung to the old school through sentiment and 
 habit. Some, with self-denying will, abandoned habit and 
 developed a sentiment for a distinctly new school. This applies 
 to both form and matter, particularly matter. Method is im- 
 personal and adapted to new as well as to old; the most that 
 could be done here was to simplify, or to revert to a more 
 primitive type. The early Christians did both. Elaboration 
 was foreign to their ideal. 
 
 New subject matter for the schools. — As to material for 
 study, the Christians, using old tools in new quarries, produced 
 something adapted to the occasion. The Christian faith became 
 a recognized branch of study, and a new literature on Chris- 
 tian subjects came into existence. It possessed much literary 
 merit because produced by scholarly Christian Fathers who 
 had received their training in the old classical schools. It was 
 
186 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 adapted to both elementary and secondary instruction and 
 speedily found its way into the curriculum in place of classical 
 literature, or in conjunction with it. Alexandria, the greatest 
 center of learning and investigation in the early centuries of our 
 era, even gave the new schools a Christian philosophy. Its 
 library encouraged learning. Its great school was the melting 
 pot of Oriental and classical religions out of which came Neo- 
 Platonism and Gnosticism. Naturally enough, it was in Alex- 
 andria that Christianity became a subject of philosophical in- 
 vestigation. A Christian and quasi-Christian philosophy was 
 thus at hand to fill the place of that which Quintilian had in his 
 curriculum, and to exercise the minds that craved this form of 
 thinking. 
 
 Seven classes of schools. — The whole situation would in- 
 dicate that the interaction between the old Grammar School, 
 with its firm place in the affections of all educated people, and 
 the new Christian forces that were rapidly supplying new mate- 
 rial to give tone to old curricula, must have been vigorous and 
 prolific. As a matter of fact, to meet the needs of a transition 
 period and to serve the various shades of Christian thought 
 and purpose, we find seven different classes of schools, besides 
 several sub-classes. Only the most typical will be described 
 here. 1 
 
 The Grammar School type persisted. — The genius of the 
 schools of early Christian centuries was Quintilian. The old 
 Grammar School, or the Grammar School manned by Chris- 
 tian teachers, was probably the most conspicuous school of the 
 time. This was natural and inevitable. Schools of this type 
 were particularly numerous and active in Italy and Gaul. 2 
 
 1 A full list will be found in the Appendix. 
 
 2 At the end of the fourth century Roman-Hellenic schools were 
 still scattered over the provinces. Most of them had died out by the 
 time of Augustine's death. Intellectual activity continued longest in the 
 East. Roman traditions remained vigorous longest in Gaul. Laurie, 
 Rise, and Const, of Univ., 13-19. 
 
 It has been customary to speak of the Roman schools as ending or be- 
 ing suppressed. As a matter of fact, many of them never ended ; they 
 grew and changed with the times. 
 
 In. the time of Cassiodorus secular letters were still taught by 
 lay teachers, probably the successors of the Grammarians of the Em- 
 pire. There is evidence that such teachers continued through the 
 Middle Ages. Patherius, about 900 a. d v writes, that in addition to those 
 
THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CENTURIES 187 
 
 Very early the new Christian forces took possession of these 
 schools and school forms of ancient education. They did 
 more, — they gave new life through new ideas and a stronger 
 purpose. For a time Julian succeeded in revising the teach- 
 ing force in these schools and banishing Christian teachers ; but 
 this was a mere episode in their history and could not long 
 check the tendency of the times ; the past could not be rehabili- 
 tated. 3 
 
 New school agencies. The Catechumen and Catechetical 
 schools. — But the new religious and social awakening must 
 have a special agency of its own for studying and settling its 
 fundamental ideas. It secured this in the Catechumen school, 
 planned first for adults and later for children. Its funda- 
 mental purpose was instruction in the typical principles and 
 forms of Christianity; even when the elements of secular let- 
 ters were taught, it was doubtless for the furthering of the new 
 doctrines. 4 The new times secured a special agency also in the 
 Catechetical school, a high school established for the same 
 general purpose as the Catechumen school. It was proposed 
 to make converts the intellectual equals of others. The new 
 school agency appealed to, and gave scope to, culture activities 
 of intellectual centers, beginning at Alexandria. It was a close 
 copy of Greek schools rather than Roman, but was pervaded 
 by a Christian spirit and purpose. 5 In time it yielded to Roman 
 influence and took the form of the Roman Grammar school, 
 
 who attended Episcopal and Monastic schools there were those 
 who " Apud quemlibet sapientem conversati sunt." Clark, Latin of the 
 Middle Ages and Renaissance, 54 f. 
 
 a In prohibiting Christians from teaching rhetoric and grammar, 
 Julian said, that men who exalted the merit of implicit faith were unfit 
 to claim the advantages of science. He hoped to paganize those who 
 attended his revised schools and to insure the inadequate training 
 of teachers who were taught elsewhere, thinking that an inferior class 
 of teachers incapable of training Christian students to meet the learn- 
 ing of the grammar-school youth, would take the place of Christian 
 teachers who under previous educational organization " possessed an 
 adequate share of the learning and eloquence of the age." See Gib- 
 bon, Decline and Fall of Rom. Emp., Chapter XXIII. 
 
 4 Note the " first Christian common school, established by Protogenes, 
 in the second century, to teach reading, writing, texts of Scripture, and 
 psalm singing. Seeley, Hist, of Educ, 105. 
 
 5 Davidson, Hist, of Educ, 121 ff., gives a very interesting and ap- 
 preciative account of this school. A genuine Socratic method was 
 prominent. 
 
188 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 reduced in scope and thoroughness, and modified by Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 Domestic education. — The uncertainty that has been re- 
 ferred to, the dissatisfaction with prevailing schools, and a feel- 
 ing of danger from them, seem to have suggested another solu- 
 tion of the educational problem, — domestic education. Many 
 a Christian home made sure of Christian influence by home 
 instruction. 6 
 
 Three types.— Most of the schools of the period differed 
 in form, in organization, and sometimes even in purpose. 
 They may, however, be classified under three types: — I, The 
 old Roman type; 2, the Roman type modified by Christian 
 studies and teaching, with its correlative type, the Catechetical 
 school ; 3, the purely Christian school, seen in the Catechumen 
 school with simple religious curriculum. 
 
 A coming school. — But there was a fourth type that be- 
 gan to be visible on the educational horizon, and for this reason 
 was not so characteristic of the age as were the others. In its 
 elementary form it was similar to other schools of the time in 
 organization and purpose; in its secondary form it was an 
 impoverished counterpart of other secondary schools. It was 
 distinguished from others more particularly, however, from 
 the fact that it was absolutely removed from the contaminating 
 influence of the world, being a part of a community life sepa- 
 rated from ordinary social contact and devoted to religious 
 cultivation and contemplation. It was the cloister school. 
 
 Method. — The general method of the old secondary 
 schools remained in schools of the first and second types ; but 
 dictation and memorizing were coming to be more exclusively 
 used and there was a tendency to narrow the old learning and 
 to condense it in epitomes, as seen in books that became the 
 standards for many centuries. 7 Schools of the third type 
 brought in the catechetical plan, 8 which has played such an 
 important part ever since, so far as the church has regulated 
 school pedagogy. It was not new, but was given a new devel- 
 
 6 Amer. Jour, of Educ, 24 : 523. 
 
 7 See Chap. XII. 
 
 8 Question and answer method. Here was the beginning of the 
 catechism. 
 
THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CENTURIES 189 
 
 opment. It had been merely a subordinate device, but it now 
 assumed great prominence, in fact was reduced to a science. 9 
 On the other hand, the Catechetical school, which belongs under 
 type two, and in a way also under type three, gave new promi- 
 nence and force to the " Socratic Method." 
 
 Aims. — Aims varied correspondingly. The Grammar 
 schools maintained the practical aim of Quintilian without the 
 opportunity for practical application that was offered by larger 
 political conditions of the earlier day. As already noted, the 
 aim was reduced to a striving for formal rhetoric and literary 
 form. 1Q Side by side with it was the Christian aim of religious 
 instruction for the purpose of establishing the Christian ideal ; 
 but soul culture was as yet rather a formal matter, so far as 
 schools were concerned. 
 
 Period characterized as formative. — 'All in all we have a 
 formative period in which new forces were contending with 
 old. The contrasts, as well as the exigencies, of the time may 
 be realized by considering on the one hand the work of a 
 Julian, who thought he could make things move backward by 
 the fiat of a monarch and could thus weaken a vigorous force 
 which had many points of appeal, and on the other hand the 
 work of an Origen, who brought the highest culture to Chris- 
 tian teaching and followed the broad course of the best schools 
 of his day ; u or again by considering the classical fervor of a 
 Jerome or an Augustine 12 in connection with Christian devo- 
 tion, at one period of their lives, and, at another, their renuncia- 
 tion (for others) of the same classical delights and their recom- 
 mendation of devotion to the new alone; or by noting the 
 extended education of most of the Christian Fathers in all that 
 the old schools could give, as compared with the meagre instruc- 
 tion of the rank and file of the Christians who came under their 
 influence, receiving as they did little more than religious instruc- 
 tion ; and finally by contrasting the education and the practice 
 of Fathers like St. Basil with those of Tertullian. 13 Out of 
 
 9 See West's Alcuin for an example of elaborate catechetical work. 
 
 10 Dill. op. cit., Book V. See Laurie, op. cit., 13. 
 
 11 Amer. Jour, of Educ, 24 : 5, 19-20. 
 
 12 See also Farrar's Lives of the Fathers (Jerome), and Augustine's 
 City of God. 
 
 13 Farrar's Lives of the Fathers, Teuffel's Latin Literature, et al. 
 
190 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 this mixed period of contrasts and contradictions must come a 
 crystallization of some sort. Its nature can be divined by 
 noticing which forces are most virile and most popular. Real 
 life was with the new ideas. The old order now had little 
 more than forms whose force had departed. 
 
 Summary. — The early Christian ages therefore defined 
 certain ideals and aims of education, but produced no distinc- 
 tive secondary school that endured. They were, however, 
 working vigorously at the educational problem. A mixed and 
 unsettled period it was, in which men were adapting old and 
 new to new needs and ideals in various ways and for various 
 purposes. The old was declining; a new school form was in 
 sight which was almost to clear the field. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 SCHOOL FORMS IN EARLY CHRISTIAN CENTURIES 
 
 1. Old Roman schools. — Municipal schools supported by the munici- 
 pality, or by the municipality and imperial government together. Finally 
 the state was the sole authority. They were public schools. There is 
 some reference to jobbery in spending public money. These schools 
 persisted for a long time. 
 
 2. Private schools similar to I. — Supported by subscriptions and 
 managed by private authority, — at least till schools became a part 
 of the state. 
 
 They had the old Quintilian curriculum with more emphasis on literary 
 study, including grammar and rhetoric. Other studies were subordi- 
 nated more than in Quintilian's plan and used for illustrative purposes. 
 Quintilian's curriculum was fresh and related vitally to life, real 
 and filled with reality. But the curriculum now was largely a matter 
 of simple culture, with less connection with public life and no relation 
 to free political development. Life and ideals were in Rome's past. 
 There was a perverted idea of history; no interest in current history; 
 no interest in nature or investigation ; little concern for the fate of 
 the Empire, which was constantly threatened and constantly suffering. 
 Education was a form and its substance was form, gained through imita- 
 tion of the past. Fresh creation was not an object of effort. Roman 
 schools were soon in a decadent state verging toward extinction. They 
 remained vigorous longer in Gaul than in the Empire generally. (There 
 was, however, a freer and more vigorous intellectual life in the church. 
 There was interest in history here, but of a rather narrow scope.) 
 
 Method: — The old Grammar method described by Quintilian, but 
 more concerned with form. It loaded the memory and strengthened 
 the imitative power, instead of stimulating thought and imagination. It 
 
THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CENTURIES 191 
 
 involved grammatical drill and drill in composition, brilliant rhetorical 
 exercises, but no scientific inquiry. 
 These schools may be divided again into 
 
 A. Grammar schools taught by adherents of old Roman ideas. 
 
 B. Grammar schools taught by Christians (often perhaps of Class 
 2). Christian studies, — patristic literature, etc., — were probably added 
 to the course, at least in some cases. 
 
 3. Catechumen school: — 
 
 a. For adults, to train them for the church. 
 
 b. (later). For children, offering reading, writing, christian studies. 
 Method : — Catechetical, memorizing. 
 
 About 200 a. d. Protogenes established a school in which reading, 
 writing, Scriptures, and psalm-singing were taught. It was called the 
 first Christian common school. (Many such schools may have been 
 established.) 
 
 4. The Catechetical school of Alexandria, where the trivium and 
 geometry, with Christian studies, — patristic literature,etc. — were taught. 
 There was also a higher school. Method : — Catechetical and dialectic ; 
 lectures; also memorizing. This school was established with the idea 
 of educating churchmen in a broader way, and giving them a training 
 similar to that of the old school, but added Christian studies. It 
 all had in view a fuller grasp of the new faith, and centered in it. It 
 was necessary to prepare churchmen to meet their opponents with an 
 equal training and on their own ground. 
 
 Origen, a famous teacher here, made much of natural history, mathe- 
 matics and astronomy, all leading up to philosophy. Geometry with him 
 included geography. Physics, or natural philosophy (a kind of nature 
 study), he called physiology. These studies were probably intended 
 for higher education, but they included some secondary features. — His 
 method was catechetical, dialectic, analytic, experimental. 
 
 The catechetical school appropriately began at Alexandria. It spread 
 rapidly, especially at Episcopal seats. It continued for ages, though 
 under another name. 
 
 5. Christian private schools, having the old curriculum with new 
 Christian studies. They were taught by the best graduates of the old 
 schools. We find also itinerant teachers. Again each home was to be 
 a school. 
 
 6. School of Cassiodorus. He set up a claustral or boarding school 
 about 500 a. d., imitating Eastern monasteries. It offered the trivium, 
 with arithmetic, music, and Christian studies. He wrote text-books for 
 the trivium and for the new studies. There was a higher curriculum 
 also. Method : — Probably the old grammar method; in new subjects, 
 learning from dictation and exercise of " holy memory." 
 
 {School of Eusebius. — Probably a school of high grade, for it pro- 
 duced many noted men. It must have had a combination of the old 
 curriculum and the new.) 
 
 7. Some pre-Benedictine Monastic schools were established early 
 
192 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 (about 400 A. d.), especially by Cassian. Basil, an Eastern monk, gives 
 as his ideal a simple elementary curriculum with Christian studies, — 
 catechism, Scriptures, church ritual, and the wonderful events of Scrip- 
 ture in place of the old mythology. Method : — Committing to mem- 
 ory; prizes; frequent questions. According to the rule of Basil monks 
 were bound to " give asylum to orphans, to receive children, and train 
 them, as well as to instruct all who came to them, in the catechism, 
 the Scriptures, and church ritual." Monastic schools, however, had 
 a comparatively small development now. The curriculum generally was 
 very limited, bare, and narrow. But it must be looked at from the 
 point of view of the times and with appreciation of existing conditions. 
 
XII 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION FROM THE SIXTH CENTURY TO THE 
 EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 
 
 The ascetic life — Psychologic explanation. — From early 
 times the idea had existed that holiness was best attained by 
 some form of ascetic life, which removed from distracting 
 secular thoughts and gave opportunity for peaceful contempla- 
 tion of the ideal. This idea had taken possession of sensitive 
 souls, who were open to spiritual influences and inspired by 
 high religious emotions, and of those who were attracted by 
 transcendental ideas. Those of the first class were far the 
 more numerous. To the second class belonged such thinkers 
 as Plato, who advocated withdrawal from the world for the 
 highest attainment of power (later to be used for the public), 
 and Pythagoras, who formed a community devoted to an ideal 
 life. Neo-Platonism, which combined Greek and Hebrew ele- 
 ments — Greek intellectuality and the strong religious feeling 
 of the Hebrews — reinforced the motives for ascetic life. 
 
 Practical reasons. — But to the psychological causes, the 
 state of the times added others of a practical nature. The 
 unrest due to the breaking up of the world-empire of the 
 Romans, and the hardships, cruelty, tyranny, and wide-spread 
 vulgarity and depravity of the early Christian centuries gave 
 strong incentives to withdraw from it all and to lead a holy life 
 free from the turmoil and moral contagion of the day. Again, 
 the belief that the dissolution of all things was coming and a 
 second advent was at hand gave greater impressiveness to such 
 thoughts as have been referred to. In an important class of 
 the community they minimized the existing order of things 
 almost to the vanishing point 1 and made efforts for spiritual 
 salvation the logical as well as the practical mode of utilizing 
 human activity. The various motives of course influenced 
 
 1 Rashdall, Univ. of Med. Europe, 1 : 30-2. 
 
 193 
 
i 9 4 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 men in different degrees ; some of them probably did not oper- 
 ate at all in many cases. Perhaps the strongest force was 
 found in the opportunity for a secure and peaceful organiza- 
 tion of life, when other organizations were going down. 
 
 Growth of monastic orders. — Communities of recluses, or 
 monks, carefully and systematically organized, thus came into 
 existence, and, with the rapid diffusion of the monastic idea, 
 grew into a compact " order." Naturally various orders arose, 
 each distinguished by a characteristic set of rules or by some 
 striking principle of life, whether social or industrial. 2 The 
 orders were attached to the growing church organization which 
 was steadily developing a system that, for compactness and 
 articulation of parts, rivalled the Imperial System of secular 
 Rome, and eventually took its place. The monastic spirit was 
 wide-spread, but it had its richest development in the West, 
 and it is there that we are most concerned with it. 
 
 Favorable conditions for study. — There were evidently 
 time and opportunity for learning in these monastic communi- 
 ties, and there is abundant evidence that learning went on, even 
 when the studies involved were under the shadow of popular 
 and official disapproval. We must believe that many a monk 
 became the possessor of all the best of the old culture. 3 It may 
 be a question whether official disapproval was not always more 
 or less perfunctory. A contemplative life was especially favor- 
 able to study. The monks and ecclesiastics absorbed and 
 transmitted the thought and culture of the old schools. In 
 fact, in the destruction of the old order of things, they were 
 the only media for this transmission. But for the majority it 
 was only a fraction of the old that was needed ; the rest of it 
 was neglected or actually shunned under the conditions that 
 have just been noted. 
 
 A new school. — The monks however did not merely give 
 themselves to study for their own pleasure. Schools for others 
 and varied training in the arts of life naturally came to be a part 
 of their work. They were industrial and intellectual mission- 
 
 2 Appendix I. 
 
 3 See West, Alcuin ; _ Compayre Abelard ; Mullinger Schools of 
 Charles the Great, and History of Univ. of Cambridge from the Earliest 
 Times; Amer. Jour, of Educ. 24:343 ft.; Augustine, City of God; 
 et al. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 195 
 
 aries for their environs. They must train boys to take their 
 places in the religious community and thus keep up the order. 
 To this they added the elementary training of outsiders or 
 " externes." This training in many cases, or at any rate at cer- 
 tain times, was probably reduced to a minimum. 4 As a rule it 
 concerned itself chiefly with that which was necessary for 
 church service. But, on the other hand, it often included large 
 elements of a liberal education. 5 
 
 The school public. — Most of those who aspired to even 
 the rudiments of an education were those destined for ecclesi- 
 astical vocations. But the schools were open to and received 
 at different periods a considerable number of others. 6 Only a 
 very small part of the people, however, received even the 
 simplest education. 7 
 
 Libraries. — But the schools of the monks touched educa- 
 tion in another manner. They gathered and maintained the 
 libraries of the day, and through exchanges reinforced one 
 another's literary treasures. These libraries affected education 
 by creating a literary atmosphere, however attenuated, and by 
 supplying culture material. 
 
 Cathedral schools. — Monastic Orders were not alone in 
 developing religious and educational organization. As the 
 great cathedrals came to play a part in religious life, a similar 
 school organization, but with more of a lay and secular element, 
 grew up in connection with them. Here an ecclesiastic com- 
 munity was the counterpart of the monastic community and it 
 was as carefully organized as the latter. As the cathedral 
 community extended its organization parish schools of more 
 modest form and scope arose, associated in organization with 
 the cathedral. 8 
 
 General character of the new school. — These religious 
 
 4 Ziegler, Geschichte der Ped., 28 ff. 
 
 5 The library at York is significant as to the scope of learning. See 
 Mullinger, Sen. of Chas. Gt., 60 ff., 74 ff. ; Univ. of Camb., 7 f . ; Laurie, 
 op. cit., 24 f . See also references given later as to exceptional schools. 
 On the rise of this new school generally see Mullinger, Sch. of Chas. 
 Gt., 24, 29 ff., 32. 
 
 6 Laurie, op. cit., 27 ff. 
 
 7 Nohle, Germ. Sch. Sys., in Rept. of U. S. Com. of Educ, 1897-8, 
 Vol. I, 8-1 1 ; Howard, Evol. of the Univ., 4. 
 
 8 West. op. cit., 55. 
 
196 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 schools, which have been briefly referred to and which in gen- 
 eral had the same aim and the same form, had crystallized 
 out of the mass of forms which the last period presented. The 
 monastic and cathedral schools arose naturally and combined 
 with the elements that preceding centuries had defined religious 
 studies and an insistent religious ideal. They gave the control 
 of education to the religious orders and the clergy. 9 
 
 But old Roman schools did not cease. — The confusion 
 and upheavals attending the incursions of new tribes, who 
 had fresh vigor and new ideas, but were almost devoid of what 
 the empire knew as culture, and the frowns of the Church on 
 the old learning had the effect of discouraging the old schools 
 to such an extent that they seriously declined. It has been 
 said and re-said that they came to an end. But the idea that 
 so powerful and deep-seated an educational force could be 
 entirely suppressed is beyond credence. There can be no doubt 
 that many of these old schools continued under new auspices, — 
 with curriculum augmented by new Christian studies and with 
 new spirit, it is true, but yet distinctly traceable, so that forms 
 and methods could be easily identified with those of Roman 
 times. 1( * The church took over these schools, it did not destroy 
 them ; and it moulded them according to the new ideas. This 
 Greco-Roman tradition persisted in Italy and Gaul, and in 
 the Irish school (whether within or without Ireland itself). 
 But the prominence of the old curriculum did not occur at the 
 same time in these three sections. Now it was conspicuous in 
 Gaul, now in the Irish schools, and finally in Italy. It per- 
 sisted more uniformly in the latter country, though more con- 
 spicuously in the later period. Greco-Roman education had 
 been overshadowed by other forms of education in most places, 
 but it was left comparatively unmolested in Italy. 
 
 Two classes of the new schools. — The political turmoil 
 of the period, the belief in a not distant end of all things that 
 existed in greater or less intensity down to the tenth century, 
 the seclusion and the narrow ideals of schools, which we have 
 
 9 De Montmorency, Intervention of the State in Eng. Educ, 8, 35-6, 
 41, 56, 59, 66 ff., et al. 
 
 10 Davidson, Hist, of Educ, 153, 156; Mullinger, Sch. of Chas. Gt, 
 32; Univ. of Camb., 11; West, op. cit, 28-9; Rashdall, op. cit., 1:26-7. 
 See also Clark, op. cit., 54. Conf. Chap. IX. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 197 
 
 noticed in previous paragraphs, served to reduce education in 
 general to low terms. From some accounts of the period one 
 would be led to believe that learning became well nigh extinct. 
 But it was never so weak as has been represented, though in 
 its rhythmic movements it reached low points at different times 
 and in different sections. 11 Great schools in many centers, 
 York, Rheims, Tours, Fulda, Corby, St. Gall, and others, tided 
 the tradition over periods of general apathy and neglect. 
 These were the schools whose roots touched Quintilian soil. 12 
 
 Charlemagne and Alfred. — It was in one of the low pe- 
 riods when education was in a partial eclipse, that Charlemagne 
 took up the cause, and by his vigor and his organizing genius 
 did much to make teaching universal and to give it new life 
 and purpose. He devised a system of education that included 
 elementary, secondary, and higher grades. He restored the 
 old ideal and curriculum and gave place to the vernacular. He 
 increased the efficiency of teaching. He added a civic purpose 
 to education, which had previously been devoted exclusively 
 to religious ends. A little later Alfred of England took up a 
 similar work, but one of smaller scope. It is probable that 
 these two reformers, at least Charlemagne, helped to revive the 
 older Greek and Roman educational ideals. On the whole, 
 they did not create, they simply revived, borrowed, extended, 
 but they borrowed broadly. The Palace School that each King 
 fostered at his court was but the rehabilitation of some older 
 form. Charles found some of his teachers in Italy, and some 
 in England, which was perhaps the brightest spot for learning 
 at the time. Alfred in turn borrowed from the Continent, for 
 meantime his country had suffered a relapse. 13 
 
 It is not necessary to take special account of these episodes 
 
 11 See Laurie, op. cit., and old Chronicles, — William of Malmesbury, 
 62, 88 ff., 119-20, 125; Florence of Worcester, 66-8. See also Mullinger, 
 Sch. of Chas. Gt, 2>7\ Rashdall, op. cit., 1:27, 29, 30, 32 ff. 
 
 12 See Laurie, op. cit.; West, Alcuin, 174, and chapter VIII generally; 
 Mullinger, op. cit.; Dill, Roman Civ. in the Last Cent, of the West. Emp. ; 
 Clark, op. cit., 22 ff ., etc. 
 
 It must not be supposed that we are making a new type of school. 
 These were all Monastic or Cathedral schools, only with a stronger 
 Greco-Roman flavor than others. 
 
 13 Mullinger, op cit., 35-9, 69-70. Conf . De Montmorency, op. cit., 
 4-6; Florence of Worcester, Chron., 68. 
 
198 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 in tracing the development of the secondary school. They are 
 but parts of the larger monastic educational movement through 
 which both worked. The latter may be summarized in such 
 a way as to give us the typical school of the period. It is the 
 less necessary to specialize here as both these movements were 
 in a way short lived, depending on the lives of the two reform- 
 ers and receding in the vicissitudes and confusion of the 
 unsettled times that followed. 14 Yet the influence of the lim- 
 ited movement permanently raised the level of education. 
 
 The ideal. — The general ideal of the schools of this period 
 was preparation for church service, either as a " religieux," or 
 as a freer member of an ecclesiastic community. A subsidiary 
 aim was a certain training in Latin, the language of the 
 Church, and, for some centuries, of the people. Often results 
 were merely formal and brought into play memory rather than 
 intellect; if words could be repeated or sung it was sufficient. 
 The Roman Forum had passed. Pulpit oratory was a thing 
 of the future, in any sense calculated to modify the work of 
 the schools. There was no alluring goal therefore to tempt 
 pupils or teachers to spontaneous and enthusiastic training in 
 literature and expression. There were some conspicuous 
 exceptions, it is true, but we are now concerned with the 
 average. 
 
 Aims. — In the typical schools of the period Latin was 
 the fundamental subject and in one direction or another 
 monopolized attention. All knowledge came through Latin. 
 It was an instrument of thought, rather than a means of disci- 
 pline at this time. As Latin was so important in church life 
 it would be fair to say that the subsidiary aim perhaps came 
 to seem, in a way, the paramount aim of the schools. 
 
 Another subsidiary aim was of a practical nature. It had 
 to do in the first place with the acquisition of skill in copying, 
 essential for one of the most typical industries of the monas- 
 teries, that of preserving and multiplying famous literary 
 works of the past. Again it found expression in training* 
 
 14 It should be noticed, however, that at least some of the schools 
 fostered by Charlemagne continued to flourish during the dissolution 
 of the Empire. Adams, Civilization during Mid. Ages, 164; Rashdall, 
 op. cit., 1:30; Conf. Mullinger, op. cit., 165-66; Nohle, op. cit., 6ff.; 
 Clark, op. cit. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 199 
 
 " clerks " (in the narrower sense of the term), for the monk 
 was the letter-writer and notary of the Middle Ages. The door 
 of the church, Rashdall says, came to mean the door to pro- 
 fessional life in Northern Europe. 15 
 
 The curriculum.- — These aims define the common curric- 
 ulum of the new schools, some of which, as we have seen, were 
 old schools made over, some of them new schools. We evi- 
 dently have Latin, or grammar, as it was called, as the leading 
 and absorbing subject. Next, because of its practical bearing 
 on the school aims, and because it was a primitive element of 
 education, came music. Number, or arithmetic, was necessary 
 only so far as it related to the " computus." Then there was 
 document-writing and letter-writing, to serve the needs of the 
 religious community and the general public. A smattering of 
 rhetoric from the Latin text might be added, at least in some 
 cases. 
 
 Text books. — A history of education might be written 
 from a study of the typical text-books of the various epochs, 
 for they show both theory and practice in education, the former 
 through fore-words and notes, the latter throughout the books. 
 Fortunately we are able to examine the favorite text-books of 
 mediaeval education, or rather the favorite reference books, for 
 text-books were scarce, or practically non-existent, except as 
 they were made by pupils from dictation. These books were 
 summaries, or " bald epitomes," of past learning, or a part of it. 
 Men cared principally for information, for the bare facts, not 
 for investigation, new thought, or even richness of detail. 
 Past, present, and future were identical as far as knowledge 
 was concerned. The past dominated, giving all and ruling 
 all. In grammar the books dealt with definitions, classifica- 
 tions, and schemes, not with living language. In geometry 
 they wanted the facts, not the process. Thus mere compends 
 met the need and perpetuated the common ideal. They were 
 practically the whole substance of instruction to the tenth 
 century. 16 
 
 The books most in favor in mediaeval education were these : 
 
 15 Rashdall, op. cit., II : 696-7, 707. Conf. 1 : 26 and Mullinger, Univ. 
 of Camb., 209 (note). 
 
 16 West, op. cit., 22-27; Mullinger, Sch. of Chas. Gt, 69. 
 
200 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Orosius, Historiarum adversus Paganos, Libri. VII. 
 
 Martianus Capella, Nuptiae Mercuri et Philologiae (Marriage 
 of Mercury and Philology). 
 
 Donatus, Ars Grammatica (Grammar). 
 
 Priscian, Grammatica. 
 
 Boetius, Consolatio Philosophise. 
 
 Cassiodorus, De arte et disciplina liberalium artium. 
 
 Isidorus, Etymologise. 17 
 
 Most of these were small encyclopedias of the seven liberal 
 arts and, as Mullinger says, slavish compilations from great 
 Greek and Roman treatises. 18 They have however this 
 merit, — if they added nothing, they at least presented a part 
 of the great inheritance of the past, though in a bare, uninviting 
 form. Capella, Donatus, and Priscian were most used; in 
 earlier centuries the first two were the special favorites. 19 
 
 Some idea of these old text-books may be gained through 
 abstracts of the grammars of Capella and Donatus that have 
 been prepared from these books and placed in the Appendix. 20 
 As grammar was the chief secondary subject, — in fact almost 
 preempted the ground, — the abstracts will be especially sug- 
 gestive for our purpose. 21 
 
 Method. — The method was that which reproduced things 
 exactly as they were, — a storing method or rote method, not 
 one that stimulated students to find out what ought to be and 
 to increase the sum of truth ; for not individual thought but the 
 condensed thought of the past was the object of interest. 
 Memory work thus dominated method, and this " requires 
 definite form and small compass." 
 
 Concreteness in method. — But it must be remembered 
 that the grammars and the method that accorded with them 
 
 17 Taylor, Classical Heritage of the Mid. Ages, 47-8. 
 
 18 Mullinger, op. cit., 21 ff. ; Taylor, op. cit., 47-56. See especially 
 opera ipsa. 
 
 19 Mullinger, op. cit, 21 ff. 
 
 20 In connection _ with this list may be mentioned two other books 
 that became favorites later and held the ground till the 16th century, 
 — an abbreviated Priscian in verse, and the Doctrinale of Alexander 
 de Villa Dei, in verse like the Priscian, but based on mediaeval Latin. 
 The verse form of these two grammars is significant, and is itself a 
 commentary on the bareness and unattractiveness of the rote-method; 
 it needed rhythm to make it tolerable. 
 
 21 See Appendix 2. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 201 
 
 represent only the formal work of the period, that language 
 and concrete grammar were really learned by use, especially in 
 the church service. Latin was the medium of communication. 
 They lived Latin. 22 So when we look into a text-book of 
 Latin grammar and find it a catalog of the more prominent 
 abstractions in etymology and accidence, we must bear in mind 
 that the illustrative material, the concrete, the life of language 
 study, was outside the treatise, in the every-day life of the 
 student, and no adequate idea of method can be obtained with- 
 out considering this point. When we adopted the formal part 
 of the old method we forgot this other and more important 
 part of language teaching, and we did not modify the formal 
 enough to cover the loss. 23 
 
 Other matters that relieved abstractness. — While speak- 
 ing of curriculum and method, we must keep in mind two edu- 
 cational forces that are not always noted in discussions of these 
 topics : — First we have the collections of classical and Chris- 
 tian literature found in the monasteries, to which reference has 
 been made before. 24 An occasional catalog that has come 
 down to us gives us additional glimpses of the educational 
 facilities of the times and tells of an influence that may have 
 modified the barrenness of the formal text-books. Even these 
 catalogs however give place to such books as Capella and 
 Donatus, and do not contradict the arguments that make them 
 the most characteristic school-books of the time. — Second, 
 there were the monasteries, abbeys, and cathedrals themselves, 
 which presented, in persistent forms, the figures, scenes, and 
 even stories and allegories of Christian records and tradition. 
 As Allen says in his " Great Cathedrals," " the church was 
 the book ; " from it people read, and from it they received 
 indelible impressions of the great facts of the new era. 
 
 Real character of method. — Aside from these concrete 
 elements, which after all relieved the dry and abstract work 
 of secondary education but little, as has already been indicated, 
 method was essentially formal and abstract. It agreed exactly, 
 
 22 Amer. Jour, of Educ, 24 : 353 ; Clark, op. cit., passim. 
 
 23 But in spite of this concrete element formal, abstract work was 
 considered necessary. See page 202, and note 25. 
 
 24 See Am. Jour, of Educ, Vol. 24 (Early Christian Schools and 
 Scholars) ; Mullinger, Sch. of Chas. Gt, 71, 165-6. 
 
202 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 as it always does, with the conditions and the mental attitude of 
 the time. A body of tradition carefully defined and to be 
 possessed with exactness, a receptive attitude on the part of 
 the schools, a fondness for words and forms rather than sub- 
 stance, and absence of strong individuality in the people, nat- 
 urally carry with them a method which reproduces mechan- 
 ically, and a strictness that brooks no failure from lack of 
 interest and vital attachment to the subject, but pushes home 
 the task. Rote learning agrees with these conditions, and 
 harsh discipline accords with it and with the general sentiment 
 of the time. " Grammar and flagellation, twin brothers," may 
 be taken as a general summary of the average school of the 
 period, and of a school of a much later period. 25 Learning 
 elementary Latin Grammar was a dreary task, consisting largely 
 of memorizing words, forms, abstractions and lists, before their 
 significance was comprehended. 
 
 Some secondary schools of larger scope. — But at differ- 
 ent points in the preceding pages we have caught sight of schools 
 that easily distinguished themselves from those that have just 
 been described. When we consider these schools, which are 
 more important for our purpose because they were more nearly 
 in the line of succession of secondary education than others and 
 really represented secondary education during the centuries 
 covered by this chapter, we must modify to some extent our 
 ideas of the bareness and sternness of the curriculum and 
 method just described. We must add a culture idea. In these 
 schools pupils went to the sources and read and appreciated 
 much of classical literature. In Writing they gave more atten- 
 tion to style. They gained more insight into nature, science, 
 and history, though their knowledge was still meagre and 
 for the most part second hand. They touched the fine arts 
 also. In their method the schools appealed more to interest, and 
 in management they used a more sympathetic and hence more 
 pedogogical system of discipline. Some of these schools at- 
 tained great renown, but those that became conspicuous were 
 very few. They had modified the Roman curriculum by adding 
 
 25 Laurie, op. cit., 36-7, 269. See also his chapter on "The Inner 
 Workings of Christian Schools," in the same book. Conf. references 
 on the Renaissance period in Chapters XV-XVI. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 203 
 
 the new literature. They differed most from the old schools in 
 the ideal that Christianity had supplied. Aside from these ad- 
 ditions they did practically nothing to develop education beyond 
 the earlier standard. These schools especially claim our atten- 
 tion. We shall have to deal with them again. At the same time 
 their more humble associates represent the real education of the 
 period, and, after all, make a great epoch in education. 
 
 Summary. — In summarising this chapter and defining the 
 secondary school that characterized the age we must keep in 
 mind the two types that have been discussed, — 1, the average 
 school ; 26 2, the exceptional school 27 that was prophetic of the 
 future. 
 
 AVERAGE SCHOOL 
 
 Curriculum : — 
 
 Religious instruction. 
 
 Grammar, — bare, formal 
 work. 
 Meagre classical literature, 
 for grammatical purposes 
 chiefly. 
 
 Christian Latin literature. 
 
 Notarial work and letter writ- 
 ing. 
 
 Music. 
 
 Number. 
 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL 
 
 Curriculum : — 
 
 Religious instruction. 
 
 Grammar. — Elements of 
 Latin language. More 
 life, substance, and mean- 
 ing. 
 
 More classical literature, — 
 for literary as well as for 
 grammatical purposes. 
 
 Christian Latin literature. 
 
 Notarial work and letter writ- 
 
 ( Rhetoric, — small amount, 
 formal, — and Elementary 
 Logic.) ? 
 
 mg._ _ 
 
 Composition — both prose and 
 verse. 
 
 Rhetoric and Elementary 
 Logic. 
 
 Music. 
 
 Number ; Arithmetic. 
 
 Geography ; Geometry ; Sci- 
 ence. All meagre. Char- 
 acteristic ancient ideas. 
 
 (Greek and History.) ? 
 
 26 Laurie, op. cit., 24-30, 35 ff., 70 ff., 84-5, 92 f ., 95 ; Mullinger, Sch. 
 of Chas. Gt, 31, 35-9, 69-70, 74, 86-88, no, 131, 158; Univ. of Cambridge, 
 21-2, 42; Paulsen, Germ, Educ, Chap. II (general acct.) ; Rashdall, 
 op. cit., 1:27, 30, 32 ff., 37 f.; 11:705; Nohle, op. cit., 8-12; West, 
 op. cit., 27, 58, 82, 84; Howard, op. cit., 4; Ziegler, op. cit., 27 ff.; Amer. 
 Jour, of Educ, 24: 99-100, III, 365; Donatus, op. cit.; Capella, op. cit.; 
 Davidson, op. cit., 162. 
 
 27 Laurie, op. cit., 50, 86, 97 f., 173 ; Mullinger, Sch. of Chas. Gt, 132, 
 142 ff., 152-3; Univ. of Camb., 8 and note, 9, 20, 22, 42 ff., 57; Compayre, 
 
204 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Method : — 
 Also formal, but more stimu- 
 lating work, more inter- 
 est. More pedagogical 
 discipline. 
 
 Occasional references to such 
 matters as absorbing from 
 the master, — drinking in 
 his words, — science illus- 
 trated by apparatus, etc. 
 
 Same books. Also classical 
 authors themselves. 
 
 Method : — 
 
 Dictation ; rote-learning. 
 
 Written exercises ; vocabulary- 
 building. 
 
 Catechetical plan much used. 
 
 Severe discipline ; " flagella- 
 tion and harsh memory 
 work" characteristic. 
 
 Latin language, however, in 
 common use; hence some 
 elements of natural 
 method. 
 
 Text-books and reference 
 books few : — Priscian, 
 Donatus, Capella, Isidore, 
 Boetius. The last three 
 compendiums of learning, 
 — " transition books of 
 transition centuries," 
 
 from old classical culture 
 to the revived culture of 
 the 15th and later cen- 
 turies. Books generally 
 in teachers' hands only. 
 Aim: — 
 
 To learn the Latin language. 
 
 To make all subserve religion. 
 We should think of the curricu- 
 lum as reduced to its low- 
 est terms, — at least in 
 many, and probably in 
 most, cases. School work 
 often gave nothing but a 
 little poor Latin and in- 
 struction in the church 
 forms, formulas, etc. 
 The tenth century the 
 darkest in France and 
 England. 
 
 Standards varied. — There was thus no universal standard. 
 Secondary education ranged from the narrowest and most for- 
 mal work to real liberal education. At whichever end of the 
 
 Abelard, 5-6; West, op. cit., 13-16, 27 f., 31-4, 44-5, 66, 131, 136, 139, 
 140, 174; Nohle, op. cit., 7-9; Amer. Jour, of Educ, 24:339-40, 343-5, 
 348-9, 353, 355, 359, 361-2, 36&-70, 540, 543- 
 
 Aim: — 
 
 To master the language of the 
 church and of literature. 
 To prepare for ecclesias- 
 tical positions and other 
 positions of influence. 
 
 More of culture idea comes in. 
 
 Towards the end of the mon- 
 astic period ancient poets 
 and orators began to be 
 studied with genuine ad- 
 miration. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 205 
 
 line we observe, however, we find that the secondary school de- 
 veloped nothing new in curriculum, except formal religious in- 
 struction, and nothing new in method; but there was back of 
 curriculum and method a great force that would eventually 
 transform them. 
 
 The ideals. — As to ideals, the central thought was the 
 perpetuation of a type, of an institution, — the old tribal ideal 
 adapted. There was thus a return to primitive ideals, though 
 colored by new religious ideas, and to a primitive type of method 
 that was adapted to the ideal. 
 
 Amid such unfavorable surroundings culture still per- 
 petuates itself. — And yet culture and scholarship always 
 manage to perpetuate themselves through responsive souls. A 
 few in every generation, however unpromising the conditions, 
 catch the glow from the past and quietly maintain it. They, 
 however, merely maintain ; they do not intensify. Such times 
 are not creative. The quiet seclusion of the age in question 
 gave favorable opportunity for many a fine soul to sustain itself 
 in culture and hand on the tradition, — gave opportunity also for 
 groups of scholars to conduct conspicuous schools that were 
 fair summaries of the best of the past from a culture point of 
 view. This accounts for the exceptional schools. 
 
 Service of the age. — The one distinctive service of the 
 age lay in crystallizing the new form of school that gave educa- 
 tion the location, attachments, and suroundings best suited to its 
 general character and aims at this stage of its development, and 
 in making this the typical school of the mediseval times, giving it 
 such prominence in fact that it seemed the only school form, — 
 " ceu cetera nusquam f orent." 
 
 Comparison between the typical school of the period and 
 old schools. — This school, as has already been hinted, was 
 the same one we have seen before, but the church was substi- 
 tuted for the state as a center of interest. The old curriculum 
 and method were there, as a rule much attenuated and adapted 
 crudely to the life and thought of the early church, but occasion- 
 ally developed with surpassing enterprise. Even initiation cere- 
 monies were there, but they represented induction into church 
 citizenship rather than political citizenship. They were called 
 confirmation, and the age of application was chosen for the same 
 
206 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 instinctive reason that guided primitive tribes when they origin- 
 ated the ceremony, viz., the peculiar fitness of adolescence for 
 the new life. Education has become institutional. 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 Six religious orders. — Human nature has not tolerated a single 
 organization in any line. Many orders with the general purposes 
 that have been outlined arose in the early Christian and mediaeval 
 centuries. To summarize and classify some of the most important 
 developments in this direction we may say that the religious spirit of 
 the times evolved five or six conspicuous organizations that particularly 
 concern us here. 
 
 i. Monasteries of St. Martin and Cassian in Southern Europe, be- 
 ginning in the fourth and fifth centuries. Cassian gave form to the 
 monastic development. 
 
 2. Irish monasteries, related more intimately to Greek educational 
 ideals. 
 
 3. Benedictine monasteries, widely spread over Europe. They repre- 
 sented a much more extensive movement than I and 2, and wider 
 ideas of education than those of the Cassian system, though still narrow. 
 
 4 and 5. Franciscan monasteries and Dominican monasteries. They 
 spread rapidly about the beginning of the thirteenth century and later. 
 These took the place of the Benedictine establishments as educational 
 centers, and figured prominently in early university life. 
 
 6. To these may be added organizations of religious functionaries 
 in connection with cathedrals and collegiate churches similar to cathe- 
 drals, — organizations having more or less of the monastic spirit and 
 form. 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Summaries of some famous old text-books which were used in the 
 schools for centuries and then served as a basis of newer books, — Lily's 
 Grammar and others. 
 
 1. Martianus Capella. 28 
 
 Prefatory Note:_ Capella has a unique and extremely fanciful 
 scheme for presenting his treatise on the Seven Liberal Arts. He im- 
 agines the marriage of Mercury and Philology and very appropriately 
 has as bridesmaids or attendants at the union of the crafty word- 
 maker and the language maiden, the " seven arts." Each in turn 
 comes forward and sets off her art in due form and style. 
 
 We first have an introduction in verse representing a kind of sportive 
 conflict with the Muse who shows the advantages and even the necessity 
 of rhetorical embellishments in treating a subject, and gently rebukes 
 what the writer claims is his fixed purpose, — to bring on the various 
 
 28 The Teubner edition. 
 
SIXTH -CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 207 
 
 "arts" as characters giving the plain unembellished principles (prae- 
 cepta) of their special lines of interest. Scattered along the not 
 uninteresting poetical arguments are such expressions as 
 
 Commenta — frigente vero nil posse. 
 
 Uitioque dat poetae 
 Infracta ferre certa 
 Lasciva dans lepori 
 Et paginam venustans 
 Multa illitam colore. 
 
 Vestiantur artes. 
 
 Cur ergo non fateris 
 Ni figurinis figura 
 Nil posse comperari. 
 
 Coming to Capella's prose he introduces the genius of grammar in the 
 guise of a woman, in this rather fanciful style : — 
 
 "Leto's son now brings in one of Mercury's attendants, old, 
 but comely, one claiming descent from Osiris and birth at Memphis, 
 long guarded in secret, but found and educated by Mercury. In Attica 
 where she has lived most of her life she ' wore the pallium, but 
 enters the assembly of the gods now in Latin fashion, because of Latin 
 environment and Latin auspices." 
 
 She enters as a "doctor" of language bearing the symbols and 
 drugs of leech-craft, for curing various defects of vocal organs and 
 faults of speech. Conspicuous among her tools is a file highly polished 
 displaying eight gilded parts or sides (representing the traditional eight 
 parts of speech that were a panacea for many language faults). Capella, 
 after a long interval, goes on to say: "As often as she received any 
 one to be cured it was her custom to treat first of the Noun, — the 
 common errors and gender, then modes, tenses, and inflections of 
 verbs. To cure the dull and slow she had them run the whole round, 
 labor hard at the whole art." 
 
 After a preliminary description Capella suffers the grammar maiden 
 to speak and explain her art. She first explains names connected with 
 herself or her profession in Greece and Rome, — litteratura, litteratio, 
 litteratus, litterator, grammatodidaskalos, — and then explains the scope 
 of her art. Originally grammar had to do with " reading and writing 
 well," but it has added to other functions that of interpreting and that 
 of demonstrating skillfully, probably referring to the rise of oratory. 
 
 Next she refers to four forces at work: 1. Grammar (litteratura), 
 the teacher; 2, letters (litterae), the subject matter; 3, the grammarian, 
 or scholar (grammaticus), 29 the resultant of the teaching; 4, the skillful 
 manipulator of language who has attained cleverness in the art. 
 
 29 Nepos (quoted by Suetonius) says the term ought to be defined 
 interpres poetarum. In the period discussed in this chapter the gram- 
 
208 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 She teaches, she says, the nature and use of speech and the art of 
 judging language. In treating of speech she takes up the matter ana- 
 lytically, first dealing with letters. Letters are the product of nature 
 (sounds), and the product of art (forms). They are divided into two 
 classes, — vowels, which stand alone, and consonants, which cannot 
 stand alone. The Greeks, she says, made seven vowels, old Latin, six, 
 later Latin, five. They are long or short; acute, grave or circumflex; 
 combined or single. They make syllables alone or take consonants on 
 either side. They change into various other vowels in inflection. Ex- 
 planations or illustrations are given to make these classifications clear. 
 In connection with the last characteristic of vowels there is some 
 curious philology: — "Item e littera primum in a reformatur, ut sero, 
 satum; vel in i, ut moneo, monitus; vel in o, ut tegendo, toga. . . . 
 Similiter i quoque vocalis in a convertitur, ut signis, signa; in e, ut 
 fortis forte.— Non aliter o littera in a transit, ut creo, creari; vel 
 in e, ut tutor, tutela," etc. 
 
 Then she goes on with statements and abundant illustrations as to the 
 relations and "junctions" of vowels, — the letters with which they as- 
 sociate on either side and the words they can terminate. Some inter- 
 esting philological points are given on the way. I. Oisus is the old 
 spelling for usus. 2. The letter Z 30 has four sounds, " exilis" when 
 doubled ; " medius " when it ends nouns ; " leniter sonat " when it pre- 
 cedes vowels; " plenus" when the letters p, g, c, or f precede. Again 
 n " plenior apparet" at the beginning or end of words, exilior in the 
 middle of words. 31 Divus Claudius, she informs us, in imitation of 
 the Greeks added p and c (as psalterium, sacsa) ; c alone of mutes 
 lengthens the preceding vowel. 32 
 
 She next takes up consonants, divided into semi-vowels and mutes, 
 and catalogs various facts as to the letters (preceding and succeeding) 
 with which the consonants are associated. Here comes in the curious 
 statement that r is converted into I, n, or s (niger, nigellus; femur, 
 feminis; gero, gessi). Some, she says, do not make j a letter, but a 
 kind of sibilant, though she finds that it deports itself like other letters. 
 No one, however, makes x a letter, as it is doubled; it is transformed 
 into v (nix, nivis), and into c (pix, picis). The letter h passes into 
 x (traho, traxi). She makes altogether twelve semi-vowels, six vowels 
 (including y), and five others (aspirates, doubles, or Greek), making 
 twenty-three letters. 
 
 maticus was the head of the monastic school and came to have much 
 power in the community. In the next period sensitiveness as to his 
 perogatives (and. particularly as to school revenues) stimulated or 
 colored the conflicts of cities to establish new schools independent of 
 the old. 
 so Page 59. 
 
 31 Page 60. 
 
 32 These and later examples are interesting in comparison with 
 modern philological explanations. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 209 
 
 The grammar maiden now runs over the various letters, showing 
 by what conformations of mouth, combined with palate and breath, 
 each is formed. This gives us some clue to the pronunciation of Latin. 
 
 A poetical passage follows, in which she tells us what she has 
 thus far done and introduces the topics, " syllables" " union of let- 
 ters" and " accent" and then, under the influence of the prose muse 
 again, briefly refers to combinations of letters forming syllables, and 
 hastens on to accent and quantity. She explains accent rather poetically 
 as " anima vocis et seminarium musiccs, quod omnis modulatio ex fas- 
 tigiis vocum gravitateque componitur ideoque accentus quasi adcantus 
 dictus est." She makes three qualities of sound, acutus, circumflexus 
 (inflexus, or flexus), gravis, and tells what syllables go by these names. 
 Here again she gives clue to Latin pronunciation, giving such examples 
 as Cotulo, Cethegus, occidit, tenebras. She then considers the effect of 
 the context in taking away or changing accent. Finally she takes up 
 Greek words, which she says may be made Latin or remain Greek, 
 but even in the latter case Latin and Greek agree as to middle syllables. 
 
 Several pages from this point on she devotes to a catalog of facts 
 concerning syllables long or short by nature or position. 
 
 Common vowels next claim attention and here she makes eight cate- 
 gories, 1, short vowels followed by a liquid and consonant; 2, short 
 vowels followed by a liquid added to a consonant; 3, short vowels 
 followed by a consonant and h; 4, a short vowel ending a definite part 
 of the sentence ; 5, a diphthong before a vowel ; 6, a long vowel fol- 
 lowed by another vowel; 7, when the letter c (followed by a vowel) 
 ends a pronoun ; 8, when z follows a short vowel. 
 
 She next considers Unal syllables "in which rules and regular forms 
 of art consist," meaning, presumably, that they suggest a regular sys- 
 tem of prosodic rules and have much to do with artistic literary form. 
 Here mingled with parts of prosody are pages which are the prototypes 
 of classified material as to gender, found in the accidence part of every 
 grammar to this day. It is to be noted that she seems to mix present 
 and future participles here. 33 
 
 This brings her to analogy, introduced by a piece of poetry which is 
 rather obscure in parts. She speaks of analogy in form and in de- 
 clension and classification of words. Here we note the old form specua 
 which she says the ancients used. 34 She gives variations in the declen- 
 sion of genu and comu (some old forms), and also optumus and maxu- 
 mus. 35 She decides that the plural parium and similar forms are mis- 
 takes. 36 She curiously gives the declension of neuter and uter as 
 neutrius, nutri, etc., whereas only one example of neutri as dative is 
 given in Harper (and this from Plautus), while there are several regular 
 genitives. The ancients, she says, made Hectoris, Catonis, but we 
 shorten. 37 Again the old form is optumatum, the new optumatium. 
 She says praegnas is feminine and neuter 38 and speaks of the shorten- 
 
 33 Page 285. 35 Page 293. ™ Page 298. 
 
 34 Page 293. 36 Page 297. 38 Page 299. 
 
210 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 ing of rei and spei. S9 She indicates that words have -is in the accusa- 
 tive plural, when the genitive plural has -turn. Again she mentions 
 the fact that some add t to lac and that the ancients said lacte. i0 Fol- 
 lowing this she gives some hints as to the quantity of words ending in 
 x. 41 She makes v a regular vowel and calls it such even in words like 
 nix, saying that a consonant cannot pass over into a vowel. 
 
 She next takes up verbs of which she makes five classes, — active, 
 passive, neuter, common, deponent. As to modes she presents different 
 classifications as given by different authors, varying from five to ten. 
 Those who give five, she tells us, make them indicative, imperative, 
 optative, subjunctive (conjunctivus), infinitive (or universal mode). 
 Others add a part or all of the following, — promissive, interrogative 
 (percontativus), and subjective as distinguished from conjunctivus, 
 but she decides there is no reason to go beyond the five. 
 
 The grammar goddess makes but three conjugations. She gives audis 
 as an example of the third, but apparently recognizes two classes, those 
 having -Is and -is. The signs of the conjugations she finds in the 
 second singular present. One notes in passing the curious form triumfo. 
 She evidently makes the imperative the base form and builds other 
 forms on it; the infinitive, she says, is formed from the imperative 
 by adding. 42 Consistently with other parts of her presentation she makes 
 forms by changing one letter into another. Some other interesting 
 points noted in this connection are these : — The ancients left off the e 
 in the imperfect. This tense she names inchoativum, while the per- 
 fect is absolutum, and the pluperfect exactum or praeteritum per- 
 fection, or species inchoativa.* 3 Terence made -bo in the future of 
 the third conjugation. Four lines are given to special cases with 
 verbs 44 
 
 Grammar now treats very briefly of anomalies, putting all remarks in 
 the form, " when we say-, why do we not say- ? " 
 
 The discourse is suddenly brought to an end by a device through 
 which the assembled council at the nuptials signifies that it would be 
 tiresome to them, as well as a thankless task, to run through other 
 details, mentioning particularly the eight parts of speech, vitia, and 
 other anomala. This suggests that various details not found here 
 were given in school. It all makes grammar a dry, barren learning 
 of facts rather than a thing of life. We may question whether the fanci- 
 ful form of this grammar may not be a concession to give interest to dry 
 formalism. 
 
 2. Donatus. 
 
 Book I. 
 
 1. Vox, i.e., sound, — articulate, inarticulate. 
 
 2. Letters classified. 
 
 39 Page 301. « p a g es 316-17. 
 
 40 Page 306. 43 Page 322. 
 
 41 Page 308. 44 Page 324. 
 
SIXTH CENTURY TO THE UNIVERSITY 211 
 
 3. Syllables, — long, short, common. Long syllables have two 
 " times." 
 
 4. Feet classified — abundant detail — abstract. 
 
 5. Tones or accent. Accent-signs and other signs. 
 
 6. Positurae, i.e., punctuation. They correspond to our period, 
 colon, and comma, but are indicated by points placed at top, bottom 
 and middle of line respectively. 
 
 Book II. 
 
 Eight parts of speech named. Donatus says " many make more, many 
 fewer parts." No details. 
 
 I. The noun. Six attributes : — 
 
 1. Qualitas, indicating whether the noun is propria or appel- 
 lativa. He includes adjectives among substantives (or ap- 
 pellativa nomina). 
 
 2. Comparison, — details and peculiarities. Diminutives come 
 in here. Some case construction touched upon. 
 
 3. Gender. Details. 
 
 4. Number. Details. 
 
 5a. Figurae, here referring not to inflectional forms, but to com- 
 position. Simple and compound nouns. Manner of com- 
 pounding. 
 
 5b. Compound substantives and their inflection. 
 
 6a. Cases. Some, he says, make seven cases, i.e., there are two 
 ablatives, one with db, one without. (In specifying the 
 ablative both Donatus and Capella used ab or some other 
 preposition.) 
 
 6b. Formae casum, i.e., peculiarities of declension, — aptotes, 
 triptotes, irregulars, defectives. 
 
 6c. The ablative. From it he forms genitive plural and dative 
 and ablative plural. He mentions accusative plural in is 
 when ablative is — i, and accusative singular — int. (This 
 is the nearest approach to the modern paradigm. Ancient 
 grammars have little to do with these much used graphic 
 presentations and have little to guide the pupil in inflection. 
 But this is relieved by an important part of method which 
 we forget. The Latin was a living language. Forms were 
 learned by use.) Before closing the topic Donatus specifies 
 the letters in which nouns can end. 
 II. The pronoun. Same attributes as nouns. Various details. 
 III. Verbs. Seven accidents. Quality of verbs depends on mode 
 
 and form. Seven Modes, — indicative, imperative, promissive, 
 
 optative, conjunctive, infinitive, impersonal, (the latter not be- 
 ing regarded as a separate mode by some). 
 
 Four " forms." — perfect, meditative, inchoative, frequentative. 
 
 Three conjugations. 
 
 Five "genera", — active, passive, neuter, common, deponents. 
 
 Two " numeri." 
 
 Two figurae, — simple, compound. 
 III. Three tenses, — present, preterite, future. The second has three 
 forms, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect. (Donatus gives the 
 names we are accustomed to and so differs from Capella). 
 
 Three persons (and in this connection the cases connected). 
 
212 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 IV. Adverbs. Various origins. Lengths. Says facile and difficile 
 ought to be regarded as nouns rather than adjectives. 45 Ad- 
 verbs have three accidents, i, " significatio " (place, time, desire, 
 quality, etc.); 2, " comparatio " (here he includes diminutives 
 as correlative with forms of comparison. He did the same in 
 adjectives); 3, figurae, — simple, compound. 
 V. Participles. Six accidents ; in place of " qaulitas " and " con- 
 
 jugatio " in verbs come " significatio " and " casus." 
 VI. Conjunctions, — with details of classification, etc. Uncertain 
 whether cum and ut are conjunctions, prepositions, or adverbs; 
 determined by context. 
 VII. Prepositions ; 1, governing cases ; 2, in composition. They have 
 only one accident, case ; there are two cases, ablative and accusa- 
 tive, the idea evidently being that the case following the preposi- 
 tion is its case. Accents of prepositions are acute and grave, 
 according as they are separate from or joined with cases or 
 words. The ancients used a preposition with the genitive, as 
 crurum tenus. 
 VIII. Interjections. — Classification. Comparison with Greek usage. 
 Some peculiarities. 
 
 Book III. 
 
 1. Barbarism, — violations of ordinary usage by adding, taking away, 
 substituting, or transforming letters, syllables, quantity, accent, aspira- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Solecism, — discrepancies, bad connection. Various details. 
 
 3. Various other vitia given, with their Greek names and with illus- 
 trations. 
 
 4. Metaphlasm, with details. Greek names. 
 
 5. Schemata, or figures of speech, — prolepsis, zengma, etc., all with 
 Greek names. 
 
 6. Tropes. Various details. Greek names again. 
 
 45 Section 1759. 
 
XIII 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 
 
 Early Christian centuries and mediaeval times compared 
 as to spirit. — The early Christian centuries made good use 
 of the training and methods of the Greek rhetorical and philo- 
 sophical schools and the Roman grammar school in rebutting 
 heresies, settling creeds, and building up generally the great 
 body of patristic literature. The first stimulus of new thought 
 and new ideas that came in with Christianity, working together 
 with the old discipline and power produced by the old educa- 
 tion, wrought marvels in this direction and left for the future a 
 vast mass of material that was chiefly of a religious nature, but 
 touched various sides of life, both social and political. The 
 enthusiasm of a fresh age, goaded by the pricks of controversy 
 that the times naturally developed, gave originality and life to 
 the products of that age. 
 
 In contrast with this period succeeding centuries may be char- 
 acterized as formalizing rather than creative. It is noticeable 
 that the fresh thought of one age is moulded into form in 
 another. Spontaneity and enthusiastic advance of one period 
 thus give place to formalizing activity in the next, to quiet but 
 wide-spread assimilation. The mediaeval centuries stereotyped 
 what had been set up for them by the earlier Christian age. 
 Their quiescence in the direction of productiveness is empha- 
 sized by the fact that they not only did not add, they even con- 
 densed and epitomized to the barest summaries the mass of ma- 
 terial in the production of which earlier ages reveled, and in the 
 transmission of which they gloried. It was too much to take 
 the whole. Besides, some crystallization or condensation in this 
 vast accumulation was necessary in order that the average 
 mediaeval mind might compass it. At any rate they made large 
 use of these condensations of the wisdom and the culture ma- 
 terial of the ancients, as exemplified in the epitomes already 
 
 213 
 
214 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 referred to. 1 But they also studied in various degrees the 
 patristic literature which had been handed on, applying it in 
 saintly life, church forms, church organizations, and ecclesiastic 
 polities of a rather intense type. The schools of the period, 
 settling down, as they did, into quiet and easy forms, and giving 
 themselves to memory work rather than to investigation, were 
 in exact accord with the times. 
 
 Significance of the rhythmic movement. — The rhythmic 
 movement, one limit of which is represented by spontaneity and 
 creative spirit, and the other limit by formalizing and assimila- 
 tion, is the result of natural law. If it were not for this, ad- 
 vance thought would break anchorage, — would fail to attach 
 itself to the world, and would eventually lose itself. There 
 must be a time of assimilation before any new productiveness 
 can take place. But in time the food becomes stale, nutrition 
 suffers, and the nervous system of the world becomes restless 
 for something new. 2 There is an eager grasping of fresh 
 thought, or an enthusiastic reviving of a thought that has been 
 lost, or the working over of old thought by a new method, 3 
 or the crystallization and systematization that introduce 
 science. All of these we find coming into full view in the next 
 period to be considered. 
 
 Influences at work — Saracenic enterprise. — To under- 
 stand the meaning of the new period for education we must 
 recall the work of the Saracens in Southern Europe that 
 revived old Greek culture, particularly along scientific lines. 4 
 
 1 Chapter XII. 
 
 2 In the present case the diet of past achievement had become so 
 meagre that there was danger of intellectual aenemia. 
 
 3 See Clark, Lat. of Mid. Ages and Renais. 36. 
 
 4 Clark points out the importance of considering here the influence 
 of Greek and Greco-Semitic culture of the Byzantines and Saracens. 
 At points where the two lines of culture came into contact, as in Sicily 
 and Spain, there was an inevitable stimulus of thought and intellectual 
 activity from the antagonism and friction which the hostile systems de- 
 veloped as well as from contributions which each school of thought 
 made to the other. 
 
 "The influence of Arabian learning directed scholastic thought into 
 new channels and to new sources, rather than gave any original con- 
 tributions to European knowledge. Saracenic learning was more bril- 
 liant, but did not have the same deep sources and organic connection 
 with the whole social system possessed by scholasticism. It did not 
 take deep enough root to be perennial." Page 36. 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 215 
 
 The part of this Greek culture that most amazed and delighted 
 the European world was the work of Aristotle, especially his 
 logic. The minds of Europe were fascinated by the discovery, 
 and they became absorbed in expounding and analyzing their 
 new treasures and in applying the Aristotelian forms of thought. 
 But while this occupied the foreground of attention for a time, 
 the old-new sciences that the Saracens fostered and advanced, — 
 both pure and applied science, mathematics, and natural philoso- 
 phy, — were of equal importance. They waited, however, for 
 adequate development, owing to causes that will be apparent as 
 we proceed. Saracenic schools were vigorous and attractive; 
 they magnetized the northern Europeans who repaired to them 
 and influenced the Christian schools that sprang up beside them. 
 The students of the new learning were becoming scholars who 
 were to be heard from. Among the schools of the Saracens 
 were noted universities at leading centers. They offered a 
 broad education and were so successful and influential that 
 Christendom felt it must oppose itself to them in self defense, — 
 an opposition that resulted in suppressing this rampant Sara- 
 cenic education about 1200 A. D. 5 Something must fill the gap 
 in higher education. 
 
 Crusades, travel, discoveries. — We must also appreciate 
 the liberalizing and stimulating force of the crusades, and of 
 travels, discoveries, and other influences that opened minds, en- 
 couraged fresh thought, and suggested wider relations in vari- 
 ous directions. Again more settled times, following incursion 
 and invasion, the settling of the new and the fusing of new and 
 old into new nations, gave opportunities for new thought and 
 new lines of development. But it is quite as important for our 
 purpose to notice two phenomena that were in part caused by 
 circumstances already noted. 6 
 
 Growth of cities. — With the growth of civilization, the 
 stimulus of more settled times, and the opening up of new trade 
 routes, old cities came into new life and new cities grew. More 
 
 5 This revival was ascribed to the Arabs. They were certainly partly 
 responsible for this reviving scholarship. But the new acquisitions 
 were due also to a generally reviving scholarship and to a consequent 
 spirit of exploration in the field of ancient treasures. See also Rashdall, 
 op. tit, 1 : 68. 
 
 6 Laurie, op. cit., 95. 
 
216 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 than this, they became more or less independent factors. Tak- 
 ing advantage of the financial stress of crusaders they wrested 
 from their feudal lords, secular or ecclesiastic, charters and 
 privileges, and in other ways made themselves separate organi- 
 zations or associations that were to be reckoned with. 7 They 
 developed a tendency to break away from ecclesiastic schools 
 and establish schools better calculated to meet their needs, the 
 forerunners of modern public schools. 
 
 Guilds. — Another form of association is seen in the trade 
 guilds that grew out of conditions already suggested and were 
 a commercial convenience, or even necessity, before other forms 
 of federation had developed; for nations were not strong 
 enough to protect their frontiers ; international law was in its 
 crudest form, and tariff unions had not been thought of. As 
 civilization advanced and became more complex, trades became 
 differentiated and these trade guilds were evolved, forming, in 
 a way, independent industrial units, as the cities and leagues 
 were independent social and commercial units. All were asso- 
 ciations for mutual protection and for advancing mutual 
 interests. 
 
 Specialization. — Again it is evident that with the new 
 stimulus, new thought, new inventions and discoveries, new 
 studies, — in short with the general advance of the growing 
 times that have been briefly characterized, there would be larger 
 accumulations of knowledge suggesting differentiation and 
 specialization. The expert and the scholar would inevitably 
 appear. 
 
 7 This growth of cities was one of the most remarkable phenomena 
 of this age, and the one that eventually had the most important bear- 
 ing on education. So alert and vigorous were townsmen that they took 
 advantage of every circumstance to increase the strength and im- 
 portance of cities. On the one hand kings and feudal lords favored 
 them. The city's industrial development and general wealth-produc- 
 ing power increased the value and importance of fiefs. On the other 
 hand, as men's minds were occupied with wars, which were almost con- 
 tinuous, the towns escaped notice and in a way stole a march on their 
 superior authorities. They grew stronger and fixed a few more pegs 
 in their position, as in Germany. See Fisher, Outlines of Universal 
 History, 281. Art and general culture found easier growth in these 
 wide-awake and flourishing towns. The towns also fostered demo- 
 cratic tendencies, for the government was generally of the type of a 
 commonwealth, 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 217 
 
 In noting these changes and in tracing their effects in schools 
 it is of the utmost importance to keep in mind the exceptional 
 schools mentioned in the last chapter, — some, perhaps all of 
 them, representing a continuous tradition from old Roman 
 times. Here enterprising study and teaching were carried on, 
 and students frequently flocked to them in great numbers, some- 
 times in immense numbers, drawn by the reputation of scholars 
 who made their temporary or permanent home there. Here 
 were taught the liberal arts, and doors were open to the world. 
 Some of these schools became more or less detached from 
 ecclesiasticism and its organization and thus more or less inde- 
 pendent institutions. A " studium publicum " was develop- 
 ing. 
 
 Private initiative. — It is true of practically all great en- 
 terprises that private initiative and private effort lay the foun- 
 dations. It was to be expected that scholars and experts would 
 push out into a kind of independence, under the educational 
 conditions that have been referred to. Constantine lectured on 
 medicine at Salerno, Inerius on law at Bologna, Abelard on 
 theology at Paris. The latter was attached more closely to 
 ecclesiastical institutions than the other two, yet in spirit 
 belonged to their number. Their lectures were open to all. 
 What more natural than that these scholastic gatherings should 
 form centers about which teachers in all known arts and 
 sciences should gather, and that they should organize for 
 mutual benefit and support. 
 
 Rise of a new school. — Just this occurred. An associa- 
 tion of teachers and scholars was formed, entirely free from 
 ecclesiastic and civil control and open to all the world. It 
 was a natural growth, not an artificial creation of some super- 
 imposed authority. It made its own laws and governed its 
 own adherents in all things, independently of the civil com- 
 munity in which it was located. In a way it was a new order, 
 but one that was not limited and confined as other orders. It 
 had not even a charter. It was self-created and found its 
 end in itself. But both ecclesiastic and civil authorities saw 
 its importance, gave it place, and even courted it. This organi- 
 zation with these simple characteristics was the University, — 
 
218 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 a veritable studium publicum. 8 A new school form had come 
 into existence. It began before Saracenic schools went down, 
 and because of this loss it multiplied the more rapidly. 
 
 The university a fusion. Due to various influences.-— 
 The Homeric poems represent a fusion of older ballad ele- 
 ments under the influence of a new spirit, though we hardly 
 know how the fusion took place. So the university represents 
 a fusion of various educational movements and ideas, though 
 we can hardly explain how it came about. From the Saracenic 
 movement and the exceptional men of the monasteries came 
 the scholarship and models for successful schools of advanced 
 grade. From advancing knowledge in various lines, accumu- 
 lating new and more complex material, came the need of spe- 
 cialists and experts. From the few great schools, like the 
 Cathedral School of Paris, came examples of brilliant scholars 
 and thronging students. From cities, leagues, and guilds came 
 models of free and independent associations. All were neces- 
 sary for the product. 9 
 
 The new scholarship first centers on the classics, then on 
 logic. — One of the first results of the new ideals of scholar- 
 ship in European universities was a more enterprising study of 
 classical literature ("grammar," in the larger sense) that 
 was now coming back to something of its pristine vigor. But 
 from what was said as to the ideals of the period we are pre- 
 pared to find that in the curriculum fostered by the new 
 school-form the incidence of effort eventually fell on logic 
 rather than on grammar. Logic was the center and almost the 
 substance of school work. University scholars steeped them- 
 selves in it ; even school boys aped it. The university curricu- 
 lum was grammar, rhetoric, 1 ** and logic, with logic as the 
 element which gave consistency and direction and meaning 
 to all. The classics were pushed aside and grammar was 
 made a boy's task. 11 Logic now became more than a formal 
 
 8 Because the new school was open to the world the first distinctive 
 name was Studium Generale, Laurie, op. cit., 173. 
 
 9 See Laurie, op. cit., 87 ff., 91 ff. ; Savigny, Amer. Jour, of Educ, 
 22 : 273 ff. ; Howard, Evolution of the Univ., 5 ff. ; Compayre, Abelard, 
 5, 6, 28, 33; Rashdall, op. cit., I: 50; II: 150 f.; Stedman, Oxford, Its 
 Life and Schools, 3, 4. 
 
 10 Meagre, bare and formal, rather than cultural. 
 
 11 In the Middle Ages Latin was regarded as an instrument for the 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 219 
 
 and perfunctory study. It developed life, — was made con- 
 crete. It was one of the most conspicuous experiments in 
 concentration ever inaugurated. 12 
 
 Contrast with the previous period. — This school curricu- 
 lum, it will be noted, was the same in name as that given for 
 the preceding period. The difference lay, on the one hand, in 
 emphasis, organization, and application, on the other hand, in 
 spirit or essence. The religious tone that characterized the 
 earlier epoch was gone. A secular spirit had settled down on 
 the new education. Both periods, probably, had tended to 
 reduce knowledge of the Bible to a minimum. At any rate 
 the university trained priest, "unless he was a theologian 
 or a canonist, was not supposed to know anything of the Bible 
 except what was contained in his missal and breviary." 13 
 
 This was the initial curriculum of the university — the 
 " arts course." Beyond it was the M. A. work in philosophy, 
 and the graduate work in the professions. 
 
 "Requirements for admission." — The requirements for 
 undertaking the " arts course " were few and simple. An ele- 
 mentary knowledge of grammar (i. e. Latin grammar), which 
 may safely be interpreted as a knowledge of grammar in the 
 ordinary sense, together with ability to read and write simple 
 Latin and to use Latin in common conversation, admitted one 
 to the university. 14 It would thus seem to be equivalent to 
 admitting to our universities students who have a correspond- 
 ing knowledge of English. 15 The preparation was often super- 
 ficial. In the fourteenth century it was a " mere smattering 
 of the rules of Priscian and Donatus." As one author pic- 
 turesquely puts it, the boy, 
 
 expression of thought rather than an instrument of mental discipline. 
 Particularly was this true in the epoch under consideration. Clark, 
 op. cit., 58. 
 
 12 Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 70; II : 484, 486, 497, 600-1, 674; Ziegler, op. cit., 
 32; Laurie, Renaissance and the School, (School Rev. 4 1207 ft.) ; Rise 
 and Const, of Univ., 268; Compayre, Abelard, 68; 191-3; Paulsen, 
 German Univ., 20; Mullinger, Univ. of Camb., 252, 254. 
 
 13 Rashdall, op. cit., II : 700-1. 
 
 14 Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 201 ; II : 594 fT. ; Mullinger, Univ. Cambridge, 
 
 369. 
 
 15 Results were equally as disappointing as results now in English, 
 and for similar reasons, — lack of life and real pedagogical work in 
 teaching the subject. 
 
220 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 " as soon as he had learned the rules of grammar and the vocabu- 
 lary of conversational Latin in ordinary use, hastened to acquire 
 the subtle and unliterary jargon that would enable him to hold 
 his own in the arena of the schools." 16 
 
 This is hardly a scientific statement, but from what has been 
 said the general practice is fairly clear. Testimony as to the 
 standard of entrance requirements seems definite and conclusive. 
 
 The preparatory school. — Many of the pupils who 
 thronged the university were so poorly prepared that the uni- 
 versity was obliged in self-defense to establish preparatory 
 schools 17 of its own within its own precincts. This is a com- 
 mentary not only on the character of the outside schools, but 
 on the popularity of the university. Thus began a university 
 influence that was far and long reaching. The preparatory 
 schooL provided for a third grade of instruction inside the 
 university, so that the " arts course " became the center of the 
 organization. 
 
 Aim and method. — The aim or ideal of this new school 
 was not so much to add to the sum of knowledge, or even to 
 develop power to do this in the post-graduate world, as to get 
 possession and give possession of old knowledge from a new 
 point of view, and to formulate. In the undergraduate schools 
 the ideal resolved itself into the mastery of standard text- 
 books by a new process that involved I, painstaking and minute 
 analysis of the work to be studied; 2, the interpretation and 
 logical formulation of all parts that suggested pros and cons; 
 
 16 Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 68. 
 
 17 These schools were sometimes called paedagogia. 
 
 It would seem that grammar schools readily clustered around the 
 university. In fact, the university was once no more than a grammar 
 school itself. The seat of a university was sometimes, if not always, 
 preoccupied by grammar schools. These grammar schools often came 
 under the jurisdiction of the university; sometimes they remained dis- 
 tinct with a " Magister Glomeriae " at the head of the organization. 
 The exact state of things appears to be far from clear. The university 
 preparatory school, it would seem, was sometimes a special creation of 
 the university, sometimes one of these convenient grammar schools 
 absorbed by the university. It would be interesting to know whether 
 the university ever " affiliated " a grammar school. It looks somewhat 
 as though the schools of the Magister Glomeriae were of this sort. See 
 Mullinger, Univ. of Cambridge, 140, 340-3; Brodrick, Oxford, 1-70; 
 Rashdall, op. cit., 11:597-8, 603; Paulsen, op. cit., 20; Laurie, School 
 Review, 4:207 ft". 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 221 
 
 3, voluminous note taking and the " getting up " of notes ; 
 
 4, accurate recitation. As a whole, at its best, it carried with 
 it great thoroughness, 18 but it often fell below this best. Much 
 of this was new to the schools. But old elements of method 
 were found side by side with it, — dictation ( for books were 
 still scarce), copying, recopying, memory work (that probably 
 included much rote-learning), 19 practice exercises, and the 
 practical use of Latin in school-home and school-room. Pre- 
 paratory schools probably used the old method that has been 
 described in previous chapters, the main points of which appear 
 in the statement just made as to old elements of method. But 
 even they did not escape the dialectic furor. 20 " Fellows " 
 of the university might " pose " school boys in the refectory, 
 before they were allowed to enjoy the meal, and the boys of 
 the school at a much later date gathered in formal or informal 
 groups and argued points of grammar till the controversy 
 grew so warm that satchels served for arguments. Logic 
 was everywhere, therefore, the characteristic feature of 
 method, as well as a subject of study. 21 
 
 Equipment. — The surroundings of education still showed 
 monastic simplicity and severity. The boys sat on grass- 
 strewn floors and were led or forced by stern discipline. 22 It is 
 interesting to note also that pupil-teaching was a well-estab- 
 lished feature in the organization of instruction. 
 
 The first degree. — An examination marked the close of 
 
 18 Scholastic education, says Rashdall, at least aimed at getting at 
 the bottom of things. Though words were allowed to take the place of 
 things, they were not allowed to take the place of thought. See Rash- 
 dall, op. cit., II : 705-6 ; Compayre, Abelard, 167 ff. 
 
 19 Verse-grammars appear as early as the 13th century. This was 
 a concession to rote-learning, as verse made grammar easier to " com- 
 mit to memory." Laurie, op. cit., 269 ff. ; Rashdall, op. cit., II : 627, 649. 
 Rules regulating minute points of method were sometimes made. See 
 Rashdall, op. cit., II:438f. 
 
 20 Rashdall, op. cit., II : 497, 603 ; Eggleston, Transit of Civilization, 
 260. 
 
 21 On the general subject of method see Mullinger, Univ. of Camb., 
 159. 359-60, 371-2; Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 433-4, II : 497; Conf. 1 : 248 ff. ; 
 Paulsen, op. cit., 22 ff. ; Compayre, Abelard, 170, 188-9; Laurie, op. cit., 
 269 ff., 272, 282. A good sketch of a grammar school method, which 
 we may assume represented the maximum and not the average of 
 the period for the secondary school, is given by Rashdall, op. cit. t 
 II : 603. For a more detailed account of method see Appendix 1-6. 
 
 22 Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 438; II : 605 ff., 665 ff.; Compayre, Abelard, 170. 
 
222 "THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the first stage of university study. Those who successfully 
 completed it received the first degree, which in the early his- 
 tory of the university represented no fixed time limits, but 
 later came to signify the successful completion of a four-year 
 curriculum. At the beginning, as in more modern times, it 
 often represented little serious study. University student 
 habits persisted through centuries. 23 
 
 Such was the new school. It was a distinctive one. But 
 with all that was new and attractive there was still much that 
 was bare, formal, and superficial. 24 Quite possibly it outdid 
 the schools of the last period in some of these particulars. 
 
 The "arts course" of a secondary nature. — We must not 
 be misled here by the term university. In the early university 
 we evidently have still largely to do with secondary education. 
 The preparatory department was of course secondary, or bet- 
 ter, tertiary. 25 The " arts course," i. e., all below the M. A., 
 or graduate, work, was also plainly secondary. The studies 
 were secondary studies. Apparently very elementary work 
 was done in them. 26 It was only as he entered on his M. A. 
 study that the student really came into the province of uni- 
 versity or higher education. But the most convincing evidence 
 of the secondary nature of university education is the age of 
 
 23 There has recently been a decided growth in the amount of effective 
 study in university education. 
 
 24 Rashdall, op. cit., II : 595 ; Laurie, op. cit., 273 ; Paulsen, op. cit., 
 21 f. ; London Quar. Rev. 58: 524 ff. Conf. Milton's characterization of 
 university inheritances from this age, — Laurie, Educ. Opin. from the 
 Renais., 172-3 ; Appendix 1 : 7. 
 
 25 Mullinger's statement (Univ. of Camb., 369) that the standard of 
 admission varied from a moderate knowledge of grammar to the com- 
 plete trivium, might seem at variance with this conclusion, but this evi- 
 dently means, if it applied to the mediaeval period exclusively, that 
 more advanced preparation admitted to more advanced work, or to the 
 professional schools, though, in the unsystematized condition of educa- 
 tion, it may mean that standards varied very much in the secondary 
 schools. 
 
 26 Mullinger (Univ. of Camb., 340-1) says that the complete trivium 
 followed by the more formidable quadrivium was far beyond the am- 
 bitions and resources of the ordinary scholar. His aim was to enter 
 orders and gain the title of " Sir," and to obtain a license to teach Latin, 
 for which the qualifications were slight and the degree of "master of 
 grammar " was sufficient. See Rashdall, op. cit., II : 598 f. Such de- 
 grees continued to be given for some time after the rise of universities. 
 Grammar work was of a very elementary character, which certainly 
 suggested secondary work. 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 223 
 
 the boys. It was the secondary age. Boys entered the uni- 
 versity in the early years of adolescence, ranging from thirteen 
 to sixteen. In fact the first degree might be taken as early 
 as fourteen. " Boys in their teens chattered Aristotle." If 
 we add the preparatory boys, who might enter the university as 
 early as eight or nine, the boyish nature of a part of uni- 
 versity life is still further emphasized. 27 The university found 
 to its cost that it was concerned with secondary pupils. Uni- 
 versity freedom worked havoc among them, which doubtless 
 gave a strong argument for the establishment of " hospitia," 
 or " colleges," which were at first simply halls of monastic type 
 where boys might be under the surveillance of principal or 
 supervisor and get the benefit of his direction, advice, and disci- 
 pline. 28 With the "college" came more individual work with 
 students. In time it became convenient to have most of the 
 instruction there. 
 
 Monastic and episcopal schools. — Side by side with the 
 university existed the old monastic and episcopal schools. 29 
 They offered a secondary curriculum similar in name, and 
 sometimes even equal in scope, to that of the university. But 
 sometimes, at least in the earlier period, the regular trivium 
 faded almost to the vanishing point, and this was probably one 
 of the circumstances that forced preparatory schools on the 
 universities. 30 The decadence is a tribute also to the popu- 
 larity of the universities. 
 
 Their method. — The general character of the training in 
 these schools was bound to be colored by their regular associa- 
 tions and their history, but it is probable that they partook, in 
 greater or less degree, of the prevailing method, and logicalized 
 their courses. 31 Here again the prerequisite for undertaking 
 the work was mere school boy preparation of an extremely 
 elementary character, as shown in the last chapter. These 
 
 27 Compayre, Abelard, 191; Paulsen, German Educ, 25-6; see Rash- 
 dall, op. cit., 1 : 479, 492 ; II : 484-6, 497, 704. 
 
 28 Compayre, Abelard, 191-4; Rashdall, op. cit., I: 4826?. 
 
 29 Compayre, op. cit, 5-8 ; Mullinger, op. cit., 68-70, 207-8 ; Nohle, 
 op. cit., 19; Rashdall, op. cit., II : 601. 
 
 30 See Mullinger, op. cit., 70, 161, 207-8. 
 
 31 " The one stimulating and interesting morsel which a monastic 
 teacher could place before a hungry intellect was a morsel of logic," — 
 Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 38. 
 
224 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 facts "would seem to strengthen the position taken as to the 
 " secondary " nature of the introductory university work, the 
 " arts course." 32 
 
 In addition to the two secondary schools already referred 
 to we find a third, modeled after the second but owing 
 allegiance to a different authority. 33 This, however, must form 
 the subject of a separate chapter. 
 
 Summary.- — We have then for this period a secondary 
 school scheme that may be summarized as follows : 
 
 Aim : — Knowledge rather than culture ; discussion rather 
 than application. Knowledge and intellectual activity have 
 become ends in themselves. 34 
 
 Curriculum 35 : — Latin grammar, — Donatus, Priscian, Alex- 
 ander de Villa Dei. 36 
 
 Vergil, Cicero, etc., read, but to interpret grammar. 
 
 Logic, the central feature monopolizing attention. 
 
 Rhetoric, small amount, bare, formal. 37 
 
 32 Laurie, op. cit., 269, remarks of the early university course that 
 it was no better than Bernard of Chartres was giving. 
 
 3a The city school. 
 
 a * Rashdall, op. cit., II: 692; Nohle, op. cit., 13-14; Laurie, op. cit., 
 269 ff., 272-3 ; Compayre, op. cit., 167 ff . 
 
 35 See Mullinger, op. cit., 57-8, 99, 100, 140, 167, 205-6, 238, 298, 325-7, 
 340-3, 349 ff- ; Compayre, op. cit., 175 f ., 182 ; Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 63-72, 
 433S7; II: 137-8, 57i, 651, 674; Laurie, op. cit., 269, 274, 281; Nohle, 
 op. cit., 13 ff. ; De Montmorency, op. cit., 75-77 ; Paulsen, German Educ, 
 Chap. III. But conf. Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 243. 
 
 36 Priscian's grammar at the hands of Alexander de Villa Dei was 
 put into verse form to make committing more palatable. It was based, 
 in part at least, on mediaeval Latin, showing that the language was 
 alive and growing. See Clark, op. cit., 59. 
 
 Grammar was still an insistent study, but it was not so much an 
 end in itself, the sum of discipline. It was regarded as a means to 
 Latin disputation, an unwelcome, but necessary introduction to the rich 
 fields of logic. Soon it sank into an end in itself again. Greek also 
 is to be noticed as one of the studies of the scholastic period. But it 
 was a study for the few and could hardly be properly regarded as a 
 secondary subject. It has been called the most important element in 
 scholastic contributions to education, but it could be so regarded only 
 in the sense that the University called it, or began to call it, to men's 
 attention. It took its place in the secondary curriculum only at a much 
 later date. There were, however, exceptional schools. Greek was 
 Spoken in Southern Italy and in Spain as late as the time of the 
 Norman Conquest. There were even Greek schools. Old customs 
 lingered in secluded places. See Clark, op. cit., 36 ff. 
 
 37 Mathematics and rhetoric were of so little moment that they were 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 225 
 
 Method: — 1. The mastering of elementary Latin by old 
 methods, including dictation, note work, and practice. 2. The 
 thorough mastering of standard text-books gained by accurate 
 learning of their content. Memorizing was prominent, but 
 notes elucidating the text were numerous and were carefully 
 learned. Rhetoric and logic were studied from epitomes. 
 The former consisted of a collection of formal rules and hence 
 was hardly a source of literary inspiration. 3. Vigorous and 
 formal discussion of the content of books. It is evident that 
 interest centered in method rather than in content, except in 
 the case of logic, which is itself method and form rather than 
 content. Method was thus, from all points of view, the 
 supreme object of study. 38 
 
 Results: — Altogether the period stands for reproduction, 
 formulation, and method, not acquisition by experiment and 
 discovery. 
 
 Shifting of aims and ideals during the period. — But it was 
 not all as simple and definite as it would appear from this 
 scheme. At different stages in the epoch there was a shift- 
 ing of aims, ideals and programs. 39 The scheme here given 
 was simply the typical one of the period. 
 
 Evaluation of the period. — Doubtless the university period 
 often violated what are to us some of the most obvious peda- 
 gogical principles. There was much bareness, considering the 
 culture value of the material and the form through which the 
 boys were taken toward the post-secondary goal. Students 
 often found themselves beyond their depth, because order, 
 method, and curriculum were not adapted to them. The great 
 
 used for holiday treats, — which was perhaps a fortunate circumstance 
 for producing interest, unless they were used as the strenuous Sturm 
 later used his Sunday tasks. See Rashdall, op. cit., II : 674. 
 
 38 Various points as to method may be found in the following refer- 
 ences : — Mullinger, op. cit., 359-60, 370-71 ; Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 433 ; II : 
 497. 597-8, 603 ; Compayre, op. cit., 167 ff. ; Hazlitt, Schools, Schoolmas- 
 ters, and School-books, 14; Laurie, op. cit., 272, 282; Paulsen Ger- 
 man Univ., 22 ff.; Do., German Education, Chapter III; Appendix 1:5. 
 
 Lower schools copied university methods. University students, as 
 pointed out in the text, were often mere boys studying the elements. 
 All in all the main trend in secondary school method is rather clear. 
 
 39 Something of this shifting was noted on page 218. But there was 
 more than this. A brief description of three well-marked periods will 
 be found in Appendix 2. 
 
226 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 discovery of the day filled men's minds and they gave little 
 scientific thought to the pedagogy of its attainment. Milton 
 feelingly complains of the inadequacy of university education 
 of his day, 40 though it was fresher and probably more efficient 
 then than later. But in spite of all errors there was a broad- 
 ening of outlook, a breaking away from forms and limits that 
 cramped the intellect of the previous period, and a quickening 
 and sharpening of thought better represented by such esti- 
 mates as the following: 
 
 " In a sense mediaeval education was too practical ; it trained 
 pure intellect, gave habits of labor, subtlety, heroic industry, 
 and intense application, but it left uncultivated imagination, 
 taste, and sense of beauty; it trained to think rather than to 
 enjoy."^* 1 
 
 There must have been an interest, an enthusiasm, that had 
 no raison d'etre before. We can feel it even at this distance. 
 There was thus produced an alertness and acuteness that pre- 
 pared the way for revising educational material and developing 
 more fruitful educational ideas. As Laurie says, the contrast 
 with the " dead uniformity of previous centuries " was 
 noticeable. 
 
 In this intense occupation it is perhaps not strange that the 
 emotional side of life was neglected and that religion sank to 
 a mere intellectual shadow or hardly that. 42 
 
 The university thus spread a certain kind of training, and 
 its ideals were so conspicuous and so well known that a great 
 impress was made. 
 
 It will be worth while in conclusion to note the scope of edu- 
 cational interest and refer to some specific contributions of the 
 period that have not yet been indicated. 
 
 How far education extended among the people. — In spite 
 of the enthusiasm that the new education excited, and the 
 large number of students attracted by it, few, relatively speak- 
 ing, participated in the privileges of the schools, and of these 
 the majority got little or nothing of learning or culture, 
 
 40 See Appendix 1 : 6. 
 
 41 Rashdall, op. cit., II : 707 ; see also London Quarterly Review, 58 : 
 524 flf. ; Laurie, op. cit., 273-4; Rashdall, op cit., II : 596, 707. 
 
 42 Rashdall, op. cit., 692-3, 700-1. See Appendix 1 : 7. 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 227 
 
 because of lack of disposition or lack of preparation or both. 
 Among the general population education in the eleventh cen- 
 tury was almost entirely neglected. Under Lan franc, it is 
 said, the Normans received the first rudiments of literature. 
 Before this, under the " Six Dukes of Normandy," " scarce 
 any Norman devoted himself to liberal studies." For the 
 people education was about what it had been for some time. 
 
 Some contributions of the period. 1. Growth of Latin. — 
 The period contributed noticeably to the growth of the Latin 
 language. Latin was still the language of the schools, and in 
 a degree the language of life, 43 — a living language. It is well 
 in this connection to recall the fact that one of the most popu- 
 lar grammars for centuries (that of Alexander de Villa Dei) 
 was based on mediaeval Latin. Notwithstanding the neglect 
 of " grammar " and of classical Latin, the demands that came 
 from new ideas reacted on Latin in such a way as to add new 
 vigor to its life; it was put to new uses and had to express 
 new thoughts and be moulded to new forms. Vocabulary was 
 thus increased and scope and power of expression were 
 enlarged. " The Latin language," says Rashdall, " originally 
 rigid, inflexible, poor in vocabulary, and almost incapable of 
 expressing a philosophical idea, became, in the hands of 
 mediaeval thinkers, flexible, subtle and elastic." 44 Later, 
 Latin as a living language was killed "by the Ciceronian 
 pedantry of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries." 45 But 
 modern languages were soon to grow, and Latin could not 
 hope long to be a living language, even in philosophy. 
 
 2. Latin literature. — There were some additions to Latin 
 literature during the period, though it was conspicuously a non- 
 creative age in general. The Troilus of Albertus Standensis, 
 the Catena Goliardi, the Gesta Romanorum, and metrical 
 romances and annals, indicate that the history of Latin litera- 
 ture cannot pass over the period in silence; but the typical 
 literary productions were rhymed lives of the saints and metri- 
 cal chronicles, together with formulations of theological 
 dogma. 46 
 
 43 Ordericus Vitalis, 1 1423; II: 40; Clark, op. cit., 38-40. 
 
 44 Rashdall, op. cit, II : 596. 
 
 45 See Clark, op. cit., 35; 108-9 ; Rashdall, op. cit., II : 596. 
 
 46 We should also note the preparation of a new grammar which was 
 
228 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 3. Text book idea. — The idea of text-books, as already- 
 shown, was very prominent, because one of the typical school 
 tasks was the mastering of certain standard books that were 
 precious because of their scarcity. 
 
 4. Construing. — Construing, begun before the period, 
 became a stereotyped element of method at this time and has 
 persisted almost to the present time. It fitted admirably 
 the analytical tendency that was so conspicuous, and hence 
 impressed itself deeply on the schools. 
 
 5. Gradation of schools. — The gradation of schools re- 
 ceived more attention. Certain requirements were established 
 for passing from one grade to another, certain tests were given, 
 and certain signs 47 and symbols marked the fulfilment of the 
 requirements. Thus the ideas of examinations, curriculum, 
 and degrees became fixed in education. 
 
 6. Reformers — Modern pedagogical writers began to 
 appear. A few men were giving expression to their insight 
 into better things in method and matter. The tremendous 
 intellectual activity that was rife was bound to yield some 
 results in this direction. Pedagogical writing, it is true, did 
 not serve to alter the character of method at the time; 
 there was not enough of it to have much effect on the 
 actual practice of the day; but it foreshadowed a new era in 
 education. 48 
 
 The period looks modern. — The early university period 
 in many ways looks modern rather than mediaeval. It broke 
 away from the forms of the past. It was laying the foundation 
 for still further advance. Some characteristic details of the 
 time seem puerile and have excited ridicule and disparage- 
 ment, but we must judge the period by its trend. Looking 
 behind the underbrush that skirts the period we discover sub- 
 stantial services. We shall define the period a little more 
 closely and, perhaps, symbolically, if we single out its most 
 
 a favorite for so long,— in fact to the 16th century. This was the 
 grammar of Alexander de Villa Dei mentioned before. 
 
 47 Of these signs or symbols there were four, — the degrees of M. G., 
 A. B., A. M., and the Doctorate. The first, however, soon disappeared. 
 
 48 In this connection it may be interesting to carry the topic one 
 step further and note a contribution of the University proper, as dis- 
 tinguished from its Secondary department. See Appendix 1 : 7. 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 229 
 
 characteristic services, which will come more clearly to view 
 by comparison with other epochs. 
 
 A brief survey of the contributions of previous epochs. — 
 
 Primitive civilization developed the rudiments of our secondary 
 curriculum. The story method of imparting and the process 
 of memorizing appeared. As far as concerned education, rote- 
 learning was seized upon instinctively as the one necessary 
 feature of the educational process, agreeing, as we have seen, 
 with the race ideal that made the integrity of the tribe and the 
 perpetuation of its ideas supreme. Outside of formal educa- 
 tion, however, there was, of course, much that was natural and 
 concrete. 
 
 The next epoch developed in full form, and finally in great 
 detail, the linguistic part of the curriculum. It also introduced 
 mathematics in the form of geometry and arithmetic. To 
 geometry it gave remarkable development. Arithmetic it left 
 in crude and cumbrous form that remained till modern times. 
 In the direction of method the period instinctively turned to 
 objective work in number, wrought out the abstract method 
 in mathematics, and the formal or classical scheme of lan- 
 guage teaching. 49 At the same time it developed the dialectic 
 mode of approaching a subject, though this remained a minor 
 element of method in the schools for many centuries. 
 
 The next period was a transition one. New forces had 
 entered the educational field, — those represented by the peda- 
 gogy of the Gospels. They influenced education at first only 
 in a narrow and limited way, though in an impressive manner 
 and with important results. They worked themselves out more 
 fully later. In the schools it was a period that mingled new 
 and old without producing any decisive form. 
 
 In the fourth period, representing the centuries between 500 
 and 1000 A. D., the religious school was developed, a formal 
 religious element was added to the curriculum, and older ele- 
 ments were minimized. Method became bare and formal. 
 
 Services of the present epoch. General. — What then 
 
 49 It should be remembered that this, in the epoch of its development, 
 included much that was concrete, as seen in Chapter IX. In later 
 epochs, however, this dropped out, and the " classical method " became 
 purely abstract and formal. 
 
230 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 shall we say the period now under discussion added to general 
 education ? Old emphases were abandoned, — even religion was 
 slighted, and everything was made subordinate and subservient 
 to the new subject, logic, which, though developed centuries 
 before, now first came to be a regular school subject, and a sec- 
 ondary school subject at that. 50 In pedagogics the analytic 
 and syllogistic method appeared and held the field. 
 
 Special — The preparatory school. — The characteristic con- 
 tributions of the period of early universities, however, seem 
 to lie in other directions. It developed the preparatory school. 
 Old grammar schools became " feeders " ; but, particularly, the 
 university took within its precincts and under its jurisdiction 
 a preparatory school of its own that played a large part till the 
 last century, and even now holds its place in certain quarters 
 where conditions similar to those that gave it birth exist, or 
 where a certain educational exclusiveness is desired. 
 
 A secondary school in name, as well as in fact. — The 
 school of the young adolescent for the first time in a 
 thousand years became a secondary school and became such in 
 a new and more definite manner; there had grown up above 
 it a new institution thoroughly organized and far more distinct 
 from it than the old "rhetorical " school, as distinguished from 
 the " grammar " school ; for rhetorical training was but a con- 
 tinuation of the grammar training, and the lines of demarcation 
 were so indefinite that they were often lost sight of. 51 This 
 making of the university a fully distinct and separate institu- 
 tion, with new aims and new methods, and the attachment of 
 the older school to it as a preparatory school was a notable 
 event in the education of that time. 52 More pointed and potent 
 than before became the influence of the higher school on the 
 lower. Aims, curriculum, and method were modified and 
 
 50 The logic of Quintilian was a far different study and was also a 
 correlated subject 
 
 51 Note Quintilian's complaint in Book I of his " Institutes." 
 
 > 52 Of course the new relation was not uniform, for there were varia- 
 tions and changes as time wore on. There are epochs in the develop- 
 ment of this relation that will be considered later. But what has been 
 said is a fair characterization of the whole period. # This special rela- 
 tion of university and secondary school continued its influence to the 
 dawn of the 20th century. See Mullinger, op, cit., 369. Compare the 
 case here with that mentioned by Quintilian. 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 231 
 
 toned by the ideals of the more advanced institution. As time 
 went on relations grew, if anything, more exacting. At any 
 rate they were felt more keenly, even to the point of restive- 
 ness, till the situation came to seem so unnatural that a con- 
 flict for emancipation was inevitable. 
 
 Scholarship. — But there is one other thing that perhaps char- 
 acterized the period better than anything else, because it went 
 deeper and extended farther. The period developed for mod- 
 ern times the idea of scholarship. However crude it may 
 appear, a genuine idea of scholarship began to show itself. 
 The world sadly needed the ideal. 53 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 1. A time of genuine classical enthusiasm. — Rashdall's statement 
 here is significant, — "for about half a century (twelfth century), 
 classical Latin was taught, not merely to young boys but to advanced 
 students, in at least one school of Mediaeval France, as later it was 
 taught in universities of the Reformation and the Jesuit colleges. 
 Latin was taught in a thorough classical way. Lectures covered pretty 
 much the whole field of classical Latin." The method was as follows : 
 — I. Questions on parsing, scansion, construction, grammatical figures, 
 and oratorical tropes, illustrated in the passage read ; 2, varieties of 
 phraseology noticed ; different ways in which this or that thought was 
 expressed were pointed out; the whole diction was subjected to elaborate 
 and exhaustive analysis; 3, comments on subject matter, enlarging on 
 allusions to physical and ethical points ; 4, the next morning pupils were 
 required under severe penalties to repeat what was learned the day 
 before; 5, daily practice in Latin composition, prose and verse, in imi- 
 tation of special classical models ; 6, frequent conversations or discus- 
 sions on given subjects with a view to acquiring fluency and elegance 
 pf diction. This description represents the idea of John of Salisbury. 
 In his Metalogicus he tries to vindicate the claims of grammar and 
 philology. He recognizes the bareness of logical training for minds ig- 
 norant of everything else. 
 
 But scholasticism "would none" of this revived classicism; it was 
 crowded out relentlessly. See Rashdall, op. cit., 63 f. 
 
 2. Bernard of Chartres' school taught grammar or rhetoric less 
 mechanically. Attention was given to correct Latinity. Cicero and 
 Quintilian were studied as models, and there was a wide acquaintance 
 with Roman literature. 
 
 3. Construing, parsing, discussing. — In the grammar school the 
 
 53 " The great work of the university was the consecration of learn- 
 ing." Rashdall, op. cit., II, 692-3, 707. 
 
2Z 2 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 rudiments of a classical education were taught in much the same way 
 as at present, says Rashdall, II. 603. Donatus and Alexander de Villa 
 Dei were the grammars. After the Psalms were learned they took 
 up Cato, then Ovid and Vergil. In the absence of dictionaries the 
 master construed to pupils and then required them to construe. In 
 England books were construed into French as well as into English* 
 There were questions on parsing, disputations in grammar, examinations 
 in prose and verse. All this stopped when the students entered the 
 university. No more classical books were construed. Little was heard 
 of compositions. There were now lectures on grammar and similar 
 subjects. 
 
 We must not, however, be misled, by these limited citations, into 
 thinking that the movement as a whole was limited. Neither must we 
 persuade ourselves that these and similar references represented the 
 typical method. 
 
 The typical method for the university seems to have been a bare 
 and formal one still, with the interest of real things and substance less 
 in evidence than before. 1. Standard grammars were dictated, ex- 
 plained, memorized. Donatus, Priscian, and Alexander de Villa Dei 
 were the favorite grammars, — the two latter in verse. Vergil, Cicero, 
 etc., were read, but to illustrate grammar. 2. There was discussion 
 (syllogistic) on grammatical points. With the exception of 2 the 
 method was perhaps very similar to that of the previous period: — 
 a barren method. Logic and rhetoric were studied from epitomes. 
 Rhetoric was regarded as a collection of formal rules rather than a 
 source of literary training and a concrete subject. Latin was still used 
 for communication. 
 
 4. Method in the university. — It is interesting to note more in de- 
 tail the method inside the university, which in part, it must be remem- 
 bered, was merely a secondary school. (A) Minute analysis of a book 
 down to the initial sentence or thought; paraphrasing of the sentence 
 for better presentation of the meaning; comments and explanations; 
 students took copious notes, copied, recopied, revised, "got up." (B) 
 Author's thought, where practicable, cast in the form in which it might 
 serve as subject matter for the all-prevailing logic of the day; ques- 
 tions formulated and argued pro and con; work in this connection 
 often, probably, catechetical in form; master then suggested his inter- 
 pretation and defended syllogistically. Another account of method (in 
 advanced work) makes dictation, discussion, reproduction character- 
 istic features. 
 
 5. Method regulated by statute. — It is interesting to note that 
 sometimes they attempted to regulate method by statute. Boys in 
 "arts" were required to sit on the ground instead of on benches, 
 which had apparently come into vogue. Other statutes required masters 
 to lecture extempore instead of reading or dictating. They even pre- 
 scribed the exact flow of words — "to speak as rapidly as though no 
 one were writing before them."— Rashdall, op. cit. t I ; 438. 
 
THE EARLY UNIVERSITY PERIOD 233 
 
 / 
 
 6. An estimate of university training. — Milton, Tractate, 1644. 
 Quoted by Laurie, Hist, of Educ. Opinion, 172-3: — 
 
 "I deem it to be an old error of universities not yet well recovered 
 from the scholastick grossness of barbarous ages, that instead of be- 
 ginning with arts most easie and that be such as are most obvious 
 to the sense, they present their young unmatriculated novices, at first 
 coming, with the most intellective abstractions of logick and Metaphys- 
 icks ; so that they, having but newly left those grammatick flats and shal- 
 lows where they stuck unreasonably to learn a few words with lamenta- 
 ble construction, and now on the sudden transported under another 
 climate to be tossed and turmoiled with their unballasted wits in 
 fadomless and unquiet deeps of controversie, do for the most part grow 
 into hatred and contempt of learning, mocked and deluded all this while 
 with ragged notions and babblements, while they expected worthy and 
 delightful knowledge." 
 
 In the rhetorical presentation of general impressions by such men 
 as Milton and Luther there -is no place for the exceptional that of 
 course existed. But we are after the average, not the exceptional. 
 
 7. Results in higher reaches of learning. — In the higher reaches 
 of knowledge the result was the formulation and crystallization of past 
 acquisitions handed on by the early Christian centuries and the early 
 mediaeval years. Hence came, on the one hand, the development of 
 dogma that culminated in the science of theology, and, on the other, the 
 growth of the sciences of medicine and mathematics, of geography and 
 physics. 54 The typical method was that of syllogistic reasoning, de- 
 rived from the rediscovered Aristotle, — a restored dialectic. Aristotle 
 thus became Christianized, or rather theologized. This was scholasti- 
 cism, but it applied more to the advanced work of the university than to 
 the secondary departments. As a matter of fact, however, scholasticism 
 was older than the university. 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 CHANGES IN AIMS AND IDEALS WITHIN THE UNIVERSITY PERIOD 
 
 In the twelfth century, before the University had worked out its 
 typical forms, grammar was the center and almost the substance of the 
 University curriculum, and grammar students and grammar teachers 
 were most conspicuous for some time. The University at this time 
 abounded in "grammar schools." Amid comparative quiet in the po- 
 litical world grammar, which stood for learning, revived and had a 
 
 54 See passages in Chapter XIII and the early part of Chapter XIV, 
 dealing with enterprising work in science, etc., particularly in Spain. 
 For an example of differentiated geography see Georgii Fovnier e 
 Societate Jesu Gegraphica Orbis Notitia per Litora Maris et Ripas 
 Flnuiorum. Parisiis MDCXLIX. This book was published somewhat 
 later than the period under review, but it shows how matters had been 
 tending. 
 
234 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 real classical treatment. By the term grammar we are of course to 
 understand grammar in its ancient comprehensive sense. It was a 
 classical revival of genuine spirit and enterprise. The Roman poets 
 and orators flourished in the schools. Grammar therefore assumed 
 its old-time place as a regular, not an exceptional, occurrence. See 
 Appendix I : i, 2, and Rashdall, op. cit, I, 63-64. 
 
 Just then, however, the new treasure, logic, came to light, or rather 
 to new light. "Grammar" was dethroned and the new subject was 
 set up in its place and received the incidence of attention in the schools. 
 As mentioned in the text the classics were neglected and grammar be- 
 came a primary task. (Rashdall I, 68.) Latin was regarded as an 
 expression of thought, rather than an instrument of discipline (Clark, 
 58). 
 
 But an idea unchanged becomes monotonous. Methods and ideals 
 so pronounced, so specific, and so formal, as was the case in " scholasti- 
 cism," became outworn as exclusive educational forces. Men's minds 
 reached out for new objects of study and effort. It should also be said 
 that the gains of the passing epoch prepared students to push out 
 more profitably into the new. The early university type gave way 
 before a revolutionary movement. The new movement, however, rep- 
 resented a revival and transformation of an old phase of education, 
 rather than the creation of a new one. In the absence of contemporary 
 culture-material men turned to that of the past. For a time, however, 
 the movement did in spirit represent a new ideal. So the University 
 epoch shades into the Renaissance. Here is some evidence of the 
 awakening : — 
 
 In the fourteenth century there was almost universal ignorance of 
 grammar, and Richard de Bury began to make books (Mullinger, op. cit., 
 205-6). Soon Oxford and Cambridge established schools for the spe- 
 cial purpose of developing giammar teaching, and more modern text- 
 books followed (Hazlitt, op. cit., 14, 84). Rashdall, op. cit., II: 514, 
 570-1, is interesting in this connection. In all this history Italy must 
 be excepted; the traditions stimulated more genuine culture there and 
 gave a more generous place to mathematics and science, Nohle, op. cit., 
 14-21 ; Mullinger, op. cit., 345 ; Rashdall, op. cit., 1 : 249. 
 
XIV 
 
 FOUNDATIONS OF A NEW SECONDARY SCHOOL 
 
 Results of practical needs and practical politics in the 
 " University Period." — Influences at work in the " Univer- 
 sity Period " led to notable developments in other directions. 
 Side by side with the Universities, and almost coincident with 
 them, there was developed another educational institution. It 
 grew out of the same educational conditions which produced 
 the University, 1 but it was the result of a very different combi- 
 nation of forces and influences and represented different ends 
 and purposes. It was a response to the practical demands of 
 the times. Practical needs of life, and particularly practical 
 politics, produced it. As life and life's outlook 2 broadened 
 under the conditions previously discussed, and as trade and 
 cities grew, men felt the need of a school nearer to and more 
 dependent on the center of life. A study of ancient forms 
 also must give way to, or be supplemented by, studies that 
 would give practical preparation for the commercial and indus- 
 trial life of the day. Ecclesiastical education must be sup- 
 plemented by secular education. The disadvantage of distant 
 schools conducted by monasteries, often remote from sections 
 of the growing cities, must be remedied by the establishment 
 of local schools nearer the pupils' homes. 3 Cities, which had 
 originally made a close circle around the monasteries as centers 
 had probably spread at will as other than religious influences 
 drew them, as trade in other directions occupied them, and as 
 the protection of the monasteries, which were fortresses as 
 well as shrines, was no longer needed. Again, foreign school 
 
 1 See early pages of Chapter XIII and particularly those dealing with 
 the growth of cities. 
 
 2 See Chap. XIII. Conf. Chap. XV. 
 
 3 Nohle, in Report of U. S. Com. of Educ, 1897-8, 1 : 21 ff. 
 
 235 
 
236 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 authorities hardly in sympathy with the new city demands 
 must be replaced by authority vested in the city itself. 4 
 
 Independence in school management inevitable. — The 
 feeling of independence developed in city life was sure to carry 
 with it independence in school management. The city itself 
 must be its own school authority; only by such an arrange- 
 ment could the feeling of dignity be kept intact, and strong and 
 vigorous. Above all, the city needed some means of estab- 
 lishing and perpetuating a civic ideal on which its well-being 
 depended. 
 
 A city school. — Owing to all these influences, owing per- 
 haps particularly to the last, came the " City School," which 
 appeared about 1250 A. D. It is evident that it represented 
 a very different motive from that which called forth the spe- 
 cializecTand specializing university. 5 
 
 A difference in name rather than in fact, at first. — The 
 movement for city schools was not, however, a simple one. 
 At first the main thought seems to have been on the name, 
 rather than on the curriculum. It naturally used the only 
 model it had, — the monastic or cathedral school, from which 
 it differed little, if at all, in general outline. 6 It adopted the 
 only style of educational clothes it knew. It formed in time, 
 however, a center for national culture, as contrasted with 
 ancient or foreign culture, and it paved the way for the state 
 school. 7 Because at first it was a copy, and a copy of a school 
 already studied, we need not stay to speak at length of it 
 here. 
 
 Schools of private associations. The vernacular. The 
 new arithmetic and algebra. — Soon a parallel movement 
 started that gave expression to the more practical side of life, 
 and brought in practical subjects like the vernacular and com- 
 
 4 The " scholasticus " had gained supreme power in education, and, 
 as school income from fees was an appreciable item in finances, he was 
 jealous of his position. Some petty school contests resulted from at- 
 tempts of plain citizens to push their educational plans, but the vigorous 
 action of the cities, which were young and virile, regularly won the 
 point, or at least secured a compromise. Nohle, op. cit., 21-22. 
 
 5 Ziegler, op. cit., 33-38; Nohle, op. cit., 18-22; Paulsen, German 
 Educ, 28 f . 
 
 6 Nohle, op. cit., 23. 
 
 7 Beginning in the 16th century. 
 
A NEW SECONDARY SCHOOL 237 
 
 mercial arithmetic. 8 The latter subject was advanced in im- 
 portance by special schools of arithmetic 9 fostered and main- 
 tained by private commercial associations. The new arith- 
 metic, however, made way slowly. The old Greek and Roman 
 method, with its cumbrous notation and objective reckoning 
 by hand counters or abacus, died slowly. The new arithmetic 
 was characterized by the Hindoo (or Arabic) notation, ease 
 of computation and representation, and consequent rapidity of 
 action. 10 The party that advocated the new-old Hindoo nota- 
 tion and " written arithmetic," with its short graphic processes, 
 in place of the old and bungling concrete or objective arith- 
 metic, was opposed by the party , that clung to the hallowed 
 symbols of the past, so fully incorporated in church thought, 
 church decoration, and church forms. The monasteries were 
 the last to give in. 11 It may be said also that Algebra was 
 rising, or that the foundations for it were being laid, as was 
 natural after the advent of the new symbolic arithmetic. The 
 great text-books of Ben Ezra and Leonardo were soon to come. 
 Again, there were general guild schools supplied by mediaeval 
 guilds, apart from regular city schools. They may have 
 emphasized industrial subjects, at least at a little later period. 
 But for a time their curriculum was probably the same, or 
 much the same, as that of the common church school. That 
 the practical idea must have grown slowly is shown by the fact 
 that even a guild had its religious forms and employed priests 
 to say masses for its benefit. It was through these priests 
 that the school was originally carried on. The growth of such 
 schools is exemplified by the Merchant Tailors' School, which 
 still exists and now squares its curriculum with modern 
 requirements. 12 
 
 8 Nohle, op. cit., 24. Great apprehension was aroused by these in- 
 truders. Men felt that schools were going wrong by thus departing 
 from traditions. See Green, Town Life in Fifteenth Century, II : 12 ff. 
 
 9 Fink, Brief History of Mathematics. 
 
 10 Presses now became busy with primary books on " Algorism." 
 
 11 The new arithmetic undoubtedly simplified work, but, in the absence 
 of practical pedagogy, it tended to make arithmetic abstract. The val- 
 uable element in the old arithmetic, its concreteness, was so far lost that 
 it took the drastic reforms of Pestalozzi and others to make it concrete 
 and adapt the subject to children's need. 
 
 12 See also Ziegler, op. cit., 33 ff. Conf . Leach, Eng. Schools at the 
 Reformation. 
 
238 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Three schools, all illustrating the new spirit. — It will be 
 seen that the new times thus present a double or triple move- 
 ment: i. The City Latin School modeled on the existing 
 secondary school, but destined to grow very slowly out of that 
 model, to modify its curriculum, reluctantly, but surely, and 
 finally to emerge as the gymnasium. 2. The Vernacular 
 School, at this time an elementary school, but in time to send 
 out a secondary branch with modern languages and modern 
 science as the basis of its curriculum. 3. The Guild School, 
 a representative of private education. 13 The first, as already 
 indicated, dates from 1250 A. D. It spread so rapidly that in 
 Germany at the end of the mediaeval period there was hardly 
 an important town that had not established such a school 
 through its City Council. The second dates from 1350, the 
 third ^perhaps from 11 50. 
 
 Studies and methods. — A summary of the secondary 14 cur- 
 riculum for the schools we are dealing with 15 would show that, 
 aside from the two points noted above, there was practically no 
 change from the general forms of the time, which have been 
 given in detail in previous chapters. 16 Latin was the great 
 preparatory subject, and logic gave flavor to the whole. The 
 trivium, with the emphasis on the third member, formed the 
 typical secondary curriculum. Methods were the characteristic 
 ones noted before. Hence, aside from a possible touch of the 
 practical in these city schools, the aim showed no divergence 
 from those with which we are already familiar. 17 Still, if we 
 go beneath the surface we can feel the movement towards cul- 
 ture for secular positions and secular life, in addition to that 
 for ecclesiastical functions. 18 
 
 Real significance of the new school. — The immediate cur- 
 riculum and method, which show so little divergence from the 
 old, therefore, are not the significant features in the case. We 
 
 13 Leach, op. cit., 34 ff.; Nohle, op. cit, 21 ff. 
 
 14 The new commercial and practical ideals showed themselves more 
 distinctly in the elementary schools. 
 
 15 The early university period extending to the Renaissance. 
 
 16 The real innovations in the curriculum were probably most con- 
 spicuous in primary schools. 
 
 17 Nohle, op. cit., 19 f ., 23-25 ; Laurie, op. cit., 95 f. 
 
 18 Ziegler, op. cit., 33 ff. 
 
A NEW SECONDARY SCHOOL 239 
 
 must look rather at the source of the movement and at the new 
 authority in education, and we must note that a new direction 
 was given to education and a new ideal introduced. The sig- 
 nificant feature therefore is that other interests, besides the 
 ecclesiastical, felt the need of education, because of the insuffi- 
 ciency of the natural education of imitation and apprentice- 
 ship. Communities became too large and too specialized to be 
 satisfied with the old order. Accumulations of knowledge, new 
 and old, must be made accessible to a wider school public. 
 Schools were therefore to be adapted to the needs of more than 
 one profession and occupation. This principle once started 
 must in time materially change ideas as to appropriate school 
 subjects and methods, and it did, as will appear in a later 
 chapter. 
 
 For the first time since Roman times we have a school organi- 
 zation that supplies the surest principles of growth. Hence- 
 forth secondary education is to come more out of the life of the 
 people. These schools from their freer and more sensitive 
 position and relations were thus the main hope for such respon- 
 sive changes in school practices and policies as the times might 
 require. 
 
XV 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION OF THE EARLY RENAISSANCE 
 
 Rising and falling waves of imagination. — The Greek and 
 Roman periods afforded favorable conditions for the develop- 
 ment of the imagination in various forms ; for imagination has 
 as many forms as life has interests. The succeeding centuries 
 confined thought and imagination within very narrow limits. 
 Aside from a very limited use of the imagination in connection 
 with the spread of Christianity they busied themselves with 
 mastering forms and words, giving prominence to memory 
 work. Imagination in these centuries recurred to the primitive 
 and sensuous type. 1 The early university age was absorbed 
 with sharpening the intellect, sharpening rather than cultivating 
 it. It was however refashioning and whetting a tool which 
 would accelerate creative work in following ages. 
 
 But imagination cannot be permanently ignored. The next 
 period saw it bud and bloom again in as great profusion as ever. 
 There was a freshness, spontaneity, and even exuberance about 
 it that have always won admiration. It showed its broader 
 functioning. It was the richer for the new power that inter- 
 vening centuries had developed, for it not only gives to every 
 other power, it takes something from each, — which is only 
 another way of saying that it is a form, an association, rather 
 than an independent power. This new epoch is not merely 
 interesting psychologically, it is especially interesting because 
 of the important place it occupied in establishing secondary 
 school forms and policies. 
 
 A new intellectual awakening. — The scholastic age, as we 
 have seen, contributed something that in a marked way distin- 
 guished and separated the age from those that preceded. But 
 the new interests then developed became outworn in the course 
 
 1 This should not be considered a disparagement. It was a natural 
 step in the evolution of a new ideal. 
 
 240 
 
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE 241 
 
 of the centuries that saw the early universities grow into power. 
 The mind is never long satisfied with old forms and material. 
 It must work from a new point of view or busy itself with new 
 creations. Forceful human predispositions and endowments 
 will supply their own conditions of development and will find 
 appropriate outlets or fields of action. The last part of the 
 scholastic age quite naturally developed a restless spirit that 
 longed for new substance on which to use the new tools that it 
 had prepared, longed for new aims and new inspiration beyond 
 the abstract forms of logic. It found them, but the substance 
 was an old substance revived, and the inspiration was that which 
 came surging into minds from the wonderful discovery of 
 ancient treasures. There was a rebound from what had become 
 flavorless and tedious, and the rebound made a new epoch in 
 which various intellectual processes, and among them imagina- 
 tion, started into a fresh and broader life. It was a renais- 
 sance of both intellect and spirit. 
 
 The Renaissance. Only an episode in a larger renais- 
 sance. — This Renaissance of the centuries beginning somewhat 
 earlier than 1400 A. D. was but an episode of a larger renais- 
 sance beginning much earlier. New ideals came into life and 
 education in the early Christian centuries and needed time for 
 rooting before the new and the old could fuse and nourish one 
 another in a newer and stronger civilization. This time of 
 preparation was so poor in what the world had regarded as 
 culture that when culture re-emerged in a more settled Chris- 
 tian civilization it seemed a veritable renaissance. But there 
 were several flashes of brighter intellectual activity on the 
 way, — a series of births and re-births. That of the fifteenth 
 century seems the brightest and most persistent. Yet it is 
 probable that those preceding it in Spain, in France, in Italy, 
 and later in various other countries, had no less vital influence. 
 In such an evolution there are luminous epochs, but no culmina- 
 tion. A renaissance is rather a phase or phenomenon than a 
 noumenon. Charlemagne's and Alfred's brief work and the 
 new activity coming into Europe through Saracenic culture and 
 study and through the early universities were thus as truly 
 renaissances as the one we have now reached. 
 
 Many forces at work. — The growth in insight and outlook, 
 
242 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 in power of assimilation and appreciation, may sometimes be 
 very gradual, even imperceptible ; again they may be accelerated 
 by certain fortunate conditions, either individual or national, 
 through which the influence of opposing and obscuring forces 
 is largely annulled ; they may be facilitated by a clearer view of 
 ideals and more practical methods of realizing them that come 
 at more lucid intervals when experiments can be carried on by 
 inspired agents not hampered by tradition nor thwarted or de- 
 flected by conservative forces; they may come by cataclysm. 
 Such fortunate plannings, discoveries, applications, and even 
 forcings are as much a part of evolution as the slower processes 
 of nature. They are a part of nature. All renaissances prob- 
 ably present these several types of movement. Such was the 
 nature of the awakening after the sleep of ancient culture. We 
 simply mark the latter by capitalizing the word. It is distin- 
 guished from the others by its intensity and because it stands 
 at the confluence of two streams of science and culture, one 
 coming down from the Orient and Greece through the Arabs 
 in Spain, the other coming more directly from Greece and 
 Rome through Italy and the Revival. 2 
 
 A broad movement. — Ideally and typically a renaissance has 
 to do with the awakening of the mind generally, with new in- 
 sight into life in all directions. We have perhaps allowed our 
 minds to center on the imaginative features of the new age, 
 and more expressly on the esthetic development that was con- 
 spicuous in the direction of literature and art. 8 Indeed, con- 
 ditions were ripe for the development of a keener art spirit 
 than had been manifest for many centuries. But to confine 
 ourselves to this phase of the Renaissance is to view it from 
 only one angle. It was much larger than this. 
 
 The Renaissance was at first reasonably true to the broad 
 type that has been referred to, encouraging a broadening of 
 thought in many lines. But for some time, after the first 
 
 2 The latter represented a double descent: — I. Italians became more 
 vigorously conscious of the culture and culture material that had re- 
 mained in their midst, originally derived in part from Greek influence, 
 in part, however, from original and masterful qualities in the Romans 
 themselves. 2. The dispersion of scholars, on the fall of Constantinople, 
 brought to the West new contributions of Greek culture. 
 
 3 There was marvellous development in other directions. 
 
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE 243 
 
 enthusiasm had settled into more formal thought and mood, it 
 spent its force in studying the past and in interpreting and 
 adapting past achievements. It therefore gave a fresh view in 
 a single direction and became a narrow movement. It was so 
 almost by accident. Even thus it prepared the way for a richer 
 movement that will be considered in later chapters. 4 It will 
 be worth while to note the causes of this narrower develop- 
 ment and to study its results. 
 
 Immediate occasion of the Renaissance. — Conditions and 
 antecedents of the Renaissance were those circumstances or 
 forces whose influences have been traced in the awakenings of 
 the university movement and in the spread of city schools. 5 
 The immediate occasion was the Revival of Learning. At 
 different periods, and in limited areas or circles, men had caught 
 views of the culture material of the ancient world, particularly 
 the ancient Roman world. 6 But in the fifteenth century they 
 began, in a larger and more vital way, to study, and to draw 
 inspiration from, the ancient classics of both classic nations. 
 Content of classic literature entranced as it had not, except in 
 rare instances, since Roman days, and had rarely done even 
 then. Spirit ruled and form retired as a paramount object of 
 effort and study. The new movement began in Italy where 
 the old masterpieces had remained in sight and where every- 
 thing suggested the old days. But it soon spread. Every- 
 where the lodestone of interest, or the supreme object of 
 effort, especially educational effort, was the old classic culture- 
 material. The story has often been told, how the new interest 
 spread and what favor, even furor, was aroused by the new 
 studies. It need only be suggested here. 
 
 The central interest. — As the idea of culture, in contrast 
 with bare church service and the practical ideals of the later 
 university period, came to the front in the literary products of 
 the only well known cultured nations, young Europe made a 
 supreme effort to take intellectual possession of this literature, 
 now designated as the ancient classics. 7 Linguistic study thus 
 
 *See Chapters XVIII-XX. 
 6 See Chapters XIII and XIV. 
 6 See Chap. XIII and Appendix 6 of that chapter. 
 7 " The study of language became the common bond between the 
 literary and religious promoters of the Revival in the 15th and 16th 
 
244 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 became the absorbing occupation of scholars and would-be 
 scholars, and eventually monopolized the energies of the schools. 
 
 A psychologic phenomenon; not dependent upon Latin 
 and Greek.— If the classics had been completely lost, mental ac- 
 tivity would have occupied itself elsewhere with remarkable 
 results, and would have achieved genuine culture. The 
 Renaissance was, par excellence, a psychological phenomenon, 
 a genuine mind-awakening. We have been misled by taking 
 certain sequences, conditions, and occasions as causes. Pro- 
 fessor Laurie says, with a good deal of justice, that the 
 Renaissance was not dependent upon Latin and Greek for its 
 origin or its permanence, and he calls attention to the fact that, 
 long before this, Europe had begun to seek original expression 
 for its own view of human life in the indigenous literary prod- 
 ucts of Germanic nations. 8 Each epoch, however, needs to 
 stand on the shoulders of the past in order to get a fairer out- 
 look and make the best headway. Progress would be waste- 
 fully slow if each new period had to work out everything from 
 the beginning from its own view-point. The form and con- 
 tent of Latin and Greek literature were a great inheritance and 
 ought to have led more quickly to a new creative epoch. But 
 unfortunately men became so absorbed in the old that they for- 
 got the new. The assimilative process extended beyond all 
 reasonable limits. 
 
 Two contrasted parts of the Renaissance period. — The 
 Renaissance was not a homogeneous period. It had two 
 phases, an earlier and a later, strikingly different in aim and 
 
 centuries. A barbarous and monkish Latinity was the vehicle of a bar- 
 barous and monkish conception of life. We cannot separate language 
 and thought. Hence the identification of the Humanistic Revival, 
 literary and esthetic, with the study of Latin and Greek, — the two great 
 vehicles of literature and art common to the European world. Hence 
 too the identification of the revival of a pure Christianity with the 
 critical study of the same languages and of Hebrew." Laurie, — 
 Studies in the History of Educational Opinion from the Renaissance, 
 page 13. 
 
 8 The Niebelungenlied is based upon primitive ballads. The Song 
 of Roland, The Cid, The Kalevala, and other epic literature of Western 
 Europe rest upon, and have grown out of, a stratum of ballad litera- 
 ture. In the present case the natural literary development of Europe 
 early became obscured by the borrowed development of classic nations, 
 and had little influence, or, at any rate, only a late influence. 
 
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE 245 
 
 characteristics. The early Renaissance was characterized by 
 the spontaneity, freshness, and enthusiasm of early contact with 
 classic culture. The mind as a whole was stimulated ; the out- 
 look was a broad one; many interests drew attention, so that 
 the mind went out actively in many directions. It is impor- 
 tant here to notice again that Latin was still a living language. 
 It was an instrument of thought, not an instrument 9 of disci- 
 pline. The scholastic epoch had given it new power and made 
 it a great force in life, as already noted, 1 * but it had narrowed 
 its use to a single interest. The Renaissance brought back to 
 Latin its many-sidedness, as interests were manifold and Latin 
 was the natural means of communication for all. The language 
 was thus adapting itself to new thought and expression in many 
 directions. Goliardi moulded it in mediaeval songs. 11 Erasmus 
 used his powerful influence to make Latin the language of the 
 schools and give it a development consonant with the times, as 
 seen in his compositions for school use. 12 Latin was thus an 
 active, vital force. Altogether it is evident that the period was 
 one of enthusiastic outlook. The Renaissance mind had not 
 yet turned in upon itself. 
 
 Typical secondary school of the early period. Its aim. — 
 The school that represents this phase of the Renaissance is that 
 of Vittorino da Feltre. His curriculum and method were thor- 
 oughly humanistic. His ideal was the old Greco-Roman ideal 
 transfused by Christian thought, — 
 
 "the penetration of Christian life with classical culture." As 
 amplified in Woodward's monograph the ideal was the " harmonious 
 development of mind, body, and character, actualized in young 
 men who were to serve God in church and state in whatever po- 
 sition they should be called upon to occupy ; " and the author 
 adds (perhaps with some exaggeration that a general statement 
 couched in rhetorical terms is liable to involve), "scholars per- 
 suaded themselves that style could fulfil the function of religious 
 
 9 Clark, op. cit., 57. 
 
 " The relation of Latin to the needs of various classes explains its 
 prominence at the time of the Reformation. Everywhere men actually 
 needed it, — read, wrote, and to a large extent spoke and, perhaps, 
 thought in Latin." — Leach, op. cit., 105. 
 
 "See Chapter XIII. 
 
 11 Clark, op. cit., 40, 41, 68. 
 
 12 Clark, op. cit., 82 ff. Erasmus in a way marks the end of this de- 
 velopment of Latin. 
 
246 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 instinct, that argument and illustration drawn from an authoritative 
 past and driven home by exhortation, couched in classical literary- 
 form, could serve as a spiritual force to the individual life." 
 
 With our waning regard for the classics, and particularly 
 with our broadening ideas of education, we can hardly appre- 
 ciate those older teachers' estimates of the study of the classics 
 as an instrument for developing multifold power and an all- 
 round man. 
 
 The details of Da Feltre's school are very interesting. They 
 show how far the educational world had traveled since medise- 
 valism defined its school forms. A summary under the three 
 usual heads will serve to focus thought on the characteristic 
 features of his school and give us a fair idea of its scope. 
 
 Da Feltre's school : — 
 Ideal:-l 
 
 The penetration of the Christian life with classical culture, 
 or the harmonious development of mind, body and character. 
 The aim was to send forth young men who should serve God 
 in church and state in whatever position they should be called 
 upon to occupy. 13 
 
 Curriculum : — 
 
 Latin, — the central lan- 
 guage; medium of in- 
 struction. 
 
 Greek, — taken up early. 
 
 Composition, — systematic 
 graded course. 
 
 Language and literature the core 
 of the curriculum. The chief 
 factors in education. All else 
 subordinate or ancillary. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Geometry, with elements of 
 
 Algebra. 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Valued by Da Feltre as the only 
 exact knowledge we possess, 
 and as the finest possible stim- 
 ulus to exact thought. Ge- 
 ometry probably the favorite, 
 and of course taught through 
 Euclid; but general principles 
 were regarded as all that was 
 essential. " Too much devo- 
 tion to the abstract side " was 
 thought " a form of trifling." 
 Algebra barely alluded to. 
 Natural philosophy (probably including geography). A kind 
 of key to nature allusions found in literature. 
 
 13 See Woodward. 
 
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE 247 
 
 Natural History. — Perhaps the " Bestiary " would well define 
 the idea here. Men were interested in accounts of strange 
 animals and plants, and color beauties in stones. The 
 substance of natural history was probably a collection of 
 interesting and marvellous items about natural objects. 
 These subjects were regarded as an aid to vocabulary- 
 building. 
 
 History. — For ethical values and for insight into customs 
 and national virtues. 
 
 Philosophy, — chiefly ethics, particularly Stoic ethics. 
 
 •Logic or dialectic. 
 
 Morals. 
 
 Religious instruction. — The whole course of training in a re- 
 ligious setting. "The dignity of human lips is based on 
 their relation to the Divine. ,, 
 
 Physical training, — both for hygiene and for culture. The 
 Greek ideal of the harmonious development of mind and 
 body added to the Roman practical ideal of a sound mind 
 in a sound body. 
 
 Music, — admitted sparingly. Severer melodies favored. Com- 
 pare with ideas of Plato and Aristotle. See Chapter 
 VI. 
 
 General Method : — 
 
 Books few; oral work predominated. Text dictated, con- 
 strued, translated. Notes given, to be copied by the pupil. 
 Oral questions. Lectures. 
 
 The pupil also came into account. <Da Feltre studied the 
 taste and capacity of each pupil, took note of his proposed 
 career, and adapted his method accordingly, while ample 
 variation in subjects gave him the means of keeping up the 
 interest. 
 
 Special method in language: — 
 
 Grammar not yet "crystallized into authoritative rule and 
 usage, but still largely a matter of induction." A small manual 
 of accidence in question and answer form might be used, but 
 otherwise grammatical usage was gathered from a study of the 
 authors. A many-sided knowledge must be secured before 
 the regular reading of the authors for themselves began: — 
 1. A vocabulary by dictation, with the chief inflections. 2. 
 Easy passages from the poets explained, probably translated, 
 and used for exercises in accidence. 3. A similar course in 
 historical narrative and moral anecdote, with stress on subject 
 matter, in connection with elementary composition and dis- 
 putation. 4. Accent, quantity, enunciation were essential 
 features of every lesson. An important means of gaining 
 
248 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 language and language style was constant practice in composi- 
 tion. 14 
 
 Grammar was fundamental, though not the formal propae- 
 deutic it finally became. But the narrow idea of grammar as 
 a fundamental subject introductory to literature was growing, 
 |and even here was being laid the foundation of the idea that 
 "grammar is the essential instrument of teaching, and that 
 its study lies at the root of all intellectual progress." 15 
 
 The edifice of letters was built on this grammatical founda- 
 tion. Here comes in Quintilian's idea of the " explication " of 
 literature, including meaning and construction of words, and 
 a study of style and allusions. Parallel teaching of Latin 
 and Greek was practiced. 
 
 Special method in physical training : — 
 
 Formal gymnastic exercise, and the spontaneous exercise of 
 games. 
 
 Special method in morals : — 
 
 Morals not a formal study in the course, but enforced 
 by correlation and environment. Corporal punishment not a 
 factor of method here. Aside from the ethical influence of 
 the curriculum, character was formed by sustained personal 
 influence and supervision. An active, healthy, happy school, 
 with clearly defined ethical character was the ideal, thus 
 furnishing the best conditions for character building. 
 
 It is evident from this summary that Latin was becoming 
 fixed in the curriculum, and that grammar was assuming its 
 special role as a fundamental in the course. 
 
 We must not be misled by terms here, and think that 
 Da Feltre's school was more advanced than it really was. The 
 work in what we now call advanced subjects was probably very 
 elementary. Secondary and higher sections of the school were 
 doubtless as indefinite as in Quintilian's time, but it is easy to 
 see that the basal elements of this outline represent a true sec- 
 ondary school and that the pupils in substantial numbers were 
 secondary pupils. We should remember again, however, that 
 the school was of the European type, which takes boys earlier 
 and keeps them later than American secondary schools. 
 
 Other typical spirits of the early Renaissance. — This 
 school was an expression of the early Renaissance spirit. 
 Da Feltre was not alone, though he perhaps represented the 
 
 14 Conf . Quintilian. 15 See Woodward. 
 
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE 249 
 
 period in its purest form. ^Eneas Sylvius, Guarino, and others 
 belonged to the same type of educators, 16 — those who were 
 reinstating secondary education. This enterprising educational 
 work is a striking indication of the fact that the ideal and social 
 status of the teacher were rising, 17 and that education in all 
 its branches was taking on new life and getting a clearer view 
 of its larger functions. 
 
 Prototypes of this school, with comparisons. — It can 
 hardly escape notice that the first conspicuous schools of the 
 Revival were copies of the best schools of old Rome, though 
 permeated by Christian ideals. Such was Da Feltre's school. 
 It is evident that we have in its spirit a stronger hint of Greek 
 thought and aim than we find in Quintilian, but there is evident 
 similarity between the two educators. There is similarity not 
 merely in detail of plan and method, but in the general aim. 
 Quintilian's ideal was a civic one. Da Feltre's was also civic, 
 only of a broader type, as the times demanded. This early 
 humanistic education was a preparation for Christian citizen- 
 ship. Each teacher therefore was responsive to his times, as 
 any true educator must be to do his work in an adequate man- 
 ner. Da Feltre had grown as his times had grown. He lived 
 in the present as well as in the past. 
 
 Such was the nature of the first period of the Renaissance, 
 and such was the school that responded to its spirit. Spon- 
 
 16 Woodward, op. cit., and Ziegler, op. cit., 45-48. Ziegler gives ab- 
 stracts ofVergerius' "Good Morals and Liberal Studies," Vegius' "On 
 the Training and Good Morals of Children," Sylvius' " Treatise on the 
 Education of Children," Guarino's " The manner and Order of Teaching 
 and Learning," most or all of which show a more interesting and a 
 more vital pedogogy than ruled at the time. 
 
 17 Da Feltre's ideal of the teacher was in strong contrast with the ideal 
 of the previous period indicated by the following citation : — 
 
 " Let those teach who like disorder, noise, and squalor, who rejoice 
 in the screams of the victim as the rod falls gayly, who are not happy 
 unless they can terrify, flog, and torture. How then can teaching, be it 
 of grammar or any of the liberal arts, be a fit occupation for honorable 
 age? Quit so debasing a trade while chance offers. Pueros doceant 
 qui majora non possunt, quibus mens tardior, sanguis gelidus, animus 
 lucelli appetens negligens fastidii." 
 
 The language may be overwrought, but after all it shows the estimate 
 of the genus teacher by the earliest humanists. It represents the past, 
 however, rather than the future, though it probably does not come far 
 from giving a fair picture of average school conditions as late as 
 Luther's boyhood, and even much later. 
 
250 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 taneity, interest, enthusiastic cheerfulness, and a belief in the 
 influence of knowledge on life and character were character- 
 istics of revived culture. 
 
 Elyot's school in England. — Italy was not alone in produc- 
 ing educators of the new type. About the time Da Feltre was 
 working in Italy, England had an exponent of the lively 
 Renaissance spirit in Elyot, who has given us his school plan 
 in a book called the Governour, — a reduced Quintilian. In 
 his curriculum English is to come before Latin, except as Latin 
 is picked up by a natural method in early years (before 7). A 
 few " quick rules of grammar " are followed by reading. The 
 language is advanced by colloquial means. By fourteen the 
 boy is to be familiar with the ^Eneid, parts of Lucian, Aris- 
 tophanes, Homer, Vergil, Ovid, and Lucian. After this come 
 logic (the "Topics"), rhetoric (Quintilian) and the orators, 
 geography with maps, and history (in Livy, Caesar, Sallust, and 
 Xenophon). After seventeen the boy is to take up the first 
 two books of Aristotle's Ethics, Cicero's De Officiis, and Plato. 
 His idea of one great feature of method is tersely put, showing 
 that he does not favor a burden of grammar as a preliminary : 
 
 " It (grammar) in a manner mortyfyeth his courage, and by 
 that time, he cometh to the most sweet and pleasant reading of 
 old authors the sparks of fervent desire of learning are extinct 
 with the burden of grammar." His idea of a grammarian is well 
 defined negatively in these words : — " I call not them grammar- 
 ians (teachers) which only can teach and make rules whereby 
 a child shall only learn to speak congruous Latin, or to make six 
 verses standing on one foot, wherein perchance shall be neither 
 sentence nor eloquence." 
 
 His grammarian is the broad literary man of Quintilian who 
 teaches literature by what Laurie calls the best method ever 
 produced, — but hardly the best that could be produced. 
 
 Here, then, was another great school in another part of the 
 world. The schools which we get a glimpse of in this chap- 
 ter, so far as they go, are immeasurably superior to those of a 
 much later day, better than those of fifty years ago; better, 
 shall we say, than many a great secondary school to-day. 
 
 Progress of the humanistic secondary school. — Humanism 
 gradually spread over Europe. But as a rule the new life 
 
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE 251 
 
 with its marked characteristics of spontaneity and enthusiasm 
 opened later in the North than in the South. In the North 
 it depended on a center of diffusion far away. The Renais- 
 sance was an external force working its way in after missionary 
 principles. In Italy it was an inner force working its way out. 
 Again the North was, in a way, a non-cultural land. The 
 marks and relics of culture bequeathed by an older civilization 
 did not show themselves in profusion and richness as in the 
 South, but the North soon felt in its more sluggish way what 
 the South felt at the outset. 18 
 
 18 There were characteristic differences in the progress of the Re- 
 naissance in different countries, and the movement was of course not 
 a simultaneous one in the different sections. 
 
 England was perhaps an exception to the slow response. From early- 
 days this country has been responsive to education and has had brilliant 
 educational periods. 
 
XVI 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE LATE RENAISSANCE 
 
 Later Renaissance compared with earlier. — The later 
 Renaissance presents a striking contrast with the earlier epoch 
 discussed in the last chapter, at least as far as concerns the 
 substance of secondary instruction. We have already seen that 
 in the early Renaissance language study not only was the basal 
 work of the curriculum, but occupied the major part of the 
 time, and that Latin was the language which claimed chief 
 attention. Latin was then a living language and hence per- 
 formed two functions in education. Now, however, Latin 
 was passing as a living language. It had long lain outside the 
 life of the masses, who spoke Teutonic dialects or a hybrid 
 language formed of Latin and Teutonic elements that modi- 
 fied one another and then fused. The status of the masses was 
 gradually rising, impelled by the forces and conditions that have 
 been described in recent chapters. The vernaculars were thus 
 assuming power and influence. 1 There was finally no need of 
 teaching Latin for practical purposes at all, but the time was 
 not yet. 
 
 Language is first of all a practical subject, and its develop- 
 ment has depended upon practical considerations. At the out- 
 set every-day need was the controlling influence. Then a cul- 
 tural aim suggested itself and added its peculiar force to the 
 evolutionary process. The latter aim, however, is just as prac- 
 tical as the former, for it issues in real service, increasing both 
 the efficiency and scope of language. The one aim produces a 
 serviceable medium of communication, the other gives form 
 as well as substance. Then came a pseudo-practical idea that 
 
 t * In Germany, for instance, its condition was gradually improved 
 till, in the outburst of the early German classic times, guided by the rare 
 spirits of Lessing, Goethe, and Schiller, it triumphed for literary pur- 
 poses also. 
 
 252 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 253 
 
 gave to language study the aim of formal discipline. It 
 afforded small welcome and smaller opportunity to other aims. 
 Under its sway Latin, losing the inspiration of the practical 
 aims referred to, " became copy." From this time almost to 
 the present the idea of formal discipline has been paramount on 
 the foreign language side of secondary education, and it still 
 holds a large place. While language is a practical subject, the 
 teaching of language has generally come far short of being a 
 practical matter. 2 
 
 Status of Latin in the later Renaissance period. — In the 
 later Renaissance period, — the sixteenth century, — Latin was 
 still taught for certain practical purposes, at least for a time. 
 Though it could no longer be called the vernacular for the 
 people at large, it was still the language par excellence of the 
 educated, — their medium of communication, both oral and 
 written. Science, art, and literature still owned it as their lan- 
 guage. 3 Vernaculars were still too far from a culture status 
 to be considered as means or ends of educational plans. They 
 were for the masses and did not come within the extended 
 course of education that was only for the few who affiliated 
 with the Latin element. 4 
 
 The Latin language thus held men's gaze and efforts at this 
 time because of what it was and what it contained, and because 
 of its still existing practical relations. To be in the cultured 
 circle, to be possessed of the means of communication between 
 culture-centers, and to appreciate the content of which the lan- 
 guage was the vehicle, one must possess the language. It was 
 accordingly easy to lay supreme stress on language study and 
 in effect make it an end. 
 
 Latin of the Golden Age now the aim. — Under these cir- 
 
 2 In spite of much splendid work on the disciplinary side of language 
 teaching it must be confessed that results in the direction of language 
 power have not been at all commensurate with the energy expended. 
 
 3 Leach, op. cit., 105, says that everywhere men actually needed it, 
 read it, wrote it, and to a large extent spoke and perhaps thought in 
 it, as indicated in a previous note. 
 
 4 There was a caste in language, as there has always been. Barriers 
 shut out the newer and more practical. There have always been gentiles 
 or barbarians in subjects of study as well as in peoples. The missionary 
 linguist or the missionary philologian are not easily developed. Dialects 
 destined to become strong cultural forces are left to grow up by 
 themselves ; a part of evolutionary machinery is withheld from them. 
 
254 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 cumstances, when Latin was no longer a necessity in any such 
 sense as during the period covered in the last chapter, it is not 
 a long reach to a modification of the aim just noted in the direc- 
 tion of a particular phase of language study. There thus came 
 an absorbing ambition to possess the language of the golden 
 age of Latin development, — in fact to make youth like the 
 Romans of Roman days. 
 
 Formal discipline. — So deep an impression did the idea 
 make that, amid various vicissitudes, it can be traced as far 
 down as the end of the nineteenth century. Now as soon as 
 ends are narrowed in this way, and the acquisition of a special 
 type of language becomes paramount, there is a tendency to 
 formalize language teaching, because mechanical and formal 
 methods seem the easiest way of mastering old forms. " What 
 was a revelation to one generation becomes an unintelligible 
 routine to the next." In the history of language teaching there 
 will be found to be a regular rhythm between the culture 
 idea and the form idea, — the latter obscuring the former, 
 because, after all, the acquisition of language forms must 
 occupy a large amount of attention. " Formal discipline " 
 becomes an easy aim when language teaching occupies the 
 chief place in a curriculum and when the language is no 
 longer a living one. Correlatively formal teaching becomes an 
 easy method. It is a commentary on the laissez faire spirit of 
 the secondary school. 
 
 Textual movement. — Added to this natural tendency was 
 the influence of the philological and textual movement that 
 came during the second part of the Renaissance and made tech- 
 nical language and grammar study prominent. Scholars 
 became interested in studying the history and relationships of 
 languages and in deciding on fine points in text-criticism. To 
 do this one must have a language eye for the minutest forms. 5 
 
 Sturm's school a type. — These things will be more clearly 
 understood from a concrete example of later Renaissance peda- 
 gogy. This is found in the school of John Sturm, of Strasburg, 
 a typical school of the period. 6 For centuries it influenced the 
 
 5 See Laurie, Hist, of Educ. Opinion from the Renaissance, 28 ff. 
 
 6 There were other noted schools of the period, but this will prob- 
 ably best serve as the type, 1, because it comes nearer the tradition 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 255 
 
 ideals of secondary teaching. Fortunately we can get a some- 
 what more detailed outline of his plan than is practicable in 
 many cases, for school programs quickly disappear. From the 
 published letters of the great schoolmaster to his teachers we 
 can make out not merely his general curriculum, but details for 
 each class. 7 
 
 It is significant that Sturm was a pupil of the Hieronymians. 
 They were pioneers in absorbing the spirit of the Revival and 
 in introducing into Northern Europe a new education, — new, 
 because fused with new ideals and supplied with new and 
 fresher material, and because dealing at first hand with inspir- 
 ing wholes of literature instead of with bare epitomes 8 of 
 great works of the past. But Sturm seems to have systematized 
 and formalized what in his masters was freer and more spon- 
 taneous. He did it so successfully and with such eclat that 
 his school was known far and wide. He attracted the notice 
 even of kings and princes, who became his patrons in great 
 numbers. His acquaintance was so extended and his personal- 
 ity so marked that, it is said, no diplomat passed through Stras- 
 burg without stopping to converse with him, and his advice and 
 influence were sought in state politics. 
 
 In Sturm's mind the end of education was " piety, knowl- 
 edge, and the art of speaking." But, as he saw that " knowl- 
 edge and purity and elegance of diction distinguished the cul- 
 tured from the uncultured," these became the aim of school 
 discipline. 
 
 He laid out a curriculum for ten years of school life applying 
 to boys from the age of six or seven up to their entrance upon 
 university study, or some other tertiary curriculum. Only 
 the last half of his curriculum can be regarded as secondary, 
 but we need to look at the whole in order to appreciate the half. 
 This is his scheme. As one reads he feels its intensity and its 
 
 which we are following ; 2, because we have fuller details than for most 
 schools. Other schools are noted in an appendix, and certain details 
 have been given in regard to them that will be found useful in inter- 
 preting the new epoch. Some of these schools, it must be confessed, 
 give hints of a more attractive pedagogy than ruled in Sturm's school, 
 but they are not for that reason better^ types of the period. 
 
 7 See the American Journal of Education, 4: 167, 401. 
 
 8 Such epitomes as those of Capella, Isidore, and other encyclopaedists 
 and grammarians. See Chapter XII, Appendix. 
 
256 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 really wonderful organization, and is impressed with the mas- 
 terfulness of the teacher. 
 
 Sturm's School Plan. 
 (Uniform text-books throughout the school. 9 ) 
 
 Class i. 
 The foundations: — 
 
 Forms and correct pronunciation of letters. 
 Reading, — better secured by teaching declensions and conjuga- 
 tions than by use of the catechism (showing that reading 
 meant Latin reading, and giving a hint as to the text-books 
 in reading which had been in vogue). 
 Spelling and writing. 
 German catechism committed to memory. 
 
 Class 2. 
 
 More thorough work in declensions and conjugations, including 
 irregulars. 
 
 Latin vocabulary (large). — Names of common objects arranged in 
 natural groups. Also short sentences and sayings. Pupils thus 
 made their own dictionaries, — dictionaries of three depart- 
 ments. 
 
 German catechism. 
 
 Translation of modern Latin. 9 
 
 Class 3. 
 Drill on past acquisitions. 
 Dictionary making enlarged. 
 More grammar, including etymology. 
 
 Translation of Cicero's letters, with constant reference to the gram- 
 mar. Also translation of modern Latin. 
 German catechism. 
 
 Class 4. 
 Drill on past acquisitions. 
 Grammar, — Latin syntax. 
 
 Reading of Cicero's letters, Cato, 9 and modern Latin. Transla- 
 tion of Sunday sermons. 
 Style exercises (Latin), involving all the knowledge thus far gained. 
 German catechism translated into classical Latin. 
 Music. 
 
 9 Caesar was evidently not imposed on beginners. This text was prob- 
 ably included in the more advanced work of Class 8. It is interesting 
 to see what books are chosen for early classes and to review our present 
 customs in the light of Sturm's curriculum. Sturm was himself a pro- 
 lific writer of new text-books. 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 257 
 
 Class 5. 
 
 Drill on past acquisitions. 
 
 Reading of Cicero's letters, Horace, Terence, Martial's epigrams, 
 Book of Poetry, Sunday sermons. 10 .On Sundays, reading of 
 some letters of Hieronymus. 10 Translation of Latin catechism. 
 
 Greek begun. — ^Esop's Fables. 
 
 Music. 
 
 Class 6. 
 
 Drill on past acquisitions. 
 
 Vocabulary again, — names of unfamiliar objects. 
 
 Reading of Cicero, Cato, Vergil, second Book of Poetry, Latin 
 Catechism, Sunday sermons. On Saturdays and Sundays one 
 epistle of the New Testament to be read and interpreted. 10 
 
 Style exercises (Latin). 
 
 Technique of poetry. Verse writing. Practice in restoring meters, 
 etc. 
 
 Mythology. 
 
 Greek continued. — Sunday sermons in Greek to be read. 
 
 Greek vocabulary building. 
 
 Class 7. 
 
 Drill on past acquisitions. 
 
 Boys now well provided with choice words and illustrations. Care- 
 ful attention to be given to listening, interpreting, and repeating 
 from memory. 
 
 Reading of Terence, Cicero, Horace. On Saturday and Sunday 
 epistles 10 of the New Testament to be paraphrased from an- 
 other's reading. 
 
 Style exercises (Latin). 
 
 Greek grammar and book of examples. — Msop. 
 
 Class 8. 
 Drill on past acquisitions. 
 Rhetoric, — doubtless from Latin treatises. 
 Reading of Cicero's letters and Cluentius, Latin historians and 
 
 poets, Demosthenes, Odyssey, Greek historians and poets. 
 
 Epistles translated and committed to memory. 
 Retro-translation in both Latin and Greek, — doubtless Latin into 
 
 Greek and vice versa. 
 Style exercises (Latin). Style must be incessantly practiced and 
 
 improved. 
 Greek and Latin poems changed into different meters. 
 Composition of many poems and letters (of course in Latin). 
 Plays of Plautus and Terence acted, in Latin. (Sturm's school 
 
 was equipped with a theater.) 
 
 10 Undoubtedly all through the medium of Latin and Greek, so that 
 even religious exercises served Sturm's great aim. 
 
258 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Class 9. 
 
 Interpretation of Greek and Latin authors. 
 
 Rhetoric, with Demosthenes and Cicero. 
 
 Iliad, one book. 
 
 Epistles learned and recited. 
 
 Relations between oratorical and poetical usage. Comparison be- 
 tween Greek and Latin here. 
 
 Exercises in style. 
 
 Dissertations composed and delivered in Latin. 
 
 Acting of plays of Plautus and Terence (in Latin), and a play 
 of Aristophanes, Euripides, or Sophocles. 
 
 Logic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Class 10. 
 
 Logic and rhetoric enlarged; applied to Demosthenes and Cicero. 
 In this connection also Vergil and Homer are to be taken up. 
 
 Thucydides, Euripides, Sallust. 
 
 Facility in writing and declamation to be thoroughly cultivated. 
 
 Catechism and epistles to be expounded, and passages amplified, 
 after the fashion of rhetoricians. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Some propositions from one book of Euclid. 
 
 Special features of the school. — This outline gives a fair 
 idea of Sturm's curriculum, and of substantial portions of his 
 method as well. There was practically no modern language 
 work except what was involved in studying Latin and Greek 
 with a view to Sturm's rather narrow aim. There was no 
 history (except in Greek and Latin), almost no science, and 
 only a mere trifle of mathematics. The characteristic features 
 of method were formal grammar work, dictation, copying, 
 memorizing 11 (though in smaller amount than before, because 
 of the growing number of printed books), incessant and vigor- 
 ous practice in style exercises, reading of classic and modern 
 authors in fragments not in wholes, and constant use of Latin 
 in school work, in conversation, and in dramatic performances. 
 Even this brief summary perhaps does Sturm more than justice, 
 for, while there seems to be a considerable amount of reading 
 in his curriculum, it is rather an episode in the technical work 
 of composition and grammar, or a vehicle to take one over the 
 road leading to a command of Ciceronian style, and yet it did 
 give real contact with Latin and Greek authors. 
 
 11 Laurie, op. cit., 36. 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 259 
 
 Discipline. — The tension of this school is seen in Sturm's 
 thought that boys should be kept under the discipline of the 
 rod ; " nor should they learn according to their own choice, but 
 after the good pleasure of the teacher." 
 
 Comparison of Da Feltre, Sturm, and Quintilian. — As Da 
 Feltre made prominent the humanism of Quintilian, so Sturm 
 made prominent his formal practice and drill, — his disciplinary 
 program. He was terribly in earnest ; he was a master at de- 
 fining aims with great distinctness, keeping them in the fore- 
 front of consciousness, and pursuing them persistently, not to 
 say relentlessly; he was without a rival in organization. Yet 
 we feel that his school was a travesty of Quintilian's, which he 
 evidently made his model. We miss the broad culture ideal 
 and humanism of the Roman school, which Da Feltre illus- 
 trated and really illuminated and improved, and we miss that 
 vital relation to life that Quintilian always recognized and 
 built upon. 12 
 
 Sturm's school a culmination and a beginning. — Sturm's 
 school is especially interesting from several points of view : — 
 I. As already indicated, it shows one side of Quintilian's plan 
 of education as the later Renaissance interpreted (or distorted) 
 it. 2. It represents a kind of culmination of the city school 
 development discussed in a previous chapter; for it was the 
 Gymnasium of Strasburg. 3. It represents the beginning of 
 modern secondary school development in which the limits of 
 secondary education had become rather clearly defined. Only 
 a few years after Sturm's death the first secondary school in 
 America was established. Sturm's was a type-school. The 
 Jesuit secondary schools, which represented organized educa- 
 tion for a long time, 13 were copies of this school, which they 
 moulded to their purposes. The final development of Renais- 
 sance secondary education was thus the starting point for the 
 modern period. So incisive was the work of Sturm's school, 
 so conspicuous were its relations to the strongest forces in 
 Christendom, that it was the commanding influence in second- 
 
 12 Other schools apparently show less tension and less of the formal. 
 See Appendix 1 (b). 
 
 13 In fact they were the only examples of organized education, since 
 other schools were isolated units rather than parts of a system. 
 
260 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 ary education. Its importance is not realized fully till we take 
 account of another impressive fact closely associated with the 
 Renaissance, the remarkable multiplication of secondary 
 schools. 14 
 
 In the typical curriculum of the late Renaissance therefore 
 Latin was far the largest element. Greek was a lagging minor. 
 There was little else. Latin and Latin method overshadowed 
 everything in Sturm's school. Hence a knowledge of method 
 became a knowledge of Latin method. It was a phase of the 
 so-called classical method that, with few changes, predominated 
 for centuries. 
 
 Other Renaissance educators — The progressives. — The 
 two types of school that we have been studying represent two 
 views of education that had influence in their respective 
 periods. But the Renaissance discloses noted names besides 
 those already mentioned. Men with as keen insight into the 
 educational process as that of Da Feltre, far keener than that 
 of Sturm, who hardly knew education as a process, were formu- 
 lating new principles and sometimes applying them in a limited 
 way. 15 If we should generalize from these reformers we 
 should get a third type for the period, a prophetic one, that must 
 stand side by side with the schools of Da Feltre and Sturm. In 
 Sturm's time, or in close proximity to it, we find advocacy of 
 new studies, new books, 16 attention to things in place of words, 
 mastery of language by use, regard for content and literary 
 values, the use of the vernacular as the class-room medium of 
 expression, individual investigation and discovery, new school 
 houses, better qualifications for teaching, 17 more pedagogical 
 
 14 See page 279. 
 
 15 See Appendix 1 (a). 
 
 16 See Hazlitt, op. cit., Chapter IV ff. Appendix 3 to this chapter 
 gives summaries of noted text-books of the period. Conf. De Mont- 
 morency, op. cit., 75, and especially 77. 
 
 Bookseller John Dome's account book, which has been preserved, 
 shows that ABC books, primers, and new Latin textbooks were his 
 " best sellers." Hazlitt, op. cit., 87-8. 
 
 17 Aside from much other evidence of pressure in this direction a 
 movement for bettering conditions took definite form in Cambridge 
 in 1441 in the establishment of a training school for grammar (Latin) 
 teachers for the benefit, particularly, of country schools. Mulcaster was 
 perhaps the first Englishman to raise his voice for making a profession 
 of that which makes all other professions. See Quick, Educ. Ref., 100. 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 261 
 
 discipline. Noted reformers were stirring the school world by 
 their applications of reformed pedagogy to teaching. 18 In the 
 latter part of the nineteenth century, after centuries of waiting, 
 the cumulative effect of all this, with more recent additions, 
 appeared in the reluctant enrichment of the secondary school 
 curriculum and method. 
 
 Some contrasted ideas. — Again, over against these progres- 
 sive facts, must be placed others that are less attractive. Text- 
 books were still scarce and often not in the hands of pupils. 
 It was necessary to have matter copied from dictation, then 
 divided, construed, and explained (a bit of method inherited 
 from scholasticism). Students took away great copy-books 
 containing their acquisitions. Platter tells us that in studying 
 Terence the teacher read, and pupils had to decline and conju- 
 gate every word of whole comedies. He himself had to learn 
 Donatus by heart. 19 Even Melanchthon rings the changes on 
 grammatical drill and advocates repeated journeys through the 
 grammar, and the learning of all rules by heart. Luther, who 
 speaks of learning as an " exercise of the memory, or a gladia- 
 torial exercise,'' feelingly characterizes it as pitiable that a boy 
 should spend many years only to learn bad Latin sufficient for 
 becoming a priest and saying mass. 20 As to favorite books, he 
 says that, next to monastic works, Terence and Plautus were 
 studied, as the readiest means of learning colloquial Latin. 
 He tells us that he himself, at Mansfield, learned some church 
 passages, etc., Donatus, the child's grammar, and church music. 
 Of " bacchant teachers," 21 who were frequently assistants in 
 the schools, he declares that they neither loved nor understood 
 the art of teaching better than they did the nature of true 
 
 18 Rabelais' characterization of the old education and his enthusiastic 
 presentation of the new show that a new order of things was pushing 
 its way to the front. He typified the Renaissance spirit. 
 
 19 Grammars have been thus " learned " in our schools within fifty 
 years. 
 
 20 Luther's Schools, — Amer. Jour, of Educ, 24 : 99 ff . 
 
 21 An appreciable element in the schools of the day was of a nomad 
 nature. Youths roved the country, either as adventure students, mov- 
 ing at will from school to school, and characteristically protected from 
 ordinary processes when they broke moral and civil law, or, more pur- 
 posefully, seeking some subordinate employment in schools and church. 
 Some of our present crudenesses in school customs are inheritances 
 from the codes of this time. Amer. Jour, of Educ, 24 : 90 ff., et al. 
 
262 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 religion, whose servants they professed to be. They did not 
 study the character and disposition of pupils, they taught 
 mechanically, and they ruled by hard and brutal force. They 
 presented a sombre appearance and lived in sombre surround- 
 ings, for they wore a dark monastic dress and occupied large 
 buildings with gloomy cells. Referring to the character of edu- 
 cation the same author informs us that in school life a large 
 portion of each forenoon was devoted to the church, and again 
 that little attention was given to what was taught, that not a 
 single branch of study was taught as it should be, that every- 
 thing still wore the garb of the Middle Ages, and that there 
 were no experiments or observations in natural philosophy and 
 no accurate criticism in language and history. 22 Erasmus 
 exclaims as to the profound ignorance of teachers in general in 
 such matters as geography and natural history, which were 
 needed for the explanation of the classics. 23 Hallam makes 
 the education of a gentleman of the first class in England at 
 this time consist of reading, writing, considerable familiarity 
 with French, and a slight tincture of Latin (though Leach 
 adds that the French should probably be reduced and the Latin 
 increased). One of our most prominent authorities sums up 
 the case for Renaissance method in this way : 
 
 " For the ordinary boy, as for the ordinary teacher, school life, 
 as distinguished from university life, was almost as dreary as 
 ever. Grammar was the despot and rote-memory the slave. Verb- 
 alism again reasserted itself, though now, it is true, with higher 
 aims so far as language was concerned. The attempt to intro- 
 duce ' real studies/ even history, broke down." 24 
 
 All this was surely in sharp contrast with the work of the 
 master teachers whose plans aroused such admiration. The 
 work of the latter, it is true, best represented the new epoch, but 
 
 22 Eggleston, op. cit., 260-1, says that commercial subjects acted as 
 intruders in the Latin schools as late as the middle of the 18th cen- 
 tury. He might use similar language as to other subjects for a much 
 later date. 
 
 23 This is one of the most significant observations of the time. In 
 earlier days (see Quintilian, who probably followed still older educa- 
 tors) it was a fixed practice to correlate the classics and other subjects 
 needed for their " explicatio." The fact that even this correlated work 
 is now lacking is strong evidence of the dwindling of curriculum ideals. 
 
 24 See School Rev. 4:20QfL; Davidson, Hist, of Educ, 178-9. 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 263 
 
 they were outnumbered by school masters of smaller calibre and 
 narrower attainments. 25 Representations of the period show 
 the master dictating and the pupil copying. 26 This was an easy 
 attitude to cover any deficiencies, and made teaching possible 
 for persons of the most meagre equipment. Hazlitt says of 
 England that the majority of masters and ushers perhaps needed 
 interlinear helps. They served merely as a medium for con- 
 veying lessons found in treatises prepared by the more learned. 27 
 
 State schools. — We have thus to consider several school 
 ideals in the Renaissance centuries. There were also several 
 school forms from the point of view of organization and rela- 
 tions to civic authorities. The period preceding the early uni- 
 versities developed a special type of school. 28 The church 
 school was prominent everywhere and left no room for competi- 
 tion. This type still existed in the period we are studying, but 
 it was now overshadowed by other school forms that the more 
 independent spirit of succeeding centuries had developed. 
 Conditions favored more spontaneity and more variety in school 
 polity. More than once reference has been made to the part 
 the more democratic spirit and the rising commercial ideas in 
 the cities were playing in establishing schools and dictating 
 educational policy. The city school thus became the prominent 
 factor in public education. 29 But the idea of public control had 
 now grown beyond this stage. State schools, the foreshadow- 
 ing of state systems, began as early as 1550. 30 These schools, 
 however, represented variety in form and organization rather 
 than in ideals, studies, or methods. Any school, to have stand- 
 ing, must follow the type plan of the Renaissance in these 
 respects. 
 
 In all these Renaissance movements, however, we must note 
 that the real aim was not to emancipate schools from clerical 
 
 25 See Leach, op. cit., 103 ff. 
 
 26 See frontispieces in favorite textbooks. 
 
 27 Hazlitt, op. cit., 29; conf. 112, 159. 
 2 s See Chap. XII. 
 
 29 See Appendix 2, giving results of Leach's investigations as to 
 English education of the period. Nohle, ^ op. cit., 29 ff., gives evi- 
 dence that a similar state of things existed in Germany. 
 
 30 Nohle, op. cit., 32; De Montmorency, op. cit., 67, 69 ff., 73, 75, 86, 
 102-3, 105, 191-06, 20i. Prefaces to old text-books mentioned in the ap- 
 pendix show that even state text-books had come into use. 
 
264 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 influence, but to broaden church schools and to add lay schools 
 that should afford, for the rising non-clerical occupations and 
 professions of a new civilization, a kind of training essential 
 for their survival and growth. 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 (a) Some Reformers. 
 
 Agricola in his " De Formando Studio " inveighs against verbalism, 
 advocates geography, botany, geology, etc., lays stress on the vernacu- 
 lar as a necessary antecedent to Latin work, and would have indi- 
 vidual thought and investigation. He is at the same time inspired by the 
 new enthusiasm for classical study. (See Mullinger, Camb., 411-12.) 
 
 Erasmus (1467-1536) was an acknowledged leader in the Renais- 
 sance. Some bits from his educational views come in well here. Ac- 
 cording to him the key to Latin method was the object lesson and the 
 literary anecdote. Begin early, he says, when the imitative tendency 
 is strong. It is good for the boy to be among talkative people. He 
 learns more thoroughly and readily if the thing discussed is depicted, 
 and the words are mastered because attached to a vivid object of 
 thought. He would have tales from the classics and yEsop. Brief, 
 pithy quotations and sayings of illustrious men are to be learned. As 
 to grammar he says, " While I appreciate the necessity of this, I 
 should wish it taught in the least possible compass and only what is 
 best. I have never approved of the custom of keeping boys grinding at 
 this subject for several years." He would teach Greek and Latin 
 together, making them support one another. Reading Latin authors 
 should begin as soon as possible. First should come Terence, whose 
 style is pure, terse, colloquial, and whose subjects naturally interest 
 the child. Some of the less objectional plays of Plautus might be 
 added. Then should come (in this order) Vergil, Horace, Cicero, 
 Caesar. Sallust might join the list. These are sufficient for the mastery 
 of Latin. (Clark, "Latin of the Middle Ages and Renaissance.") 
 
 We should note Erasmus' advocacy of geography, natural history, 
 etc., but as an aid in the study of the classics. His general scheme 
 reminds one of Quintilian. 
 
 Melanchthon (1497-1560) was perhaps the most indefatigable in mak- 
 ing books and modernizing methods. His plan of teaching reminds one 
 of Sturm. 
 
 Luther ^ (1483-1546) and Zwingli ( 1484-153 1) represented more ad- 
 vanced views in education than the times could digest. Physical train- 
 ing, the study of the vernacular, history and mathematics, and, in 
 the direction of method, language by use, and things before words, were 
 advocated by one or both of them. The toning of method may be judged 
 by Luther's remark that in his time they could learn in " sport." This 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 265 
 
 would seem to us to be a strange characterization of such education as 
 even the new times gave, but it serves to emphasize in our minds the 
 drastic and unnatural education of earlier days with which Luther was 
 contrasting current education. Luther was a pioneer also in arguing 
 for universal education and for a gradation of schools. He found 
 discouraging conditions into which he threw his new leaven. In a tract 
 entitled " De Constituendis Scholis " he says, " Principio videmus per 
 totam Germana scolas collabi, gymnasia studiosorum infrequetia frigere, 
 monasteria monarchis profugis deferi." 
 
 Trotzendorf (1490-1556) had an enterprising curriculum in Latin 
 and Greek, involving the speaking of Latin exclusively and the writing 
 of themes in classical Latin, logic and rhetoric based on Cicero, music, 
 natural philosophy, and arithmetic (though it may be that the two latter 
 came later,— really after the secondary curriculum. (See Neander.) 
 In the early course in Harvard College arithmetic came in the senior 
 year. 
 
 Trotzendorf is, however, particularly distinguished for his method 
 and his enlightened ideas of government. A remarkable unity of 
 feeling between pupil and teacher, a successful scheme of co-operation 
 in school government that sounds modern, and pupil-teaching, show the 
 vigor and resourcefulness of the man. 
 
 Rabelais (1483-1553) was perhaps more vigorous in his strictures 
 on the old and his advocacy of better things than most leaders. He 
 would add real studies, teach objectively, and include physical culture 
 and manual work in the program for the education of Pantagruel. 
 His curriculum included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic, 
 arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, the study of nature, and music. Com- 
 paring the education of the time with that of his youth he says, " the 
 time then was not so proper and fit for learning as at present, neither 
 had I plenty of such good masters as thou hast had, for that time 
 was darksome, obscured with clouds of ignorance and savoring a little 
 of the infelicity and calamity of the Goths, who had, wherever they 
 set footing, destroyed all good literature, which in my age hath by the 
 divine goodness been restored unto its former light and dignity, and 
 that with such amendment and increase of knowledge that now hardly 
 should I be admitted unto the first form of the little grammar school 
 boys; I say I, who in my youthful days was (and that justly) reputed 
 the most learned of that age. ... I see the robbers, hangmen, adven- 
 turers, ostlers of to-day more learned than the doctors and preachers 
 of my youth." See Quick, Educ. Reformers. 
 
 Neander (1525-1595) had an enterprising curriculum, including a 
 wide course of reading in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, logic and rhetoric, 
 physics, geography, and history, for which he made text books to 
 suit himself. But the secondary period was given chiefly to Latin, Greek, 
 Hebrew, and, at the very end of the period, logic and rhetoric, while 
 the other studies waited till after the eighteenth year. The advance 
 is shown in the new life in classical teaching, in the recognition of 
 
266 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 new studies, which, though they came late in the curriculum, still could 
 claim recognition, and in the questioning of the old. 
 
 Here came in also the great names of Montaigne (I533-I592), Ratke 
 (1571-1655), and Comenius (1592-1670), who tried to bring into notice 
 a curriculum better adapted to the needs of the times and to the nature 
 of the individual to be educated. Thus the mother tongue, nature, 
 science, and history were coming to view and winning some attention, 
 while more concrete methods and a definite idea of pedagogical prin- 
 ciples as a basis for method gave better conditions for interest in the 
 educational process. Note, e.g., Montaigne's advocacy of the mother 
 tongue as the first object of attention, and of the study of things in 
 place of words, and Comenius' devotion to objective work, to school 
 organization, in which he provides for a well articulated school system, 
 and to a more fruitful course of study in which history, geography, 
 science, and mathematics are conspicuous. 
 
 (b) Some Special Schools and Schoolmasters. 
 
 Colet's School, St. Paul's, in which Lily was the great teacher. The 
 school was Colet's in the sense that he founded it. He established a pure 
 classical curriculum, but informed it with Renaissance ideas, as seen 
 in his insistence that the aim should be "the very Roman tongue." In 
 gaining this end, however, both modern and ancient authors were 
 to be used. In accord with the better pedagogical ideas of the new 
 times he also made method more pedagogical. " The best way to learn 
 Latin," he says, " is by reading, and not by studying of the grammar, — 
 by example, and not by committing rules to memory." St. Paul's was 
 the first school in England to teach Greek. 
 
 Early in the next century we find this school enlarging the curriculum 
 beyond the bounds left by mediaeval scholasticism. An " Outline of 
 Rhetoric for St. Paul's " was brought out in 1639. 
 
 The Ipswich School, under Woolsey, in 1483, offered a more enter- 
 prising curriculum than St. Paul's. It included a humanistic study 
 of a wider range of literature; but it was a thorough classical school 
 largely given to a study of Latin. Woolsey wrote a little treatise on 
 the instruction of boys, giving his plan and method : — 
 
 Class 1 : — Grammar, — the eight parts of speech. 
 
 Class 2: — The practical speaking of Latin. Some translation of 
 both kinds, with a view to quality of thought in the English-Latin 
 translation, and purity of accent in reading Latin. 
 
 Class 3 : — ^Esop and Terence, to form a familiar style. More gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Class 4 : — Vergil. More grammar, as to which he says, " But although 
 I confess such things are necessary, yet as far as possible we could wish 
 them so appointed as not to occupy the more valuable part of the 
 day." 
 
 Class 5 : — Cicero, seemingly with reference to style. 
 
 Class 6 : — Caesar and Sallust. Lily's syntax. 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 267 
 
 Class 7 : — Horace and Ovid. Occasional composition of a verse or 
 an epistle. Translation and retro-translation of verse. " Memory 
 gems." 
 
 Class 8: — "Higher precepts of grammar." Donatus' figures, etc. 
 Any ancient author whatever in the Latin tongue. Thorough treatment 
 of the text, including technical points, beauties of style, etc. Careful 
 attention to speech in the recreation hour. Occasionally " some pretty 
 subject" for a short epistle in the vernacular. Formulae to guide in 
 theme writing. 
 
 Harsh discipline and all sorts of tyranny to be avoided ; " for by this 
 injurious treatment all sprightliness of genius either is destroyed or is 
 at any rate considerably damaged." 
 
 At intervals attention should be relaxed and recreation introduced, 
 but recreation of an elegant nature worthy of polite literature. " Even 
 with his studies pleasure should be so intimately blended that a boy 
 may think it rather a game of teaching than a task." He also cau- 
 tions against overexertion, which overwhelms the faculties, and fatigue. 
 
 The curriculum of George Buchanan (1506-1587) covered six years 
 and was given to a concentrated Latin and Greek course. Pupils spoke 
 Latin and wrote a daily Latin theme. The first reading book was 
 Terence, which was followed by Cicero, Ovid, Vergil, and Horace. 
 Greek came in the fourth year. 
 
 Ascham (1515-1568), a noted English schoolmaster who divides hon- 
 ors with Sturm, was also a student of education. He studied famous 
 methods and schemes of earlier days, and formulated one of his own 
 which had so much good sense in it that it has found its way to our 
 day. He was influenced by Sturm, or better he was a friend of Sturm. 
 The influence was perhaps mutual. At any rate he was not a mere 
 copyist, but a forceful investigator and originator. His observations 
 as to Latin teaching have been used to inspire better teaching at the 
 present time. Recently an American teacher has given distinction to 
 a Latin book by quoting from Ascham with great approval. 
 
 Ascham advocated the comparative method of teaching Latin, which 
 involved inductive features and gave prominence to the vernacular. By 
 these means, through imitation, practice, and special exercises, some of 
 them, it must be confessed, still dry and formal, he provided an in- 
 tensive training calculated to give pupils a real knowledge of Latin. 
 Discipline was equally revised in his scheme, and new studies were 
 added to the Latin curriculum; at least he included physical training. 
 
 For other programs see Monroe, Thomas Platter and the Educ. 
 Ren., 63 ff. 
 
 These views of reformers and details of special schools and school- 
 masters indicate the real contributions to education from the Renais- 
 sance movement. Almost every one of the men referred to made 
 religious training an essential, if not the essential, of school work, thus 
 following the traditions of monastic schools which were their intel- 
 lectual parents. As has been noted, much school time was given 
 
268 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 to church service even in the later Renaissance. These traditions, how- 
 ever, were re-created and reformed according to Reformation ideals. 
 The religious nature of education comes out clearly in the case of 
 Luther, Melanchthon, Zwingli, Colet, Trotzendorf, and may justly be 
 assumed in the case of all. The text-books of the days were very re- 
 ligious and supplied religious forms. 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Classes of Schools. 
 
 It is interesting to note the different classes of schools which we find 
 in this period : — 81 
 
 i. Cathedral schools, — still existing in small numbers. 
 
 2. " College schools," i.e., grammar schools connected with col- 
 legiate churches. (Collegiate churches were similar to cathedral 
 churches, only they were not so closely connected with the Bishop and 
 were not the seat of his government. Grammar schools seem to have 
 been a more essential part of a collegiate church than of a cathedral. 
 There were large numbers of these schools. 
 
 3. Monastery schools, or schools for which the monasteries were 
 trustees. — Comparatively few. 
 
 4. Grammar schools connected with hospitals (almshouses) as a part 
 of the foundation. — Few. 
 
 5. Chantry schools, kept by chantry priests. The history of these 
 church functionaries and their schools would make a very interesting 
 topic. It would perhaps be fair to say that they were religious schools 
 of an elementary grade. 
 
 6. Guild schools, — founded by guilds; of grammar school grade. 
 
 7. Independent schools, like St. Paul's. In such cases schools were 
 the main object of the foundations. Their object was not joined with 
 any ecclesiastical purpose. There was even no requirement that the 
 teachers should be priests. 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 may be classed together as ecclesiastical. No. 6 
 was perhaps similar to city schools and probably had some church 
 relations. No. 7 is a new creation. All but 5 were grammar schools, 
 and for curriculum and method may be considered together. 
 
 These are the schools found in England. The list for Germany would 
 be similar, except that we must add a school which was especially 
 typical of that country, the City Latin School, or Gymnasium. 
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 Some Old Renaissance Text-Books. 
 
 I. Lac Puerorum (Mylk for Chyldren), M. Holti, 1526, first printed 
 in 1497. 
 
 31 See Leach, Eng. Schools at the Reformation, Chapters 1-9. 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 269 
 
 Frontispiece,— a picture of a school room. Windows high. Panelled 
 ceiling. Throne-like chair with master seated on it, mild and deliber- 
 ate in attitude, but holding a bristling bunch of rods in his right hand, 
 while his left is in a position of gesture, as though illustrating some 
 of the graphic devices of the book. Children in a circle before him 
 sitting on low benches on a flagstone floor. 
 
 Brief abstract of contents. 
 
 1. Dedicatory and explanatory verse in Latin. 
 
 2. Parts of speech, with remarks. 
 
 3. Declension of the article, so-called, i.e., hie. There is a repre- 
 sentation of a hand, and a case and its plural are inscribed on each 
 finger, the name of the case following the form. The thumb has two 
 cases, the nominative on the upper part, the ablative on the lower, — to 
 even the declension-forms. 
 
 4. Declension of nouns and remarks. Eight classes of nouns, — 
 proper, appellative, substantive, adjective, interrogative, demonstrative, 
 reddityf, and relatyf, — but no examples are given. 
 
 5. The a-declension. 
 
 6. The us-declension, with hand device. 
 
 7. Third, fourth, and fifth declensions follow, not graphically ar- 
 ranged and in solid black letter paragraphs, — not easy to decipher. 
 
 8. Declension of adjectives as in 7, but all forms are given. 
 
 9. Another graphic hand device, giving a summary of case endings 
 of all declensions. 
 
 10. Comparison. 
 
 11. Classification and declension of pronouns, primitive and rela- 
 tive. 
 
 12. Conjugation, — general facts followed by inflections: — shewynge 
 mode, askynge mode, byddynge mode, wysshynge mode, potencyall 
 mode, subjunctyf mode, infinityf mode. 
 
 13. Other parts of speech. 
 
 14. Deffinicyon of nownes (including the common classes, proper, 
 appellative, substantive, adjective). "A nowne betokeneth a thing with- 
 out any difference of tyme." — "The name of all I may see, fele, or 
 perceyve by ony of my fyve wytes is a nowne." 
 
 15. Accidents of nouns. 
 
 16. Accidents of verbs. His definition of a verb is this, "A verb 
 betokeneth a thynge with some token of tyme." Verbs are divided into 
 substantyve, as sum, existo, maneo; vocatyve, as nomino; adjectyve 
 (including all other verbs which do not come under the first two 
 classes), as amo, lego. 
 
 17. Accidents of other parts of speech. 
 
 18. The three " concords " and syntax. A curious topic in the con- 
 cords or syntax is, "the strength of compelynge case (referring to verbs 
 which take the same case after as before). 
 
 The book ends with "Thome More Epigramma" and some Latin 
 verses. 
 
270 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 In this book the attempt to add interest and life to method and to 
 relieve the old abstractness is very noticeable. 
 
 2. A Shorte Introduction of Grammar generally to be used, Compyled 
 and set forth for the bringing up of all those that intende to attayne 
 the knowledge of the Latine tongue.— 1577. 
 
 1. Elizabeth's proclamation commanding the use of this text-book 
 for uniformity. 
 
 2. A foreword to the reader on the necessity of a good founda- 
 tion. Reasons for the difficulty of attaining this are given : — " Because 
 that they who professed the arte of teaching grammar did teach divers 
 grammars and not one, and if by chaunce they taught one Grammar, 
 yet they did it diversly, and so could not do it all beste, because there 
 is but one bestnesse, not only in everything, but also in the manner 
 of everything." The writer goes on to say that the first difficulty has 
 been avoided by causing " one kinde of Grammar by sundry learned 
 men to be diligently drawne, and so to be set out onely everywhere 
 to be taught for the use of learners, and for the hurt in chaung- 
 ing of schoolmaisters." But he frankly acknowledges that diversity 
 of teaching continues and always will, because of human nature. With 
 a fine touch of modesty he adds, " It is not amisse, if one seeing by triall 
 an easier and readyer way than the common sort of teachers doe, would 
 saye what he hath proued." And then he goes on to give the following 
 advice and suggestions : — 1. That the " diligent Payster make not 
 the scholer haste to much." 2. There should be plenty of examples 
 in declensions and conjugations, a matter in which the old grammars 
 were noticeably deficient, so that the scholar may know all words. 3. 
 "This when he can perfectly doe and hath learned every part, not by 
 rote, but by reason, and is cunninger in the understanding of the 
 thing than in the rehearsing of the words, — then let him passe to the 
 Concordes, to know the agreement of the partes among themselves." 4. 
 There should be " playne and sundry examples " and daily practice on 
 " declension of verbs," apparently with sentence framing. 5. " When 
 these Concordes be well knowne unto them, an easie and a pleasaunt 
 payne, they are to come to some preatie booke wherin is contayned 
 not only the eloquence of the tongue, but also a good playne lesson 
 of honesty and godlinesse," which reminds one of Quintilian. With this 
 comes retrotranslation and the learning of syntax rules as occasion 
 comes. 6. The " Payster " is to be continually busy with the pupil and 
 is not to construe the principle, " there is no haste," into license to teach 
 a little and then leave the pupil to himself. 7. Use of Latin is ad- 
 vised. 8. The turning of an English book into Latin is more useful 
 than ordinary translation. 
 
 3. Analytics of letters. 
 
 4. A Latin prayer and the English translation. 
 
 5. Analytics of parts of speech with declensions and conjugations 
 
THE LATE RENAISSANCE 271 
 
 rather skilfully laid out. The subjunctive in regular verbs is called 
 optative; in sum, etc., and in passives, it is called potential and sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 6. The Concordes, — between verb and noun, substantive and adjec- 
 tive, antecedent and relative. The second concord is rather strikingly- 
 stated: — "An adjective, whether it be a noune, pronoune, or participle, 
 agreeeth with his substantive in case, gender, and number." The con- 
 cept, adjective, had considerably more extension than at present. 
 
 7. Constructions of nouns, substantives, adjectives, etc. 
 
 All this in black letter and evidently giving the mere essentials of 
 grammar. Then follows, in Latin, Lily's Grammar, probably the Brevis- 
 sima Institutio. 
 
 Brief abstract of the Institutio. 
 
 1. Guilielmi Lilii ad suos discipulos monita paedagogica, seu carmen 
 de maribus, — a poem of about eight lines. 
 
 2. Symbolum Apostolorum (an elaborate Apostles' creed), and a 
 Praecatio Dominica. 
 
 3. The Decalog. 
 
 4. Baptismus (Christ's last words to His disciples.) 
 
 5. Coena Dominica (introduction to the Lord's supper.) 
 
 6. Puer orans ante cibum, — four specimens. 
 
 All this shows the close union of church and school. Then follows 
 the grammar proper. 
 
 1. Analytics of letters, — more extended and formal than in the Eng- 
 lish version preceding. 
 
 2. Eight parts of speech and their accidence, in great detail, but far 
 less helpful than in the English treatise, or in Cheever's Latin Acci- 
 dence. It goes too much into 'abstractions. Under verbs comes the 
 famous Lily's De Simplicium verborum primae conjugationis communi 
 praeterito, "-as in praesenti perfectum format in -avi, etc. 
 
 3. The " concords." 
 
 4. Construction of nouns, verbs, pronouns, etc., with examples from 
 different authors. Here the Latin part is superior to the English part 
 described above, where examples are scarce. 
 
 5. Figures and prosody. 
 
 At the end of the book is a poem of twelve lines, — "Magister dis- 
 cipulos ad studia literarum cohortans ; also a " Puer orans ante lec- 
 tionem" (prayer), a " Puer orans ante cibum," a " Puer orans post ci- 
 bum," and an "oratio matutina." 
 
 3. A 1542 illuminated vellum copy of " Lillij Grammatical 
 
 1. Religious exercises, Latin on one side, English opposite. 
 
 2. Henry Eighth's proclamation directing the use of the book in 
 which he says, " Emong the manyfolde busines and most weyghty 
 affayres appertayning to our Regall auctoritee and offyce we forgette 
 
2J2 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 not the tendre babes and the youth of our realme whose good education 
 and godly bryngyng up is a greate furniture to the same and cause 
 of moche goodnesse." (For full text of a similar proclamation see the 
 author's article on the Evolution and Present Status of the Beginner's 
 Latin Book, in Jour, of Ped., 16: 191.) 
 
 3. A preface in English, "to the reader." 
 
 4. An introduction to the eight parts of speech in English. 
 
 5. Lily's Carmen de Moribus, the creed in Latin, and other religious 
 compositions. 
 
 6. An institutio compendiaria totius grammaticae. 
 
 7. Foreword in Latin to teachers and an "ad lectionem" in Latin 
 verse. 
 
 8. The accidence, similar to that in the Lily previously described. 
 
 9. Syntax and prosody in Latin. 
 
 These books are all of small compass. They will serve to show the 
 nature of the new textbooks, — the effort to simplify and explain, and 
 the mixed character of the books (English-Latin, etc.), indicating a 
 transition period. The contrast between these books and the ponderous 
 volumes of grammar abstractions of an earlier period, as described 
 in the Appendix to Chapter XII, is striking. In Milton's " Digest of 
 Accidence and Grammar " he complains that grammar as previously 
 taught consumed ten years of one's life. 
 
XVII 
 
 NOTABLE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RENAISSANCE TO SECONDARY 
 EDUCATION — A GENERAL SUMMARY 
 
 Contrasts in the period. — As has already been indicated 
 the Renaissance was a complex educational period. Its pecul- 
 iar complexity was due to the fact that it was a transition 
 period. Hence we find striking contrasts side by side. The 
 old scholastic and monastic ideas of course projected them- 
 selves into succeeding periods. They were so deeply rooted 
 and had been so wide-spread and popular that they did not 
 easily succumb to newer ideas. But the Revival had brought 
 forward forces and ideas that had more life and weight and 
 agreed far better with modern pedagogical principles. Any 
 period presenting such conditions must show variety and con- 
 trasts before settling upon one type to be projected into the 
 new future. Amid this variety what were the real contribu- 
 tions with which we should credit the Renaissance? What 
 was the school-type of this epoch, — curriculum, method, aim ? 
 
 Old forms still cling, but are waning. — Deeply embedded in 
 the educational polity of the period, as has been suggested, were 
 the theory and practice represented by curricula and methods 
 that the leaders of the new times were lashing and ridiculing. 
 They were so prevalent and so conspicuous for at least part of 
 the period that they might almost seem characteristic. But 
 they were merely inheritances. They held over with schools 
 which came from previous periods. They thus looked to the 
 past and were not at all representative of the times. 1 
 
 New forms, — prophetic. — Again, using the best view-points 
 and looking as far into the future as these looked into the past, 
 we find a school type 1 that represented the underlying life of 
 
 1 According to Luther's estimate the comparative efficiency of the 
 new and old would be well expressed by the ratio 20 : 3, or perhaps even 
 40: 3. Again he says that they can now learn in three years more than 
 formerly in universities and cloisters. 
 
 273 
 
274 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the Renaissance, but had not yet taken hold of the general 
 school public and organized itself into definite forms. This was 
 the type argued by Rabelais and Ratke, 2 Comenius 2 and 
 Luther. The curriculum forming under the influence of this 
 new pedagogy included Latin, Greek, history, geography and 
 other sciences, civics, commercial subjects, 3 and physical train- 
 ing. The method had more of the concrete and more regard 
 for the nature of the child. We shall look for this type to 
 assert itself in some future century. Neither of these two 
 types answers our query. 
 
 Da Feltre's school not the type. — If we turn to Da Feltre's 
 school we shall still come short of our quest, for it did not be- 
 come a type. Sturm's school comes nearer the purpose. It 
 was a conspicuous model in its day. Ascham profited by it in 
 English education. Its influence extended far into the future. 
 It represented the real legacy of the Renaissance, as far as 
 school forms are concerned. 
 
 The final Renaissance curriculum and method. — If then 
 we take Sturm's curriculum, — grammar in the narrow sense, 
 literature (more to enforce and cultivate style than for its own 
 sake), rhetoric, logic, and a mere touch of mathematics, — his 
 formal method, in which memory work, imitation, and incessant 
 practice predominated (a revived classical method), and his 
 aim, linguistic training of an intense type, we have a close 
 approximation to the final influence of the Renaissance. And 
 if we remember that many, probably the majority, of the schools 
 still clung to a lower ideal that looked toward the past, we 
 shall realize in a degree the actual state of the schools of the 
 day, and we may, in a very general way, accept Laurie's state- 
 ment 4 as a kind of summary estimate of Renaissance schools. 
 
 2 These two educators came on the border line between this period 
 and the next. They may, however, be appropriately mentioned here. 
 
 3 Commercial subjects had an interesting experience in England. 
 They were added to the grammar school curriculum, but the court be- 
 fore which school questions frequently came, because of the desire of 
 the old authorities to keep out teachers not of their cloth, or to keep the 
 old curriculum pure, decided in at least one case that the legal cur- 
 riculum was a classical one. The terms of endowment served as con- 
 servative forces. — De Montmorency, op. cit., 182-3. 
 
 4 See Chapter XVI, p. 262. 
 
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RENAISSANCE 275 
 
 Memory was still the key to method. Dictation, copying, and 
 repetition were still familiar terms. 
 
 An interesting episode at Cambridge. — The precedence and 
 predominance of grammar are well illustrated by a bit of his- 
 tory from the University of Cambridge. The University stat- 
 utes of 1550 substituted mathematics for grammar as the initial 
 study for youths fresh from school, but the statutes of Eliza- 
 beth, fifty years later, returned grammar to its old place. Then 
 elementary rules of arithmetic and definitions, axioms, and a 
 few propositions from Euclid's first book sufficed for mathe- 
 matics, and the study of geography, history, and astronomy 
 was far behind the times, neglecting the newer development and 
 clinging to things that were ancient. 5 Elizabeth was Ascham's 
 exemplary scholar in the classics. It was quite in keeping with 
 the pseudo-humanism of her training to revert to grammar as 
 the great agent of education. In schools generally, as well as 
 in the universities, grammar and grammar methods probably 
 held their own. The university " arts course " well reflected 
 the Renaissance characteristics of secondary education, for it 
 was really of a secondary nature. 
 
 But there were some gains, and some germinal ideas that had 
 already begun to work, of which any summary of the Renais- 
 sance must take account. Otherwise we fail to give the period 
 just characterization, and to distinguish it from previous 
 periods. The gains were in many directions : 
 
 'Gains over previous periods. — 1. A more effective 
 method. — There was a more efficient method, giving more life 
 to Latin teaching, which was the principal part of school work. 
 Instruction was also organized with more force and precision, 
 as seen in various schools described in text and appendices. 
 
 2. The period gave to the school the things that formed the 
 foundation of the curriculum, in place of the shadow of things 
 found in dry epitomes that contained only the gleanings of 
 past centuries. 
 
 3. Again, schools were, in the aggregate, more concerned 
 
 5 In the middle of the 16th century there was complaint as to the 
 state of learning in the Universities where students were mere " pueri." 
 See Mullinger. 
 
276 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 with wholes in place of fragments of the classics and with a 
 wider range of reading, than in previous periods. There were, 
 therefore, generally speaking, more substance and less form 
 than there had been since Roman times. Latin authors and, to 
 a slight extent, Greek authors again lived with students and 
 gave of their personality and vitality. This change brought 
 students into contact with a wider range of interests. Even- 
 tually Renaissance education sank to a fragmentary treatment 
 of many authors for the sake of form, but it was never char- 
 acterized by the paucity of interest that appeared in previous 
 epochs. 
 
 4. New text-books in various subjects. — The Renaissance 
 gave new text-books. Latin authors must be studied through 
 books, and it makes a great deal of difference what form the 
 book takes. Previously, when the book was only in the mas- 
 ter's hands, it mattered little what its character was; all 
 depended on the ability and enterprise of the teacher in pre- 
 senting its contents. 6 Now the printing press made it possible 
 to have books more frequently in the pupil's hands, though 
 such books, as we have already seen, were still scarce. There 
 was a good deal of activity in preparing books for the schools. 
 Sturm and Melanchthon busied themselves in this direction. 
 They edited the classical authors. Melanchthon even made a 
 book on physics. 7 From a general bibliography in the British 
 Museum it appears that books on chemistry, natural philosophy, 
 natural history, geometry, geography, history, etc., some in 
 Latin, some in English, appeared in great numbers before 1700, 
 beginning in the fifteenth century. But as yet only the old 
 subjects were represented generally in the secondary schools. 8 
 We may illustrate the advance in text-books by reference to the 
 most typical subject in the curriculum, — Latin grammar. 
 
 Grammar was the foundation subject in the spontaneous life 
 of the early Renaissance. It was the central subject in the 
 
 6 As a matter of fact, up to the early university period teachers took 
 the easiest way of conveying knowledge to pupils, — dictation, copy- 
 ing, memorizing. 
 
 7 Physics was still a composite subject, including astronomy, meta- 
 physical questions, etc. 
 
 8 The text book industry is again emphasized in another valuable 
 bibliography, " Repertoire de Ouvrages Pedagogiques du XVIe Siecle." 
 
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RENAISSANCE 277 
 
 curriculum of the later Renaissance period, in which form 
 gained precedence over substance, and the main stress in school 
 work was placed upon learning the language rather than upon 
 studying to appreciate that of which the language was a vehicle. 
 When form is dominant, formal and abstract methods, with 
 the dry discipline of artificial study and premature logical 
 analysis, usurp the place of developmental discipline. The lat- 
 ter follows natural growth, takes advantage of the natural 
 interests of the pupil, and develops new interests by genetic as 
 opposed to formal principles. Grammar often became such a 
 dry and barren routine of memory work and drill that it actually 
 tyrannized in the school, till, out of the new enthusiasm in edu- 
 cation and out of the restiveness caused by outworn methods 
 and material, came a demand for modern grammars, — simplifi- 
 cations of the heavy and technical treatises of the earlier time. 
 Especially, as Latin declined as a spoken language, it became 
 necessary to put more illustrative material into text-books. 
 
 New grammars. — It is very interesting to look over some 
 of the grammars and introductory Latin books that were issued 
 at this time and came with increasing frequency in the follow- 
 ing centuries. They might almost be called Latin primers, so 
 far as size is concerned, but they are really older grammars 
 abbreviated and simplified and made more interesting. They 
 appealed to young minds, and, as compared with older books, 
 gave a touch of the concrete. The emphatic way in which 
 these authors treated the subject argues the prevalence of other 
 views. 9 According to Hazlitt the first clear approach to our 
 modern grammars was Robertson's edition of Lily, published in 
 1530. This was all in Latin. Milton made a digest of acci- 
 dence and grammar, remarking that by the ordinary course of 
 procedure ten years of one's life were consumed by grammar. 
 It should also be noted that a very vigorous movement set in 
 at this time in England to teach Latin through the English, as 
 seen by books of the period presenting the " true method of 
 teaching the Latin tongue by the English." 10 
 
 9 Occasionally a frontispiece is added. It tells quite as much as to 
 pedagogical customs as the book itself. It represents the teacher as 
 dictating and the pupil copying. 
 
 10 In Germany too some attention was given to the vernacular. 
 Schools made some use of it in teaching Latin. 
 
278 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 It will be interesting to look more closely at a few of these 
 old books. Brief descriptions of two or three that the author 
 has had an opportunity to examine have been given in an 
 appendix to Chapter XVI. 11 
 
 5. Vernacular and commercial subjects. — The vernacular 
 and commercial studies were pushing into the schools. It has 
 just been shown that English and German were coming to be 
 media of instruction in the classics in their respective countries. 
 The same was probably true of French. But this is not the 
 only way in which the vernacular was claiming its rights in dif- 
 ferent countries. It was the basis of elementary education 
 now, showing not only that modern languages had developed 
 toward the literary stage, but that popular education of a prac- 
 tical sort was coming to its own. As to commercial subjects, 
 they affected both the elementary and the secondary school. 
 That they should come into elementary education, or that ele- 
 mentary education should become practical and popular, might 
 call for small comment or opposition, but that they should 
 invade the precincts of the old grammar or Latin school, which 
 were preempted for and by older subjects, was a very different 
 matter. The dubious statements of those who feared that the 
 foundation of things educational were to be upset by the intru- 
 sion of these plebeian subjects into old established curricula 12 
 shows not merely conservatism, but the aristocratic and even 
 autocratic nature of educational opinion of the day. It reminds 
 us of more recent outcries. The coming of these modern sub- 
 jects, however, was one of the most significant signs of the edu- 
 cational times. 
 
 6. Relations of secondary school and higher school. — 
 The grammar schools, through the improvement of their pro- 
 grams and the vigor of their work, were coming up to the meas- 
 ure of real preparatory schools, and thus were filling the gap 
 that the university felt when it established grammar schools of 
 its own. They even took a part of the university curriculum 
 and thus awakened the jealousy of the superior institution. 
 The university in turn tried to dictate the policy of the lower 
 school. Platter tells us that the university authorities requested 
 
 11 See Appendix 3, last chapter. 
 
 12 See Green, Town Life in the Fifteenth Century, II : 12 ff. 
 
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RENAISSANCE 279 
 
 him to get their sanction before offering his reading courses. 13 
 The times were ripening for the separation of secondary and 
 higher education in some of their relations. . 
 
 7. Great activity in establishing secondary schools. — The 
 Renaissance was distinguished by the rapid increase of second- 
 ary schools. Here we touch one of its most important charac- 
 teristics. We should expect just such results from the pro- 
 gressive spirit of the period. Three influences were now push- 
 ing education on, the Church, the State, 14 and the Reformers. 
 From the middle of the sixteenth century, in England, the 
 State took a decided hand in promoting education, and its influ- 
 ence elsewhere began as early as this. The indications are that 
 all children were assumed to be taught in grammar schools or 
 by private tutors. 15 There was a period preceding the Refor- 
 mation when education was more flourishing than at a much 
 later date. Leach assures us that at the Reformation there 
 were more grammar schools in England, in proportion to the 
 population, than in the middle of the nineteenth century, and 
 that a very large proportion of the population, — larger than at 
 the end of the nineteenth century, — had access to the schools. 16 
 Hazlitt affirms that more grammar schools were established 
 within thirty years of the Reformation than in three hundred 
 years before. 17 Again Nohle speaks of the spread of schools 
 through all the towns of Germany. 18 There was thus a wide- 
 spread movement confined to no section and to no nation. 
 
 13 See Platter's account of his school experiences, Amer. Jour, of 
 Education 5 : 79 ff. ; 24 : 101 ; also Monroe's Thomas Platter, etc. 
 
 14 Towns established schools at a much earlier date. 
 
 15 This brought educational competition. It was probably found in 
 every town of importance. Great effort was made on the part of the 
 older grammar schools to maintain a monopoly of education. This 
 was probably largely due to religious motives, as seen by statutes and 
 ordinances. It was an effort to keep dissenters from intruding. The 
 old grammar schools were a part of the organization of the old estab- 
 lished church. But we are bound to suppose that financial motives also 
 had an influence. School teaching was not only a profession, but a 
 financial venture. 
 
 16 Leach, op. cit. 
 
 1 7 Hazlitt, op. cit. 
 
 18 See Report of U. S. Com. of Educ, 1877-8, I: 22 (Nohle, History 
 of the German School System). 
 
 This progress of secondary schools should be associated with the 
 Reniassance because it was a natural outcome of the Reniassance spirit. 
 
2 8o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 The earnestness of our early colonists in providing secondary 
 educational facilities was a reflex of educational enterprise in 
 the old world. They were used to educational advantages 
 there ; they must have them here. 
 
 Who attended schools. — We do not see the full significance 
 of these facts as to educational opportunities unless we note 
 the constituency of the schools. De Montmorency, who has 
 gone into a portion of the evolution of English education in 
 great detail, 19 claims that in England the schools' chief patrons, 
 before 1406, were of the free non-gentle class. He asserts that 
 they were attended by the children of the burgage tenants in 
 towns, by the children of freeholders, and copyholders, and, in 
 many cases, by the children of people of the lower class. 20 
 The policy and character of the lord and his spiritual advisers 
 in a lay fee, not the financial ability of the people, determined 
 school-going. It would seem that the nobles were less inclined 
 to schools than were others. They had other interests. 
 Schooling was beneath them. War and knightly arts were for 
 them. All this is in sharp contrast with conditions somewhat 
 later, when secondary schools gained among the higher born 
 and lost among the people, so that in England the grammar 
 schools were almost preempted by the higher and higher middle 
 classes. This was due of course to the shifting of economic 
 and political conditions, which, now that the days of chivalry 
 were over, turned the thoughts of the gentle from warlike to 
 civil pursuits. 
 
 This wide-spread ministry of secondary education is exactly 
 
 19 See his State Intervention in Eng. Educ., 25 ff. 
 
 20 This is one of the most striking and interesting characteristics of 
 the period. The evidence is so strong that it cannot be doubted. Its 
 implications, however, may not extend as far as would appear at first 
 sight. Secondary schools of Europe generally have not been so clearly 
 differentiated as our high schools. The grammar school was an ele- 
 mentary school and secondary school combined, receiving a boy at about 
 nine, or even at a lower age, giving him some preliminary schooling, 
 and then introducing him to genuine secondary school work. How 
 far the average pupil went in the grammar school, whether beyond 
 the elementary section, it is evidently impossible to tell, as it was not 
 an age of statistics. But even tho attendance at the secondary part of 
 secondary schools may not have been as great as the statements might 
 seem to imply, the growth of schools and the extent of school at- 
 tendance would be hardly less remarkable. 
 
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RENAISSANCE 281 
 
 in accord with the informing and buoyant spirit of the times, 
 and makes the Renaissance period still more conspicuous and 
 more strikingly prophetic. 
 
 New sponsors. — It is especially interesting, in connection 
 with this multiplication of schools, to note the new agencies at 
 work. Schools were no longer the offspring merely of the 
 Church. Other forces, political and commercial, had brought 
 new patrons and sponsors. 21 Certainly the enterprise in found- 
 ing schools in England owed much to industrial ambition. The 
 very names of the schools are witnesses to this. 22 Similar 
 forces were at work elsewhere, as is evident from what has 
 been said in previous chapters. 23 
 
 8. Service of the Renaissance to independent thinking 
 and investigation. — The Renaissance was a vestibule to a 
 period of individual thought and investigation. It prepared the 
 way by awakening and stimulating fresh thought. It also 
 itself furnished examples of independent thought and was 
 characterized by vigorous investigation into things of the past 
 and by the development of the new science of philology. It 
 was, however, too much absorbed in a study of the past to 
 warrant any considerable claim to independence and an investi- 
 gative spirit. It rested on authority, but took a new attitude 
 toward it ; it was content only with primary, not with second- 
 ary, authority. It was thus an essential agent in the develop- 
 ment of new mental activity and the establishment of new men- 
 tal attitudes, and it made some notable beginnings in these 
 directions. 
 
 All these things affected the secondary school, but they af- 
 fected its spirit more than its form. As already indicated, the 
 curriculum was the same as before in name, but not in sub- 
 
 21 It is interesting to note what seem to be the leading motives in the 
 spread of schools. Hazlitt says that, not only in this epoch, but to the 
 present time, the force that has promoted education has come from 
 either political or commercial motives. 
 
 22 Note Merchant Tailors' School and many others. 
 
 23 While considering these estimates of the extent of education we 
 must also remember that Luther complained that the great mass of 
 youth were wholly destitute of education. He may, however, have been 
 speaking of earlier days before the new movement, in which he him- 
 self was a leading spirit, was fairly under way. Again pupils might go 
 to school without getting much, if we are to credit some accounts. 
 
282 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 stance, and often not in method. There was a new enthusiasm 
 in the old studies, and they were more humanely and peda- 
 gogically applied to education, — at least in certain cases; the 
 trend was that way. A feeling was therefore growing for some 
 sides of secondary school life neglected before. But in spite 
 of wholesome modifications education was still very bare and 
 formal. The intellectual life of the adolescent was to a consid- 
 erable extent as obscure as ever. The secondary curriculum 
 came to be associated as a matter of course with the limited 
 interests that the Renaissance magnified. 24 The Renaissance 
 leaders and their successors so rung the changes here, so naively 
 assumed and so persuasively persuaded men that they had the 
 true fundamentals of education, that belief in it became an 
 instinct. Pupils of one generation became the teachers of the 
 next and handed the tradition on. 
 
 The school form which became stereotyped may be outlined 
 as follows: 
 
 I. Aim. — Humanistic, I, in the true sense of the word; 2, 
 later, in the more formal sense,— to make the pupil master of 
 a pure classical style. But character as an aim in education 
 was coming to notice. 25 As shown on page 274, the later 
 interpretation of the aim represented the final influence of the 
 Renaissance. 
 
 II. Curriculum. — I.Latin (occasionally Greek). Wider 
 reading, though still limited. A strong set toward the formal 
 discipline idea and toward grammar and rhetoric as the ideal 
 subjects. Rhetoric was merely a part of Latin. 2. Logic. 
 3. Elementary work in number. 
 
 III. Method : — Intense discipline of " memory," and prac- 
 tice to command style (relieved by elements of the natural 
 method inevitable at a time when Latin was the language of 
 the school-room). We find a strong set toward " formal disci- 
 
 24 At a little later date Pestalozzi's intuition rightly estimated the 
 curriculum when he said, " We imagined in our boyish days that we 
 could prepare ourselves by the superficial school knowledge of the life 
 of Greek and Roman citizens for the restrictel life of citizens in a 
 Swiss Canton." 
 
 25 See Report of U. S. Com. of Educ, 1899, pp. 47-8 ; Elyot's Gov- 
 ernour ; Laurie, op. cit., 38-42 ; also the outline of Da Feltre's school in 
 Chap. XV. 
 
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RENAISSANCE 283 
 
 pline." Sternness, strictness, stiffness were prevailing charac- 
 teristics of general management, though emphasis was laid on 
 the opposite characteristics in certain cases. Opinions as to 
 discipline were re-forming. 
 
 The rank and file of schoolmasters were probably mere 
 givers of tasks and hearers of lessons, — men of narrow 
 attainments. 
 
 Sturm was the master moulder of this school form. The 
 main elements of his system, Latin and Latin method, were 
 prominent, not to say predominant in succeeding school pro- 
 grams for several centuries. 26 The chief changes made in his 
 system in following centuries seem to have been, that the wor- 
 ship of disciplinary Latin teaching was substituted for the 
 worship of the stylistic, and that the study of mathematics was 
 added as a disciplinary agency. Down to our time men have 
 worshipped the great schoolmaster of the sixteenth century 
 rather more than the far greater master of the first. They 
 have thus emphasized form rather than content. 27 Till within 
 the last fifty years secondary education has been limited in 
 large measure to a superficial knowledge of ancient civiliza- 
 tion (for that is all the average student gained), a small grasp 
 of its language, an elementary study of mathematics, and a still 
 slighter study, if it should be called study, of modern literature 
 and history. 
 
 Persistence of Renaissance ideals. — Such results follow 
 from a rather passive acceptance of the influence, and acqui- 
 escence in the ideas, of Sturm and the Sturmians. The 
 Renaissance and a few succeeding years did the thinking for 
 secondary education, so that the schools, till very recent times, 
 have lived largely on inheritances. That people as a rule do 
 comparatively little thinking and get most of their judgments 
 ready-made, as Titchener claims, would seem to find support 
 here. It has been hard therefore to modify views as to the 
 proper studies, and particularly the proper kind of study, for 
 adolescents. What was in exact accord with conditions, 
 
 26 See an article on the Evolution of Latin Method in the Journal of 
 Ped., 16: 191. 
 
 27 There have been spasmodic revivals of the humanistic spirit, but 
 the conclusion here stated seems to represent best the settled policy of 
 the schools. 
 
284 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 political, social, and intellectual, at first, has been growing far- 
 ther and farther away from them, so far as matter is con- 
 cerned. Method did not even then accord with intellectual 
 demands, because it lacked one of the essential elements of 
 method. Later it did not accord even with political and social 
 demands. 
 
 To be more specific, autocratic conditions favor authority 
 in education, — the learning of authoritative forms and 
 formulae, the mastery (sometimes only verbal) of others' 
 thinking in place of independent thinking, the following of 
 traditional lines in place of initiative, the static in place of the 
 dynamic. Rising democracy required the second alternatives 
 rather than the first, and it has suffered in genuine develop- 
 ment because matter and methods that accorded with social 
 conditions of the late Middle Ages and the beginnings of mod- 
 ern centuries were projected into centuries that required some- 
 thing more accordant with their spirit. The times changed, 
 but curriculum and method, which should respond rather 
 readily to new views and policies, were fixed in hard and fast 
 lines and were essentially unresponsive. The oxygen of better 
 pedagogy from time to time gave an appearance of life, but 
 there followed relapses into the coldness and dullness of the 
 formal again. The momentum gained from this long assur- 
 ance kept the secondary school narrow for ages. The 
 Renaissance was in an important sense the source of this 
 momentum. When all is said we must remember that it trans- 
 mitted to America ideals that gave pupils, after seven or eight 
 years in the grammar school, Latin, a little English, and no 
 arithmetic. It is here that American secondary education 
 begins. 
 
XVIII 
 
 SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURY MOVEMENTS IN 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 What the Renaissance fixed in secondary school schemes. 
 — From what has been said it is evident that the Renaissance 
 formulated a very definite curriculum and method. These 
 were so circumscribed and the field covered was so small that 
 the general plan could be kept well in hand. Men knew just 
 where they were and were never at loss to choose their course. 
 The subjects we have noted were fixed strongly in the second- 
 ary school, — so strongly that nothing could shake them. 
 Method, too, established itself. As indicated in the last chap- 
 ter, however, one change was to come when Latin ceased to be 
 the language of school and class-room. We have seen that 
 even in the Renaissance a movement to use the vernacular was 
 initiated. When the change came, the beginner's Latin book 
 with its exercises, Latin-vernacular and vernacular-Latin, was 
 on the way. The way led through simplified grammars, 1 sup- 
 plementary reading books, and groups of exercises that were 
 an amelioration of the older grammar work, but still a severe 
 tax on the memory and youthful spirit often incommensurate 
 with the advantages gained. Occasionally a man of larger 
 views and finer feelings for educational values tried to reform 
 Latin teaching, but this was a minor episode, not a typical one. 2 
 
 The classical method. — Method finally issued in a long 
 series of exercises, bare and formal, to give mastery of Latin 
 vocabulary, forms, and syntax, while Latin authors came to be 
 used as means of grammatical drill quite as much as for any 
 
 1 We found that the more progressive and vigorous educational spirit 
 of the Renaissance began this evolution by simplifying grammars and 
 adding more interest and spontaneity to the beginner's work.^ 
 
 2 See an article in the Journal of Pedagogy, 16 : 191 ff., giving the 
 evolution of Latin method and the Beginner's Latin Book. 
 
 285 
 
286 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 culture value. Less was read in four years than should be 
 read in a single year with any worthy method or ideal. This 
 was the classical method. It has been modified and relieved 
 of some of its crudeness, and attempts have been made at 
 reform, but it remains to-day as the foundation and more than 
 the foundation of Latin method. Its main outlines appear in 
 the Renaissance and more clearly in the near years afterwards. 
 We begin the period following the Renaissance then with a 
 clearly cut curriculum and method well anchored in the schools. 
 
 But men are never satisfied with steadfast gaze in any one 
 direction nor with the acceptance of ancient authority, which 
 were in effect the general characteristics of the Renaissance. 
 However inviting the prospect, as the evolution proceeds men 
 finally grow restless. They need new scenes or new occupa- 
 tions, and they need new thought ; — in this case they thought 
 nearer home. 
 
 A new curriculum and method. — Ever since the Saracens 
 stirred the intellect of Europe, and the rising university move- 
 ment sharpened wits, and the Renaissance opened a new 
 (albeit an old) world, a new curriculum and method could be 
 seen in shadowy outlines. The movements just referred to 
 had disclosed wonderful achievements of the past that took 
 hold of men's imaginations and stirred to great things. They 
 had set men thinking and working enthusiastically in fresh 
 ways, though along paths trodden before. They had there- 
 fore been a stimulus to new ways and means in education. 
 With this momentum, to be increased by new forces that were 
 soon to appear, the new curriculum and the new method were 
 bound to come and claim the right to a place in the schools. 
 
 The quest of the real. — As noted in the last chapters a 
 Renaissance logically issues in a return to realities, — realities 
 of all sorts. We found, however, that the Renaissance we 
 have studied betook itself most naturally to realities in a limited 
 field ; these were in fact the only realities that existed. The 
 Renaissance itself gave little, and crystallized and systematized 
 less, that was new and seemingly worth serious study. But 
 other realities were to appear and were to invite acquaintance 
 and investigation. There was to be nothing partial and lim- 
 ited. It is well to note, however, that vigorous thinking in 
 
SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 287 
 
 narrow lines makes larger thinking possible. The Renaissance, 
 by re-thinking great thoughts, and by re- following great 
 processes with new vigor and enthusiasm, was stimulating the 
 intellect for new conquests, if opportunity offered. There 
 were influences at work that would make the opportunity. 
 
 Signs of new times.— After the ancient turmoil the world 
 rested from intense attention to its causes and effects, and 
 directed its attention to other things. A new phase of devel- 
 opment resulted. Discoveries, inventions, travels, the opening 
 up of new trade-routes, the growth and broadening of indus- 
 trial life, commercial competition, the spread of ideas of cul- 
 ture, the growth in standards of living creating new demands 
 to be supplied — all this caused the re-grouping and specializa- 
 tion of experiences. Each new and specialized body of experi- 
 ences crystallized modes of procedure, formulae, laws, prin- 
 ciples that must be possessed in a vital way by the newer 
 generation, if the occupation or interest in question was to hold 
 its own. At the same time, as individual responsibility and 
 initiative were developing, individuals within the new industrial 
 or professional or cultural groups must become experts to win 
 their way by competition. General training and the old agency 
 of apprenticeship would not long be sufficient. A culture idea 
 and the idea of special training for special purposes must 
 attach themselves to these new interests. Particularly the need 
 of technical training, as a basis for success in the new technical 
 pursuits, began to be keenly felt. It is easy to see, when all the 
 circumstances are taken into account, that the key to the new 
 ideas was mastery of environment. 
 
 The way to individual initiative. — The natural order of 
 evolution in such matters is this : — First comes the tribal idea, 
 under various forms and modifications, by which the com- 
 munity gives the boy the exact knowledge developed by experi- 
 ence, either through group teaching and rote-method, or 
 (later) through apprenticeship (which is only the tribal idea 
 modified). 2. Then appears the individual idea, which is cal- 
 culated to make possible larger advance, because a group of 
 more or less independent individuals, each having power of 
 initiative, tries more paths to progress than are open to mass 
 movements. This training has several stages from more or 
 
288 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 less empirical work to that which gives insight into the inner 
 meaning of processes, a comprehensive knowledge of scien- 
 tific principles and laws, and power to formulate hypotheses 
 and theories. We have now, through various lines of develop- 
 ment, reached securely the edge of the latter form of educa- 
 tion. 3 Even the Romans had much of the tribal idea in their 
 education, and they stood like a wall between Greece and 
 Western Europe, — between the best of the ancient world and 
 the ideals of the modern world. 
 
 New studies and books. — There is no better indication of 
 the new order of things than the fact that geography and his- 
 tory were becoming sciences, that groups of nature-facts were 
 crystallizing into sciences, and that exact science was growing 
 and coming nearer adolescent comprehension. Facts must first 
 be classified, before they become objects of thought and study 
 in school. A select body of men had been engaged in isolated 
 studies in these great subjects — in gathering and classifying 
 facts. But such things are not for the few, except in the 
 initial stages of development. From sentiment and from prac- 
 tical notions, as well as from a desire to preserve and promote 
 acquisition, sciences, of whatever kind, naturally become sim- 
 plified so that young minds may be inducted into the elements 
 of great subjects. Thus text-books on new grammar and 
 rhetoric and on physics, algebra, and history were being writ- 
 ten. 4 Other books were to follow. 
 
 Leaders. — Aside from these book-makers and students of 
 great subjects there were, scattered through the years, leaders 
 of another kind, who touched education in a general or special 
 way, and who proposed, and to some extent put into practical 
 use, new school programs and methods. They were men 
 whose minds were in close touch with the times, rather than 
 absorbed by admiration of the past. We have already noticed 
 Rabelais, Ratke, Comenius, and Montaigne. Others continued 
 
 3 This was begun by the Sophists in Greece in a limited way, but 
 was interrupted. 
 
 It is but fair to say, however, that new ideals and forms needed 
 to be settled before the idea started by the Sophists could be safely 
 carried out. 
 
 4 See Chapter XVII and Appendix to Chapter XVI, and compare 
 with the epitome-text-books of Chapter XII. 
 
SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 289 
 
 their vigorous and virile thinking. Bacon, Descartes, Milton, 
 Locke, Leibnitz and Fenelon, to mention only a few of the 
 great company, were opening up new subjects, or new modes 
 of approaching subjects, and were suggesting new curricula, 
 while "teaching congregations" of the reform type, through 
 the solidarity of organization, were spreading new ideas in a 
 practical way. These leaders in educational thought were con- 
 fined to no country, so that new things in education were mak- 
 ing themselves felt everywhere. The city school, which had 
 taken root particularly on the Continent, offered special oppor- 
 tunity for progress and organization in the new lines. In 
 England more depended on public sentiment as expressed 
 through private enterprise. 
 
 A new curriculum. — Thus through various agencies came 
 results of a very practical nature. For example, Leibnitz pro- 
 posed a curriculum in which logic, mathematics, physics, geog- 
 raphy, and language were the most important studies; but, 
 what is more significant, he argued that the place of any study 
 in the curriculum depended upon relations to society and must 
 be regulated by needs judged from this view-point. At about 
 the same time Milton was formulating this curriculum: — 
 religious instruction, classics, mathematics, geography, natural 
 philosophy, architecture, engineering, navigation, anatomy, and 
 medicine, — all to be completed by the time the boy was sixteen 
 years old. The academies of the Dissenters were also putting 
 new and independent curricula into operation. So far as sec- 
 ondary studies are concerned, we might summarize the views 
 of these men and bodies of men, and of others of the period, in 
 some such curriculum as this : natural science, physics, mathe- 
 matics, history, and the vernacular, in addition to the old trio. 
 
 The Ritteracademie. — But there was still another force 
 to be reckoned with. Under French genius, chivalry, which 
 had been a concrete and therefore taking way of expressing 
 old Teutonic virtues combined with Christian graces, had, 
 under current influences, flowered in a new school, or, at any 
 rate, in new school ideas. The " seven knightly arts " took 
 precedence of the older seven arts, thus giving prominence to 
 the physical side of education. The old Latin curriculum was 
 still tolerated, but in the background, while in front, com- 
 
290 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 manding the chief attention, were mathematics and physics 
 with their applications, modern languages, geography, the new 
 political science, political history, jurisprudence, statistics, 
 heraldry, and genealogy. Such a curriculum was calculated 
 to awaken greater enthusiasm and spontaneity than the old 
 one. Just before and after the Thirty Years' War French 
 influence was strong with the nobility of Germany, and the 
 new school ideas followed this influence and so had wider 
 application. Here we have the so-called Ritteracademie. 
 
 Slow progress. — All these influences had a cumulative effect 
 and gave rise to the movement that we call the " Enlighten- 
 ment." With the innovations in method emphasized by Bacon, 
 who brought men's attention anew and more fully to objective, 
 observational, and experimental work, and with the innova- 
 tions in curriculum inspired from so many sources, a new 
 school form must come. A new education was growing. 
 " For a hundred years it grew beside its wise mother," like 
 Hesiod's typical youth of the Silver Age. No doubt it would 
 have had a shorter infancy, had not a new turmoil broken out. 
 Schools have always been at the mercy of politics. The new 
 turmoil was primarily religious, but practically political. 5 It 
 so far reduced Central Europe, the most promising field for 
 educational advance at this time, that a substantial portion of 
 it reverted almost to its natural state, so great was the destruc- 
 tion in all lines and so nearly did the human element come to 
 extinction. Education could not flourish at such a time. 6 But 
 the advance in educational opinion was not changed in direc- 
 tion, however much it may have been retarded in speed. 
 Remarkable as it may seem, when we consider the deplorable 
 condition of Germany, even there men found time to intro- 
 duce some progressive features into school polity. 
 
 The new secondary school and its founders. — The hundred 
 years finally brought the full crystallization of the new ideas 
 in the new school. At this time Francke (1663-1727), gath- 
 ering up the best in education and inspired by the true teacher- 
 
 s The Thirty Years' War, (1618-1648). 
 
 ^Little more than a third of the population of Germany survived. 
 Cities were destroyed ; property was ruined ; the foundations of indus- 
 try were uprooted. 
 
SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 291 
 
 spirit, founded a school whose curriculum gave effective recog- 
 nition to mathematics, history, geography, and science. It 
 was Francke who really inspired this new school form that was 
 calculated for the people and better suited to their needs than 
 older forms. It was Semler and Hecker who gave it a fixed 
 position with an appropriate name. Thus came the Real- 
 schule, toward the middle of the eighteenth century. It offered 
 as its curriculum religion, ethics, German, French, Latin, his- 
 tory, geography, arithmetic, elementary geometry, mechanics, 
 architecture, writing, and drawing. It was not only the cur- 
 riculum that was modern ; the method advocated by the school 
 was equally modern. Here objective and inductive work 
 again found a home. This school was the first educational 
 mile-stone since the Renaissance. The studies that it empha- 
 sized came into the curriculum to stay. Within a hundred 
 years (which is a short time educationally, at this point in the 
 evolution of secondary schools), they were given a small place 
 in strictly classical schools. Thus modern languages, history, 
 geography, science, drawing, and, especially, mathematics, the 
 third great " disciplinary " subject, secured a slender foothold 
 in secondary education generally. 7 
 
 Growth of the new school idea in different countries. — 
 The influence of the movement is perhaps seen better in Ger- 
 many than elsewhere. Educational plans took form there early 
 and became more definitely organized there than elsewhere, as 
 has already been indicated. But such influences are a part of 
 world movements and suffer no limits. That the new ideas as 
 to curriculum and method were felt in France is evident from 
 what has already been said. An examination of the growing 
 curricula of the Lycees shows that the new studies were making 
 a place for themselves. Even in England eighteenth century 
 schools (which are held up to ridicule otherwise), showed simi- 
 lar changes. They might be aping popular policies elsewhere, 
 but they at least indicated how generally the new education 
 was attracting attention. Here is an interesting bit of adver- 
 tising which will show more concretely how things were going 
 in England : — 
 
 7 There was still strong religious influence in the schools. De Mont- 
 morency, 182-3. 
 
292 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 " At Knaton, near Thirsk in Yorkshire, by the Rev. Mr. Addison 
 and proper assistants, young gentlemen are properly boarded, de- 
 cently clothed, and regularly instructed in the English, Latin and 
 Greek languages, writing in all hands, arithmetic and geometry 
 with their uses in all kinds of measuring, trigonometry, plane 
 and spherical, applied to navigation, astronomy, etc., algebra and 
 book-keeping after the Italian method. They are furnished with 
 books, paper and other necessaries at io£ per annum " (i.e., the 
 total cost of board, instruction, etc., came to this amount, as in- 
 dicated by various other advertisements). 8 
 
 From a different source we get other interesting evidence of 
 the change that had come over education, evidence that serves 
 well here and will be useful a little further on: — "So few 
 boys were then in my station," says Southey, looking back at 
 his boyhood, " and indeed in the station of life just above mine, 
 who received a classical education in those days (1750), com- 
 pared with what is the case now" (1823). 9 In our own 
 country the early academy programs show how the reforms 
 were coming into education here. 
 
 All of this evidence goes to show that the new forces were 
 working thoroughly and that the resulting movement had char- 
 acteristics of universality and permanence. 
 
 8 Public Advertiser, 1755, quoted by Sydney in his England in the 
 Eighteenth Century, II, 89. 
 8 Quoted by De Montmorency. 
 
XIX 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY — 
 GENERAL HISTORY 
 
 Delay for a second hundred years — A rival movement. — 
 
 Considering the impetus the new ideas had received and the 
 enthusiasm with which they were carried out, one is hardly 
 prepared to find that they represented prophecies rather than 
 any extended application at the time. The movement had 
 small development for a second hundred years; the age pro- 
 duced another movement that kept it in abeyance. This rival 
 movement was at the bottom political, or rather social and 
 political:. The period of conflict already mentioned, which 
 exhausted men's resources and energy and reduced the 
 "people" so much in numbers, was naturally followed by a 
 period of absolutism, good for some purposes doubtless, but 
 bad for general training in new ideas and enterprises. Then 
 came just as natural a reaction, the rise of new democratic 
 sentiments and the creation of new democratic forms, some- 
 times by revolt and revolution, sometimes more peacefully. 
 The individual again became dominant. A new inspiration 
 roused the best in him and made him ambitious for the best. 
 He had a natural right to the fullest and freest development 
 attainable. The " perfection of the individual " became the 
 ideal. Where should he find models for this development, 
 models of the highest culture yet reached? Or better, how 
 should he reach the best culture? He was helped toward an 
 answer by another circumstance. A thrill of national senti- 
 ment passed through Western Europe, particularly through 
 Germany. This spirit of nationality directed and dictated 
 national culture, which now became an intense object of 
 thought. Where should models be found for this rising spirit 
 to work upon and work through? How should culture be 
 attained ? 
 
 293 
 
294 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Different answers might have been given to these questions 
 that the new sentiments were suggesting. The leaders took 
 the most obvious one, the easiest one, the one nearest at hand. 
 It was a natural answer. Perhaps it was the best one under 
 the circumstances, though one is permitted to entertain grave 
 doubts here. They said, in effect, the models of highest excel- 
 lence are in the past. So far right and good. They said also 
 that the surest way of reaching their end lay in the study of 
 past civilization, in winning its culture, and, through its inspira- 
 tion, making a culture of their own. So far also good. The 
 doubt comes as to the way in which this was carried out and 
 particularly as to the narrow way in which it was applied to 
 the schools. 
 
 Thus then the two impulses, individual and national, met in 
 a new enthusiasm for classical study, and especially in the 
 study of what they believed were the classics par excellence, 
 the works of the Greeks. It was, however, Greek thinking 
 and feeling that they wanted to master, not merely language 
 and style, as in the case of Renaissance Latin. 
 
 The New Humanism. — So has been explained the rise of 
 the New Humanism, as the movement that we have been fol- 
 lowing has been significantly named. Undoubtedly the influ- 
 ences referred to played a part, perhaps a large part, in the 
 phenomenon, but we must look further and deeper for other 
 influences, if we are to have an adequate explanation. In fact, 
 it is by no means certain that we have thus far found more 
 than the secondary causes. To make the point clear, we must 
 revert to the last period. The Renaissance brought Greek 
 again into prominence. From its long occultation it naturally 
 made headway slowly. It became a university interest only to 
 a limited extent. It probably had a larger place in the second- 
 ary school, but did not come within range of Latin. So small 
 was its development, at the time, that we hardly name it in the 
 typical curriculum handed on by the Renaissance. But decade 
 by decade men learned more of Greek and went deeper into 
 its meaning and spirit. Its constituency widened. Greek was 
 in a very fair way to make itself a universal enthusiasm. 
 Greek would surely have occupied a prominent place in the 
 curriculum through this natural growth from the Renaissance 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 295 
 
 alone. The double ideal of the New Humanism merely gave 
 color and direction to the new study. 
 
 Greek becomes a prominent study of the curriculum. — 
 The Renaissance fixed Latin in the modern curriculum. Greek 
 now became a fixture; it was the new and entrancing subject, 
 in fact it was the study of the secondary school. This does 
 not mean that more time was given to Greek than to Latin. 
 Latin had monopolized so much attention in the Renaissance 
 period and before that this would hardly be possible. When 
 the new curriculum took on a settled form we find Greek 
 prominent quantitatively, but not first. The Prussian cur- 
 riculum of 1859, which may fairly represent the culmination, 
 i. e., the real strength, of the movement, gives the ratio be- 
 tween Greek and Latin as 1 '.2. 1 Latin was the substantial, 
 practical, disciplinary subject. Soon after the enthusiasm for 
 Greek began a movement was on foot to maintain the prestige 
 of Latin. Greek brought in the ideal, the esthetic, and it 
 was always treated more humanistically than Latin. Thus it 
 brought some influences much needed in any national culture. 
 Latin however had nearly 2,000 years the start of Greek in 
 the direct secondary tradition. We shall see how this differ- 
 ence and the qualitative differences between the two languages 
 affected the curriculum in later years. The immediate effect of 
 the classical revival is seen by such facts as have already been 
 noted and particularly by the following points, readily gath- 
 ered from a study of several curricula of the period: 
 
 Illustrations of the dominant program of studies. — 1. In 
 an 1816 curriculum in Germany the classics occupied more than 
 half the time, Latin, Greek and mathematics %i of the time, 
 while geography and history were given a beggarly y llf and 
 science still less. 
 
 2. In an 1830 school plan the classics occupied % of the 
 time, and Latin, Greek and mathematics all of it in a way, as 
 logic, philosophy, the vernacular, and history were taught inci- 
 dentally in connection with other subjects. This was in South- 
 ern Germany, where the classical influence was strongest. 
 
 3. A North Germany 1837 curriculum gave more than half 
 
 1 In 1816 one curriculum, however, gives the ratio as 7:8, which may 
 be taken as the limit before things settled. 
 
296 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the time to Latin and Greek, about f 7 to Latin, Greek and 
 mathematics, % to German and French, Y 12 to history and 
 geography, Y 17 to science, and % to drawing. 
 
 4. An 1859 curriculum in Prussia gave % the time to Latin 
 and Greek, about % to Latin, Greek and mathematics, about 
 y 10 to history and geography, % to science, and % 4 to 
 drawing. 
 
 Germany, as elsewhere stated, is a good type-country for 
 studying these modern movements in secondary education. 
 Till the last decade or two she has been the object of much 
 study and imitation in educational matters. The German idea, 
 therefore, may perhaps be taken to express the general opinion 
 as to the ideal of the period, that intense occupation with 
 Greco-Roman literature and familiarity with the philosophy 
 of classical antiquity gives the best general preparation for 
 every higher profession. 
 
 But the movement we are tracing appeared elsewhere. The 
 return to old favorites in the curriculum, and their reinforce- 
 ment by the addition of Greek, was not a narrow but a wide- 
 spread policy. It was not a simple return, but a return with 
 new feelings and ideas. In P'rance the effects are seen in 
 the " arts course " of the latter part of the eighteenth century, 
 which was saturated with classics and gave only perfunctory 
 attention to other matters. It is seen also in the statute of 
 1809 that restored the classics to their old position, making 
 them the center of the curriculum, where the Revolution had 
 established science. The curriculum of the Lyceum of a little 
 later date also shows a preponderance of classics. Southey's 
 statement 2 as to "the popularity of the classics in this period, 
 compared with their position about 1750, is significant for 
 England. Our early high school (barring the Boston English 
 High School, which had a genuine classical school by its side), 
 came into this classical inheritance. 
 
 We surely find here a classical revival. The day of real 
 subjects had not yet come. 
 
 New demands for new studies — National ambitions and 
 ideals. — But a new movement was already under way, or 
 rather an old movement was taking on new life and making 
 
 2 See page 292, Chapter XVIII. 
 
(NINETEENTH CENTURY 297 
 
 itself felt in a new and stronger way, backed by stronger influ- 
 ences and arguments. International competition was now 
 becoming keen in a new way. Nations were eager for higher 
 industrial development that commanded the resources of the 
 world. The old idea of conquest, which utilized the best 
 resources of the nation and gave an outlet for all surplus 
 activity and more, had passed. The age of incursions and the 
 unsettling of populations had also passed. The era of con- 
 flicts, rising from international and religious jealousies or from 
 factional spirit within the nation itself, was fast passing. The 
 time had come for more intensive internal development. This 
 now naturally occupied attention, and for three reasons: I. 
 Activities must be utilized. As the demands of the old national 
 occupations had decreased, new outlets for the released energy 
 must be found. 2. The only sure means of progress was the 
 development of native resources. 3. Times of peace acceler- 
 ated the growth of population, and advancing ideals of life 
 brought a greater number and greater complexity of needs that 
 must be met. All this required industrial development of a 
 higher sort at home. This was naturally supplemented by the 
 idea of industrial development abroad in " spheres of influ- 
 ence," protected by international agreement rather than arms. 
 This would insure industrial outlets and facilitate trade. 
 National progress and commercial progress were becoming 
 identified. The schools then must provide new training calcu- 
 lated to make graduates capable of understanding, utilizing, 
 and increasing the resources of their country. National 
 thought, urged by these considerations, but primarily and more 
 deeply by larger feelings, growing consciously and uncon- 
 sciously out of the philosophy of education, was throwing a 
 new doubt over ancient school programs. Not only did mas- 
 tery of environment seem more than ever to be the key to 
 national development, but mastery of oneself, leading to a 
 fuller development of power, seemed to be the key to educa- 
 tional theory. 
 
 After nursing at the breast of ancient culture for a long 
 infancy, nations were thus becoming conscious of their per- 
 sonality, and at first impulsive, and then more and more 
 coordinated, movements were made to develop this personality 
 
298 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 in ways best suited to its rising needs. National aims and 
 purposes were adding their weight to other influences that 
 have been noted before. 
 
 But particularly was the readjustment forced and guided by 
 growth in industrial technique and industrial ideals and stand- 
 ards. National aims turned in this direction. The older cen- 
 turies had made as much as they could of industry with the 
 simple industrial training of the times. But now investigation 
 resulting in discoveries and inventions was opening up new 
 industrial opportunities on every hand, and industrial processes 
 were becoming more complex and technical. Industry was 
 becoming scientific. It could not long thrive on empirical 
 methods depending upon apprenticeship and some happy knack 
 of doing things. It required scientific and technical education 
 through various curricula adapted to different ends by which 
 leaders might be developed and the rank and file of workers 
 made efficient and effective followers and supporters. Thus it 
 touched what is, after all, the real and final motive force, the 
 individual. When a method, process, or movement appeals to 
 individual power and initiative, it brings to the group, whether 
 smaller or larger, — family, community, school, corporation, or 
 state, — the surest means of progress. But to do this the indi- 
 vidual must be socialized. This imposed a new duty of the 
 new times and gave a weighty task to the school, which, under 
 the pressure from other sources, it long left unaccomplished. 
 That the new times made an intensive appeal to the individual 
 is evident. They hardly left him an option. He must respond 
 or fall out of the race. 
 
 But the individual met the emergency; he did not have to 
 be forced. Faith in the value and power of education grew. 
 It showed wonderful vitality, especially in democratic coun- 
 tries. More and more to the end of the nineteenth century, 
 and particularly in the opening years of the twentieth century, 
 the idea that every worthy occupation requires special educa- 
 tion was growing, and the evolution of new forms of educa- 
 tion superior to the old was making headway, till the new 
 curricula took rank in disciplinary and culture value with the 
 old. The old classical curriculum, instead of preempting the 
 field of education, became one of many parallel curricula by 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 299 
 
 which men were lifting themselves from mediocrity to 
 superiority. 
 
 But by this quick look ahead we have outrun the process 
 and treated in a rather summary way the significant changes 
 that were going on. In reality results came very slowly. The 
 science of pedagogy, taking on new life from the new mental 
 activity of the times and stimulated by the conditions that have 
 been described, worked long at the enterprise. Pedagogy is 
 really only an educational interpretation of the forces at work 
 in a community. Its function is to study education in relation 
 to the varied needs and interests of different social units, to 
 formulate principles for guidance, and to suggest forms for the 
 embodiment of principles. From the point of view then of 
 this old-new science we are to follow a little more deliberately 
 the changes that have been referred to. 
 
 New spirit of pedagogy. — The new spirit of pedagogy stim- 
 ulated men to a new study of old things and a study of new 
 things, to the better application of old subjects for school pur- 
 poses and community progress and to the formation and appli- 
 cation of new studies. It must, to be logical, turn its attention 
 to the examination of the various studies in their different 
 relations and to a comparative estimate of their real substance 
 and worth. In other words, pedagogy had to add to the study 
 of " studies " as entities and practicalities, the study of them 
 as embodiments of educational material related to educational 
 ends. Subjects of the curriculum were thus subjected to a 
 new appraisal, and a new system of values was worked out. 
 Hence various emphases were brought to the front according 
 to the points of view of students of educational problems. 
 This served a double purpose. In the first place it led to prac- 
 tical agreement as to the intrinsic value of new studies from 
 more than one point of view. Difference of opinion related 
 mainly to comparative estimates of different subjects and the 
 direction in which they were supposed to affect pupils. In 
 the second place, because equally strong arguments might be 
 made for each view, agreements and differences alike suggested 
 that each subject is the educational equivalent of every other. 
 As a result the most substantial pedagogy of to-day, looking 
 into each study with an honest purpose to see its merits, finds 
 
3 oo THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 first that it is part of a unity, not a separate entity; second, 
 that its value depends on the method of its application in the 
 schoolroom. A true psychological method that brings out 
 properly the correlations of subjects will make them all of 
 equal value, — not of the same value, but of equal value. The 
 vain wrangle over comparative merits should lose itself in a 
 new rivalry in which each teacher will give an equal place of 
 honor to all and at the same time strive to make the best of 
 his own. 
 
 A reconciliation of cultural and practical. — This new peda- 
 gogy, partly caused, partly causing, has been revolutionizing 
 ideas as to curriculum and method. Logically carried out it 
 reconciles the cultural and practical, — shows how that is most 
 truly practical which is most truly cultural, that the practical is 
 cultural, if rightly treated in education, that real culture con- 
 sists in so mastering the spirit and meaning of human interests 
 and comprehending their relations that one can apply himself 
 and them most efficiently in business, profession, or state. 
 Culture does not lie in the object or study, but in the manner 
 of dealing with it. The epoch we are considering began a 
 movement for culturizing all studies and all professions, 3 even 
 those that we have regarded as merely practical. In a way this 
 sums up all movements. It is the result of reflection on edu- 
 cation in a new way, the result of making a study of education 
 itself. 
 
 The growth of a new curriculum and of new educational 
 apparatus. — This study made it evident that only a new or 
 remodeled curriculum would satisfy all the demands, demands 
 of theory and practice, of industry and science, of individual 
 and nation, of mental needs and physical needs. Development 
 of the curriculum must be in the direction of mastery of nature 
 and mastery of self. The means for this development were 
 forming in this period. They represented another force work- 
 ing for the consummation of the new ideas, and itself the 
 embodiment of these ideas. The process described in earlier 
 
 3 At first a study or profession is crude, empirical, a bare aggregation 
 of facts, half-facts, and assumptions. As it grows it gets more exact, 
 becomes conscious of ties and relationships, develops the social spirit, 
 attains a dignity that history gives, assumes a fineness of sentiment, — in 
 a word becomes humanized and culturized. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 301 
 
 pages of the last chapter, — the modification of old studies and 
 the development of new studies, — was advancing. The great 
 subjects of science, mathematics, sociology, history, were 
 growing. New facts in old and new subjects were accumulat- 
 ing and becoming better and better organized and related. 
 They were also becoming more finely adapted to educational 
 ends, both for information and training. This was accom- 
 plished through simplifications and grading, and especially 
 through text-books that were intended to facilitate the appli- 
 cation of this alluring body of science to students of different 
 ages. Latin had long had its apparatus for applying itself to 
 schools and this was growing better and better with each gen- 
 eration. Other subjects, both science and art, history and 
 mathematics, were discovering, inventing, and adapting 
 apparatus calculated to make them better and more acceptable 
 agents in school programs. 
 
 The Newer Humanism. — A newer humanism thus came to 
 view and brought with it new " humanities " in which the 
 vernacular became the central force in the school, the great 
 medium of culture and " discipline." With it went physical 
 training, which became fundamental, history and geography, 
 science and its applications, mathematics and their applica- 
 tions, manual training in a broad sense, and foreign lan- 
 guages, among which modern languages were growing and 
 ancient languages declining. This represented the type cur- 
 riculum, though it was not all actualized at the time in exact 
 proportions, a result that has not yet been accomplished. 
 
 Illustrations in various countries. — The movement was il- 
 lustrated by the final establishment, systematization, and exten- 
 sion of the real programs in Germany, which emphasized the 
 new studies and made them the center of the curriculum; by 
 the curricula of the old gymnasia (city schools), which showed 
 the influence of the new ideas in classics reduced (and at the 
 same time broadened and given a new purpose), and in science 
 increased and accorded a definite place; by the wonderful 
 changes that took place in old schools like St. Paul's, which 
 made provision for several parallel curricula and devoted itself 
 more especially to preparation for technical and commercial 
 pursuits, while offering a typical classical curriculum to those 
 
3 02 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 who desired it ; 4 by the curricula of many other grammar 
 schools, old and new, in England, as well as by the modern sec- 
 ondary curricula that budded from the popular schools ; by the 
 revision of the French Lycees that gave free play to modern 
 studies and applied modern methods; by the substantial cur- 
 ricula of the French higher primary schools also that supplied 
 popular secondary instruction; again by Austrian secondary 
 schools which took the lead in modernizing themselves ; and by 
 provisions for various technical and special schools in the direc- 
 tion of commerce and the arts, in all the countries named. 
 
 The High School and its differentiations. — Finally the 
 movement was illustrated, and more fully illustrated, by the 
 inauguration and development of the most unique and prom- 
 ising secondary school that had yet appeared, our own High 
 School, that gave equal facilities for old and new and made 
 possible many different curricula applicable to many condi- 
 tions and ends. 5 More particularly was it illustrated by the 
 growth of differentiated high schools brought into existence by 
 the new influences in order to prepare the youth of the nation 
 for the new industrial times, — the English high school, the 
 commercial high school, the manual training high school, and 
 finally the agricultural high school. 6 The demand for a 
 
 4 Compare this with the simple and exclusive aim of its founder. 
 See page 266. 
 
 5 There are three things to be noted here in connection with our 
 American high schools : — 1. The new studies are prominent ; 2, within 
 the same school several curricula are offered ; 3, there are various types 
 of secondary schools representing different central ideas and adapted 
 to different circumstances and communities ; 4, cultural courses are 
 fundamental in all the schools, which is only another way of saying 
 that all professions and occupations are becoming culturized. The 
 same points may be noted in other school systems, but for the most 
 part on a smaller scale. With these changes the new studies have 
 gained fairer conditions for development and application. There are 
 thus differentiated curricula within the same high school and differen- 
 tiated high schools. Both policies are now working in high school 
 education. Another chapter will discuss the relative merits of the 
 two. 
 
 6 It would not be consistent with the general plan of this chapter to 
 go more fully into the history of the high school. That is reserved 
 for a succeeding chapter. The detailed development of secondary edu- 
 cation in foreign countries must form the subject of a separate volume 
 the purpose of which will be to trace the growth of secondary school 
 systems in different countries and to show their present status. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 303 
 
 broader and more technical training for the more common 
 vocations, in place of the empirical work that had prevailed, 
 brought in also vocational studies of other types that pointed 
 to other kinds of vocational schools. But this latter movement 
 looked to the future and cannot be said to be characteristic of 
 the period under consideration. 
 
 Higher education to supplement secondary education. — 
 These high schools were finishing schools on the one hand; 
 on the other they were introductory to a more scientific study 
 of the principles and technique of industrial and technical pur- 
 suits, as well as to a fuller and more effective study of old 
 objects of interest. For these differentiated high schools new 
 forms of higher education arose to extend and supplement 
 them, — the technical college and kindred higher schools. 
 Business itself, and particularly the trades, were soon to organ- 
 ize for cooperation with vocational education, and thus to serve 
 as an industrial university. With a broadening of the second- 
 ary school there thus came a broadening of the scope and a 
 multiplying of the ministries of higher education. An age of 
 great expansion in college training was at hand. The tendency 
 to disparage such training as a preparation for business life 
 was passing. 
 
 New studies. — The studies that during the period styled 
 the " Enlightenment " began to be distinct forces in the cur- 
 riculum, as opposed to the mere attachments that the best 
 mediaeval education had made them, now secured definite 
 recognition and even assumed a predominant place in the cur- 
 riculum. They so planted themselves in public thought and 
 so justified themselves in pedagogical thought, that one can 
 conceive of no change that would overwhelm them, as did the 
 " New Humanism." And yet they are even now in a com- 
 paratively crude state, both as to selection and organization of 
 material adapted to secondary education, and, in a degree, as 
 to method of teaching. 
 
 Differentiation and special curricula. — Among the phases 
 of growth that have just been referred to in relation to the 
 adoption of new studies and new curricula none is more inter- 
 esting than that which has to do with differentiation and spe- 
 cialization in courses and curricula. It was due to two forces, 
 
304 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 first to the demand for special preparation for special lines of 
 work, on the basis of a fundamental general culture common 
 to all interests and necessary for the consummation of this 
 special training; second, to the study of special psychology, — 
 particularly the psychology of adolescence. Differentiation at 
 a certain stage is essential, from a consideration of both inter- 
 nal and external conditions of education, if the best is to be 
 done for the human and material interests involved. 
 
 Growth of educational terminology — Program of studies 
 — Curriculum. — In this development in the secondary school 
 old studies grew, some studies branched, some new studies 
 joined the group. Altogether there was a wonderful develop- 
 ment on the study side of the secondary school. One is im- 
 pressed with the wealth of choice and opportunity. Teachers 
 found it no easy task to pick a safe way. In the periods de- 
 scribed in Chapters XII and XIII the program of studies 7 
 was simple, clearly defined, fixed. Program and curriculum 
 
 7 As we have reached a point where a differentiated terminology is 
 necessary the following definitions of Dr. Johnston, of the University 
 of Illinois, are significant. The terms referred to will be used in the 
 following pages in substantial accord with these definitions. 
 
 "High School Subject" denotes any distinguishable field of knowl- 
 edge where subject-matter of instruction makes it practicable and de- 
 sirable that one or more courses or half-courses in it be offered in the 
 high school programme of studies. 
 
 "Course of Study" means the quantity, kind, and organization of 
 subject matter to be covered by a pupil in any high-school subject within 
 a definite period of time and for which a credit unit or a fraction of 
 a credit unit toward graduation is granted. "Second year Latin" is 
 a "course of study." 
 
 "Credit Unit" represents a year's study in any high-school subject 
 constituting approximately a quarter of a full year's work of a high- 
 school pupil. With any four-year high-school curriculum as a basis 
 a school-year of from 36 to 40 weeks is assumed, and it is further as- 
 sumed that a school-year's work in any subject will approximate 120 
 sixty-minute periods, and that any course of study will be pursued for 
 four or five periods per week. 
 
 "Programme of Studies" refers to all the high-school subjects of- 
 fered in a given school without reference to any principle of organiza- 
 tion of these into curricula. 
 
 " Curriculum " refers to any systematic and schematic arrangement 
 of courses of study extending through a specified number of years 
 and leading to a certificate or diploma that may be planned for any 
 clearly differentiated group of high-school pupils. A four-year cur- 
 riculum should represent not more than 16 (and not less than 15) 
 units of work. 
 
 "Schedule of Classes" is the daily and weekly tabular arrangement 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 305 
 
 were identical. There was but one curriculum. In the follow- 
 ing period study conditions were in general the same, though 
 the program was growing, and richer and more stimulating 
 material was offered. In the epoch now under discussion, 
 however, the program became so large and complex that sev- 
 eral curricula were evolved, now in the same school, now in 
 separate schools. These curricula served as paths through the 
 tangled growth of the program of studies. They were as yet 
 imperfectly laid out. They sometimes formed a barrier rather 
 than a help to choice, partly because studies were not well 
 grouped, partly because curricula were isolated. There was 
 thus an enticing opportunity to improve the organization of 
 secondary studies, to unify divergent school interests, and to 
 correlate the curricula that represented these interests. 
 
 But there are two phases of secondary school life that have 
 not yet been noticed. During the period they were growing 
 equally with other phases. They are destined to become inti- 
 mate parts of any curriculum and to require quite as much 
 attention as parts that are more technically included in it. 
 
 1. School social life. — Great freedom was allowed in school 
 life, compared with the restriction and repression of other 
 days. Coincidently there was a decline in home nurture. As 
 a result the social side of school life had a marked develop- 
 ment, particularly in this country. The high school pupil is 
 preeminently a social being. A new growth of the social 
 instinct, and a consequent growth of intimate group interests 
 in great variety, now smaller as in chum life, now larger as in 
 societies and clubs, are characteristic of adolescence. They 
 have a perfectly natural development at the high school age, 
 and are to be definitely provided for in the curriculum. Guid- 
 ance and direction are urgently needed. To be really effective, 
 
 of classes showing time and place of meeting and the instructor in 
 charge of the course. 
 
 "Department" in high-school work refers to that grouping of high 
 school subjects which indicates the administrative policy in the assign- 
 ment of subjects of instruction to teachers. It may be applied to any 
 feasible administrative unit in the distribution of instructional work to 
 teachers which is based on educational principles, the assumption being 
 that there are very desirable possible groupings and very undesirable 
 possible groupings; e.g., Department of Science, Department of Eng- 
 lish, Department of Vocational Guidance, 
 
3 o6 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 however, they must be of the adolescent, not of the adult type, 
 i. e., must be informed with sympathy with the adolescent. 
 This type of guidance was not forthcoming in the period under 
 consideration. Adolescent life was warped by the intrusion of 
 certain artificialities, by school and parental indifference, and 
 otherwise. 
 
 Club life. — The club life of the adolescent gave more con- 
 cern than some other forms of activity. It is important only 
 because it is one of the modes in which the social instinct 
 expresses itself. Association would be a better term to use, 
 because it suggests a broader view of this side of the adolescent 
 and a simpler and more natural solution of the related prob- 
 lems. One form of club life was more conspicuous, though 
 not more important, than others, and awakened more anxiety, 
 chiefly because the whole matter was neglected. In their 
 eagerness to meet the demands of the social nature high school 
 pupils adopted the idea of the university fraternity. Un- 
 ordered, unorganized, and, in general, unsupervised, the idea 
 had a wild growth, till it was seen that untutored adolescents 
 were becoming overmastered by an instrument that had proved 
 not without danger for older students. It had been adopted, 
 but not adapted. With an inherent carelessness and reluctance 
 to analyze, the secondary school had borrowed instead of 
 inventing something of its own, — a dangerous process. 
 School authorities thus found a serious problem confronting 
 them. It was met in different communities in different ways, 
 now by supervision, now by repression. Neither way is final, 
 the first because it does not yet fully attack the problem, which 
 is one requiring a careful study of adolescent interests and 
 adaptations to them in an educational spirit; the second, be- 
 cause the adolescent is naturally gregarious and a lover of mys- 
 tery. Repression that does not re-fill with something more 
 adequate is incomplete, not to say vicious. A vacuum is 
 abhorrent to human, as to physical, nature. The solving of the 
 problem thus went to the twentieth century high school. 
 
 2. Play. — During the last century it came to be recog- 
 nized that play involves mental training, — that it performs an 
 important part in promoting mental development and in pro- 
 ducing mental alertness, that it may be as truly educative as 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 307 
 
 any phase of school life. England was the great play country 
 of Europe. She had long had her play organized and had 
 given solicitous attention to its development as a part of her 
 national educational creed. The English people alone of the 
 great European nations did this. Other nations had, and 
 still have, little inclination in this direction. We must thus 
 look beyond Europe for the most marked development of play 
 activities and play education in connection with the public 
 schools. Here in the United States secondary education had 
 the largest growth, during the period under review, and prac- 
 tically became universal, — conditions precisely adapted to the 
 free exercise of the play instinct. Play results however were 
 as unorganized as in the case of social activities. There was 
 much of the primitive in them. Virgin soil is always con- 
 ducive to rank growth. Conditions were modified by certain 
 reformations, discussions, regulations, and supervision. But 
 there was comparatively little scientific study in the case; 
 it was of an empirical sort. Still, more careful and more 
 sympathetic attention was given to play than to the social side 
 of school life, and more system was secured. Results were 
 therefore more satisfactory. A real attempt was made to min- 
 ister to adolescent needs. It should be said, however, that the 
 social problem is more difficult and intricate and that it is 
 harder to meet because of its secretiveness. As in the case of 
 the social problem, a fuller solution of the play problem was 
 left to the twentieth century. 
 
 Secondary education for both sexes. — One further point 
 should be noted in giving the general history of the period. 
 With the popularizing of secondary education it was to be 
 expected that secondary schools would eventually be open to 
 both sexes. But, because of the momentum of long custom 
 and a predisposition to be skeptical as to the education of 
 women, the idea had to wait long for fulfilment. The nations 
 of Europe granted the new privilege to woman slowly. Even 
 to-day England provides little public secondary education for 
 girls. 8 Our own country, almost from the beginning of public 
 
 ^England added some elements of secondary education, for boys and 
 girls alike, in connection with the free popular schools. This addition 
 was a budding of popular education, but it was repressed by the cold- 
 
3 o8 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 secondary education, opened its secondary schools to both 
 sexes alike. 
 
 But winning a privilege is often inconsiderate of meanings 
 and relations. It is largely objective. New educational 
 movements have their aftermath of problems. Only the prin- 
 ciples that support the movements are stable. Educational 
 machinery for applying the principles, like all machinery, needs 
 adjustment and further invention to keep it equal to condi- 
 tions. This movement for the higher education of girls was 
 no exception to the rule. 
 
 Some of the problems that secondary education for girls 
 brought are general, some grow out of coeducational second- 
 ary education, and are applicable particularly to the United 
 States where this policy early established itself. The solution 
 of these problems is not an academic matter, nor one of ex- 
 ternal thinking. The question of the higher education of 
 woman is at base psychologic and civic, — broadly sociological. 
 It has been made economic and narrowly social. Its main 
 proposition needs no further arguments, — it has become 
 axiomatic. But the needed adjustments of the new policy 
 require patient gathering of facts, a thorough study of the 
 sexes, physiologically and psychologically, a re-studying of 
 sociology, and, perhaps, a reorganization of home economics. 9 
 The present century has the problem fairly before it. 
 
 Present influence of the secondary school. — It is evident 
 from what has been said that the secondary school in this 
 epoch became a far larger factor in individual and national 
 development than formerly. In standard it was equal to the 
 old college and beyond it. In ministry it aimed at universality. 
 This broadening of aims and spirit from within, in response 
 to new conditions, was accompanied by a modification of influ- 
 ences from without and a gradual change in the relations of 
 secondary and higher education. 
 
 Preceding chapters have shown in detail how the secondary 
 school became bound to the university as its preparatory 
 
 ness of a deep-seated prejudice against free secondary education for 
 all the people. 
 
 9 Some of the main points in the history of the movement for the 
 higher education of woman, and brief reference to the problems en- 
 tailed, will be found in the Appendix. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 309 
 
 school, subject to its direction. The establishment of prepara- 
 tory departments in college and university was only a minor 
 episode in this history. It was an emergency measure, and as 
 such only temporary. 
 
 Relations of secondary school and college modified. — 
 Early in the nineteenth century the preparatory department was 
 definitely excluded from the university. This meant for the 
 university an advance in the " arts course," 10 so that it could 
 be placed on a par with other " courses." 10 " It did not, how- 
 ever, affect the fundamental relations of secondary school and 
 university. It simply gave a partial opportunity for broaden- 
 ing these relations. 
 
 In the broadening process that went on in secondary and 
 higher schools the narrow and formal requirements and rela- 
 tions were modified by the reciprocal influence of the two, so 
 that conditions for entering the university became broader and 
 freer 11 than formerly and had more regard for the genius of 
 the secondary school. This came about in the midst of much 
 debate. Discussions and conferences, committee work and 
 reports, agreements and concessions form one of the most 
 interesting episodes in secondary school history. With all its 
 interesting details it would furnish material for a volume. It 
 should be said, however, that in these modifications the sec- 
 ondary school had to take the initiative and, in a sense, force 
 the issue, in order to adapt itself to the demands of its 
 situation. 
 
 City and state control. — From what has been said at dif- 
 ferent points in this chapter it is evident that secondary edu- 
 cation underwent other changes. Its external relations, aside 
 from those that connected it with the university, had a very 
 
 10 Here used in the old sense, as stereotyped expressions. 
 
 11 Instead of the old specific requirements of subjects, and sec- 
 tions and amounts of subjects, the college introduced the principle of 
 credit-units, so that the requisite number of units might be secured by 
 various combinations, giving considerable latitude in the choice of one's 
 secondary school curriculum. A student graduated into college or into 
 life because he had won so many units, not because he had covered so 
 much ground or had " passed " so many studies. The plan was not a 
 consistent and genuinely educational one, but it did give more lati- 
 tude to the individual and more freedom to the school. It was a step 
 toward the power test for advance in education. See XXIII, p. 413. 
 
3 io THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 interesting development. From being merely individual, re- 
 sponsible only to some local organization and to local preju- 
 dice, secondary schools became a part of systems, city and 
 state. They thus became fully secularized. We have already 
 noticed the first step in this systematization (Chapter XIV). 
 The schools enlarged their relations in the seventeenth century 
 and became responsible to state systems. 12 But state systems 
 in the fullest sense were the products of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury. To take some of the typical states in Europe, Prussia, 
 of course, occurs to one as the earliest and most conspicuous 
 example of full articulation and systematization. France fol- 
 lowed. England still delays. The English government long 
 ago took an interest in education 13 and established a kind of 
 " code " governing secondary school management, but even as 
 yet there is nothing that can be called a system. System is 
 hardly characteristic of England in any direction. Solidarity 
 is attained in other ways. 
 
 Our own States furnished the only example of free second- 
 ary education of wide-spread application. They organized it 
 on the basis of cooperation by state and local authorities. As 
 a rule the establishment of secondary schools depended on local 
 initiative, the state government establishing only general regu- 
 lations and occasionally offering some financial assistance. 14 
 But in some States, notably in Massachusetts, provision for sec- 
 ondary instruction for all children was made compulsory. 
 
 12 Saxony and Wurttemberg were probably the first to really enter the 
 field of state systems. Previous attempts at state control need hardly 
 be considered here, so far as permanent results are concerned. 
 
 13 De Montmorency has told the story in one of the most interesting 
 of pedagogical books, " State Intervention in Eng. Education." 
 
 14 In the United States secondary education is a regular part of 
 state systems in the various states. It is permanently secured by state 
 regulation, and is so distributed as to be made accessible practically to 
 the whole school population in most localities. Local initiative at first 
 was the only source of free secondary education. It is still given free 
 play, so far as consistent with general state requirements for providing 
 secondary schools. The finances are a part of the local budget, but 
 in certain cases state funds are also appropriated to aid and encourage 
 the growth of these schools, known universally as High Schools, and 
 to ensure certain courses of study. While private secondary schools, 
 known by various names, abound in all parts of the country, the High 
 School is the typical secondary school agency in all the states and is 
 amply provided for by local, state, and national sentiment and re- 
 sources. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 311 
 
 Even here, however, system did not reach the stage exemplified 
 in Prussia. Individual initiative, spontaneous development, 
 and adaptation to local needs still had place and assured a fresh 
 and vigorous growth. Beyond the special points just referred 
 to the natural ambitions of men in a free country pushed the 
 establishment of high schools about as far as a central author- 
 ity could go. Our high schools were a spontaneous outgrowth 
 of public sentiment, — the natural budding of our elementary 
 schools. 
 
 Summary. — This spontaneous growth of secondary educa- 
 tion and its instinctive reactions to the social and industrial 
 conditions of the times, culminating in the differentiation of 
 curricula and schools, gave the secondary school new life and 
 freedom. It was a maturing of secondary school instincts 
 and ambitions. Through it all the school was gradually assum- 
 ing the counterpart of the position that it held at the time of 
 the old tribal secondary school, 15 when it was the only school 
 known. In this position it was eventually to be as fully respon- 
 sive to modern, as it was before to primitive conditions. Edu- 
 cators were coming to see that the high school is not a sub- 
 ordinate, but a cooperative and coordinate agency in determin- 
 ing and fulfilling educational policy, and as such sure to have 
 a wonderful future. It had not yet accomplished this position, 
 for there was much that was indefinite and indecisive and un- 
 corrected in its action. It was not yet fully conscious of its 
 real mission, not yet settled in its real ends and aims, but it 
 was making headway. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Brief resume of the growth of secondary education for girls.— 
 
 The subject of the higher education of woman is sufficient for a book. 
 Brief reference to some of the main points in its history is all that 
 will be in place here. 
 
 We found in studying Roman education that woman had notable 
 influence there and was accorded unusual privileges in secondary 
 education that advanced her immeasurably beyond the position of the 
 Greek matron. After Rome she lost this commanding position in 
 education and dropped into an obscure place from which she has only 
 recently rescued herself. In the Middle Ages and later she shared the 
 
 * 5 See Chapters I and II. 
 
312 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 cloister education, it is true, but it is doubtful whether it could be 
 called in any degree secondary, as in the case of that prescribed for 
 boys, except that it was the education provided for adolescent girls. 
 Great educators pressed the thought on the educational world, but it 
 was not till the latter half of the nineteenth century that conditions 
 were essentially changed. Eighteen centuries of educational history 
 since the beginning of the Christian era were practically a blank in 
 the matter of secondary education for girls. 
 
 The great nations of Europe hesitatingly accorded the new right 
 to woman. Till recently it was left largely to private initiative. But 
 the policy made sufficient headway, even in the most conservative coun- 
 tries, to give the principle some standing and force. France was 
 more spontaneous in the matter than other foreign countries, and 
 freely lent state influence to the movement. The United States 
 accorded the new secondary school privileges unreservedly, and did 
 it early. The academy movement, in the early part of the period we 
 are reviewing, gave almost the first substantial secondary school privi- 
 leges to girls. Sometimes academies were intended simply for advanced 
 education ; sometimes they were expressly planned for training teachers, 
 and thus served as the first normal schools. The special agitation for 
 a free girls' high school, following the establishment of the English 
 High School for boys in Boston, in 1821, was the next notable step. 
 Finally the wonderful development of high schools in the latter half 
 of the nineteenth century assured free secondary education for all 
 the people. 
 
 The non-sexing of secondary schools is one of the most interesting 
 phenomena in educational history. A perfectly natural phase of this 
 non-sexing, especially in America, is co-education, and a striking result 
 of this latter policy, due partly to pedagogical and administrative mis- 
 takes, is that girls outstripped boys in our high schools, both in num- 
 bers and scholarship. 
 
 Problems involved. — Since the achievement of free public secon- 
 dary education for girls through our high schools several problems 
 have shown themselves. One problem is a social one, the discussion 
 of which has thus far been so meager that the problem itself has hardly 
 taken final form, though it is evident that there is something that de- 
 mands careful thought. Another problem has to do with the question of 
 curriculum, — whether the same studies are adapted to the two sexes. 
 It is plain that psychical differences correlate with physiological dif- 
 ferences, and that differences in vocation and in social functions should 
 affect the curriculum, but it has not yet been satisfactorily settled 
 that differentiation is necessary in the secondary school. 
 
 There is however another and more definite problem based on a 
 difference in physiology and psychology between the sexes. In the 
 early high school course the girl is found to be two years in advance 
 of the boy in physical and mental development. Hence the boy is 
 impressed with the spectacle of seemingly falling behind in the race, 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 313 
 
 and teachers are goaded by the disparity into unsympathetic attitudes 
 toward the delinquents. This divergence in growth would seem to 
 suggest some separation of the sexes, in some subjects at least, during a 
 part of the high school course. If we follow what seem to be the 
 soundest principles of election, we get some help, it is true, but the 
 problem still persists. Even if election could go further, the two sexes 
 would tend to group themselves about their individual curricula through 
 feelings stimulated by temporary, rather than permanent, conditions, as 
 will be seen from what has just been said. 16 The problem must be 
 met by a better understanding of adolescence on the part of teachers, 
 which will come through better professional training; this will bring 
 better appreciation and sympathy and hence wiser dealing with groups 
 and individuals. 17 
 
 A fourth problem has to do with physical development. The ques- 
 tion has been raised whether, in the close association of the sexes in 
 large numbers, under loose supervision and without adequate physical 
 direction and training, the development of sex qualities is not unduly 
 and unhealthfully stimulated. It is an undeveloped problem at present 
 and goes to the twentieth century with some incisiveness. 
 
 16 This is shown by the course of events in colleges, where such 
 artificial groups are forming, narrowing the curriculum of both sexes. 
 Certain courses come to be known as girls' courses, certain others as 
 boys' courses. Hence a new kind of caste arises. 
 
 17 See Note 7, page 420. 
 
XX 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY — 
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE 
 
 Contributions of the period to the "new pedagogy." — 
 
 In following the external history of the period it has been evi- 
 dent that the secondary school made rapid progress peda- 
 gogically. In fact the most significant progress was made in 
 this direction. If we are to understand the new epoch in sec- 
 ondary education, we must consider this side of its history. 
 We shall take up here, however, only a brief survey of this 
 inner history of the 19th century, noting the most conspicuous 
 contributions to the principles and practice of education. 1 
 
 I. A new psychology. — First then we should notice that, 
 as a foundation for the new growth of pedagogy, the nine- 
 teenth century developed a new psychology. This psychology, 
 in the first place, emphasized the unity of mind in place of the 
 old disintegration represented by the older " faculty psy- 
 chology"; in the second place, it gave a more concrete and 
 physiological aspect to the science, instead of the former 
 abstractions, thus awakening a new interest in mental hygiene ; 
 in the third place, it gave a specialized psychology, — the psy- 
 chology of childhood, the psychology of adolescence, and 
 pathological psychology, with the psychological clinic. Of the 
 special psychologies child-study developed from fragmentary 
 and often ill-advised work into a science, useful and used in 
 every elementary school-room that pretended to be modern; 
 the psychology of adolescence, more important for our pur- 
 pose, also attained the dignity of a science, but had less effect 
 on the secondary school than the first on the elementary school. 
 Its fuller adaptation and application to the problems of second- 
 
 1 Most of the gains here noted belong to the last half of the nine- 
 teenth century particularly, and so represent the culmination of develop- 
 ment, rather than the general practice of the whole period. 
 
 314 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 315 
 
 ary education is the work of a new century and offers an inspir- 
 ing opportunity. The third, pathological psychology, was of 
 service to the exceptional child and to the community, often 
 saving the child to himself and to society, and making him a 
 positive instead of a negative factor. 
 
 2. A new philosophy of education. — A new philosophy 
 of education came to view. Every teacher who is more than 
 a mechanic studies relations and meanings, and unifies educa- 
 tional facts by reference to some central idea that gives them 
 consistency and significance. This is his philosophy of educa- 
 tion. So the educational world as a whole, through some able 
 exponent, makes a philosophy of education. Sometimes this 
 philosophy is no more than an interpretation of the history of 
 civilization from the point of view of education. Sometimes 
 it is an attempt to give a new and more helpful direction and 
 radiation to educational thought and practice, and a more 
 helpful insight into educational processes and organization. 
 The basis is sometimes biology, sometimes sociology or psy- 
 chology. In all cases it represents an effort to unify and 
 correlate, and hence to focus attention on fundamental 
 ideas. The secondary school shared in the inspiration of such 
 philosophy, though perhaps less productively than other 
 schools. 
 
 3. A change in the direction or point of view of educa- 
 tion.— As a consequence of the new psychology the direction 
 of education, or the point of view of education, was changing, 
 at least in the minds of the most thoughtful educators. For- 
 merly school training was an external matter brought to bear 
 on the pupil and working its way into the inner forces ; a 
 systematic course of study disciplining the powers was the 
 central idea. The more fruitful idea of the period under dis- 
 cussion was that the direction is from within outward, that 
 education is the development of power under wise and sympa- 
 thetic guidance, a natural growth based on the laws of general 
 physical and intellectual evolution. This point of view is 
 genetic and sociological, and it has peculiar significance in the 
 adolescent period. 
 
 4. An enlargement of aim. — The aim of education there- 
 fore changed. Instead of the somewhat hazy idea of disci- 
 
3 i6 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 pline, and the more definite and absorbing idea of the develop- 
 ment of a study-subject, came that of the development of 
 character, and training for community life, to be considered 
 in its highest significance. The idea of character itself grew 
 immensely. The broadest definition of education made it a 
 process which gives, I, mastery of environment, developing all 
 one's powers to their fullest possibilities, by using and direct- 
 ing self-activity in productive exercise in this environment; 
 2, power to apply and create. 
 
 Secondary education therefore, in its larger significance, 
 now proposed to give the student power not merely to compre- 
 hend, but to use his inheritances and his relations in science, 
 literature, art, religion, and civic and industrial functions. 
 
 5. Growth of Method. — Method had a striking develop- 
 ment. I. Its psychological basis changed. In the direction of 
 general method, a progressive development of all kinds of 
 power, whether mental or physical, took the place of the older 
 idea of developing separate faculties at special periods. Each 
 phase of mental or physical life has its appropriate develop- 
 ment at each period, and requires as much care in each period 
 as it does in the period when it predominates and gives tone 
 to life. What was to the older psychology a separate faculty 
 was now found to be only one phase of a unified mental life ; 
 through it the whole mind, better the whole man (since phys- 
 ical and mental are closely correlated), was conceived as work- 
 ing, each part of the whole making its own special contribution 
 to the special phase in question. As to order and organization, 
 method became more developmental. An educational process 
 that takes, as its foundation, interest in the concrete and 
 real contact with things, and with fine sympathy stimulates 
 a natural growth from this basis to wider and wider generaliza- 
 tions suited to, and hence appreciated by, the growing adoles- 
 cent at different times, and thence to abstract thought, like- 
 wise by gradation, lays the surest foundation for intelligent 
 citizenship and productive service. Such a process uses nat- 
 ural interests and builds acquired interests wisely and broadly, 
 so that the latter readily reach out to all grades of intellectual 
 and physical work. Such a method and the user of it infuse 
 the educational process with an inspiration that appeals pecul- 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 317 
 
 iarly to the secondary school pupil and wakens enthusiasm 
 through which he expresses himself. In this process educa- 
 tors were not bringing elementary school methods into second- 
 ary schools, as might seem to be the case from emphasis on 
 objective work. Both schools represent a cycle of method- 
 elements beginning with the concrete and leading up to the 
 general. Interest of the secondary pupil in objective work is 
 a very different thing from that of the elementary pupil, — 
 broader, richer, more suggestive, and involving more points 
 of view. Similarly the abstract in the elementary school is 
 very different from the abstract in the secondary school and 
 has a different function. Failure to recognize this difference 
 has relegated concrete and objective work chiefly to the ele- 
 mentary school, whereas its most promising field is in the sec- 
 ondary school. 
 
 2. The form of method changed. From being predomi- 
 nantly deductive and didactic, at its best it became inductive 
 in all directions. This was seen in the various forms of 
 inductive work in science ; but it was seen as well in the posi- 
 tion of the rule in arithmetic, which now stood after the con- 
 crete illustrations ; in the laboratory method and original propo- 
 sition in geometry; in the source method, of different forms, 
 in history; in the development of grammar through, and in 
 connection with, language, making grammar in fact a derived 
 and advanced subject, rather than a fundamental one; and in 
 the correlation of rhetoric and literature. The new methods 
 were not yet universal; most of them could hardly be said to 
 hold a conspicuous place in the economy of the secondary 
 school. But they had a striking effect on procedure. The 
 laboratory method in science was the most firmly fixed of all, 
 though not yet perfected. The laboratory method in geometry 
 was found in the schools only occasionally, but the old abstract 
 method was modified by the laboratory idea. Similarly the 
 source method in history was seldom found in its type form, 
 but the old rote methods gave place to more educational ones 
 that adopted something of the source idea, in the direction of 
 investigation and discussion. The formal classical method in 
 foreign languages generally yielded to the idea of the direct 
 method enough to relieve it of what was most hampering. 
 
3 i8 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Tims, while much of the old order and its abstract procedure 
 was still found in the schools, formal methods gave way to a 
 certain extent to developmental ones, and were, sparingly and 
 reluctantly, but surely, supplemented by objective work and the 
 spirit of individual thought, observation, and experiment. 
 Much therefore was done to give a clearer and more vital 
 contact with educational material and forces. The new be- 
 came prominent enough to characterize the epoch, though need- 
 ing to be worked out far more scientifically and with far more 
 appreciation of its true meaning. 
 
 6. The elective principle. — The principle of election came 
 into the economy of the secondary school. It came because 
 the number of departments of knowledge worthy of study by 
 secondary pupils increased to such an extent that no one could 
 even touch them all, to say nothing of real initiation into them, 
 which is the secondary pupil's natural heritage. It came also 
 because it had become necessary to adjust school programs to 
 individual needs and to special ends. 2 In carrying out the 
 principle there was an attempt to find, among the subjects of 
 the secondary school program, a " core of constants," to which 
 different more or less consistent groups of studies might be 
 added to suit individuals and to prepare for special occupa- 
 tions and professions, as well as for advanced courses of study. 3 
 
 7. Discovery of secondary school principles for a sec- 
 ondary school philosophy. — The discontinuance of prepara- 
 
 2 Of course such a principle would receive at first incomplete and 
 even crude application and would be subject to mistakes, even serious 
 mistakes, in applying. It has not even yet fully found and occupied its 
 place. The principle is good and meets a very definite need. With 
 wise adjustment it will fulfil effectively its legitimate functions. This, 
 however, is not the place to argue its merits or defects, but to record 
 its adoption into our system of education and its limited adaptation to 
 secondary education. It was generally applied to curricula rather than 
 to individual studies, but the latter application was not wholly excluded. 
 Naturally, with this departure from the fixed curriculum idea, qualifi- 
 cations for promotion and graduation were based on units of work 
 done, rather than upon the completion of specified studies. This point, 
 however, will be taken up more specifically in a later chapter. 
 
 3 It was as a consequence of this broadening and adapting of the 
 secondary curriculum, giving greater play to individual initiative, that 
 the colleges revised and liberalized their relations to the secondary 
 school by making their admission requirements depend in part on units 
 of work, instead of wholly on prescribed studies. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 319 
 
 tory schools by the universities and the broader and more elastic 
 admission requirements, taken in connection with the great 
 increase in variety of secondary education coming through 
 differentiation in secondary schools, make it evident that there 
 was a change in the spirit of secondary education. The sec- 
 ondary school came to appreciate, in a degree, its own signifi- 
 cance and power. It therefore discovered sound principles 
 for developing in itself school feeling, thought, and judgment. 
 It became a thinker, no longer dependent for policy upon the 
 thought of other schools that did not have its point of view 
 and upon doctrinaire schemes; it had attained its majority. 
 To have discovered real secondary school principles for judg- 
 ing of ends and means and for interpreting general educa- 
 tional policy was one of the most important achievements of 
 the time. A real secondary school philosophy was at hand. 
 It remained to incorporate the principles thoroughly in the 
 working programs of the school and to work out the 
 philosophy. 
 
 A new school agency — A training school for teachers. — 
 But the times demanded a new and more effective instrument 
 for utilizing all the gains of the age. What should it be ? The 
 old formal curriculum, together with the simple method, in- 
 herited from the later Renaissance period, that required of 
 teachers only scholarship and power to grasp traditional forms, 
 had passed away. Broader and more intricate schemes of sec- 
 ondary education were developing to meet individual needs and 
 to give pupils preliminary initiation into a more and more com- 
 plicated and exacting business and professional world. These 
 were awakening genuine interests and enthusiasms that would 
 lead pupils finally into the technique of the particular form of 
 life suited to them. The idea of special training for one's 
 work had become prominent and impressive. Why should not 
 teaching share in this idea? Particularly the new science of 
 education which combined the psychology of education, the 
 philosophy of education, and educational sociology, as well 
 as methodology, was pressing its claims. It was supplying mo- 
 tives, principles, and practices calculated to lead to a surer 
 fulfilment of secondary school ends, especially its new ends. 
 All this was felt, if not expressly acknowledged. Altogether 
 
320 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 teaching was forced to regard itself as a profession for which 
 special training must be provided. There was thus needed a 
 new institution that would focus the new principles and ideals 
 and train workers and leaders in a new education. Thus came 
 schemes for the professional training of teachers, and the nor- 
 mal school, — model school or school of norms, — for adminis- 
 tering those schemes. 
 
 The normal school. — The new school began in this country 
 at the end of the third decade of the nineteenth century. It 
 began much earlier in Europe. In fact an occasional normal 
 school was found in the Renaissance period, when the normal 
 school idea had its inception. It had a wonderful effect on the 
 elementary schools, making them far outstrip higher education 
 in efficiency. 
 
 Training for secondary teachers. — The spirit of profes- 
 sional training reached the secondary school partly through the 
 influence of the normal school, partly through an indigenous 
 influence in the secondary field itself. Training for secondary 
 teachers began in Europe in the eighteenth century and grew 
 with varying results. In this country the normal schools at 
 one time offered training for both elementary and secondary 
 teachers, and, as a matter of fact, sent many graduates into 
 the secondary schools. But, being organized particularly for 
 training elementary teachers,, they were inadequate for prepar- 
 ing teachers for the new secondary education. They failed to 
 attract students who were scholastically equipped by college 
 and university training for secondary teaching. There must 
 therefore be some special agency to supply professional train- 
 ing for these students, if they were to come up to the new 
 ideals. Scholarship alone could not fit them to cope with the 
 teaching conditions that confronted them, though there was a 
 prevailing college notion that this was enough. Secondary 
 school teaching required first of all a study of the secondary 
 school pupil, who is radically different from the elementary 
 school pupil psychologically and pedagogically. It required 
 also a careful study of the subject matter of curricula with 
 special reference to secondary school needs. To focus and 
 apply all this in teaching it was necessary to develop a method 
 adapted to adolescence. The problem of secondary education 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 321 
 
 had become so large and complex and ideas of teaching had 
 advanced so far that there was a demand for a product differ- 
 ent from that which college or university could supply by their 
 typical courses. Hence the rise of a new training school. It 
 was supplied in higher schools of learning by different plans 
 and was called by different names, now department of educa- 
 tion, now school of education, and sometimes college of 
 education. 4 
 
 In this country small beginnings of this new school appeared 
 toward the end of the last century. It was slow in coming and 
 slow in growing, probably because of the stubborn academic 
 feeling that the college as then constituted gave training enough, 
 and because of a prevailing college tendency to disparage nor- 
 mal school standards and normal school work, with which the 
 new training plans were rather loosely associated. Before the 
 century closed, however, there was conspicuous activity and 
 development in the direction of special college training for sec- 
 ondary school teachers. Means were crude and inadequate, 
 and there was little progress beyond a very general training, 
 except in one or two conspicuous schools. Professional train- 
 ing for secondary school teachers must be broadened and deep- 
 ened and more thoroughly organized. Particularly must it 
 provide larger opportunities for specialized training for teach- 
 ing secondary school subjects and for understanding secondary 
 school administration. For this purpose it must supply larger 
 facilities for practical work. 
 
 General characterization of the period. — As the secondary 
 school became a subject of study on the outside and inside, in 
 its relations to curriculum and method, teachers and pupils, 
 town and state, and as this study took practical effect in better 
 provisions for secondary education in all its phases, there were 
 better conditions for the working of the law of natural selec- 
 tion, in relation to both teachers and pupils, and surer ground 
 
 4 For the best complete and detailed account of the rise and develop- 
 ment of professional training for secondary school teachers in this 
 country see Professor G. W. A. Luckey's book on this subject. Other 
 matter on the topic will be found in the history of certain academies, 
 which were of much service in training teachers at a critical period in 
 our educational history. The academy was sometimes merely a semi- 
 nary for teachers. 
 
322 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 for sound development in all directions. The secondary school 
 was coming to serve community interests more effectively. 
 There was, however, need of further organization to bring 
 fragments together, to establish just relationships, to secure 
 and give meaning and steadiness to elements now drifting 
 rather aimlessly, to orientate parts by connecting them with the 
 secondary movement as a whole and with society as a whole. 
 This must be accomplished in the new century. 
 
 Needs. — Secondary education had an exuberant growth 
 during the last century. Its most striking general character- 
 istics at its end were, on the one hand, its breadth and variety, 
 and, on the other, its lack of unity and settled aims. Its course 
 of development and the results cannot be better illustrated than 
 by the history of our High School, which will form a fitting 
 close for this story of the growth of secondary education. 
 
XXI 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL — DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Beginnings o£ our educational policy. — Our English and 
 Dutch ancestors settled the educational policy of our country. 
 They brought in educational traditions, forms, principles, and 
 habits that are felt to-day. Their policy has grown with the 
 country and has received infiltrations from other sources that 
 have accelerated, or retarded, and otherwise modified, its 
 growth. The more important of these infiltrations, however, 
 have come from sources that had the same general ideas of edu- 
 cation that prevailed in the home countries of both peoples. 
 
 Nature of early schools.—- When our English fathers came, 
 they were familiar with the " grammar " school system that 
 furnished in England more wide-spread opportunities for edu- 
 cation than existed at the beginning of the nineteenth century. 1 
 The Hollanders, too, were accustomed to an enterprising sys- 
 tem, rather better, if anything, than the one in England. The 
 educational habits of our early fathers worked themselves out 
 in schools immediately after their coming, — schools that were 
 copies of the ones they knew and attended in the home coun- 
 tries. Doubtless standards became somewhat diluted here be- 
 cause of pioneer life and because the most famous school- 
 masters remained at home. At the same time the freshness 
 and vigor of the new life gave opportunity to break from tradi- 
 tion, and to substitute for slow, conservative development a 
 quicker and more spontaneous growth. This made itself felt 
 later. 
 
 First secondary school — The "Grammar School." — 
 Whatever may be said as to elementary education, there can be 
 no question that the secondary school started in New England. 
 It has spread thence over the country, modifying itself to suit 
 
 1 See Chapter XVII, p. 279. 
 
 323 
 
3 2 4 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 time and circumstance. Schools sprang tip spontaneously in 
 the first years of settlement, the Boston Latin Grammar School 
 being the pioneer. But the famous rescript of the General 
 Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony put the matter on a 
 legal basis a few years later (1647), an d every community of 
 100 families must thereafter maintain a grammar school or 
 suffer the penalty of the law. Thus began the first secondary 
 schools in America, the grammar schools. They were out- 
 spoken preparatory schools for Harvard College, which was 
 only a little more advanced grammar school. 
 
 The curriculum. — Curriculum and method were copied 
 from the home grammar schools. In fact, we must think of 
 an average Renaissance school in England. The early cur- 
 riculum of St. Paul's school, which was established about this 
 time and attracted wide attention from its enterprising spirit, 
 was religious instruction, Latin, and Greek. The colonial 
 grammar schools had a similar curriculum, with the emphasis 
 on Latin ; but arithmetic was added in some cases, and, owing 
 to the exigencies of the times when primary instruction was 
 precarious, reading and writing had to be taught to give the 
 necessary preparation for undertaking secondary studies. 
 Requirements for admission to Harvard, which were a kind of 
 gauge of grammar school accomplishment, were ability to read 
 any classical author into English readily, make and speak true 
 Latin, prose and verse, and perfectly decline paradigms of 
 nouns and verbs in Greek. 
 
 The method. — The method was the typical grammar method, 
 which, it will be remembered, had been relieved by the new 
 Renaissance text-books. One of the famous beginner's books 
 of the time was produced in the colonies by Ezekiel Cheever. 
 It was similar in type to the books described in the appendix to 
 Chapter XVI. The method in general was probably neither 
 better nor worse than that which prevailed in the Old World. 
 It was improving, but was still hampered by the fetters that 
 Sturm and, before him, medievalism, had forged. 
 
 These grammar schools represented the earliest efforts for 
 secondary education. The New England colony was noted for 
 its enterprise in education and sent its enterprise westward 
 when the time came to send colonists there. New York and 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 325 
 
 New Jersey in lesser degree took up secondary education and 
 added the weight of their influence in establishing a double 
 standard of instruction. 2 
 
 Decline of the grammar school idea. — But on the whole 
 the grammar schools did not prosper, so far as increase in 
 numbers was concerned. The early settlers' minds were 
 divided and distracted by wars and rumors of wars ; for the 
 rest, men were busy with making their way in a new country. 
 As the Revolution drew on these conditions were intensified. 
 In addition to this, the resources of the colonies were drained, 
 so that financial difficulties hindered the spread of grammar 
 schools; at any rate they furnished convenient excuses for 
 escaping the law. Outside of these circumstances, there were 
 others of a social or religious nature that prevented the enthusi- 
 astic application of the grammar school idea. The spectacle 
 of men winning their way and attaining great influence without 
 higher education was not without effect. 3 
 
 But we may suspect that the main reason for the halting of 
 the grammar school lay deeper, in the character of the schools 
 themselves. There was a deep-seated indifference to them 
 that would have prevented an easy acceptance, even if other 
 conditions had favored. The colonists from their very situa- 
 tion were forced to be " practical " men. They could hardly 
 see how Latin, especially the Latin of the grammar school, 
 could help them in " winning the wilderness." The average 
 boy needed it not. The few who were to enter the professions 
 must of course take the time honored preparation that was 
 
 2 Besides this secondary education supplied by the grammar schools, 
 some secondary instruction was also possible in connection with the 
 common schools provided by the same act of 1647, and by the earlier 
 act of 1642. These schools were manned by college men who, for finan- 
 cial reasons, combined study and teaching and offered " extra " op- 
 portunities to individuals to take up some secondary studies. Many 
 a boy was helped toward college in this way. This was a later develop- 
 ment of secondary instruction, but still it came early and existed side 
 by side with grammar schools. It should perhaps be more property 
 considered a little further on. (See page 327.) These two agencies 
 long supplied secondary education for the colonists, and it was of no 
 mean sort, as education of the time went. 
 
 3 Martin in his Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System 
 has in a very interesting way followed the history of these grammar 
 schools, and has gone into the matter more fully than is called for in 
 a chapter of this character. 
 
326 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 supposed to be the key to higher education and training. " But 
 why," the pioneer might ask, " should my son, who is to be an 
 industrial worker or leader, require this by-gone curriculum ? " 
 Such feelings, even though unexpressed, quite possibly worked 
 against the grammar schools. How else shall we fully explain 
 the quiet opposition of the people, and the reluctance of the 
 sheriffs in serving writs, when the law enjoining the establish- 
 ment of such schools was violated? Such an attitude could 
 not have existed if the service of these schools had been 
 regarded as vital. This feeling would have all the more force 
 because such practical ideas as have been noted in Chapter XIV 
 and elsewhere had come into education and were bearing fruit. 
 Industrial and trade interests had already made their contribu- 
 tions to certain schools in the form of new studies that were 
 proving their worth, before colonists put foot in the new 
 country. 
 
 What has been said would hold good with grammar schools 
 at their best. It has to do with numbers only. But the schools 
 probably declined in quality also. The curriculum, from its 
 very nature, had in it the seeds of formalism and decay. With 
 so little applicable to practical life and capable of adaptation to 
 changing conditions the school must in time lose life and 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 Need of a more adaptable school. — From all the circum- 
 stances in the case it was finally evident that the grammar 
 schools were entirely inadequate to the demands of the time. 
 Some other school agency or agencies must be forthcoming to 
 meet the current needs. 4 The old demand for secondary edu- 
 cation remained. Better conditions and the improving circum- 
 stances of many individuals brought a call for higher degrees 
 of education. Culture ideas were growing; the country was 
 smoothing its homely but attractive and honorable roughness. 
 It was, however, a new culture idea, not the old, or at least it 
 was the old with important additions, that was needed. 
 
 4 Yet grammar schools continued to be established. As late as 1759 
 a legacy of £388 was given the town of Lincoln, Mass., to support a 
 grammar school forever. For 60 years the income was paid only to 
 such teachers as could teach Latin and Greek. This led to the more 
 general employment of college graduates and undergraduates and 
 tended to give a more substantial character to the school. 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 327 
 
 The " popular " secondary school. — The need was met by- 
 two schools, only one of which has been noticed, or at any rate 
 adequately noticed, in histories of education. The first was the 
 " district school " that grew most naturally out of the life of 
 the people. The grammar school was an imitation; it came 
 from without. The district school came from within. It grew 
 up, as the practical " common " or " elementary " school, to 
 suit the needs of neighborhoods. Some means of education 
 had to be devised wherever groups of people were found, or 
 wherever a central school could accommodate scattered families 
 within a convenient radius (and often an inconvenient one). 
 Here the elements of a common school education were found. 
 The school was ungraded. It took all who could come and 
 gave each his quota in an adaptable program, from the A, B, C's 
 up. The scholars were grouped according to advancement, and 
 so might form one group for one study, and another for a sec- 
 ond study. System was not yet. In this school the extent of 
 the program, or rather the character of the program, depended 
 on the teacher who could be procured and upon the needs of 
 individuals. There was no regular curriculum. Hence these 
 schools offered secondary opportunities as well as those of a 
 more modest nature. For a part of the year they were regu- 
 larly supplied with college men as teachers, who, in school or 
 out, offered to ambitious pupils Latin, Greek, and the more 
 advanced mathematics. This provided an elastic plan that in 
 a way supplied secondary education in many communities. 
 This was natural secondary education. It grew out of, or was 
 attached to, the popular schools. 5 It was a great educational 
 force in the community, possessed great vitality, and won 
 peculiar affection. Its effects must not be underestimated. 6 
 They sank deep into the life of the people and live with peculiar 
 force in secondary education to-day. They tided the country 
 
 5 Other secondary schools were, so to speak, autochthonic. They did 
 not represent a growth from below. They began in the early history 
 of civilization as schools for adolescents, before primary schools ex- 
 isted. After schools came to be graded, they were naturally classed as 
 secondary schools. See early chapters for a fuller discussion of this 
 feature. 
 
 6 E.g., the author's native town, a very small country place, some 
 twelve miles from Cambridge, has practically never been without its 
 representatives in Harvard, a commentary on its educational spirit fos- 
 
328 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 over to more systematic secondary instruction, better adapted 
 to the needs of a growing people. 
 
 The academy. — But there was needed something more 
 than this, after all, rather indefinite means of secondary edu- 
 cation. There was a call for something more specialized and 
 extended, capable of supplying a larger degree of culture, — in 
 the main a finishing school, in the best sense, for those whose 
 means and ambitions combined to lead them beyond the district 
 school. It came, an attractive and notable secondary school, 
 establishing itself irregularly as endowments and opportunities 
 offered in various sections. It drew pupils from the school 
 locality and also from remote places, so that it had to become 
 a home as well as a school. Its tributary territory was wide 
 or narrow according to its reputation, which rose and fell 
 according to the ability of its masters. Some of our most 
 noted teachers made their reputations there. It began about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century and naturally was influ- 
 enced by the new movements in education that have been traced 
 in Chapter XVIII. This school was the Academy. It multi- 
 plied rapidly under the encouragement of the state, which gave 
 it a legal status and aided it with endowments of land and 
 money. By 1850 there were some 6,000 academies scattered 
 through the different states. Their fortunes and their age 
 limits naturally varied. Their lives were sometimes short. 
 They declined rapidly in number after the middle of the 
 century. 
 
 Origin of the academy. — The academy was a natural 
 product of the country. It is true that the name and form 
 came originally from abroad. As it grew however and adapted 
 itself to the lives of the people it was thoroughly American. 
 More than this, the pressing influences that have been noted 
 were calculated to issue in some such form as this without any 
 importation. The imitation would seem therefore to be merely 
 external. The personality of the people so changed the institu- 
 tion that it was practically an indigenous school. It served a 
 
 tered, if not developed, by the conditions described, though in this case 
 the grammar school legacy mentioned above was a factor in the result. 
 Similar results, at least notable ones, were found elsewhere, — rather 
 generally, it is to be assumed. 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 329 
 
 great purpose and gave training and inspiration to the leaders 
 of those days. 
 
 Curriculum. — The typical curriculum is illustrated by 
 that offered by the trustees of Phillips Andover Academy, one 
 of the most famous schools that resulted from the academy 
 movement, and one of the very few that have persisted to this 
 day. In 1778 the purpose was stated in this way: 
 
 " To be a public free school or academy for the purpose of in- 
 structing youth not only in the English and Latin grammar, writ- 
 ing, arithmetic, and those sciences which are commonly taught, 
 but more especially to learn them the great and real business of 
 living. There may also be added music, art of speaking, practical 
 geometry, logic, history, and such other liberal arts and sciences 
 or languages as opportunity or ability may hereafter admit and 
 as trustees may direct." 7 
 
 An interesting example. — The establishment of an acad- 
 emy in the author's native town, a New England village of 
 a thousand inhabitants or less at the time, furnishes some 
 interesting points as to the development of the academy idea, 
 and at the same time gives some hints as to organization and 
 method at that time. 8 In 1792, through the work of an asso- 
 ciation called the " Proprietors of the Liberal School of 
 Lincoln," an academy was decided upon. Within a year a 
 building was provided and the academy began its work, offer- 
 ing as its curriculum astronomy, higher mathematics, rhetoric, 
 Latin, Greek, and principles of religion and morality. Teachers 
 prepared the text-books and they were transcribed by pupils. 
 Here Samuel Hoar, Professor John Farrar, and the Rev. 
 Cyrus Pierce, the first principal of the first normal school 
 in the United States, were prepared for admission to Harvard. 
 The school continued for about fifteen years. The building 
 was then sold to the town and used for a district school till 
 1872, when it was relegated to humbler uses. 
 
 From Chancellor Brown's book, The Making of our Middle 
 Schools, we may judge that the following list of secondary 
 studies represented the limits of curricula, the different schools 
 drawing from it as suited their purpose and the conditions of 
 
 7 From Brown's Making of our Middle Schools. 
 
 8 See History of Middlesex Co., Mass. 
 
330 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 their work : — religious instruction, Latin and Greek, English, 
 mathematics (on which strong emphasis was laid), surveying, 
 navigation, natural philosophy (chiefly astronomy), geography, 
 history, rhetoric, logic, moral philosophy. 
 
 Method. — As these academies showed the influence of the 
 world-movement in curriculum, 9 so they probably did in 
 method. Evidently more of the concrete and objective and ex- 
 perimental was found there. As they were coming nearer to 
 life, so they were coming, in their modes, nearer to the proc- 
 esses of life. ia 
 
 We must not, however, suppose that the policy and aims of 
 the academy were uniform. Their early purpose has been 
 given with sufficient definiteness. Their later purpose was not 
 so simple. 
 
 Change in relations of the academy. — The old grammar 
 school, as we have seen, was peculiarly related to the college ; 
 it was the college's preparatory and feeding school. As the 
 academy came in and the grammar school sank from notice, or, 
 in large areas, became extinct, the academy naturally came into 
 close relations with the college and became a feeder. Finally it 
 became primarily a fitting school, and its place as a general 
 school for the people was taken by another institution. 
 
 The academy differentiated its work in obedience to the gen- 
 eral movements of the century, now being genuinely classical, 
 now classical-scientific, but never becoming so narrowly 
 classical as some of the older schools. Its history forbade 
 that. As preparation for higher schools besides the typical 
 college became necessary through the growth and culturizing 
 of new interests, it carried differentiation still further. To- 
 day in its best state it is merely a private high school, 11 having 
 
 9 See Chapter XVIII. ' _ 
 
 10 One touch of method is given in the illustration above. 
 
 11 Both of the forms of secondary education that have been discussed, 
 the District School and the Academy, owed allegiance to, and were in- 
 fluenced and promoted by, both the state and private individuals. The 
 academy often owed allegiance also to the church. The district school 
 had often had a minister as a leading, or even the leading, spirit on 
 its committee of supervision. Each was, in one degree or another, a 
 part of a public school system. They took the place of the old gram- 
 mar school, though the church influence was smaller in them than in 
 the older institution. 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 331 
 
 a broad program of studies out of which have crystallized vari- 
 ous curricula. 
 
 A new school, — an indigenous school. — The latest addition 
 to our secondary school agencies has marks of greater per- 
 manence than any of its predecessors enjoyed, for its roots 
 are in the soil. Whatever may be said of the academy, the 
 new school has grown out of the life of the people, and that 
 too since they have become acclimated and have developed a 
 national tone. It has, therefore, come nearer the heart of the 
 people than any organized educational agency except the 
 primary school. There was needed a school that should repre- 
 sent the genius of the people, embody their ideals, and be so 
 responsive to their needs, even their moods, that it would never 
 become fossilized in matter or method, nor so conservative and 
 slow-moving that it would not keep pace, within reasonable 
 limits, with progress in educational ideas and in intellectual 
 and industrial life. 
 
 The High School — General characteristics. — The High 
 School met these conditions. It began in 1821, in Boston. 
 The manner of its coming was in itself significant. In the 
 first place, it was an extension upward from the elementary 
 education of the period. It was thus an outgrowth of the 
 popular education that was so auspiciously started by the laws 
 of 1642 and 1647. In the second place, it was a local school 
 confined to narrow limits of territory.' In the third place it 
 was introduced to meet special needs. The secondary schools 
 in the vicinity of the first high school, the former Latin gram- 
 mar schools, were evidently not giving adequate preparation 
 for the new professions and occupations that were rising. 
 The aims of the High School, as formulated by its promoters, 
 show this. It was established to " qualify by mental discipline 
 to fill usefully and respectably public and private stations for 
 which the facilities at hand do not qualify." In the fourth 
 place its initial curriculum marked it as a school meeting new 
 conditions and responding to the influences of the times. It 
 offered a three-year curriculum at first, with the following 
 studies: — English, history (ancient, modern, American), 
 geography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry 
 and applications (navigation, surveying, etc.), natural, moral, 
 
332 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 and political philosophy, and astronomy. In the fifth place, 
 it was a public school, a product of the idea that the state is 
 responsible for popular education, because it must, in obedience 
 to the laws of self preservation and advancement, see to it that 
 its life and ideals are perpetuated. The trend in this direction 
 had long been seen and felt. We can trace it back to the six- 
 teenth century, as already shown, but this applied to elementary 
 education. For the state to undertake popular secondary edu- 
 cation and make it free to all was a thought of slower growth. 
 This was the beginning of a movement that has had a much 
 more extended development here than abroad. 12 
 
 This first high school was called the English Classical 
 School, but almost immediately it came to be known as the 
 English High School, and has kept the name. 
 
 Growth of the high school idea. — The high school idea 
 worked slowly. Communities had to persuade themselves that 
 the idea was a wise one, and had to accustom themselves to it. 
 A quarter of a century elapsed before many schools were estab- 
 lished. But the thought of public control was deepening and 
 had immense vitality. The Dartmouth College case showed 
 conclusively how much voice the public had in endowed institu- 
 tions that hitherto had supplied secondary education. From 
 1850 on high schools multiplied rapidly and gave very definite 
 promise of making secondary education universal. 13 
 
 Relations to the college. — Other secondary schools had 
 been so closely connected with the college that it was quite 
 natural that the new school also should take on college rela- 
 tions, and that the academies, the mainstay and feeders of 
 higher education, should decline. 14 Early high schools there- 
 fore became preparatory schools, and, in consonance with the 
 classical revival of the New Humanism, which was a world 
 force, they made the classics the central feature of their cur- 
 ricula. 
 
 12 It is, of course, true that other nations have gone to great lengths 
 in establishing and promoting secondary education, but it is given to 
 the people conditionally. It carries with it tuition fees, and so limits 
 its application. 
 
 13 Some states were especially forward and enterprising in this move- 
 ment. Some were as notably backward. 
 
 14 Due in part to the rise of the new school. 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 333 
 
 Broadening of the curriculum. — But the real idea and kin- 
 dred ideas were rousing for a final effort to establish them- 
 selves firmly and influentially in the schools. In the second 
 half of the century, when free secondary education was spread- 
 ing at a more rapid pace, they completely changed the character 
 of the high school curriculum. This change was seen in pro- 
 grams of the sixties, 15 though of course not in its full force. 
 It was necessary to soften and overcome the prejudice of 
 classical circles against the new, in order to give these studies 
 due importance in the program. It was necessary also to 
 train teachers and to develop the machinery and method for 
 making the studies duly effective. It took some time, there- 
 fore, to establish the new subjects as essentials for every edu- 
 cated person both from the point of view of information and 
 from that of training and culture. 15 To a hasty observer re- 
 sults might easily have appeared superficial, in the early days. 
 For instance, it was the era of the 14-weeks text-book in sci- 
 ence. But in reality there was deep significance in it all. 
 Eventually the new made its place secure and took precedence 
 over the old, as will be seen by comparing present-day pro- 
 grams with older ones. 16 
 
 Differentiation in the high school. — In the last decades of 
 the century a process of differentiation began in our high 
 schools in two different directions. First, life had become 
 more specialized and new professions and industries had 
 
 15 The New Haven High School in 1867 offered a 3-year curriculum 
 in which were taught English, Latin, Greek, French, German, arithmetic, 
 algebra, geometry, trigonometry, book-keeping, physical geography, 
 physiology (lectures), natural philosophy, astronomy, natural history, 
 household science, rhetoric, history (ancient, modern, American), 
 geography, civics. 
 
 The Cincinnati high school in a 4-year curriculum offered English, 
 German, French, Latin, Greek, elementary and advanced algebra, geom- 
 etry, plane trigonometry, surveying, history (outlines), anatomy and 
 physiology, natural philosophy and astronomy, chemistry, botany, ge- 
 ology, mental and moral science, civics, drawing, pedagogics. The latter 
 subject indicates a new office for the high school, that of training 
 teachers. The idea has had some currency. As trained teachers were 
 too few to supply all schools and many high school graduates entered 
 immediately upon the work of teaching, a real service was rendered 
 through this plan, where the high school normal work was anything 
 more than perfunctory. 
 
 16 See appendix of Chapter XXIII for recent programs. 
 
334 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 sprung up. Wider preparation was therefore required for 
 more lines of work than formerly, — for commerce, for tech- 
 nical pursuits, for industrial life, for education. A new 
 preparation was essential for older professions and occupations. 
 More attention had to be given to individual needs and prefer- 
 ences. From all these circumstances the high schools were 
 obliged to offer, in place of a single uniform curriculum, sev- 
 eral parallel curricula suited to meet the entrance requirements 
 of professional schools, or adapted to more immediate ends. 
 The larger schools by allowing the elective principle to enter in 
 one degree or another were able to meet group needs and in- 
 dividual needs in still greater detail. 17 
 
 Second, differentiation came not merely in studies and cur- 
 ricula, but in schools, in response to modifications in educa- 
 tional ideals and changes in conditions of life, — the former 
 dependent on the latter. 
 
 Manual training departments. — This differentiation had to 
 do, first, with altered circumstances as to manual work and 
 with the transformation of ideas and ideals here, seen in the 
 introduction of manual training into the curriculum. The 
 causes and conditions that led to the change are well known. 
 This is not the place to follow in detail the evolution of special 
 subjects like this. A volume could easily be given to it. The 
 change from a general and inclusive type of life to one that is 
 specialized and exclusive, and the growth of city populations, 
 were primarily responsible for the new thought as to manual 
 work, so far as the introduction of manual training into schools 
 was concerned. The training once supplied naturally by the 
 multum-in-parvo country or village life must now be supplied 
 artificially. As natural and spontaneous education declines, 
 artificial education advances ; otherwise efficiency must be low- 
 ered. The compensation in this case is not voluntary, but 
 forced. Again, the development of technical pursuits and 
 
 17 In fact graduation from a high school generally came to be based 
 on completing so many units of work, though under certain limitations 
 of choice that practically gave a uniform core of subjects as a basis.. 
 By general opinion this core consisted of quotas of language and litera- 
 ture, science, history, and mathematics, in addition to music, drawing,, 
 and physical training. The prescription therefore was not specific but 
 general, allowing considerable opportunity for choice. 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 335 
 
 professions, due to conditions described in previous chapters, 
 emphasized the need of skilled manual work, and this also fos- 
 tered the idea of manual training. The first emphasis, how- 
 ever, was on manual. Then, out of the heat of discussion and 
 the conflict attending so striking a movement to modernize the 
 curriculum, 18 came the thought of an educational purpose. 
 The study of physiological psychology showed the relation of 
 manual training to brain culture, — that such work brings into 
 function brain tracts otherwise neglected. 19 Associational psy- 
 chology suggested and enforced the idea that, by correlating 
 manual training with other subjects, knowledge is related and 
 clarified, thus giving added interest in, and insight into, the 
 other branches of the curriculum. The incidence of thought 
 was now on training; this idea took precedence over the first. 
 Finally came the culture idea. Manual training thus came to 
 concern itself with form as well as matter, with meaning as 
 well as substance. The subject embraces all work of hand and 
 eye combined, bringing into action, and thus contributing to 
 the development of, all mental powers, in one degree or 
 another. It involves, in its widest application, the work of 
 several schools, — the trade school, the school of mechanic 
 arts, and the school of fine arts, — as well as the varied 'manual 
 work that has come into the common school curriculum. An 
 art student, whether concerned with fine arts or mechanic 
 arts, becomes a stronger and finer student and a finer work- 
 man, if he knows the history of his art and the correlations 
 of his art, literary, esthetic, and scientific, i. e., knows more 
 than the bare technique of his calling. A manual training cur- 
 riculum might therefore easily be broadened and become a cul- 
 ture curriculum of the highest type. 
 
 Grading of manual training. — Now as history or science or 
 geography may be and must be graded to suit all ages and thus 
 fulfil their place and relations in schools of all grades, so 
 manual training has an elementary school side and a secondary 
 school side, and it follows the student yet beyond. Particu- 
 
 18 The feelings of would-be educators in this instance are compar- 
 able with those which came on the invasion of the fifteenth century 
 curriculum by new subjects. See Chapter XIV. 
 
 19 Just as physical culture has been enhanced by the same study. 
 
336 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 larly does manual training have great possibilities in the sec- 
 ondary school, if the conditions which have been mentioned 
 are to be fulfilled there. It appeals to adolescents, for they 
 love art and history and great ideas; they are full of activity 
 and like constructive work, whether intellectual or physical. 
 
 A Manual Training High School. — A belief that such sub- 
 jects keep up interest in school work and tempt pupils to pro- 
 long their education, added to a confidence in the training- 
 value and practical value of the new subject, led to the found- 
 ing not of a new school, but a new type of the new school we 
 are considering, the manual training high school, which has 
 had a striking growth in some of our large cities. The idea 
 was too large to be worked out adequately as an attachment of 
 existing high schools. It required a separate school to give 
 a typical development. Manual training could, of course, be 
 made a branch of the regular high school work, and this was 
 frequently done with beneficial results. In fact, if the subject 
 is of any value, it has a necessary relation to all schools, to 
 give a proper outlook on life and a kind of practical training 
 that is much needed. In addition it enhances the value of 
 other studies. But, with all this, the separate school had a 
 place, to show the full meaning and value of the subject and 
 to give a training needed by certain classes in our highly dif- 
 ferentiated communities. In effect it brought into school life a 
 new culture curriculum, of great possibilities or very narrow 
 possibilities, according to the spirit in which it was carried out. 
 It was a peculiarly fitting curriculum for a high school, which 
 is a finishing school for so many. There was needed an oppor- 
 tunity for those who chose mechanical pursuits to equip them- 
 selves for their work, not by learning their trades or profes- 
 sions in the sense of becoming technically proficient in them, 
 for that must come elsewhere, but by cultivating them. This 
 cultivating was to come not through a narrow curriculum, but 
 by one broad enough to give a larger culture that would lead 
 men to work more intelligently, more appreciatively, more 
 interestedly, and more accurately, and give larger play to their 
 minds in many directions. 20 A curriculum or two will give 
 
 20 It is unfortunate that culture has in the minds of many come to 
 signify something that is the antithesis of the practical. Culture in 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 337 
 
 some idea of what was accomplished in the new directions, how 
 far the manual training high school ran parallel with the older 
 types of high school, and what remained to be done to give it 
 more purpose and solidarity. 21 
 
 High School of Commerce — Its philosophy. — Like the 
 arts commercial pursuits also came to demand specialized train- 
 ing. In early days commerce was simple, unorganized, empiric 
 cal, personal; ideals were narrow, crude, individual; competi- 
 tion was general, long-ranged, inarticulate, shrewd. Any man 
 with ordinary gifts and good management could succeed. But 
 now business began to be organized, scientific, impersonal; 
 ideals were becoming broader, though still narrow and one- 
 sided, polished, though not refined, corporate ; competition was 
 developing into something minutely particular, close-ranged, ar- 
 ticulate, keen, cruel, predatory. Commerce therefore demanded 
 more than a general training. It demanded also more than a 
 technical business curriculum, which deals with little more than 
 the forms and mechanics of business. 
 
 Value of technical training for business ideals. — But there 
 was something more important than all this. Trade had be- 
 come an institution. To serve it successfully, to turn it from 
 doubtful and unworthy tendencies that were coming in, and 
 toward a realization of its best, one must know its character- 
 istics, its departments, its laws and codes, its principles and 
 practice. No one could know it all in detail, but he must, in 
 addition to a general knowledge, familiarize himself minutely 
 with his department. He must know sources and resources, 
 routes hither and yon, formulae of production, economies of 
 handling, possibilities of by-products, means of improvement, 
 laws of growth, possibilities of invention, — not that one could 
 know it all intimately, but he must know it all in the large and 
 be able to command it all, and see that it was forthcoming. 
 Success might depend on any one of these things. A mill saved 
 by some economy might turn the tide ; a route better by a few 
 
 the true sense gives power to see, comprehend, and appreciate relations, 
 and this is the essence of practicality. Culture is in no way synonymous 
 with knowledge. 
 
 21 See Appendix to Chapter XXIII. 
 
 Here again we must note the rise of vocational studies and the pros- 
 pect of more specialized vocational high schools. See also Chapter XIX. 
 
33 S THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 miles, or quicker by a few hours, might be a pivotal matter. A 
 scientific study of economics might obviate an advance in 
 freight rates. All this meant that commerce demanded experts 
 who knew not mere forms, but meanings and relations, the 
 inner springs and principles of motion. A broad culture cur- 
 riculum in commercial science, — commercial chemistry, 
 physics, history, geography, psychology, law, — was necessary 
 to 'train the man of business. There was thus room for both 
 a secondary and a tertiary curriculum. So came high schools 
 of commerce to join the specialized schools. They had small 
 development, as yet, but found a place in the largest centers. 22 
 
 Social reasons for commercial education. — There are, how- 
 ever, other reasons why commerce should demand a broad cul- 
 ture as a preparation for serving it. If trade or commerce is 
 an institution, as it ought to be, it must develop the character- 
 istics of an institution, the chief of which is service. Service 
 is fundamental in all institutions and other characteristics grow 
 out of it. For that they are born ; by that they grow. Com- 
 merce has primarily no rights, — at any rate no monopolistic 
 right with natural resources ; no institution or individual has ; 
 it has a steward-right or rent-right only. Its typical function 
 is as an intermediary between sources and public, and it has a 
 right to legitimate compensation and rewards for that service, 
 commensurate with its ability and efforts, but correlative with 
 the compensation and rewards accorded other institutions, no 
 more. Contrary ideas are based on feudal civilization. 
 
 Now it is this side of commercial life that a specialized study 
 of business is calculated to develop. There is scope here for 
 adolescent inspiration. There is room for broad secondary 
 courses and curricula and for broader and more detailed uni- 
 versity courses. 
 
 Rise of the Agricultural High School. — One more line of 
 specialization calls for notice. It has to do with the funda- 
 mental profession of all, — agriculture. In the early stages of 
 development in our country crude methods and a natural 
 science of agriculture brought sufficient returns and equalized 
 opportunities and fortunes in a democracy of agriculturists. 
 
 22 See Appendix of Chapter XXIII for the curriculum of a typical 
 commercial high school. 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 339 
 
 Land was abundant and stretched limitlessly beyond current 
 needs. Overflow was provided for without intensifying culti- 
 vation. But conditions changed. Population pressed upon 
 natural agricultural resources, though not so seriously as to 
 rule out entirely the old state of agriculture. Finally com- 
 pensation in the net returns for expenditure of capital and 
 effort in agriculture was not sufficient, when compared with 
 inducements in other directions, to insure an adequate develop- 
 ment of natural agricultural resources. It was not sufficient to 
 " keep up the stock," to say nothing of advance. It was thus 
 necessary that agricultural life should hold out larger induce- 
 ments, larger commercial opportunities. With it all, there 
 was an urgent call for surplus products to supply other popu- 
 lations that pressed too closely on their own sources of sup- 
 ply. These were technical reasons for giving more attention to 
 agricultural interests. Interwoven with them were reasons 
 suggested by the palpable decline in the quality of country life 
 that had its ground in the same general conditions that have 
 been described. Agriculture had fallen from its once com- 
 manding position and had come to be looked upon as one of 
 the lower and more uncultured vocations. Education and 
 talent had sought other fields, and agriculture had come to be 
 regarded as the haven of the common people, who were thus 
 in a way isolated by certain very artificial distinctions. A kind 
 of caste had grown up. 
 
 A change in the status of agriculture. — This was not only 
 wrong, but dangerous for the future of agriculture. A change 
 was needed. The lack of motif must be remedied. The status 
 and personnel of country life must be improved. The profes- 
 sion of agriculture must again reach its commanding position 
 as the leading vocation, attractive and stimulating to the high- 
 est talent, fostered by a very definite and insistent education 
 and training, and distinguished for culture. The change began, 
 partly through the influences mentioned above. Agriculture 
 was coming into its own. 
 
 A science of agriculture. — Every human interest, of itself, 
 inevitably becomes an object of exploration and study, first 
 by the few, then by the many. It accumulates a body of 
 experience which must be handed on, As it makes itself a 
 
34 o THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 matter of serious study, it discloses its laws and becomes organ- 
 ized. It then becomes scientific and so more than ever an 
 object of devotion for students. All this and something more 
 awakened a new attitude toward agriculture. Both justice and 
 sentiment on the part of thoughtful observers and students of 
 national opportunities led to the adoption of means for encour- 
 aging and promoting such a wide-spread and important inter- 
 est. What means surer than education? Out of such condi- 
 tions naturally came a science of agriculture with its incentives 
 to study. Courses in agriculture were established. They 
 grew ; they made more courses necessary ; they claimed a place 
 in the common schools ; they made a new high school with a 
 new curriculum. 
 
 Earliest form of agricultural schools. — The earliest form 
 of agricultural education under public control was the state 
 agricultural college, which from more than one point of view 
 might be rated as a secondary school. It began about i860 
 and was materially aided by the general government through 
 the " Morrill Act" of 1862. It was still further advanced by 
 appropriations provided by the " Hatch Act/' of 1887, which 
 encouraged experiments and set free inventive genius of a new 
 kind. As a rule, preparation for these schools was left to the 
 regular high and elementary schools. 23 The high schools, with 
 their new studies were able to respond in a measure to the 
 demands. But agricultural studies must be graded if they are 
 to have a sound development. An agricultural secondary 
 school was the natural concomitant of the agricultural college. 
 Here was the vantage ground for the initiation of the work, 
 for reasons stated before and needing no rehearsal here. In 
 reality, the secondary school did come first, for the college, as 
 just indicated, was probably to be classed with secondary edu- 
 cation. As the college grew its secondary functions naturally 
 fell to another school. But the agricultural high school was 
 more especially needed to give a culture course to the majority 
 of intending agriculturists who go no further in school life. 
 It began its mission in the West near the end of the century. 
 
 23 It need not be surprising that elementary schools are mentioned 
 here, for in some instances admission requirements had to be low to 
 meet the new conditons, 
 
THE HIGH SCHOOL 341 
 
 It has the same claim for recognition as the manual training 
 high school or the commercial high school, and it is as logical 
 a development as they. 
 
 Country life winning. — Inventions that have improved 
 means of communication and given better opportunities for cul- 
 ture are fast doing away with country isolation, — bringing city 
 and country together. Country life is winning back its old 
 charm. Scientific agriculture, with its opportunities for inven- 
 tion and for creating and propagating new species, and with 
 its incitement to new records, gives still further attractiveness 
 to that life and makes it a worthier object of high talent. This 
 is a result in part of the movement that has given the agricul- 
 tural high school. May it not be in part a cause of that 
 school ? 24 
 
 Method. — In these various forms of the High School, 
 method in general followed the trend of the period described 
 in'the last chapter. Method determines the value of the cur- 
 riculum. It is the inner spirit of the educational process. The 
 High School, being a new institution and hence less hampered 
 by tradition than older secondary schools, had a fairer oppor- 
 tunity than the latter for initiative in method. That it did not 
 seem to respond to the opportunity is perhaps a sign of its 
 newness. It was so occupied with getting its new forms started 
 that for a time at least it gave less thought to method and dis- 
 played less care in the preparation of teachers than older sec- 
 ondary schools, especially the secondary schools on the Con- 
 tinent of Europe. But beneath all this was the fundamental 
 conservatism of secondary education that is apparent from the 
 facts embodied in the last chapters. During the last years of 
 the period, however, method began to attract more earnest care 
 and thought and promised a genuine renaissance. 
 
 Summar}/-. — The evolution of secondary education in the 
 United States was a rapid and striking one. As we follow its 
 course we find five stages: — 1. The Grammar School period. 
 
 2. The District School with its secondary school attachments. 
 
 3. The Academy period. 4. The High School period. 5. The 
 
 24 A typical curriculum of this school is furnished by an agricultural 
 high school in a typical agricultural state. See Appendix to Chapter 
 XXIII, 
 
342 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 period of differentiated high schools and high school curricula. 
 The spontaneity and unconventionality of its growth, the free- 
 dom with which it adapted itself to different needs and condi- 
 tions, its purpose to serve the public, and its apparent lack of 
 system and internal organization are perhaps the most con- 
 spicuous characteristics of the American secondary school up 
 to the end of the nineteenth century. 
 
XXII 
 
 A REVIEW OF THE EVOLUTION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION FROM 
 DIFFERENT VIEW-POINTS 
 
 It will be of interest here to sum up and classify some of the 
 main facts as to secondary education that we have discovered 
 as we have followed its development through various epochs, 
 and to make some generalizations that will form a perspective 
 and be of value in a discussion of secondary school interests. 
 
 Grading of education. — First then, education, through the 
 influences which have been described in the different chapters, 
 has become significantly differentiated into I, primary educa- 
 tion; 2, secondary education; 3, higher education, which have 
 met us everywhere since the Greek people developed a graded 
 education. 
 
 Aims, with examples. — Again, the aims of education have 
 been rather clearly differentiated and embodied in several school 
 types: — I. The cultural, as seen in the later Greek schools 
 and their Roman counterparts, in a few great schools of the 
 early Christian centuries, in the universities, and their feeders 
 inside and outside, the typical classical schools of the Renais- 
 sance and later times, and finally in the modern Gymnasium of 
 Germany, the Lycee of France, the Great Public School of 
 Great Britain, and the classical High School of America. 
 2. The practical, vocational, or industrial, represented by the 
 more characteristic sophist schools, by a certain type of the 
 Roman rhetorical school, by the parish schools in which the 
 early Church taught its followers the rudiments of agriculture 
 with other rudiments, in a somewhat different way and on a 
 different plane by the arithmetic schools of the guilds and the 
 modernized English schools of the fifteenth century 1 that were 
 forerunners of the modern commercial school, and, in the last 
 
 1 It will be remembered that these schools introduced commercial 
 subjects that scandalized the Latinists. 
 
 343 
 
344 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 decades, by industrial and trade secondary schools in different 
 countries. 3. The technical, illustrated by the various technical 
 schools of Europe and America. 4. The professional, best 
 exemplified by the grammar and rhetorical schools of old 
 Greece and Rome that trained the orator, by the early uni- 
 versity faculties of law and theology that trained members of 
 the clerical profession for their broad and commanding places 
 in society, by the same and additional faculties of the modern 
 university, and by specialized professional schools of to-day. 
 
 The cultural type most prominent. — Till the eighteenth 
 century the industrial type was not largely represented in the 
 schools. Industrial life was as yet simple and unorganized, and 
 rarely felt the need of specific preparation through organized 
 education. But, as we have just seen, both primary and sec- 
 ondary education, secondary more than primary, had entered 
 the field of vocational education with considerable effect. 2 
 On the other hand, schools of the cultural type were promi- 
 nent and were highly organized and very effective. 
 
 The real movement. — From the eighteenth century on the 
 secondary school very logically, but very gradually, devel- 
 oped forms and programs that had been objects of less con- 
 cern before. In the struggle for a greater freedom the first 
 notable epoch is that which culminated in the real-schule move- 
 ment of the early eighteenth century, which quickly fell away 
 before a revived cultural movement represented by the New 
 Humanism, less formal than the old humanism, but scarcely 
 less abstract. The new movement, however, was not dead. It 
 reappeared in stronger form and under more favorable circum- 
 stances in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Then the 
 line of cleavage became definite and decisive. The two ideas, 
 the cultural and practical, were embodied in two distinct series 
 of schools, or in separate departments in the same school. 
 
 Cleavage between classical and scientific aims. — But the 
 one, the practical, always tended toward the cultural, for all 
 studies eventually become culturized, if they are true to their 
 own implications; the other, the cultural, pari passu, was as 
 constantly forcing itself, or being forced, to become more con- 
 
 2 It may be questioned whether, for the times, as much attention was 
 not given to vocational training as at present. 
 
A REVIEW AND A FORECAST 345 
 
 crete and practical. During the last fifty years the process has 
 been greatly accelerated and differentiation into several prac- 
 tical-cultural types has been pronounced. Another and higher 
 humanism has appeared. 
 
 Ideals. — During the period under review the secondary 
 school has had a wonderful history. From epoch to epoch we 
 have noted new ideas, methods, means and ends, but the school 
 has never lost its identity. Plans and ideals, however, have 
 changed through natural growth and have been modified by 
 artificial pressure. Ideals are fundamental. Plans are sub- 
 servient to them. Ideals are especially interesting when viewed 
 in historical succession. The next step, therefore, will be to 
 show this succession by arranging the ideals in a series with 
 brief comments as to their significance. We have then : 
 
 1. The tribal ideal, under which the tribe (or later, when 
 the larger political unit was developed, the state), was every- 
 thing and the individual nothing. Progress depended upon the 
 will of the whole body. There was no individual initiative, no 
 opportunity for individuals to shoot ahead by the inspiration of 
 genius and lead the way. The chances for advance were there- 
 fore as one to a thousand. It was a static ideal. Here rote- 
 learning had its birth. 
 
 2. The civic ideal, under which the state regulated educa- 
 tion for its own well-being, but gave the individual large scope. 
 
 3. The individual ideal that made individual development 
 the central motive, thus creating a dynamic state of society. 
 In its extreme form it made the individual everything and the 
 state nothing. Hence the state fell. 
 
 The last two ideals were conspicuous in the history of both 
 the Greek and the Roman state. 
 
 4. The institutional ideal, in which an institution was 
 substituted for state influence. In general it was the counter- 
 part of 1 ; in a special and very limited application it was the 
 counterpart of 2. 
 
 5. A psychologic ideal, under which men devoted them- 
 selves most intensively to the development of mental acumen by 
 a single subject. It served as a transition from 4 to 6. 
 
 6. The humanistic ideal, which began in the Renaissance 
 period, but flourished more typically in the new humanistic 
 
346 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 period that followed. It involved strict training in the ele- 
 ments of great subjects that represented the essence of past 
 culture and art ; it was calculated to set the spirit free for the 
 enjoyment of the best of past acquisition, and beyond this, to 
 stimulate creative genius. At its best it was a genuine incentive 
 to thought and enterprise in a rich, though somewhat circum- 
 scribed field, — a great field however for the times. At its 
 lowest it left one bound in the bare forms, non-spiritualized. 
 Altogether it made a period of great spontaneity and achieve- 
 ment, and served well as a preparation for exploration and 
 creation in an unlimited field. Perhaps its motif may be 
 best expressed by the word appreciation, — appreciation of the 
 best in literature and art as a lift in the development of power. 
 It was at heart aristocratic, and thus found its most character- 
 istic function in class education. 
 
 7. A new civic and individual ideal, in which two inspirat- 
 ional thoughts coalesced, an ideal that was for modern 
 times, with their more substantial and persistent spirit, the 
 correlate of 2 and 3. The more steadying, pervasive, and en- 
 during force of Christianity gave it a larger and deeper mean- 
 ing and a new outlook and purpose. The ideal, faithfully ap- 
 plied, brings the individual manifold power and makes him an 
 effective user of his power and a useful and dependable citizen. 
 The ideal halved, as has sometimes been true, leads to extreme 
 individualism, from which the world has suffered much. But, 
 taken in its completeness and in its genuine form, this ideal 
 gives the best conditions for progress, a perfect balance of in- 
 dividual and community interests. It secures individual ini- 
 tiative, supports and strengthens the state organization that 
 makes acquisition firm and gives it value, and develops the social 
 spirit that is the mainstay of society. At heart it is democratic. 
 
 8. Formal discipline. — In the course of this growth there 
 has seemed to be an eighth ideal or partial ideal that held the 
 field with others. It has given a certain thoroughness, exact- 
 ness, and skill through rigid application and drill. Those who 
 were not driven from the school, through repulsion for the 
 process, gained a kind of greatness and power from " continu- 
 ous association with great subjects," because they in some way 
 caught the spirit from the matter, not the form, and felt the 
 
A REVIEW AND A FORECAST 347 
 
 stimulus and enthusiasm for achievement that came with it. 
 This was perhaps in spite of the ideal rather than because of it. 
 For the average pupil it gave partial results rather than full 
 development, form rather than spirit. In reality it was only 
 a branch or accessory of method, not an ideal, and yet it has 
 often so occupied the forefront of attention that it has seemed 
 the ideal itself, rather than a means. 
 
 These ideals have affected the secondary school more than 
 any other part of school life, because it is the basal and cen- 
 tral school, and thus has been the object of the most intensive 
 educational effort. In application most of the ideals have 
 missed the peculiar element that adapts them to pupils of the 
 secondary age. This has been peculiarly unfortunate, because 
 adolescence is especially a period of ideals and so is open to the 
 influence of informing ideas more than any other period. 
 
 Precedence of the secondary school in development and 
 in civic functions. — But more interesting than this progres- 
 sion of ideals is another matter that has been prominent in this 
 historical study, the relative position and influence of the sec- 
 ondary school in the community. The secondary school was 
 the first school to be developed. Primitive peoples had a defi- 
 nite organization for accomplishing a definite purpose for the 
 age that corresponds to our secondary school age. It was the 
 only organized form of education at that time, and was there- 
 fore primary, not secondary. Up to this period of life children 
 could gain in a natural way, without any special organization, 
 what information and training were necessary. But the tribes- 
 men saw in early adolescence certain characteristics that made 
 it the period of definite instruction in an organized school. For 
 the first time the child could see meanings and relations in more 
 than an external way. For the first time he could be inspired 
 with devotion that would lead him to defend and protect tribal 
 ideals and conserve tribal life, even to the point of sacrifice. 
 He now had the physique and the mental power to become a 
 safe factor in tribal interests. Now for the first time he could 
 appreciate and preserve tribal secrets, for he had reached the 
 secretive age. Hence the best of the tribal inheritances could 
 be explained, or exhibited, and given over to him as surety. 
 The adolescent period is the time for showing meanings, inspir- 
 
348 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 ing, instructing, relating. The great purpose of education in 
 this period is to give the adolescent the choicest treasures of the 
 experience of the race and to initiate him into citizenship. 
 Head men of the tribe therefore utilized it for inducting into 
 great tribal ideas, for developing great tribal interests. The 
 early tribes felt its opportuneness in a general way, felt it 
 intuitively not as a result of specific reasoning. They saw that 
 this secondary period meant more to the tribe than any other, 
 and that education now was peculiarly essential for tribal exist- 
 ence. The following period, later adolescence, was the one for 
 giving technique and firm mastery, the practice that made the 
 expert tribal citizen, the judgment and rude philosophy that 
 made the tried adviser and manager. This came from partici- 
 pation in tribal life. The boy was now a part of the tribal 
 organization. This was his higher school. 
 
 Higher education in early ages. — The higher education of 
 the ancients attained its greatest development in the latter part 
 of the early Greek period described in Chapter IV. 3 It there 
 carried out precisely the spirit of primitive education, only the 
 spirit was colored by the peculiar characteristics of Greek life. 
 It was preceded, as in primitive education, by secondary in- 
 struction in matters sacred to the Greek people. 
 
 Coming of the elementary school. — The first change which 
 affected this general plan of education was the introduction of 
 written language, followed by the rapid growth of literature. 
 It therefore became necessary to master the symbols of this 
 written language. This was an initial and elementary process 
 and fell naturally and logically to children. It was also a 
 formal process and suggested organized educational forces to 
 
 3 Higher education since then has developed special school forms, be- 
 cause society has become specialized and divided. The solidarity of the 
 tribe gave place to the looser organization of the nation. It became 
 necessary therefore, when the boy, from his place in society, could no 
 longer gain the training required to fit him for his duties, to establish 
 special schools for the purpose. Again participation in community life 
 came to be only partial. Hence special civic training in school became 
 necessary. Later centuries so magnified the special training and mini- 
 mized the general concrete civic training that a gap was finally left in 
 education. Lately the public conscience has been somewhat aroused, 
 and attempts of various sorts have been made to correlate school with 
 life. 
 
A REVIEW AND A FORECAST 349 
 
 compass it. Previously the school of nature and community 
 life sufficed to meet the educational needs of the child. Now 
 the need of another special school-form was felt. Inevitably 
 the formal elementary school arose. 
 
 Changes in the secondary school due to the coming of the 
 elementary school. — But one must be able also to master 
 the spirit of written language, — to feel, to appreciate, and to 
 express feelingly and appreciatively. This attitude toward, and 
 this kind of contact with, literature belongs to adolescence. 
 Then for the first time the real appreciation of literature be- 
 gins; feelings grow strong; love of eloquence develops. The 
 formal part of language work must be over, so that youth may 
 come to its real work. 4 The secondary school thus just as 
 naturally took up this more advanced study of language and 
 literature as the lower school busied itself with symbols, the 
 early stage of reading, and memory gems. 
 
 Development of linguistic study — Rise of the University. 
 — We may look at it in another way. As society grew more 
 complex the qualifications for serving it became more exacting. 
 The value of language power for moving men and winning 
 place and distinction became apparent. The natural education 
 that in early Greece and Rome, as well as among primitive peo- 
 ples, was sufficient for preparing men to serve the state could 
 no longer suffice. As the result of the two lines of influ- 
 ence new and higher institutions arose specially calculated 
 to give the needed training both general and technical, the 
 
 4 Modern psychology added another reason for assigning this work to 
 the elementary school when it discovered that the years just before 
 puberty are best for form work. 
 
 The mastery of the symbols of language was at first the only neces- 
 sary function of the elementary school, though the elements of number, 
 an entirely minor matter, came into the elementary school very early, 
 perhaps at the outset. (We should, however, here note again the typical 
 Greek elementary curriculum.) Community life gave the rest, as it al- 
 ways had done. The elementary school became a very serious matter. 
 Hours were long, — from daylight to dark. The child was literally con- 
 fined in the elementary school. Hence the natural mastery of the 
 facts of nature and practical life, which tribal life had supplied, failed. 
 To make good this serious loss various attempts were made, in succeed- 
 ing centuries, to bring the child back to nature or nature back to the 
 child. Da Feltre, Rousseau, Comenius, Pestalozzi, and a long line of 
 others took up the case of the child and rescued school life from the 
 bareness and abstractness that had so long characterized it. 
 
350 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 secondary school to give the specific language foundation, 
 the school of oratory to supply the technical training. Thus 
 two new phases of language study showed themselves, one 
 typified by the study of grammar and composition, the other, 
 to which the first led, by the study of rhetoric and oratory. 
 These are the changes in education that were going on in the 
 Greek period discussed in Chapter V. The logical outcome, 
 however, is seen more clearly in the Roman schools. The first 
 of the new phases of language study formalized the secondary 
 school and began the tradition of formal discipline ; the second 
 was higher or university work as organized by the classical 
 nations. 
 
 New relations of the secondary school and their effects. — 
 A great change had thus come to the secondary school. It was 
 wedged in between two growing schools. The elementary 
 school prepared the way for it and prescribed for it on the one 
 side ; the higher school prescribed and influenced on the other. 
 The secondary master envied the teacher of rhetoric and 
 trenched upon his province. The elementary school, with its 
 prescriptions, and the pressure of a more complex society 
 tended to make the secondary school an advanced school of let- 
 ters with the intensive linguistic and rhetorical courses that 
 have been described. The secondary school was thus beginning 
 to lose its identity and to give up or minimize some of its most 
 fundamental characteristics, though they were entirely consist- 
 ent with its new position. It suffered a tremendous loss, 
 realization of which finally set in motion a whole series of influ- 
 ences pressing for reform in secondary education. 
 
 The mediaeval university and its effect on the secondary 
 school. — But the university of the later mediaeval centuries 
 was the crowning development in school forms. Its rise was 
 far more momentous in the history of education than the rise 
 of universities in ancient Greece. Its origin was different. 
 Its aims were higher, its implications were greater, its influ- 
 ence was farther reaching than anything that had gone before. 
 With the development of this later university came another 
 episode in the history of the secondary school. It was not a 
 distinctly new episode, but it was fraught with longer and 
 larger consequences. 
 
A REVIEW AND A FORECAST 351 
 
 The vassalage of the secondary school. — With the partial 
 eclipse of education in the first millennium of the Christian era 
 the newly developed university, finding difficulty in securing 
 students who were prepared to take up its courses, took the 
 natural alternative of preparing them itself. It thus had its 
 own secondary schools within its own precincts, as seen in an 
 earlier chapter. The university also profoundly influenced 
 secondary schools outside, so that they felt a new stimulus and 
 raised themselves to a higher standard. Henceforth, by what- 
 ever name called, secondary schools were regarded as, in an 
 important sense, existing for the university. They were pre- 
 paratory schools and found their ends outside themselves. The 
 secondary school thus came into the ownership of another, 
 and a long vassalage began. The university at once proceeded 
 to make certain requirements of the secondary school for its 
 own ends. 
 
 A change in the center of interest in education. — After 
 a time the university gave over to the secondary school some of 
 its own earlier tasks and imposed its methods. Added to this 
 external pressure was the ambition of the secondary school to 
 get for itself some of the attractive things of university educa- 
 tion and university life. Secondary teachers trained in the uni- 
 versity liked the more advanced work and method from which 
 they had just come, and secondary pupils were fond of imitat- 
 ing what they could not yet appreciate. 5 As a result of all, the 
 secondary school got beyond its depth. It was lumbered with 
 much that was totally beyond its power and unsuited to its 
 characteristics. The center of interest had thus shifted. 
 Originally it was the adolescent school, and everything pointed 
 toward it, led up to it, or radiated from it. Now it was the 
 university, and everything took its emphasis from it. 
 
 This change in the nature of the secondary school was an 
 artificial one, due to hasty organization suggested by the 
 emergency of the moment. It was not natural, nor studied, nor 
 scientific. Nevertheless it impressed itself deeply on the school 
 organism. For six hundred years these relations of the two 
 
 5 We may recall here what Quintilian said as to fondness of gram- 
 mar masters for appropriating part of the work of the rhetorical schools. 
 See Chapter IX. 
 
352 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 schools continued, becoming stronger with time and growth. 
 
 The first break in the policy. — The real movement of the 
 eighteenth century first broke this continuity. It started the 
 development of a series of schools not bound to the university, 
 though still keeping much of the old form and method. The 
 establishment of the first high school in America early the next 
 century gave secondary education another opportunity for 
 initiative, and the outlook for a secondary school closely 
 related to the people was bright. But almost immediately the 
 university adopted the new school and made it one of the most 
 intense and exacting preparatory schools of all. There has 
 therefore been little change in the relation of secondary and 
 higher education till within the last decades. The eighteenth 
 century real movement was significant only in making a cleavage 
 in secondary education, rather than in modifying the relations 
 of existing schools. 6 This modification was left for the late 
 years of the nineteenth century and for the early twentieth 
 century. During these years school agencies, working not so 
 much for independent as for adaptable secondary education, 
 have succeeded in modifying and reforming university-high 
 school relations. 7 There have therefore been two movements, 
 one to establish divergent series of schools and their higher 
 correlates adapted to modern life, the other to readjust rela- 
 tions between secondary education and higher education in gen- 
 eral. 
 
 Emancipation of the secondary school. — The real genius 
 of educational development is to push out into higher forms, — 
 into more complete equipment. The lower needs the inspira- 
 tion of the higher. The higher needs the stimulus and help of 
 the lower. In this movement the old university has undergone 
 quite as much modification as the old secondary school. What 
 has been taking place is really an emancipation of the second- 
 ary school that will leave it free to work out its real spirit for 
 the interests of all, and will have the effect of making both the 
 higher and the lower school face modern life in a cooperative 
 way, so that each will use the other in supplying broader train- 
 
 6 For most of the nineteenth century the secondary school continued 
 practically as a preparatory school. 
 
 7 See Chapter XIX, pp. 300 ff., and notes, and p. 309. 
 
A REVIEW AND A FORECAST 353 
 
 ing for the small but increasing number of those who can take 
 an extended course of study. At the same time it will permit 
 the high school to serve efficiently and appreciatively as a gen- 
 eral training ground for that large body of adolescents that 
 must confine its education to this school. 
 
 The movement to make the secondary school again the cen- 
 tral institution, responsive to its own ideals and needs, is a most 
 interesting phase of educational development. In studying and 
 solving the problem of bringing this school to its own again we 
 need to realize how deep are the roots of the problem, how 
 long a history it has had. 
 
 Pressing problems of the secondary school. — This problem 
 at first sight strikes the attention prominently and has been 
 engaging thought in all parts of the world. But there are other 
 secondary school problems more fundamental, because they 
 grow out of the nature of the secondary pupil and the nature 
 of the educational process, — problems of means and ends, of 
 scope and organization, of curriculum, method, and administra- 
 tion. Their solution will materially affect the solution of the 
 first and more external and superficial problem. Here it is 
 particularly important to have a thorough knowledge of the 
 history of secondary education and be able to follow its evolu- 
 tion, if we are to find the basal causes and reach definite and 
 permanent results ; for the problems, — their relations, their 
 form, and their implications, — reach far back. 
 
 The future. — As the high school appears on the edge of the 
 twentieth century we find not only large and worthy achieve- 
 ments standing to its credit, but certain very definite opportuni- 
 ties and needs calling it. In the case of any individual organ- 
 ism the body develops before the spirit. In the world organ- 
 ism present events make it only too manifest that the body has 
 developed far beyond the spirit. Civilization at first pioneers 
 and grasps at the most obvious necessities. In the development 
 of high school education the same condition exists, — perhaps 
 unnecessarily, but still no less definitely, and no less worthy of 
 solicitude. It is wisdom to face the situation frankly. The 
 external has outstripped the internal. More attention has been 
 given to administration than to organization, to forms and 
 curricula than to content and method, to teachers' knowledge 
 
354 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 than to training for the teaching profession, to the formal 
 demands of business and society, of college and technical 
 school, than to real appreciation of the aims of the high school 
 and its fuller relations to what is around and beyond it, to 
 formal study than to a realization of adolescent qualities and 
 adjustments, of what is after all the most vital preparation for 
 all the ultimate purposes and stages of development that have 
 been referred to. Just demands upon the high school there- 
 fore have often been lost sight of. Over against striking and 
 most useful gains must be set the things still left to be done, 
 and that with no disparagement of present accomplishments. 
 The twentieth century thus has its work clearly marked out in 
 these particulars and faces no inconsiderable task, — all the 
 harder because it is not yet fully realized and appreciated by 
 the general school public. 
 
 Three needs. — As the last century closed the high school 
 was waiting confidently for three things, — I, a reorganization 
 of its curriculum-content, old and new; 2, changes in method 
 based upon psychological principles; 3, a new spirit and aim 
 and an organization consonant with them that would relate the 
 school more closely to life and the ideas of democracy. The 
 first had its beginning with the German realists and had been 
 progressing very slowly since. It remained to eliminate the 
 outworn, to adapt the new to the old more perfectly, and to 
 adapt all more fully to new aims and ends. The second was 
 initiated by Comenius and Pestalozzi, and was advanced by the 
 German realists abroad and by Agassiz and his students and 
 kindred spirits in this country. It touched the secondary 
 school through the elementary school and the university, but 
 it touched it rather lightly for a long time, for the secondary 
 school has always been a laggard here and not an enterprising 
 student of the psychology and pedagogy of adolescence. A 
 method carefully differentiated from elementary school method, 
 on the one hand, and from college method, on the other, was 
 still to be developed. Too long it had been assumed that one 
 general method applies to all cases, and that a special method 
 for teaching a subject may be applied uniformly at any age of 
 the pupil. The third reform was coming slowly through scien- 
 tific study and through discussion from three view-points, first, 
 
A REVIEW AND A FORECAST 355 
 
 the history of the secondary school that furnishes the key to 
 an understanding of the problem and its implications ; second, 
 the study of adolescence and of genetic psychology ; and third, 
 a closer investigation of the just relations of secondary educa- 
 tion to the present organization of society. 
 
 Variety without unity. — This analysis brings out one 
 side. To state the situation in another way and with special 
 reference to our own country, it may be said that the last cen- 
 tury was at once a transitional and an initial one. It had the 
 characteristics natural to such a period. It would seem the 
 counterpart of the early Christian era. Pressed by new ideas 
 and new demands, distracted by the breaking up of old rela- 
 tions and the establishment of new ones, it had turned spas- 
 modically now in this direction, now in that, as the circum- 
 stances of the moment suggested, and as a single ray of light 
 directed. Conditions for settled forms did not exist. It was 
 a time of experimenting. Orientation had been imperfect. 
 Impulse unsupported by careful scientific judgment had been 
 the guide. Education had felt a way rather than made a way. 
 Many guiding facts had been lacking, and those present had 
 been unorganized. Hence it had been a period of variety 
 without unity in secondary education, of multiplicity of forms 
 without the definite crystallization of types. The work had 
 thus been external. It was for a new century to classify, to 
 organize, to give scientific substance and unity, in place of 
 shifting ideas and forms. This involved a new study of the 
 whole of education as applied to current needs. 
 
 Another generalization — Progress in democratizing sec- 
 ondary education. — Still another generalization from a differ- 
 ent point of view will be interesting, and it will help us to appre- 
 ciate the condition at the end of the century and to interpret the 
 signs of the coming epoch in secondary education. When 
 the eighteenth century closed secondary education was essen- 
 tially aristocratic, accessible only to certain classes, this partly 
 because of national sentiment and consequent administrative 
 restrictions, and partly because of prohibitive expense. Little 
 change was made in the social relations of the secondary school 
 till the nineteenth century was well-nigh spent. Its last decades 
 saw great progress in accessibility of secondary education, in 
 
356 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 urgency to take advantage of its larger opportunities and in 
 readiness to respond to them. 8 It remained for the twen- 
 tieth century to democratize it, to open it to all classes by abol- 
 ishing administrative hindrances, and, by relieving or remov- 
 ing individual expense, to press its claims on all, till its full 
 power is realized. 
 
 Reasons for extending secondary education. — Every indi- 
 vidual is entitled to freedom. Education sets the individual 
 free to develop his power to high possibilities. Individual 
 power settled, collective power is assured. Education, rightly 
 conceived and administered, is a selective process that deter- 
 mines and measures a nation's assets. To disclose a nation's 
 real strength it must select from the many, not from the few. 
 Even the poorest that goes through the process becomes a more 
 effective agent by a margin sufficient to balance the cost of the 
 process. Certain censors, by the fiat of individual judgment 
 based on partial data and on aristocratic notions, would restrict 
 the ministries of higher forms of education to certain groups 
 that show promise in earlier stages of education. This is a 
 dangerous policy. Tests at one period of life, whether of indi- 
 vidual or race, are for that period alone and do not apply to 
 a later period, when all conditions are changed and a new 
 growth, quantitatively and qualitatively, is proceeding. It may 
 often happen that ability of a high order does not appear in 
 early years. If education is limited to this period, this ability 
 may never be found. Education, if honestly and continuously 
 applied, is a great discoverer. It goes straight to the main- 
 springs of action and discloses whatever power is there. It 
 should be offered to all in unstinted measure and should thor- 
 oughly test and evaluate all. 
 
 Universal secondary education a special discoverer of 
 power. — Elementary education, made universal, opened up a 
 certain proportion of the human resources of the nation and 
 world, and put in motion a certain degree of national and world 
 power. Universal secondary education will make it possible 
 to utilize resources and power, not in a second degree merely, 
 but in a far higher degree, because of the peculiar vantage 
 ground of secondary pupils, recognized in all ages and nations 
 
 s See Chapter XIX. 
 
A REVIEW AND A FORECAST 357 
 
 from primitive times on. 9 Adolescence teems with peculiar 
 power that needs encouragement, direction, adjustment, special 
 development, in short, a refining process, to fulfil its best. Ele- 
 mentary education deals largely with facts and forms and 
 the simpler habits of life. Secondary education deals with 
 great interests and enthusiasms and the higher and the final 
 motive forces that project the individual into the technique of 
 civic and industrial life. It is the time for making world 
 citizens. Citizenship will be of a far higher type if the sec- 
 ondary period of education has the making of it. To be sepa- 
 rated from solicitous school training, when the power that 
 makes the citizen who makes the state is in the most critical 
 stage of development, is a public calamity. 
 
 Universal in primitive times. — Secondary education was 
 universal in the primitive tribes. The life of the tribe required 
 it. As the civic unit grew, civilization neglected or restricted 
 it. Old emphases were dimmed or lost; new emphases were 
 not developed. Civilization in turn must restore what has been 
 lost and add to it, if it is to be protected in systematic, safe, 
 and effective development. We are no farther from universal 
 secondary education, free to all, than the world once was from 
 the same degree of elementary education. 
 
 What is to be the outcome? We instinctively forecast the 
 future. In doing this it is evidently more natural, more profit- 
 able, and, at the same time, safer to consider the secondary 
 school nearest us, — in some ways the most significant of all 
 secondary schools, the High School of the United States. Each 
 nation, while sharing in all the general movements of second- 
 ary education, has its own special history and, with it, its indi- 
 vidual views and aims. Each has, and for some time will 
 continue to have, its own distinctive policy in secondary educa- 
 tion. All nations, however, are steadily assimilating their sec- 
 ondary schools to certain types that a constantly growing com- 
 munity of interests and the increasing similarity of life condi- 
 
 9 At present there are in the U. S. 11,500,000 persons between 15 
 and 19 years of age (inclusive). Of these 4,100,000 are in school. Of 
 5,600,000 between fifteen and sixteen (inclusive) 3,100,000 are in school. 
 A large task is therefore in front of us, as shown elsewhere. Full fig- 
 ures are given in the last Report of the Commissioner of Education, 
 1914-15. 
 
358 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 tions the world over dictate. It is best here therefore to con- 
 sider the future of our High School and leave the history and 
 present and future status of other individual secondary school 
 systems, — those of England, Germany, and France, for a 
 separate volume. 10 
 
 10 See also Chapter XIX, pp. 301 f. 
 
XXIII 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY PROGRAMS 
 
 OF STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
 Limitations of a forecast. — Can we, even in outline, por- 
 tray the typical high school of the twentieth century ? Yes and 
 no. No, if on the basis of the interpretation of the secondary 
 school to-day we attempt to apply certain preconceived notions 
 of secondary education, or if we try to determine too many 
 details that only the circumstances of the time can decide. Yes, 
 if we have interpreted the signs of the last epoch rightly, if we 
 take into consideration the convictions of leaders who are most 
 intimately engaged in secondary school work to-day and get 
 their view-points, and if we bring to bear on the matter an 
 historical imagination that has been constantly exercised in an 
 attempt to form clear and sympathetic mental pictures of the 
 feelings, ambitions, and conditions that determined ideals and 
 forms of secondary education in different epochs of its devel- 
 opment. Any forecast thus seriously made is of value in 
 stimulating secondary school thought, whether all agree as to 
 the forecast or not. 
 
 In outlining the general form and modes of the coming high 
 school we must keep in mind one or two fundamental thoughts 
 that are to inform and infuse all that is said, whether men- 
 tioned specifically in every case or not. 
 
 The high school the key to national development. — It 
 must, then, be recognized in all discussions of this kind that the 
 high school is the key to the future development of the nation. 
 A new mentality, new motives, new ambitions and enthusiasms, 
 and a new physical life are the conditions with which the sec- 
 ondary school has to deal on the human side. At the high, 
 school age the great guiding habits of life, mental, physical, 
 and, the resultant of the two, moral, are forming, adolescing. 
 Great fields of thought and effort are being explored with ado- 
 
 359 
 
360 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 lescent zest. Great trends of interest are being determined. 
 The high school period is not so much a preparatory period as 
 a determining and dominant one. It is not merely a second 
 step or epoch in the evolution of the finished social agent ; it is 
 the central epoch. Its training is not a mere limb of education ; 
 it is its central nervous system. It is not a stage up the hill ; it 
 is a hill-top, with other hill-tops in sight, it may be, but still a 
 hill-top, if not the hill-top. These different figures that rep- 
 resent secondary education as a preparation, a part of a system, 
 an evolution, or, poetically, as the climbing of some fair 
 mount, serve to emphasize the critical nature of this period of 
 education. Our whole study has impressed upon us this fact, 
 that the high school is the determining factor in American 
 school life. It makes the university and conditions all that 
 the university does, as it gives the growing pupil his " set " in 
 life. Primitive man felt this dominance ; later man knows it. 
 
 A change in the aim of the high school. — The aim of high 
 school education, as was shown in Chapter XXI, is therefore 
 not to be from without, either generally from some higher 
 institution, or, more particularly, from the urgency of some 
 study with its compact body of facts and principles and its influ- 
 ential clientele to press on its claims and dictate its methods. 
 The aim is to be from within, guided by a sympathetic study 
 of the secondary school period and its implications and obliga- 
 tions. The idea has had a slow beginning. Habits of educa- 
 tion, rooted in a strong educational polity that a former age 
 developed and found peculiarly adapted to itself, both socially 
 and politically, are naturally, and psychologically have to be, 
 obstinate factors to modify. The new century is to bring to 
 the front the real mission of the high school and provide for its 
 ample fulfilment. Applying these ideas each form and process 
 of the high school takes on new meanings and shows new 
 possibilities. 
 
 Growth in the program of studies. — To begin with the 
 program of studies, we shall find, by reviewing recent pages, 
 that a very interesting development is in progress. We found 
 that in the latter half of the nineteenth century modern studies 
 came rapidly into the curriculum. Of the old studies Greek had 
 passed as a required subject. Latin remained, but it was not 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 361 
 
 such an absolute requirement as before. Mathematics still 
 kept their place, but they had begun to share their prestige 
 with other studies. Science, history, and the fine arts had 
 been adopted into the curriculum. The study of the vernacular 
 was showing a finer development, to fill the place left by the 
 waning classics; the previous enterprising classical study had 
 paved the way for it. Vocational subjects had begun to make 
 a definite place for themselves but they lacked standing. 
 
 How studies come into the program — Study changes in 
 the twentieth century high school. — Studies come into the 
 school in response to certain definite conditions. Conditions 
 change, but conservatism tends to keep the studies and maintain 
 their old importance. This is well illustrated by Latin. 1 
 Hence some educational material and some educational ends out- 
 live their usefulness in the way in which they are applied. The 
 secondary school to-day still clings to that which is outworn 
 either in itself or in its method of application. The new cen- 
 tury will advance the process of expurgation. It will see Latin 
 reduced to an elective study. Algebra and geometry will not 
 hold the same absolute position as to-day, nor will they lay 
 claim to the same comparative training value. Science will be 
 made more concrete and adaptable. The mechanic and fine 
 arts are to have wider and finer applications. The vernacular 
 will have a new development, unhampered by traditional clas- 
 sical methods that dominated all language study so long and 
 still have great influence. It will prove an educational agent 
 superior to Latin even in its own field. History is to become 
 a more vital study, especially that phase of it called civics, 
 which has often been a rather perfunctory member of the 
 
 1 In early epochs the secondary school ministered to the few ; prepara- 
 tion for professional life was simple and traditional; in politics absolut- 
 ism favored a formal, memory study, such as Latin then was, rather 
 than a study that developed independence and initiative. Latin was 
 moreover a daily professional necessity, or was the only available liter- 
 ary language, in fact the only study that offered itself as a medium of 
 mental training. Under such circumstances a more or less thorough 
 discipline in Latin served as an excellent propaedeutic to life. These 
 conditions passed, but Latin remained with claims unmodified. 
 
 Again, well known circumstances (see XIX) gave us Greek in the 
 eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These conditions passed. Because 
 Greek had less momentum than Latin in the curriculum, it quickly gave 
 way and became an optional study. 
 
3 62 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 group of high school studies. Its most striking development in 
 the new high school is to be in the direction of " community 
 civics." Through this new motif it is to take on new life and 
 value. 2 With it will go a study of sociology, which by a simple 
 and concrete method will open up a new world to high school 
 students, revealing to them the fundamental forces of society, 
 helping them especially to analyze and appreciate the local 
 community of which they are a part, and cultivating a spirit 
 of service. Vocational subjects will increase in popularity and 
 in real value, and will assume a leading place. But, what is 
 perhaps more significant than anything else in connection with 
 high school studies, the physical side of education will be more 
 definitely represented. There is thus to be a clear revision of 
 the program of studies. There will be a more striking revision 
 of the content of studies, but this point will be more appropri- 
 ately treated later. 
 
 General character of study and instruction. — All these 
 studies have a great future before them, because they lie at 
 the foundation of the business and amenities of life. The 
 twentieth century high school will not tolerate anything super- 
 ficial in any of them. The new studies are to receive as broad 
 and thorough treatment as any studies the high school has ever 
 seen or heard of, and their demands upon the pupil will be as 
 insistent. Even the newest studies that meet with disparage- 
 ment in some quarters at first are to have as whole-souled 
 respect and consideration and as careful planning as any, that 
 they may do their part in developing intelligence, skill, and 
 power, together with public-spirited efficiency. Cultural and 
 practical are to unite in them, as in others. Work it is, solid, 
 thorough, enthusiastic work, that here, as everywhere, will 
 develop fineness of fibre and inspiration to real efficiency. 
 
 2 To indicate the possibilities of such a course, especially when com- 
 bined with sociology, the following outline by Mr. Clarence D. Kingsley, 
 of the Massachusetts Board of Education, is suggestive : — 
 
 Essentials of community welfare: — 
 
 1. Health 6. Wealth, with its correlate, char- 
 
 2. Recreation ities 
 
 3. Education 7. Beauty 
 
 4. Protection of life and property 8. Communication 
 
 5. Order in society (with its cor- 9. Transportation 
 
 relate, correction) 10. Migration. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 363 
 
 Different kinds of thoroughness. — But this caution should 
 be given, that there are different kinds of solidity and different 
 kinds of thoroughness. There is one kind for adolescents, 
 another for adults. We are here speaking of adolescents. 
 Thoroughness has been a favorite word in education. It has 
 often been applied inconsiderately, without noting that it is 
 not an absolute nor a uniform term. What is said farther 
 on as to study-content and method will be suggestive in this 
 connection. 
 
 Number and range of subjects. — The names of studies thus 
 far mentioned in connection with the program of studies are 
 class names rather than individual names. Each one of them 
 represents a whole group of specific studies. In the aggregate 
 we have a multitude. There is, however, no danger of having 
 too many. Adolescence needs a wide field for exploration 
 before determining its settled interests. Even the old studies 
 that conservatism leaves side by side with those that are more 
 modern and that respond more fully to modern conditions, 
 meet a natural interest in many, either for culture or for prac- 
 tical purposes. They may safely remain, provided there is no 
 exaction in regard to them. 3 In this wide range of particular 
 studies there is very definite unity, because they are classified 
 in a few well-marked groups, as already indicated. In the 
 coming high school the main guide will be groups of studies, 
 rather than individual studies. 
 
 Vocational studies and physical education to be the dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics of the new program of studies. — 
 As far as the program of studies is concerned the most con- 
 spicuous characteristic of the twentieth century high school 
 will be its devotion to vocational education and physical edu- 
 cation. As to vocational education it should be noted that it 
 is not a new idea or policy. The curriculum of early schools 
 was vocational in the extreme when it was establishing itself 
 in remote centuries. 4 We have simply forgotten what the 
 
 3 Latin and Greek are still very useful subjects under certain con- 
 ditions. Work done in them has had great educational value. Only 
 an equally enterprising training in the vernaculars can serve as an 
 excuse for supplanting them. 
 
 4 See Chapters XII and XIII. The term, vocational, is a misleading 
 one, almost a misnomer. It actually means that education which pre- 
 
364 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 vocations were and how the curriculum tried to meet them. 
 The educational world has failed to keep the school closely 
 related to vocations and to make it a full expression of the 
 vocational idea, as was the case in the old school. The special 
 significance of the whole vocational movement lies in the fact 
 that the high school is no longer to rest on by-gone educational 
 facts. It can no longer calm a rising educational conscience by 
 tacking on here and there a new bit, without providing for 
 more than a superficial articulation with the old. The twen- 
 tieth century high school will make the vocational aim an 
 integral part of high school polity and work it out effectively. 
 
 Vocations in modern times have been left in an anomalous 
 position, as far as definite educational preparation is concerned. 
 The future will demand thorough educational preparation for 
 what we now regard as simple apprentice crafts. Various 
 curricula adapted to different vocations will be laid out giving 
 broad education as well as technical training. Only this will 
 give real command of vocations. Only this will assure sound, 
 happy, and progressive mental and industrial life. One great 
 nation has proved its value as a means of occupying its oppor- 
 tunities in a rather wonderful way. Others must do the same. 
 The inexorable law of the survival of the fittest will enforce 
 this policy, if we do not heed higher and more beneficent laws. 
 
 The vocational idea part of a larger idea — " Social Utili- 
 ties." — The vocational idea that is justly so prominent to- 
 day and is to be more insistent in the future is only a part of a 
 larger idea. A new scheme of concentration, not yet worked 
 out, makes " social utilities " the starting point in determining 
 the details of a curriculum. There will not be new study- 
 names, but there will be ends and directions different from 
 those that now rule, better adapted to high school pupils, more 
 practical, and at the same time more cultural. The idea of 
 " social utilities " again is not a new one, but a more scientific 
 application of an old idea, and particularly an application to 
 
 pares one for his occupation, whether high or low, broad or narrow. 
 In its current use it is thought of as applying to humbler occupations, 
 more particularly those that are mechanical and commercial. Educa- 
 tion for the so-called learned professions is vocational education as 
 much as the other. Education has always been vocational, but it has 
 been narrowly so. We are now simply extending it to its just limits. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 365 
 
 new conditions. The old curriculum, 5 as it started, was an 
 expression of social utilities. The utilities were those of the 
 time. The " curriculum " 5 became stereotyped. Utilities 
 changed and grew. There is going on a re-thinking of social 
 utilities. Educators and the public are trying to find the real 
 utilities of the present and to represent them genuinely and 
 broadly on the high school program. The vocational aim 
 would objectify education. The social utility aim would 
 objectify it more broadly, because it directs attention to com- 
 munity as well as to individual ideals. 
 
 Education the greatest social utility. — In a way this idea 
 makes education subjective as well as objective, for, if rightly 
 applied, it stimulates pupils to make education an interpreter 
 of outside obligations and to think of courses and curricula in 
 terms of public service as well as of personal advancement, or 
 rather in terms of personal advancement through public serv- 
 ice. It encourages them also to think of education itself as the 
 greatest social utility. Studies thus become more than formal 
 training factors; they become agencies of social efficiency. 
 The new studies are not to be ends, but merely agents in bring- 
 ing the pupil into contact with present day life at its strongest 
 and in equipping him to subserve and advance it with some 
 power of initiative under the inspiration of community spirit. 
 
 Physical education fundamental. — The second distinguish- 
 ing characteristic of the coming high school program, as already 
 suggested, will be its contributions to physical education. This 
 point calls for a more special word than others, because it has 
 come less definitely and seriously into the program of studies 
 and because some phases of physical education are not even 
 yet thought of as legitimate parts of that program. The whole 
 matter has oftener than otherwise been an object of indiffer- 
 ence and neglect, or at least has had but accidental care. The 
 physical is more fundamental than history or geography, science 
 or mathematics, or any other courses. All that concerns 
 physical development therefore has a superior claim on the 
 attention and effort of teachers. 
 
 Misplaced physical education. — The physical and the men- 
 tal sides of education require very fine adjustment to prevent 
 
 5 " Curriculum " and " program of studies " were identical then. 
 
3 66 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 them from hindering one another. Physical education may 
 easily be so conducted as to times, seasons, and amounts, and 
 as to its relations to other parts of education, that the mental 
 powers will be rendered dull and heavy instead of buoyant. 
 The twentieth century high school is to work out these rela- 
 tions justly. 
 
 Character of work in physiology and hygiene. — In coming 
 curricula there will be a definite study of physiology and 
 hygiene, but largely of a biological nature and of the most con- 
 crete type, calculated to develop a healthy interest and sound 
 and broad thinking on the subject. But, more and better than 
 this, physical training in the high school is to consist largely 
 in the practice of hygienic living. The whole school life and 
 all school conditions are to be so organized that this practice 
 will become a natural and regular part of the pupil's regimen. 
 It is habits that we need, to make the study of the physical of 
 any value. The pupil is to write his own book on physiology 
 in living characters. 
 
 Hygiene of school plant and school room. — In the first 
 place special attention is to be given to the school plant and 
 the school room. The adolescent is in a state that is well 
 called unstable equilibrium. Everything suggests tension. 
 Light, temperature, seat conditions, air space, and particularly 
 the general environment of the school are to be such that the 
 least possible strain will result. These things are not mere 
 conveniences for formal school work, though they sometimes 
 seem to be considered as such, but they have a definite func- 
 tion to perform in promoting physical well-being and develop- 
 ment and in determining educational results generally. More 
 scientific investigation of this topic and better ideals are to 
 come. 
 
 More work outside — Less work with books and labor- 
 atories inside. — In the second place more of the school work 
 is to be done out of doors. Entirely aside from open-air 
 classes, which have a distinct mission, there is to be less of 
 books and close laboratories within brick walls and more work 
 with the greater books and laboratories outside. Such methods 
 will bring stronger scholarship, more real appreciation, a bet- 
 ter foundation for life, as well as for the university, — a 
 
THE" TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 367 
 
 stronger man on all sides, more appreciative of nature and of 
 community life. History, civics, economics, physiography, 
 geology, botany, physics, chemistry, and even Latin will be the 
 better for such work. They all give opportunities for the 
 abounding activity and the peculiar impulses to expression 
 found in adolescence. 
 
 Physical exercises — Games and sports. — In the third place 
 stress is to be laid upon the physical development that comes 
 through physical exercises of the school, and particularly 
 through games, sports, and general out-door exercise that 
 appeal to adolescent life. Physical training involves not only 
 games, but competitive games, for they are as much a part of 
 it as special-interest exercises are a part of history, or as con- 
 tests in writing and debating are of courses in English, or draw- 
 ing competition of the course in art. But their function is 
 that of developing interest, not that of climax, as has too often 
 been the case. 
 
 Advance in athletics. — With the possible exception of Eng- 
 land little advance in athletics has been made for two thousand 
 years. Most of the time there has been actual retrogression. 
 The matter was taken up where it was left so long ago, and 
 not infrequently the imitation has fallen short of the original. 
 Much of the talk about athletics has been of the contagious, 
 imitative sort. In fact feeling and thought here give one of 
 the finest illustrations of the " psychology of the mob." This 
 has been true in part of writing upon the subject, but there has 
 been more evidence of balanced judgment in this direction. 
 The twentieth century high school is to remedy all this. It 
 is to organize and administer athletic interests as an intimate 
 part of its educational scheme. 
 
 Adolescent characteristics guide. — But the high school must 
 do this with a warm appreciation of adolescent needs. There 
 are certain well marked adolescent characteristics that must 
 guide in this. Two claim our attention at the outset, — one 
 looking back, the other looking forward. On the one hand 
 there is something elemental in adolescent physical nature, — a 
 love of force and of feats of pure strength for their own sake, 
 an exultation in might as might, a keen delight in the mere 
 feeling of stress and strain. This is a natural outcropping of 
 
368 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 exuberant adolescent nature, not a perversion. It is as worthy 
 of recognition as any other adolescent characteristic. On the 
 other hand, the adolescent has reached the organizing age, as 
 opposed to the particularizing tendencies of the earlier school 
 period. At the same time he shows some appreciation of art. 
 He can appreciate good form, articulation of parts, not the 
 finest, but effective, and that which results from these, a feat 
 of skill, which is art made practical. Put together these two 
 marked characteristics, giving each the importance due the 
 developing adolescent, and we shall get a fine combination of 
 native force and skill and art in place of crude force. The 
 elemental has run riot and monopolized attention under a 
 laissez-faire policy. This elemental must be directed and sup- 
 plemented, and other forces must be guided and strengthened. 
 This is education. Legitimate development of athletics is as 
 much a part of education as training in algebra, probably more 
 so. This part of education, like others, must be accomplished 
 by instruction, not coaching, which has as little place as exami- 
 nation tutoring. Not rules, nor faculty regulations, but in- 
 struction, involving contests, is to be the fundamental agency 
 in the case. We cannot legislate ideals here any more than we 
 can legislate morality. We can and must provide conditions 
 and opportunities and take athletics into our school plan. The 
 " coach " must be raised to the position of a regular instructor, 
 and he must have an all-round training for his work. 
 
 More variety in athletics. — Another adolescent character- 
 istic, quite as important, must be taken into account. The 
 adolescent has no settled attention or intention. There has 
 been an upheaval of physical and mental life, and he has not 
 settled down to regularity. The will is not yet finally steadied. 
 This, added to the obvious fact that interests are not uniform 
 in any group of individuals, dictates a variety of interests in 
 athletics. The stream of athletic spirit will not be satisfied 
 with two or three channels. Yet the weight of influence and 
 recognition has been thrown in only a very few directions, 
 (practically in three), of one particular phase of athletics. 
 Wide sympathies will help in the solution of the problem. 
 There must be official recognition of many forms of games 
 and sports, as well as of various general physical exercises 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 369 
 
 which have not crystallized into games; and physical feeling 
 and sentiment must be developed in new lines as occasion arises. 
 If, with effort, and sometimes with considerable effort, enthusi- 
 asm has been roused for some of the current forms of sports, 
 the same can be done for others suited to adolescent life. 
 Football really attracts but a mere handful of students for 
 actual participation, baseball another handful, aquatics an- 
 other. With so many adolescent physical interests this is to be 
 expected. The twentieth century high school is to recognize 
 the fact that the athletic side of physical training represents a 
 group of interests ; it is to make this group an intimate part of 
 every curriculum and to treat it as generously as any group for 
 its training possibilities. 
 
 The physical side of education with broad instruction and 
 varied application, including games, is therefore to form an 
 essential part of the high school program. The new high 
 school is to be as sharply distinguished from the old by this 
 fact as by its contributions to vocational education. 
 
 But there is another side of physical education that the twen- 
 tieth century high school will include among its courses. The 
 study of social hygiene, and particularly sex hygiene, will be 
 even more characteristic of the new epoch in secondary educa- 
 tion than what has just been noted. One of the basal problems 
 involved in every institution and every constructive movement 
 for the betterment of society is related to sex hygiene. The 
 problem is an insistent one because it has thus far been ignored 
 or treated in an apologetic and academic way. A taboo has 
 been placed upon it that is absolutely unjustifiable. One diffi- 
 culty has been that the subject lies at the meeting place of two 
 psychologies, the psychology of the adolescent and the psy- 
 chology of the adult, neither of which appreciates the other, one 
 because of its immaturity, the other because it has forgotten. 
 That the study of sex hygiene in the high school is imperative 
 can be shown in many ways and from many points of 
 view, without giving any countenance to certain statements of 
 irresponsible high school critics. The adolescent is now left 
 to organize a whole group of vital adolescent qualities related to 
 sex and to develop them with absolutely no systematic education 
 or guidance. With a more sympathetic knowledge of the psy- 
 
370 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 chology of adolescence, particularly with a more accurate and 
 vivid understanding of those attitudes and impulses, ideas and 
 powers that refer to the maturing of sex functions and the cor- 
 relative development of the social instinct, and with larger 
 views of the relation of secondary instruction to social prob- 
 lems, the coming high school is to bring the subject of sex 
 hygiene to the place of honor and importance that it deserves in 
 any program of studies. Instruction rightly fortified purifies ; 
 ignorance courts evil. 
 
 A high school course in sex hygiene must be built upon co- 
 operation in the home, involving the removal of an essentially 
 criminal taboo and the substitution of naturalness balanced by 
 advice and instruction, and upon preparatory work in the ele- 
 mentary school, so that, when adolescence is reached, young 
 people will not think of sex and social ideas as strange, forbid- 
 den topics, but will look upon them so naturally that they will 
 cause no remark, not even the lifting of a brow. Building upon 
 this antecedent work the high school may prepare simple 
 courses adapted to adolescence. 6 The general aim of such 
 courses will be to meet the craving for knowledge of the mys- 
 teries of life current at this period and bound to be satisfied in 
 some way, to build up natural and helpful ideas and habits, and 
 to lay a foundation for personal hygiene of the highest type. 
 Prominent among the specific aims will be, to develop a pure 
 and wholesome interest in sex matters, to impress with the facts 
 of sex hygiene, to arouse a wholesome fear of illicit and abusive 
 use of sex organs, and correlatively to stimulate a pride in 
 family and race which such abuse retards in physical and men- 
 tal power and in prestige, and eventually brings to dishonor and 
 decay. 
 
 The principle or spirit of the work will be frankness as to 
 reproductive processes, absolute naturalness, but not baldness, 
 free from all embarrassment. 
 
 Courses in sex hygiene will include instruction and training 
 as to sex matters in general and as to personal sex ideals. The 
 
 6 To outline in detail studies for the elementary school and courses 
 for teachers and pupils in the high school, with extension courses 
 needed for general instruction, is beyond the purpose here. All that 
 will be attempted will be to suggest aims and some of the larger features 
 of instruction. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 371 
 
 age is favorable; means are abundant. Instruction will of 
 course be given in connection with the study of natural science, 
 particularly biology. This instruction will be merely incidental 
 and correlated, but at the same time it will be of great value for 
 the great purpose in view. The main reliance will be upon 
 specific courses in sex and social hygiene, which shall em- 
 phasize, in one direction, the value of sound sex organs and 
 the danger of abuse, with concrete illustrations from the wealth 
 of cases open to any one who seeks, and, in the other direction, 
 the obligations of the individual as a social factor. As a 
 foundation for such work the courses will include a sensible 
 study of sex physiology fully in accord with the pedagogy of 
 adolescence. 
 
 Correlatively with this instruction, to give it real value, a 
 school spirit must be established and embodied in dynamic ideas 
 and aims. On the one hand the school must impress as one of 
 its ideals a well-developed physique, with the suggestion that 
 sex abuse often results from some physical unevenness and un- 
 soundness, from a loose physical screw somewhere. On the 
 other hand the school must encourage wide interests and sym- 
 pathies that will furnish exercise for the mind, particularly for 
 the emotional life, with the idea that a person of narrow in- 
 terests and thought is more likely to give attention to unhealthy 
 sex suggestions. Both mental and physical gaps require filling 
 and it is in no small part owing to this principle that thoughts 
 turn toward sex matters. If the void is filled with things worth 
 while, the current of sex thought may often be turned off. 
 With its rich courses and its work in vocational guidance, more 
 broadly termed educational guidance, for it is such, especially 
 with its finer adjustment to present social needs and social utili- 
 ties, the twentieth century high school is in a strategic position 
 to plan for each student a broad curriculum that will supply 
 these " filling interests." 
 
 Program of studies and curriculum. — We found that in the 
 last century it was no longer possible to speak of a single cur- 
 riculum in the secondary school, but of a program of studies 
 that divided itself into several curricula, having some studies in 
 common, it is true, but yet essentially distinct. This diversity 
 of studies and curricula very naturally brought in the principle 
 
372 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 of election, generally election between different well-marked 
 curricula. The new century is to extend the principle to wider 
 choice, because preparation in every line is broadening and be- 
 cause general ends are complex. The mechanic arts depart- 
 ment, or the scientific department, for example, will offer 
 preparation for several differentiated vocations, each requiring 
 a somewhat different line of training. 
 
 Each department to have a program of studies divisible 
 into several curricula. — In other words, in the twentieth cen- 
 tury high school we shall not be able to speak of a scientific cur- 
 riculum (or " course "), a mechanic arts curriculum, etc. Each 
 department will become so broad, will contain so many separate 
 technical studies, and will profitably include for general train- 
 ing, as a foundation for special training, so many studies from 
 the general high school program, that it will have its own special 
 program of studies. From this program different curricula 
 will be formed to meet individual cases and the needs of whole 
 groups of pupils. Election will therefore have broader scope 
 in the high school. 
 
 Election to give place to educational guidance — Voca- 
 tional guidance. — But election is a crude agency working to- 
 ward a great end. It is to give place to educational guidance 
 and issue in vocational guidance. 7 Both educational guidance 
 and vocational guidance involve several very definite condi- 
 tions, — opportunity to exploit several lines of interest, before 
 settling on a final choice ; confidential relations between teacher 
 and pupil as a basis for frank and intimate talks ; methods of 
 presentation, including adaptation of content, that will show 
 the study, or course, or group, or occupation and their implica- 
 tions at their real value. 
 
 A study of vocations. — But further than this, true voca- 
 tional guidance implies and necessitates the addition of a new 
 study to the program, a study of vocations, that will take rank 
 as one of the most important studies of the high school. The 
 method of teaching and administering this study will involve 
 
 7 Educational guidance is to be more important than vocational guid- 
 ance, or rather, the latter is to be so broadened and is to become so 
 fully a part of the school program, instead of a supplementary and 
 gratuitous matter, that the two will coincide. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 373 
 
 the collection of full and enlightening data as to occupations 
 and trades, — not mere figures and commercial items, but his- 
 tory, past and present, opportunities for advancement and cul- 
 ture, means of organizing one's life in the trade and vocations 
 so as to develop an all-round, public spirited man or woman, 
 and various other details of a kindred nature. Such topics will 
 form a basis for investigation and discussion, on the part of 
 students and teachers, that will not only furnish a body of prac- 
 tical knowledge, but will afford means of thought training and 
 personal development equal to any in the school. Educational 
 guidance will thus become not a superficial and perfunctory 
 matter, but an intimate part of school polity. It will aid con- 
 structively in the great enterprise of choosing and enriching 
 occupations. In this connection the pupil will not be obliged 
 to make final choice of curriculum or occupation at the outset. 
 Early choices, whether of studies or vocation, are to be neither 
 fatal nor valueless. 
 
 No random choices. — It is plain from what has been said 
 that in this wide range of studies and programs individual selec- 
 tions are not to be random nor are they to be such as to make 
 individual curricula fragmentary and superficial. There must 
 be consistency and unity. Several principles, in addition to 
 those that are implied in the preceding paragraphs, are at hand 
 to guide in choices and thus to help toward consistency. 
 
 1. Re- valuing of studies shows equality in educational 
 values. — As we have seen, recent educational thought has been 
 re-valuing studies. The tendency is to consider each study the 
 equal of any other in essential training values, though different 
 in content value, which is determined by the exigencies of indi- 
 vidual situations. In the twentieth century high school each 
 study will be made so broad, will show so many implications, so 
 much history, so much culture material, so much practical value, 
 that it will be on a par with any other study-agent as a medium 
 for developing essential power. It will appeal both for its fit- 
 ness as a means of preparing for some special calling, and for its 
 cultural value, its intellectual value, and its stimulus to achieve- 
 ment. This is true of individual studies. It is more significant 
 in study-groups. We are to reason and organize by groups. 
 We may even go further in speaking of equalities in training- 
 
374 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 values and say that no study-group has a monopoly of training- 
 value in any one direction. Every natural group of subjects 
 constitutes an essential element in the development of any 
 power. No power is simple ; it is complex, many-sided. Lan- 
 guage work is as essential for developing observation power as 
 is science. In the development of language power the classics 
 are not supreme, but ancillary and subordinate. 8 Mathematics 
 and science are quite as important in developing imagination as 
 are literature and history. In cultivating esthetic feeling more 
 than fine pictures and architecture and music and landscape 
 gardening are essential. The finest artistic sense, after all, 
 comes from giving to everything in school organization, pro- 
 gram, and method, and to everything in school environment, or- 
 der, symmetry, and harmony of adjustment, — in bringing out 
 in everything its own intrinsic fitness and adaptation. 9 
 
 2. Limitations in training-value of studies. — This prin- 
 ciple is closely related to another: — Power gained through 
 training in one subject does not spread in other directions except 
 in a very general way. 10 The two principles are essentially one, 
 
 8 The so-called disciplinary power of the classics can no longer be a 
 shibboleth. Besides, that is not the end of classical study at the best. 
 We get out of subjects what has been put into them, and we get their 
 value only when we bring them close to the personality of pupils. 
 Latin was once the only study in which, to any extent, nations and indi- 
 viduals had put their best thought. Other subjects were incidental or 
 had suffered long lapses. Since that period other subjects have received 
 the best the classics contributed and have added to this from spontaneous 
 development in the special fields in which they apply. Hence other 
 culture-disciplinary subjects have arisen. They are such because of the 
 thought, effort, and system put into them. Any one may well be 
 enthusiastic over his subject and make it a real culture subject. 
 President Eliot was not fanciful when he said that manual training 
 offered as much discipline as the classics. His view of the subject was 
 a broad one. In fact, if we take up any of the subjects that have come, 
 whether lightly or heavily, into the program, and look beyond the 
 formal side and the bare facts that it involves in its narrowest aspect, — 
 if we see its human relations, its history, its place in history, its correla- 
 tions, in a word its cultural relations, — then its place in a curriculum, 
 whether we look at it from the point of view of information, or from 
 that of culture and training, will take on new force and meaning. 
 
 9 Emphasis in this discussion is on the group. What is true of the 
 group is more impressively true of individual studies. They cannot 
 support their traditional claims to extravagant training value in certain 
 directions. Note here the tendency to question the validity of algebra 
 and geometry in some curricula (those for girls), and elsewhere. 
 
 i° It is generally stated in another form : — Special training does not 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 375 
 
 only they approach the truth from different directions and so 
 present different sides of it. The principle is self-evident now, 
 but the educational world thought the reverse for a long time, 
 because educational experience was narrow and experimental 
 psychology had not come. 
 
 Two corollaries follow from this principle or double prin- 
 ciple: 1. Training, to be effective, must be many-sided. 2. 
 A person is not a real or trustworthy expert who knows no 
 other line of work or thought but his own, who has not wide 
 correlated knowledge. Over-specialization defeats its own end. 
 
 3. The individual the unit. — A third principle is coming 
 into emphasis : — Not the mass or the class, but the individual is 
 the real unit. The individual is the final reservoir of strength, 
 and it is his interest that must be determined and met, if the 
 native strength of a community is to be realized. Mass teach- 
 ing is wasteful, because it produces so many dwarfs. 
 
 Individual adjustment the key. — Individual adjustment, 
 adjustment to individuals and individual situations, is thus to 
 be the key to the organization of curricula, and the same key 
 will apply to method, which will be considered farther on. 
 This is the real meaning of election and its successors, educa- 
 tional guidance and vocational guidance, which are the media 
 through which the individual needs of the adolescent are to be 
 satisfied. This principle is supported by the other principles of 
 secondary education that guide and define it. Adjustment is 
 not a simple matter. Mere likes and dislikes may be only sur- 
 face matters or imaginings. Any study may be made to appeal 
 to the normal adolescent. It depends upon finding the point 
 of contact, which in turn depends upon our knowledge of the 
 adolescent and our method of presenting the subject. 11 To 
 make a pupil strong we do not need a multitude of subjects, 
 
 give general ability. Stated in this way it is liable to misinterpreta- 
 tion, because there are so many seemingly contradictory facts. In- 
 terpreted in an extreme way, as has sometimes been done, it is essen- 
 tially untrue. The principle represents an historical fact. It is clearer 
 and more impressive historically than pedagogically. 
 
 11 If, after all, there is found to be a persistent antagonism to a sub- 
 ject it simply means that the nascent period for awakening an interest 
 has been passed, or has not yet been reached. Perhaps some blunder, 
 some poor teaching in the initial presentation of the subject, has 
 closed the door, or made it very difficult to open it. 
 
37 6 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 but close association with great departments of knowledge and 
 work. In fact multitude would defeat our purpose. 
 
 Broadening of choice. — With the increase of subjects and 
 curricula wide choices are open. At the present time the prin- 
 ciple of choice is generously applied between curricula, but 
 more sparingly allowed within curricula, sometimes not at all. 
 It is rather common to specify groups of allied subjects from 
 which choice may be made. The advance is to be in the direc- 
 tion of wider and wiser choices within curricula, so as to secure 
 better adjustments. 
 
 Reform in terminology. — The development of studies and 
 curricula will be accompanied by a revision of terminology, 
 making it more exact and scientific. Requirements and regula- 
 tions will thus be stated more uniformly, and plans and reports 
 will be more easily interpreted. At present, as already shown, 
 units of work take the place of fixed courses, but a glance at 
 current curricula 12 shows that there is no uniform mode of 
 naming these units. Sometimes they are spoken of as hours, 
 sometimes as points, sometimes as credits, sometimes as units. 
 It is, however, fairly easy to make out that on the average re- 
 quirements for graduation are sixteen courses, each course rep- 
 resenting five prepared exercises each week for thirty-six weeks, 
 i.e., sixteen units of work. It is neither necessary nor desir- 
 able that the quantity should be specifically the same in all 
 schools or in all localities, but it is desirable that when talking 
 or writing on these matters we should use the same terms and 
 that the terms should have a uniform value. 13 
 
 While election and the unit idea of measuring results and 
 qualifications have served the cause of individual adjustment, 
 they have also undoubtedly had the effect of toning up the 
 weaker courses, — strengthening their subject matter and the 
 methods of teaching them. Reform in one part of a system in 
 a way reforms all. 
 
 The new century's inheritance and problems. — The de- 
 velopment of high school problems and curricula in the nine- 
 
 12 See appendix. 
 
 131 Dr. Charles Hughes Johnston, of the University of Illinois, has 
 done some pioneer work in this direction that ought to pave the way for 
 reform. See page 304. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 377 
 
 teenth century showed specifically and vividly the wonderful 
 expansion of secondary school ideas. Growth, however, was 
 feverish and without settled aims. The twentieth century will 
 systematize the scattered results of the nineteenth century and 
 apply secondary school principles more exactly. The develop- 
 ment of the new century is evidently to be more scientific, more 
 definite, more aimf ul. It is to be based on finer generalizations 
 from a broader and more accurate knowledge of high school 
 facts and relations, and a more scientific knowledge of the 
 characteristics of high school pupils. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 TYPICAL HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA AND PROGRAMS. 
 
 Basis of choice. — The aim in this appendix is (1) to select current 
 curricula that represent types on which school thought is converging; 
 (2) to present curricula that are specially notable, or distinctive and 
 suggestive, but still show the fundamental elements of the average 
 progressive school of to-day. These curricula show the culmination of 
 nineteenth century movements and suggest certain prophecies for the fu- 
 ture. The curricula of many other schools equally interesting might 
 have been selected from the large number received from all parts of 
 the country. The main idea is to get at types rather than individuals, 
 averages rather than special adaptations to local conditions. 
 
 I. Successors of the old classical curriculum. — The classical cur- 
 ricula, the successors to the secondary curricula from which all modern 
 curricula are descended, will naturally be the first to be noted. 
 
 (a) An Eastern Classical High School, — exclusively a college prepar- 
 atory school, offering the standard classical curriculum approved by 
 leading colleges and universities. The curriculum is arranged for six 
 years, thus showing its relation to the old European Grammar Schools 
 that took the boy at nine and started him early in Latin, or rather 
 Latin grammar. It is also arranged for four years for those who have 
 covered the two preliminary years in the elementary school. 
 
 A Six-Year Curriculum 
 
 Periods Periods 
 
 First Year (Class VI.). per Week. Second Year (Class V.). per Week. 
 
 English 5 or 6 English 5 or 6 
 
 Latin 5 Latin 5 
 
 Arithmetic and * Geom- Arithmetic and Geom- 
 etry 5 etry 5 
 
 History 2 or 3 History 2 or 3 
 
 Geography 2 Geography 2 
 
 Physiology 2 Elementary Science ... 2 
 
378 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Periods 
 First Year ( Class VI.). p er Week. 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Choral Practice None or i 
 
 24 or 25 
 
 Periods 
 Third Year {Class IV.). per Week. 
 
 English 4 
 
 Latin 5 
 
 French 4 
 
 Mathematics 4 
 
 History 3 or 4 
 
 Elementary Science ... 1 or 2 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Choral Practice None or 1 
 
 Periods 
 Second Year (Class V.) .per Week. 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Choral Practice None or 1 
 
 24 or 25 
 
 Periods 
 Fourth Year ( Class III. ). per 
 Week. 
 
 English 3 or 4 
 
 Latin 4 or 5 
 
 French 3 
 
 Greek or German 5 
 
 Mathematics 3 or 4 
 
 History 2 or 3 
 
 Physical Training .... 2 
 Choral Practice None or 1 
 
 24 or 25 
 
 Periods 
 Fifth Year ( Class II. ). per Week. 
 
 English 3 
 
 Latin 4 or 5 
 
 French 3 
 
 Greek or German 5 
 
 Mathematics 3 or 4 
 
 History : 3 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Choral Practice None or 1 
 
 24 or 25 
 
 Periods 
 Sixth Year (Class I.), per Week. 
 
 English 4 
 
 Latin 5 
 
 Greek or German .... 5 
 
 Mathematics 4 
 
 Physics 5 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 24 or 25 
 
 25 
 
 Four- Year Curriculum 
 
 Periods 
 First Year (Class IV.). per Week. 
 
 English 4 or 5 
 
 Latin 6 or 7 
 
 French 4 
 
 Mathematics 4 
 
 History 3 or 4 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Choral Practice None or 1 
 
 2 5 
 Periods 
 Third Year (Class II.) . per Week. 
 
 English 3 
 
 Latin 5 
 
 French 3 
 
 Greek or German 5 
 
 Periods 
 Second Year (Class 1 1 1.). per Week 
 
 English 3 
 
 Latin 5 or 6 
 
 French 3 
 
 Greek or German 5 
 
 Mathematics 3 or 4 
 
 History 2 or 3 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Choral Practice None or 1 
 
 25 
 Periods 
 Fourth Year (Class I.), per Week. 
 
 English 4 
 
 Latin 5 
 
 Greek or German 5 
 
 Mathematics 4 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
 379 
 
 Periods 
 Third Year ( Class II. ) . per Week. 
 
 Mathematics 3 or 4 
 
 History 3 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Choral Practice None or 1 
 
 Periods 
 Fourth Year {Class I.), per Week. 
 
 Physics 5 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 (b) Another Eastern High School has a double classical curriculum, 
 one of four years, and the other of five years (evidently for those 
 who need wider and longer preparation for college work). Still 
 another high school from the same section offers a five-year and a four- 
 year curriculum, and a second five-year curriculum for those who wish 
 to take a longer time for the work of the four-year curriculum. 
 
 (c) A Western High School offers an enterprising curriculum of 
 four years and a two-year addition that prepares for advanced work 
 in the university or gives special opportunities for extended training 
 for those who cannot undertake college work. The curriculum is as 
 follows : 
 
 Classical Curriculum 
 
 B9^ 
 
 English 
 
 Latin 
 
 Greek History 
 
 Physical Geography* 
 
 Chorus, Drawing, Music 
 
 (2), o 
 
 Bll 
 
 A9 
 
 BIO 
 
 A 10 
 
 1 Continue Bo 
 
 2 Continue Bo. 
 
 3 Roman History 
 
 4 Continue Bq 
 .5 Continue B9 
 
 1 English 
 
 2 Algebra 
 
 3 Latin 
 
 4 Greek 
 
 5 Chorus (2), Drawing 
 (3), Expression (2), 
 Music (2), Debating 
 (2) o 
 
 1 Continue Bio 
 
 2 Continue Bio 
 
 3 Continue Bio 
 
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 5 Continue Bio o 
 
 1 English Bll, All, or B12 
 
 2 Geometry 
 
 3 Latin 
 
 4 Greek 
 
 5 Chorus (2), Drawing 
 (5), Expression (2), De- 
 bating (2), Music, Jour- 
 nalism (2) o 
 
 All 
 
 B12^ 
 
 Geometry 
 Latin 
 Greek 
 
 Physics, Household 
 Physics, Chemistry or 
 Domestic Chemistry 
 (B12) 
 
 Expression or Debating 
 required if not taken be- 
 fore 
 
 '1 Latin 
 
 2 Greek 
 
 3 Physics, Household 
 Physics, Chemistry or 
 Domestic Chemistry 
 (A12) 
 
 4 American History 
 
 5 Expression, Debating, 
 Journalism (2) o 
 
38o 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 B13 
 and 
 A 13 
 
 A 12 4 
 
 i English 
 
 2 Latin 
 
 3 Greek 
 
 4 Civics 
 
 5 Expression or Debating 
 (2) if not taken before. 
 
 English Composition, 
 History of England, 
 French, Spanish, German, 
 Music, Latin (Cicero de 
 Senectute, Pliny, Livy, 
 Plautus), Greek (Plato's 
 Apology and Crito, Ho- 
 mer's Odyssey), Greek and 
 Latin Composition, Solid 
 Geometry, Trigonometry, 
 Analytics, Logic, Physics 
 (Mechanics and Heat), 
 Chemistry (Qualita- 
 tive Analysis, Lectures on 
 General Chemistry), Bot- 
 any, Zoology, Physical 
 .Culture, Playground. 
 
 B14 
 and 
 A 14 
 
 English Literature, His- 
 tory of Europe since 1815, 
 Oriental History, Econom- 
 ics, Psychology, French, 
 Spanish, German, Latin 
 (Horace, Tacitus), Greek 
 (Euripides), Greek and 
 Latin Composition, Higher 
 Algebra, Calculus, Phys- 
 ics (Electricity and Mag- 
 netism, Sound, Light), 
 Chemistry (Quantitative 
 Analysis), General Inor- 
 ganic, General Organic, 
 Organic Laboratory, Agri- 
 cultural Chemistry, As- 
 tronomy, Geology, Phys- 
 ical Culture. 
 
 o Subjects so marked may be omitted. 
 
 1. There are five recitations a week in each subject except in those 
 otherwise designated. 
 
 2. Sixteen units of work are required for a diploma. One unit rep- 
 resents a year of work in a subject taken five times a week. 
 
 3. Physical Culture two periods each week is required in every grade 
 in addition to the sixteen units mentioned above. Military drill is the 
 form of physical culture required of boys of the tenth grade. 
 
 4. Pupils from other accredited schools will be credited with all work 
 completed. 
 
 2. General curricula: — 
 (a) An Eastern High School. 
 
 Program of Studies 
 First Year 
 
 *English I 
 
 *Latin I, or German I, or French I 
 
 *Mathematics I, Algebra 
 
 *Science I, Biology, including Botany, Zoology and Phys- 
 iology 
 
 *Drawing I 
 
 J* 
 
 
 .38 
 
 oi 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 u u 
 
 
 <u <u 
 
 O 
 
 PWCU 
 
 Ck 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 381 
 
 •L .5 
 
 PhPh Ph 
 
 ♦Music I 1 1 
 
 ^Physical Training I 2 2 
 
 ♦tEnglish VI, Elocution I 1 1 
 
 tNoxE. — A continuation of the course in Elocution is also offered 
 
 through the second, third and fourth years. When so taken add one 
 point per year. 
 
 Second Year 
 
 *English II 3 6 
 
 *Latin II, German II, or French II j, 5 10 
 
 ♦Mathematics II, Plane Geometry 4 8 
 
 ^History I (Greece and Rome) 3 6 
 
 Greek I 5 10 
 
 Italian I 5 10 
 
 Spanish I 5 10 
 
 tScience II, Chemistry 5 10 
 
 ♦Drawing II 2 2 
 
 *Music II 1 1 
 
 ♦Physical Training II 2 2 
 
 ♦*Domestic Science (for girls) 4 4 
 
 Physiography 4 8 
 
 fNoxE. — Science II, Chemistry, may also be taken in the fourth year. 
 ♦*Note. — In the course offered to girls, Sewing — 4 periods per week, 
 is an elective. 
 
 Third Year 
 
 ♦English III 3 6 
 
 *Latin III, German III, or French III 5 10 
 
 *History II (England) 2 4 
 
 Science III, Physics 5 10 
 
 tMathematics III, Algebra, Review and Advance 2 4 
 
 tMathematics IV, Plane Geometry, Review and Advance 2 4 
 
 Greek II 4 8 
 
 Italian II 4 8 
 
 Spanish II 4 8 
 
 Stenography and Typewriting I 4 4 
 
 Bookkeeping I 3 3 
 
 Economics I 3 6 
 
 tScience IV, Botany, Advance 4 8 
 
 tScience V, Zoology, Advance 4 8 
 
 Music III 1 1 
 
 Drawing III 1 1 
 
 ♦Physical Training 2 2 
 
 tNoTE. — Either course in Mathematics, Science IV, Botany, Advance, 
 and Science V, Zoology, Advance, may also be taken in the fourth year. 
 
 Note. — In the course offered to girls, Cooking, 4 periods per week, and 
 Millinery, 3 periods per week, are electives. 
 
382 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 .3 8 
 
 *d > to 
 
 .2 * | 
 
 <U 1) o 
 
 P-tdl CL, 
 
 *English IV 3 6 
 
 Latin IV, German IV, or French IV 4 8 
 
 Greek III 4 8 
 
 Italian III 4 8 
 
 Spanish III 4 8 
 
 Latin V, Additional and Supplementary Courses 3 6 
 
 Greek IV, Additional and Supplementary Courses .... 3 6 
 
 English V, Additional and Supplementary Courses ... 3 6 
 
 Science VI, Physiography 4 8 
 
 *History III, American History and Civics, Related Eng- 
 lish History 4 8 
 
 Mathematics V, Advanced Mathematics 4 8 
 
 Stenography and Typewriting II 3 3 
 
 **Domestic Science I 3 6 
 
 Commercial Law and Commercial Geography 3 6 
 
 History IV (Mediaeval and Modern) 3 6 
 
 Music IV 1 1 
 
 Drawing IV 1 1 
 
 *Physical Training IV 2 2 
 
 **Note. — In the course offered to girls, Dressmaking, 4 periods per 
 week, is an elective. 
 
 " Students following this program shall present for graduation the 
 satisfactory completion of the required work in subjects starred above 
 and shall be given credit for the number of points indicated upon the 
 satisfactory completion of each subject. The requirement for gradua- 
 tion shall be the satisfactory completion of work aggregating 150 
 points and the passing of such examinations as shall be set." 
 
 (c) A High School in the West: — 
 
 "Note — No one shall be graduated who has not satisfactorily com- 
 pleted all the work required in one of the four lines of work: the 
 Academic, including the Commercial ; the Manual Training ; the Techni- 
 cal; or that of the School of Trades. 
 
 " In any curriculum except the Technical or Trade sixteen units are 
 required for graduation and at least twelve of these units must be 
 earned in academic subjects. The first two years' work in Drawing, 
 one of free-hand and one of mechanical, two periods per week each 
 year, is required for graduation and is equivalent to a half unit. The 
 other three and one-half units may be made by work in elective academic 
 subjects or in unprepared work as defined below: 
 
 "Two periods of work in unprepared subjects are equivalent to one 
 period in prepared work. Work in the following subjects is considered 
 unprepared work: Manual Training, Drawing, Typewriting, Laboratory 
 Work." 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
 383 
 
 Academic Curriculum 
 
 Grade 
 IX 
 
 Term 
 1 
 
 Prescribed Work 
 
 English *5 
 
 Algebra 5 
 
 f Ancient History. . . .4 
 Drawing 2 
 
 Electives 
 
 ELECT ONE 
 
 Latin 5 1 
 
 German 5 
 
 Elementary Science 4 
 
 2 
 
 English 5 
 
 Algebra 5 
 
 f Ancient History. . . .4 
 Drawing 2 
 
 Elementary Science (First 
 Term), 4; Arithmetic 
 (Second Term) 5 
 
 Manual Training 10 
 
 x 
 
 1 
 
 English 5 
 
 Plane Geometry 5 
 
 Drawing 2 
 
 ELECT TWO 
 
 Latin 5 
 
 German 5 
 
 French 5 
 
 Greek 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 English 5 
 
 Plane Geometry 5 
 
 Drawing 2 
 
 English History 4 
 
 Bookkeeping 5 
 
 Botany 4 
 
 Typewriting 5 
 
 Manual Training 10 
 
 XI 
 
 1 
 
 $ Physics 5 
 
 ELECT THREE 
 
 English 5 
 
 Latin 5 
 
 German 5 
 
 French 5 
 
 Greek 5 
 
 Spanish 5 
 
 Mediaeval and Modern His- 
 tory 5 
 
 Zoology and Physiology 5 
 
 Algebra (First Term), .... 5 
 Solid Geometry (Second 
 Term), 4; or plane Ge- 
 ometry (Second Term). 5 
 Bookkeeping (First Term) ; 
 Banking and Office Prac- 
 tice (Second Term) 5 
 
 Stenography 5 
 
 Typewriting 5 
 
 Drawing, Optional 2 
 
 Manual Training 10 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 $ Physics 5 
 
 * The figure after a subject denotes the number of periods given to 
 that subject weekly; an academic subject taken four or five hours per 
 week for one year is credited as one unit toward graduation. 
 
3§4 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Grade 
 
 XII 
 
 Term 
 
 Prescribed Work 
 
 English 
 $ Chemistry 
 
 English 
 
 % Chemistry 
 
 Electives 
 
 ELECT THREE 
 
 Latin 5 
 
 German 5 
 
 French 5 
 
 Greek 5 
 
 Spanish 5 
 
 American History and Civics 5 
 
 Chemistry 5 
 
 Psychology and Economics.. 5 
 
 Geology and Astronomy 5 
 
 Trigonometry (First Term) 4 
 Advanced Algebra or Analy- 
 tical Geometry (Second 
 
 Term) 4 
 
 Commercial Law (First 
 Term) ; and Commercial 
 
 Geography (2d Term) 5 
 
 Stenography 5 
 
 Typewriting 5 
 
 Manual Training 10 
 
 3. Commercial curricula: — 
 
 (a) A High School of Commerce in a large New England city. 
 
 " Purpose. — The purpose of the High School of Commerce is to 
 give a special training that will help its graduates to find employment 
 in the business world, and, also, to give a general training that will 
 aid these graduates to earn promotion to the more responsible business 
 positions and equip them for the duties of citizenship. Special atten- 
 tion is given to the development of habits of punctuality, industry, self- 
 reliance, and trustworthiness, as these qualities are absolutely essential 
 to the highest success in the business world. 
 
 " The curriculum has not been planned to meet the requirements for 
 admission to college, but the school does prepare young women to enter 
 the Secretarial School of Simmons College and young men to enter 
 the School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance of New York Uni- 
 versity and the Wharton School of Finance of the University of 
 Pennsylvania. This makes it possible for any graduate of the school, 
 if he so desires, to secure a college education." 
 
 First Year 
 
 First Semester 
 
 English 5 
 
 Science 5 
 
 Penmanship and \ K 
 
 Commercial Arithmetic ) 5 
 
 Local History, Government, ) 
 and Industries ) 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Second Semester 
 
 English 5 
 
 Science 5 
 
 Penmanship and ) 
 
 Commercial Arithmetic ) *> 
 
 Bookkeeping 5 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Total 
 
 ,22 
 
 Total 22 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
 385 
 
 Second Year 
 
 First Semester 
 
 English 5 
 
 General History 5 
 
 Bookkeeping 5 
 
 Commercial Geography 5 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Total 22 
 
 Second Semester 
 
 English 5 
 
 General History 5 
 
 Bookkeeping and [ 
 
 Office Practice J •> 
 
 Commercial Geography 5 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Total 
 
 ,22 
 
 Third Year 
 
 First Semester 
 
 English 5 
 
 American History 5 
 
 Optionals 10 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Total 
 
 ,22 
 
 Second Semester 
 
 English 5 
 
 Civil Government 5 
 
 Optionals 10 
 
 Physical Training 2 
 
 Total 22 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 First Semester 
 
 English S 
 
 Political Economy 5 
 
 Optionals 10 
 
 Total 
 
 ,20 
 
 Second Semester 
 
 English g 
 
 Commercial Law 5 
 
 Accounting and 1 
 
 Office Methods ) 5 
 
 Optionals 10 
 
 Total 
 
 .25 
 
 Optionals for Third and Fourth Years 
 
 Stenography 5 Geometry 5 
 
 Typewriting 5 Physics 5 
 
 Commercial History 1 - Chemistry 5 
 
 and Finance ) 5 Physiology and Hygiene 5 
 
 Drawing 5 French 5 
 
 Algebra 5 German 5 
 
 The figure after the name of each subject indicates the number 
 of recitations per week in the subject. 
 
 (b) Another New England city offers a broader curriculum with 
 a large number of electives, though with rather limited opportunity to 
 apply the elective principle. Some of the subjects that are elective in 
 (a) are required in this curriculum. 
 
 (c) A city in the Pacific Section offers a curriculum which is entirely 
 elective and so gives wide opportunity for individual adjustment. See 
 also the program of studies under 8. 
 
 4. Vocational curricula: — 
 
 (a) A High School in an Eastern city. 
 
386 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Boys 
 
 First Year 
 
 Joinery i}A year) 6 
 
 Sheet Metal ( l / 2 year) 4 
 
 Turning and Pattern Making, 
 
 and Foundry 10 
 
 Drawing 5 
 
 Practical Mathematics 5 
 
 English 4 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Forge Shop {y 2 year) 6 
 
 Sheet Metal ( l / 2 year) 4 
 
 Machine Shop 10 
 
 Drawing 5 
 
 Practical Mathematics 5 
 
 English 4 
 
 Natural Science 3 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Machine Shop (y 2 year) 10 
 
 Any Shop {y 2 year) 10 
 
 Drawing 4 
 
 Practical Mathematics 5 
 
 English 4 
 
 Physics or Chemistry 5 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 Any Shop { x / 2 year) 10 
 
 Drafting {]/ 2 year) 4 
 
 Any Shop or Drafting 20 
 
 Practical Mathematics 5 
 
 English 3 
 
 U. S. History and Civics ( l / 2 
 year) 5 
 
 Note : — The above course is intended for students who wish to fit 
 themselves for a definite vocation. 
 
 Girls 
 
 First Year 
 
 English 4 
 
 Natural Science 5 
 
 Cooking and Sewing 6 
 
 Applied Art 4 
 
 Select One: 
 
 German or French 5 
 
 Arithmetic of Algebra 5 
 
 Second Year 
 
 English 4 
 
 Chemistry of Foods and Cook- 
 ing 6 
 
 Dressmaking 4 
 
 Designing 4 
 
 Select One: 
 
 German or French 5 
 
 Physics 5 
 
 History 5 
 
 Third Year 
 
 English ;••;••• 4 
 
 Hygiene and Home Sanitation. 5 
 
 Millinery 6 
 
 Invalid Cooking 4 
 
 Select One: 
 
 Applied Art 4 
 
 German or French 5 
 
 Chemistry 5 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 English 4 
 
 Art History 5 
 
 Select three: 
 
 Biology 5 
 
 German or French 5 
 
 U. S. History and Civics 5 
 
 Dressmaking 6 
 
 Millinery 6 
 
 Applied Art 6 
 
 Any Household Art or Science. 6 
 Any subject of General Course 5 
 
 (b) The following curriculum of a Manual Training High School 
 in a Middle West city shows the possibilities of curriculum-making in 
 various vocational directions by a skilful coordination of required and 
 elective work under educational guidance. Studies in capital letters 
 are prescribed and are to be taken in the order given. Thirty-one 
 credits are required for graduation, a credit standing for five class 
 exercises of prepared work per week for a half year. 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
 387 
 
 First Year 
 
 English I 
 
 English II 
 
 Algebra I 
 
 Algebra II 
 
 Latin I 
 
 Latin II 
 
 German I 
 
 German II 
 
 Am. History la 
 
 Am. History 
 
 
 Ha* 
 
 History I 
 
 History II 
 
 (Grecian) 
 
 (Roman) 
 
 Physical 
 
 Physical 
 
 Training I 
 
 Training II* 
 
 Woodworking I 
 
 Woodworking 
 
 II 
 (Wood 
 
 (Bench Work) 
 
 
 Turning) 
 
 Freehand 
 
 Freehand 
 
 Drawing Is 
 
 Drawing lis 
 
 (For Shop 
 
 
 Pupils) 
 
 
 Freehand 
 
 Freehand 
 
 Drawing I 
 
 Drawing 11 
 
 Sewing I 
 
 Sewing II* 
 
 Music 
 
 Music 
 
 English III 
 
 English IV 
 
 Plane Ge- 
 
 Plane Geom. II 
 
 ometry I 
 
 
 Latin III 
 
 Latin IV 
 
 German III 
 
 German IV 
 
 Civics 
 
 
 History III 
 
 History IV* 
 
 (Mediaeval) 
 
 (Modern) 
 
 Botany I 
 
 Botany II* 
 
 Forging I 
 
 Forging II 
 
 Mechanical 
 
 Mechanical 
 
 Drawing I 
 
 Drawing II 
 
 Freehand 
 
 Freehand 
 
 Drawing III 
 
 Drawing IV* 
 
 Cooking I 
 
 Cooking II* 
 
 Sewing III 
 
 Sewing IV* 
 
 Commercial 
 
 Bookkeeping I 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 
 Stenography I 
 
 Stenography II 
 
 
 (Including 
 
 
 Typewriting) 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Fourth Year 
 
 English V 
 
 Algebra III* 
 
 Latin V 
 German V 
 History V 
 
 (English) 
 Physiography I 
 
 Physics I 
 
 Pattern- 
 Making I 
 
 (Including 
 
 Foundry) 
 
 Mechanical 
 Drawing III 
 
 Freehand 
 
 Drawing V 
 
 Cooking III 
 
 Sewing V 
 
 Bookkeeping II 
 
 Stenography III 
 
 (Including 
 Typewriting) 
 
 English VI 
 Business Comp. 
 Arithmetic 
 Solid Geometry 
 Latin VI 
 German VI 
 History VI* 
 
 (English) 
 Physiography 
 
 II* 
 Physics II* 
 Pattern- 
 Making II 
 (Including 
 
 Foundry) 
 Mechanical 
 
 Drawing IV 
 Freehand 
 
 Drawing VI 
 Cooking IV 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 III 
 Stenography 
 
 IV* 
 (Including 
 Typewriting) 
 
 Composition 
 
 VII* 
 Literature VII 
 Trigonometry 
 Latin VII 
 German VII 
 History VII 
 
 (American) 
 Applied 
 
 Electricity 
 Chemistry I 
 Machine- 
 Fitting I 
 Mechanical 
 
 Drawing V 
 or 
 Architectural 
 
 Drawing Va 
 Freehand 
 
 Drawing VII 
 
 Physiology 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 IV* 
 Business Law 
 Stenography V 
 
 Composition 
 
 VIII 
 Literature VIII 
 Higher Algebra 
 Latin VIII* 
 German VIII* 
 History VIII* 
 (American) 
 
 Chemistry II* 
 Machine- 
 Fitting II* 
 Mechanical 
 Drawing VI* 
 or 
 Architectural 
 
 Drawing Via* 
 Freehand 
 
 Drawing VIII 
 Hygiene and 
 Home Nursing 
 
388 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 (c) Another Middle West city offers elaborate curricula, with re- 
 quired work and optionals, as follows: — A two-year teachers' pre- 
 paratory curriculum ; a four-year commercial curriculum ; a four-year 
 office preparatory curriculum; a four-year technical curriculum, for 
 boys; a four-year technical curriculum, for girls; a four-year general 
 trades curriculum; a four-year "arts" curriculum; a four-year archi- 
 tectural curriculum; four-year curricula in household arts, household 
 science, and art; two-year curricula in the following, — accounting, 
 stenography, mechanical drawing, design, pattern-making, machine shop, 
 carpentry, electricity, household arts, printing, horticulture. 
 
 (d) The most interesting vocational school discovered is found in 
 a modest Massachusetts city, — interesting because of the suggestive 
 and skilful manner in which it enforces fundamental principles. In 
 the first place it is interesting to find that educational guidance steadies 
 and fortifies the new high school pupil by prescribing that in all voca- 
 tional curricula, except the commercial (as well as -in other high school 
 curricula), the normal number of class-room subjects in the first year 
 shall be three. As to vocational curricula the school authorities say : — 
 
 " While the curricula are so planned that in four years a student 
 devotes as much time to work in English, history, civics, mathematics, 
 and related science as would be given to this work in most high schools, 
 it does not fit for college, but is of such a nature that it applies di- 
 rectly to the industry for which the curriculum is preparing. Thus 
 the student can obtain the theory of his special line of work together 
 with a general training which will enable him to go as far as his ability 
 will allow in the industry he chooses. What he gains in the school 
 will also tend to make him a more desirable citizen. 
 
 " The school day for the vocational curricula is from 8:30 to 3 : 15 with 
 30 minutes for lunch. Half of the day is devoted to shop work and 
 the other half to the related academic or book work mentioned above. 
 Only boys and girls who are willing to work hard are advised to elect 
 these curricula. Pupils are advanced individually as rapidly as they 
 are capable of promotion and those who come with excellent grammar 
 school records will find large openings with good prospects in the in- 
 dustries for which the curricula train. 
 
 " When a student elects a curriculum, the related academic work, to 
 which one-half of the time is devoted, is prescribed and must be fol- 
 lowed unless a special request is made by the parents that a student 
 be allowed to give all, or nearly all, of his time to shop work. This is 
 allowed when students can remain in the school for only a year or two. 
 In all cases, however, some mechanical drawing and the full course in 
 mathematics are required. With the above exception, all boys have 
 four years of English, history, civics, economics, mathematics, drawing 
 and related science." 
 
 Mathematics, English, science, and drawing are not taught ab- 
 stractly, but are correlated with the different curricula in the technical 
 school. Each of these studies has a phase for each curriculum, so 
 that the study is made concrete and has the clearness incident to its 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 389 
 
 special applications to the special object that the pupil is pursuing, 
 whether machine work, electricity, pattern-making, or printing. 
 
 The shop work applicable to each curriculum is laid out with ad- 
 mirable appreciation of the needs of the pupils electing these different 
 curricula. 
 
 The same general plan is followed for the household-science-and-art 
 curricula for girls. 
 
 (e) Equally interesting is the fine arts curriculum offered in the 
 same school. A few quotations from a descriptive booklet will show 
 its purposes and aims. 
 
 " Fortunate is the pupil, who, at the age of thirteen of fourteen, has 
 a peculiar natural ability for any one special line of work. If the 
 future offers adequate financial returns for the effort expended in adult 
 life in this profession or trade, every encouragement should be given 
 the student to further his education in the specialty in which he prom- 
 ises to succeed. 
 
 " Those educators who have made it their business to study the 
 education of the past and of the present are agreed that the high school 
 is the place for the beginning of such specialization. There are some 
 things which the pupil must learn in his teens, or he will never learn 
 them. Every adult knows there are processes that now he can never 
 learn to do well; he has passed the time in life when he can acquire 
 certain skill, especially in using his hands. 
 
 " A study of the biographies of the notable artists and craftsmen 
 reveals the fact that these men and women showed an inclination to 
 work in their art or craft by the time they were twelve years of age. 
 History repeats itself in the case of every boy or girl, who, at 
 the time of entrance into the high school, displays more interest, pleas- 
 ure, and ability in drawing than in the other studies. It is for pupils 
 who have this love and natural ability for art work that the Fine Arts 
 curriculum has been established in the Technical High School. It may 
 be noted, that so far as the school authorities know, it was the first 
 Fine Arts curriculum to be established in a high school. There are 
 now several similar curricula in other city high schools throughout the 
 country. 
 
 " The Fine Arts curriculum includes work in the arts, and such gen- 
 eral education as is related to the arts. French, the language of the art 
 world; geometry dealing with areas and shapes; history of the great 
 art periods of the past; English as an art of expression in written and 
 spoken forms; science dealing with the understanding of light and 
 color, enamels, dyes, paints, etc.; biology relating to life structures; 
 music as the most emotional of the arts; modelling in clay including 
 designing, glazing and firing; design and applied art in copper, brass, 
 silver, leather and textiles ; freehand drawing in pencil, crayons, water 
 colors and oil paints; out-door sketching; craftswork in wood, includ- 
 ing the making of a studio easel, palette and paint box; a four years' 
 course of stereopticon lectures in art appreciation ; visits to galleries and 
 art museums; and for general service in life, shop work or household 
 
390 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 economics, civics, and if desired, German; all these make for the edu- 
 cation of the future arts and crafts worker. 
 
 " For what life work does this curriculum prepare the students? The 
 following list will be suggestive: 
 
 Architecture Fashion Plate Making 
 
 Interior Decoration Sign Painting 
 
 Advertising Design Illustrating 
 
 Textile and Pottery Design Lithography 
 
 Engraving Painting 
 
 Photo-engraving Sculpture 
 
 The Teaching of Drawing, Modelling, and Painting. 
 
 "As a preparation for these trades and professions, which generally 
 offer liberal financial returns for the skilled artisan, and in which the 
 supply of available labor does not equal the demand, this is the best 
 curriculum for the student to take. Also, all students contemplating 
 future study in any art or design school should begin such study in 
 the high school Fine Arts curriculum." 
 
 It is particularly encouraging to find such progressive ideas combined 
 with such sound principles of teaching as are evident in the last two 
 examples. 
 
 (f) Agricultural High Schools. 
 
 Minnesota, the first State to establish this type of high school, sug- 
 gests several standard curricula from which different communities may 
 choose as best suits their individual conditions. The following will 
 fairly illustrate the type. 
 
 Four- Year Curriculum in Agriculture 
 
 First Year 
 
 Botany, one-half year; eight periods per week, including laboratory. 
 
 Zoology, one-half year. 
 
 Algebra, five periods. 
 
 English, five periods. 
 
 Manual training, ten periods per week. 
 
 Second Year 
 
 Horticulture, eight periods per week, including laboratory. 
 Plane geometry, five periods. 
 English, five periods. 
 Manual training, ten periods. 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Soils and farm crops, eight periods per week, including laboratory. 
 
 English, five periods. 
 
 Physics, eight periods per week, including laboratory. 
 
 Farm mechanics and forge work, seven periods per week. 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 391 
 
 Fourth Year 
 Animal husbandry, including dairying, eight periods per week. 
 English, five periods. 
 
 Chemistry, eight periods per week, including laboratory. 
 Farm management. 
 Rural problems. 
 
 Farm sanitation, seven periods per week. 
 Civics. 
 
 Note.— This curriculum pre-supposes a course in general agriculture 
 in the eighth grade, two periods per week, during the year. 
 
 "Animal husbandry is placed in the last year, as the pupils of this 
 vicinity know more of the other subjects and are more interested in 
 the garden. 
 
 " It is advisable to have students as mature as possible before taking 
 up the breeding and feeding of farm animals, as it is a hard subject 
 to present to immature students." 
 
 Agricultural curricula have become very common. Some of the 
 largest city high schools include an agricultural curriculum in their 
 program. It is a most legitimate part of the program of studies of 
 any community. Not every high school that offers an agricultural cur- 
 riculum, however, could be called an agricultural high school, which 
 may be briefly described as one that serves a rural community and has 
 for its center of interest its agricultural curriculum, though other cur- 
 ricula appear side by side with it in order to meet the varied interests 
 of the community. 
 
 To show how far the influence of agricultural education extends and 
 how agriculture demands and appreciates thorough education to realize 
 its possibilities the following outline will be interesting: — 
 
 Winter Curriculum of an Agricultural High School 
 
 GENERAL STATEMENT 
 
 "The winter curricula have been planned to meet the needs of the 
 young men and women on the farms or in town who can not avail 
 themselves of the full high school course. Any one over fifteen years 
 of age may enroll, but more mature students, such as those actually 
 engaged in farm and home work, are desired. The regular work will 
 begin at 10:15 each day and close at 2:30. Students will be given texts 
 in most subjects and lessons assigned for home study, as all the time 
 in school will be devoted to recitations, lectures and laboratory experi- 
 ments. The general period work will be required of all. This con- 
 sists of Palmer business writing, commercial spelling, chorus, rhetoricals 
 and debate. Special classes will be given if there is sufficient demand 
 for them. Students from the associated schools will be admitted free, 
 but districts outside the association will be charged a fee of $2.50 
 per month for each pupil attending. The district pays for this, not 
 the pupil. The regular high school faculty will have charge of the 
 courses, so that high grade instruction is assured. Certificates will be 
 
392 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 given for work finished at the end of each year, and those completing 
 the four-year winter curriculum will be graduated with a diploma. 
 With evidence of satisfactory experience on the farm, this diploma 
 will be accepted for two years' advanced standing in the industrial cur- 
 riculum of the high school. Farmers and their wives who can not be 
 present for the entire work are especially invited to attend the lectures 
 on such subjects as they are interested in. 
 
 First Year — 
 English, 5 
 Woodwork, 5 
 Farm crops, 5 
 Practical Arith., 5 
 Plain cooking, 10 
 Poultry, 5 
 Writing and spell 
 
 ing, 5 
 
 First Division 
 
 Second Year — 
 English, 5 
 Woodwork, 5 
 Animal husban- 
 „ dry, 5 
 
 Farm accounts, 5 
 Home accounts, 5 
 Domestic science, 10 
 Commercial geog- 
 raphy, 5 
 
 Second Division 
 
 Third Year — 
 
 English, s 
 
 Iron work, 5 
 
 Soils and fertiliza- 
 tion, 5 
 
 Farm manage- 
 ment, 5 
 
 Drainage, 5 
 
 Sewing, 10 
 
 Bookkeeping, 5 
 
 Business law, 5 
 
 Fourth Year — 
 
 English, 5 
 
 Cement and build- 
 ings, s 
 
 Corn culture, 5 
 
 Farm mechanics, 5 
 
 Domestic art, 10 
 
 Political econ- 
 . om y» 5 
 
 Civics, 5 
 
 Business writing, spelling, rhetoricals and debate are required at 
 the general period throughout the course. 
 
 Notes on the Course 
 
 " It will be noticed the curriculum is divided into two divisions for 
 economy in handling the classes. The plan is to alternate the work of 
 the first and second years, as well as that of the third and fourth 
 years, offering half of the subjects of a division one year and the other 
 half the next. The numerals indicate the equivalent of single periods 
 per week. Each student working for credit should elect twenty units 
 per week, as this is the basis required for graduation. The first two 
 years of English are required of all students. The rest of the work is 
 elective except the general period." 
 
 5. The Township High School. — This is one of the most striking 
 developments of secondary education in this country. 
 
 It is illustrated by the Tozvnship High School of Illinois. It sup- 
 plies elaborate curricula equal to the best of those that have been given 
 in the early pages of this appendix. The program of the one at hand 
 shows eleven curricula, one commercial, two in literature and arts, one 
 leading to engineering, one to agriculture, one to work in general 
 science, one to medicine, veterinary surgery and dentistry, one to lit- 
 erary professions, and one to teaching, also one manual training and 
 one domestic science curriculum. Two of these curricula must serve 
 as samples here: — 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Literature and Arts 
 (15% units required for graduation) 
 Second Year. 
 
 Required : 
 English. 
 Physiography. 
 Algebra. 
 Latin. 
 
 Required : 
 English. 
 
 Greek and Roman History. 
 Geometry. 
 Latin. 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
 393 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 Required : 
 
 English. 
 
 Modern Language. 
 
 Physics. 
 Elective : 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Medieval and Modern History 
 or English History. 
 
 Algebra III and Solid Geom- 
 
 etry or Algebra III and 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 Commercial Geography. 
 
 Industrial History and Eco- 
 nomics. 
 
 Sewing. 
 
 Cooking. 
 
 Manual Training. 
 
 Botany or Zoology. 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 One Required : 
 
 English Literature or Public 
 Speaking or College Rhet- 
 oric. 
 Elective : 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Modern Language. 
 
 Medieval and Modern History. 
 
 English History. 
 
 American History. 
 
 Algebra III and Solid Geom- 
 etry or Algebra III and 
 Trigonometry or Trigonom- 
 etry and Surveying. 
 
 Botany. 
 
 Zoology. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Industrial History and Eco- 
 nomics. 
 
 Civics and Commercial Law. 
 
 Sewing. 
 
 Cooking. 
 
 Manual Training. 
 
 Advanced Physics. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Roman Life. 
 
 American Literature. 
 
 One unit of music may be al- 
 lowed. 
 
 Required : 
 
 English. 
 
 Industrial Science. 
 Manual Training. 
 
 Required : 
 English. 
 Physics. 
 Manual Training. 
 
 Manual Training 
 First Year. 
 
 Elective : 
 General Mathematics. 
 Algebra. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Elective : 
 
 Foreign Language. 
 
 Greek and Roman History. 
 
 Medieval and Modern History. 
 
 Geometry.* 
 
 General Mathematics. 
 
 Third Year. 
 
 Required : 
 
 English. 
 
 Manual Training. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 Elective : 
 
 Industrial History and Eco- 
 nomics. 
 
 Medieval and Modern History. 
 
 English History. 
 Language. 
 
 Algebra III and Solid Geom- 
 etry. 
 Arts and Crafts. 
 Machine Designing. 
 Architectural Designing. 
 
 *If Algebra is selected, geometry is the first mathematical 
 sequence allowed. 
 
394 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Fourth Year. 
 
 Required: American Literature. 
 
 Manual Training. Civics and Commercial Law. 
 
 Elective: Algebra III and Solid Geome- 
 
 English. ■ try. 
 
 Electrical Construction. Trigonometry and Surveying. 
 
 Foreign Language. Arts and Crafts. 
 
 Public Speaking. Machine Designing. 
 
 English History. Architectural Designing. 
 
 American History. 
 
 Quotations from Stanley Brown, Principal of the Joliet Township 
 High School will be of interest 14 : — 
 
 "The most distinctive feature (of the Township High School) is that 
 the entire power to establish or disestablish, to bond, to build, to create 
 the board, etc., etc., is lodged in the local community. So far as my 
 information goes there is no other type of public educational institu- 
 tion that receives absolutely no financial support from the state, and in 
 consequence the township high school of Illinois is the most purely 
 democratic institution known to the writer." 
 
 "To most people unfamiliar with the township high school law of 
 Illinois, the primary conception of such a school locates it in the heart 
 of a rural community and thinks of it as applying only to rural com- 
 munities, but its main application in Illinois has been found of greatest 
 value in villages and towns whose location made it possible for them 
 to act as the center of community life, even though their population was 
 but a few hundred or a few thousand people." 
 
 " There is no limit in either direction to the amount or character of 
 work which may be done in a township high school, and so one may 
 find on investigation that the courses of study vary from two years 
 to six years and include both high school, normal school and college 
 work. There seems to be no reason at present, if a community so elects, 
 to prevent the successful completion of one or two years of work or- 
 dinarily offered by the college or the normal school. Such advanced 
 courses are now being given by some of the township high schools in 
 Illinois and that with such success as to secure without examination or 
 condition the same credit in college and university which similar courses 
 would receive if the student had taken them in the college or uni- 
 versity instead of the high school." 
 
 " The township high school is a system by itself and is, in consequence, 
 free from many of the disturbing factors incident to municipal control 
 of schools. Neither the mayor of the city, the city council, the ward 
 politician, nor any official of the municipality may interfere with the 
 development of the township high school." 
 
 " The records of the township high schools in Illinois show that both 
 the tenure of office of the superintendent or principal of the school 
 and that of the board of education controlling it are much longer than 
 
 14 Extracts from his "Township High Schools of Illinois." 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 395 
 
 the tenure of office of either city superintendent or principal of city 
 high school or city boards of education." 
 
 " It is fairly certain that no other type of high school in any state of 
 the union in either city or town has at its command sufficient funds to 
 pay the superintendent, principal and teachers as well as do the best 
 township high schools of Illinois." 
 
 " It is not only possible but it is a well known fact that many of the 
 township high schools are equipped with apparatus, libraries, museums, 
 etc., etc., very much better than most of the small colleges and as well 
 as some of the universities. When a school is able to expend eighteen 
 thousand dollars for apparatus, etc., to equip laboratories, there need 
 be no hesitation in arranging advanced courses in science." 
 
 "The extent, amount and character of work done by the best town- 
 ship high schools of Illinois give them a higher classification in the 
 educational system than belongs to any other type of high school 
 in any state. The work accomplished by technical institutions, pri- 
 vately endowed and extending over six years beyond the elementary 
 school course is not very different from that of the best township high 
 schools in Illinois. In so far as the first two years' work ordinarily 
 offered by the small college or the university is done by the township 
 high school, in such particular it belongs to the collegiate classifica- 
 tion." 
 
 " The organization of the township high school has been a great boon 
 to the elementary school, because the taxes which supported both sys- 
 tems before the enactment of the township law are now used exclusively 
 for the support of the elementary school. The township school de- 
 pends on the township as a unit with all the corporate interests located 
 therein to furnish the funds for its support, and in no case has the 
 taxing limit for its support been reached." 
 
 "The state gives no support and has absolutely no authority in the 
 management of this school." 
 
 " There are already eighty of these Township High Schools in Illinois, 
 and the number is growing." 
 
 "The Joliet Township High School, Joliet, Illinois, enrolls eighteen 
 hundred students and includes day, afternoon, evening, and vacation 
 schools. Eighty-five per cent, of all who complete the eighth grade in 
 the city enter the high school ; sixty per cent, of those who enter the high 
 school graduate from a four-year curriculum ; fifty per cent, of all who 
 graduate enter some higher institution of learning. This institution, 
 supported entirely by local taxation and managed entirely through local 
 control, includes four years of high school work beyond the eighth 
 grade, one year of State Normal School work with practice teaching 
 for graduates of the school, and two years of college work for grad- 
 uates of the school." 
 
 "The institution is now ranked by the State University of Illinois 
 as a Junior College, and its graduates recommended receive the same 
 treatment as students coming from a college or university." 
 
 The LaSalle-Peru Township High School already has a group of five 
 
396 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 buildings. Its Principal, Thomas J. McCormack, has this to say as 
 to the distinguishing characteristics of such schools : — 
 
 "They are much misunderstood, especially by the people in the 
 East. Our state law enables the people of any congressional township 
 (six miles by six miles square) to establish a township high school 
 in addition to and above the regular school systems already established. 
 It is mainly a device for doubling the taxation powers of our school 
 systems. For example, our township high school board can tax the 
 property of our entire township as much as the boards of the three 
 individual cities composing the township can ^ tax the _ said property. 
 If we had no township high school in our little tri-cities, each city 
 would be compelled to support a high school with the same funds with 
 which it is now supporting its grade schools ; and when you reflect 
 that the grade schools have barely enough money to operate themselves 
 decently by modern methods, you will understand the main advantage 
 of the township High School. It is to be remembered furthermore 
 that township high schools are not limited to the country, but in fact 
 flourish in their greatest strength in the medium sized cities. The 
 regular high school of Joliet, for instance, a city of fifty or sixty 
 thousand, is a township high school." 
 
 " We draw from as large a territory as interurban lines of trans- 
 portation reach and until we touch the zone of another high school 
 district. For example, we have good connections at La Salle East and 
 West, and consequently we draw from territory within fifteen miles 
 on each side of us. Our attendance north and south is limited by 
 the fact that there are no interurban connections, but only steam 
 railway connections. Again twenty miles east of us at Ottawa is a 
 large township high school, and five and twenty miles respectively west 
 of us are two large township high school." 
 
 6. State schools — 
 
 Most of the foregoing curricula are local applications of the high 
 school idea. That they represent the general trend is indicated by 
 the fact that states prescribe the general type which may be deduced 
 from these local curricula for all high schools within their borders. 
 
 (a) A Middle West State. 
 
 State Regulations 
 
 "Every four-year curriculum shall contain at least fourteen year 
 units of work. Unless for satisfactory special reasons exceptions are 
 allowed, the following units of work should be found in every curricu- 
 lum (a unit of work to mean one year's work of one period a day, or 
 180 or more recitations). Recitation periods should be not less than 
 35 minutes in length and a longer period is desirable. 
 
 " I. Mathematics 2 units. 
 
 "II. English: — 
 
 (Includes literature, literary readings, composition, 
 grammar and rhetoric) 2 units. 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
 397 
 
 1 III. Science : — 
 
 (a) Physics or chemistry, ^elementary science. 
 
 (b) Any one of the following sciences, or a combina- 
 
 tion of not more than two of them, — botany, 
 zoology, physiology, physical geography, I unit 2 units. 
 'IV. History: — 
 
 (a) United States history, including history of the 
 
 constitution, 1 unit. 
 
 (b) Ancient history, or ancient and medieval, or 
 
 medieval and modern and English history, 1 unit 2 units. 
 "V. In general curricula offering less than four years of 
 work in a foreign language, there must be at least 
 three units of work in English, and two and one-half 
 units in history." 
 
 "Maximum and Minimum Time Limits 
 
 " 1. No subject, as a general rule, should be offered for a less time 
 than one-half year. Algebra and geometry should never be re- 
 quired for a period to exceed one year each. 
 
 "2. Not less than two years of any foreign language should be offered. 
 
 "3. The maximum time for history shall be three years, or four years 
 including civics and economics. Where instruction in American 
 history in the elementary schools is strong, it is advisable to 
 have United States history follow rather than precede Euro- 
 pean history. 
 
 " 4. Civics and economics not to exceed one-half year each. 
 
 "5. Teachers in all branches of study will be held responsible for re- 
 sults in English, and all teachers of composition and literature 
 are urged to make an especial effort to improve the administra- 
 tion of this work." 
 
 "The following general type curriculum including manual training 
 and domestic science presents a specific application of the preceding 
 principles and is given as a suggestive basis for the formation of new 
 curricula. With slight variation it has been very widely adopted in 
 the state. While it is desirable that there shall be a large degree of 
 uniformity in the high school curricula of the state yet reasonable va- 
 riation will be approved and it is neither intended to arbitrarily fix the 
 place of the different subjects nor to discourage the adaptation of high 
 school work to manifest local needs. Special curricula are made by 
 combining special subjects with the type curriculum." 
 
 First Semester 
 
 English. 
 Algebra. 
 
 First Year 
 
 Required Units 
 
 Second Semester 
 
 English. 
 Algebra. 
 
 * Elementary science should mainly consist of elementary physics 
 and chemistry. 
 
398 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 First Semester Second Semester 
 
 Elect Two Units 
 Elementary Science. Elementary Science. 
 
 Latin. Latin. 
 
 Spelling, Penmanship, etc. Botany. 
 
 Manual Training or Domestic Sci- Manual Training or Domestic Sci- 
 ence, ence. 
 
 Composition, Business Forms, etc. 
 
 Second Year 
 Required Units 
 Ancient History. Ancient History. 
 
 English. English. 
 
 Elect Two Units 
 
 Arithmetic. Physiology. 
 
 Botany. Latin. 
 
 Latin. Bookkeeping. 
 
 Manual Training or Domestic Manual Training or Domestic 
 
 Science. Science. 
 
 Zoology. Geography. 
 
 Third Year 
 
 Required Units 
 Geometry. Geometry. 
 
 Medieval History. English History. 
 
 Elect Two Units 
 
 English. English. 
 
 German. German. 
 
 Latin. Latin. 
 
 Citizenship. Grammar. 
 
 Bookkeeping. Economics. 
 
 Physical Geography. Chemistry. 
 Chemistry. 
 
 (b) A State in the Far West. 
 
 First Class (Four- Year) High School 
 
 Shall have a curriculum requiring fifteen units: 
 Seven specified units : 
 Three units English. 
 Two units mathematics. 
 One unit social science, including history. 
 One unit natural science. 
 Two additional academic units : 
 One or both of these units shall be advanced work to meet the 
 requirements of a second major of three units. 
 Six elective units : 
 Two units foreign language. Note: Students desiring tomake 
 a major in foreign language will apply one of the additional 
 academic units to foreign language. 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
 399 
 
 Four elective units to be used for whatever work best meets 
 the needs of the individual. 
 
 7. Small towns and villages. — Even small towns and villages, with 
 their limited means, are following the same trends. Naturally the same 
 wealth of curricula and options cannot be supplied, but the same spirit 
 is there. 
 
 (a) A New England town of less than five hundred families, with 
 no state aid such as many such towns receive, because its valuation was 
 higher than that established for drawing such aid. 
 
 A High School of 4 Teachers and 64 Pupils Curriculum 
 
 General 
 English 1 
 Algebra 
 
 German ^ c «i«~+ 
 Phys.Geog.l Sel f t 
 Com.Arith. J 3 
 
 Agricultural 
 English 1 
 Agriculture 
 Bookkeeping 
 German ^ 
 Algebra ISelect 
 Phys. Geog.J 1 
 
 Commercial 
 English 1 
 Bookkeeping 
 Com. Arith. 
 Phys. Geog. 
 or German 
 
 English 2 
 Plane Geom. 
 German 
 Biology 
 Hist. 1 
 Typewriting 
 
 Select 
 
 English 2 
 Plane Geom. 
 Agriculture 
 German 
 Hist. 1 
 Biology 
 
 Select 
 3 
 
 English 2 
 Bookkeeping 2 
 Hist. 1 1 
 
 Sten. and Type. I Select 
 German | 2 
 
 Biology J 
 
 English 3 
 Algebra 3 
 
 (half year) 
 German 
 Physics 
 Hist. 2 
 
 Select 
 3 
 
 English 3 
 Agr. Physics 
 German 
 Hist. 2 
 Algebra 
 
 (half year) 
 Type. 
 
 Select 
 2 
 
 English 3 
 Sten. and Type. 2 
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 Physics l 
 Hist. 2 
 
 u J. 
 
 English 4 
 Trig, and 
 
 Adv. Alg. 
 Chemistry 
 Amer. Hist. 
 Economics 
 
 Select 
 3 
 
 English 4 
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 Amer. Hist. 
 Economics 
 
 English 4 
 Bus. Prac. 
 Amer. Hist. "| 
 Chemistry I Select 
 German | 3 
 Economics J 
 
 Specials (Elective) 
 
 Public Speaking Soph., 
 
 Manual Training Fresh., 
 
 Mechanical Drawing Soph., 
 
 Beginning Design or Sketching Fresh. 
 
 Sewing Fresh. 
 
 Jr., and Sr. 
 
 Soph., Jr., and Sr. 
 Jr., and Sr. 
 
 Soph., Jr., and Sr. 
 
400 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 College Preparatory 
 
 Classical 
 First Year 
 English 
 Latin 
 Algebra 
 Ancient Hist. 
 
 Scientific 
 First Year 
 English 
 German 
 Algebra 
 Ancient Hist. 
 
 Second Year 
 English 
 Latin 
 German 
 Plane Geometry 
 
 Third Year 
 English 
 Latin 
 German 
 
 Algebra (half year) 
 Physics or Eng. Hist. 
 
 Fourth Year 
 English 
 Latin 
 
 Advanced Algebra (half year) 
 Chemistry 
 American History 
 
 Second Year 
 English 
 German 
 
 Plane Geometry 
 Biology 
 
 Third Year 
 English 
 German 
 
 Algebra and Solid Geometry 
 Physics or Eng. Hist. 
 
 Fourth Year 
 English 
 
 Trig, and Adv. Alg. 
 Chemistry 
 American History 
 
 Specials (Elective) 
 
 Public Speaking Soph., Jr., and Sr. 
 
 Manual Training Fresh., Soph., Jr., and Sr. 
 
 Mechanical Drawing Soph., Jr., and Sr. 
 
 Beginning Design or Sketching Fresh., Soph., Jr., and Sr. 
 
 Sewing Fresh. 
 
 (b) A "Mining Camp" High School offers three curricula, — col- 
 lege preparatory, commercial, and scientific, with elective privileges. 
 
 (c) A High School in a town that has risen from a Western desert 
 has three business curricula, two and three years in length, besides 
 evening courses, and two four-year curricula, Latin scientific and 
 Scientific, with elective privileges. 
 
 (d) A New England High School in a village of 6000, serving also 
 as high school center for near-by rural townships. (Through a pro- 
 vision of school law such townships may pay the expenses of _ sec- 
 ondary pupils at neighboring high schools, instead of maintaining 
 such schools themselves, — not an entirely satisfactory arrangement 
 from several view-points, but a workable one.) This school offers 
 college preparatory, scientific preparatory, general, commercial, do- 
 mestic arts, and mechanic arts curricula, with elective privileges. 
 
STUDIES AND CURRICULA 
 
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 A Pacific Coast School (Concluded). 
 
 General Notes: Oral Expression and Gymnasium require two hours 
 per week. All other subjects have daily recitations and receive full 
 credit. Subjects requiring more than one period per day are followed 
 by numbers in parentheses. One subject under each numeral must be 
 taken, except in college preparatory curriculum (2), in which four sub- 
 jects are required each year. 
 
 Collegiate Work: 13th and 14th Year Curricula. 
 
 English : History : 
 
 Composition — Narration, De- History of the U. S. Terri- 
 
 scription, Exposition torial Growth * 
 
 Chronological Study of Eng- History of the Last Century 
 
 lish Literature by Types .,<■,. 
 
 Social Sciences: 
 
 Mathematics: Introduction to Social Sci- 
 
 Solid Geometry ence* 
 
 Trigonometry Psychology, elementary 
 
 College Algebra Logic, deductive 
 
 Calculus, differential, integral Advanced Economics* 
 
 Analytical Geometry Parliamentary Government in 
 
 Europe and America 
 
 German : 
 
 Elementary German Natural Sciences: 
 
 Advanced Physics of the Home. Bac- 
 
 Literature teriology of the Home 
 
 General Botany 
 
 French : Chemistry; 
 
 Elementary Qualitative Analysis 
 
 Advanced Quantitative Analysis 
 
 Literature 
 
 *Given alternate years not in 
 1915-1916. 
 
 ^ (b) A Second High School in the same city offers seventeen cur- 
 ricula, — commerce, home economics, electrical engineering, mining en- 
 gineering, civil engineering^ art, mechanical draughting, architecture, 
 music, industrial, dressmaking and millinery, chemistry, mechanical 
 engineering, general elective, college preparatory (two different cur- 
 ricula), journalism. 
 
 These schools give a vivid idea of the splendid service rendered by 
 great cosmopolitan high schools. At the same time, with eighty other 
 high schools in the same city offering various curricula ranging in 
 number from three to eleven, besides several Junior High Schools 
 providing six curricula, they bring into sharp relief the result of the 
 nineteenth century tendency to scatter high schools and high school ad- 
 ministration, with the consequent financial loss and loss in mutual 
 cooperation, appreciation and civic unity. In contrast with this the 
 twentieth century is to tend toward greater concentration and higher 
 educational efficiency. 
 
XXIV 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, — PRINCIPLES 
 
 AND METHOD 
 
 Study-content, — more important than the curriculum. — 
 But study-content is more important than the formal curricu- 
 lum. It is this that makes the real curriculum. The twentieth 
 century high school is to adapt the content of studies more care- 
 fully to the qualities of the adolescent, both physical and psy- 
 chical. This is not an abstract matter to be settled by the ap- 
 parent demands of the studies themselves. Technical and pro- 
 fessional education is not aided by assigning to the adolescent a 
 kind of instruction and technique for which he is not fitted, or 
 for which he has, at that stage, a natural repugnance. There 
 is adolescent material in every subject, and there is infinite scope 
 for the selection of material of this type. The curriculum itself 
 is meaningless form. Choice of content and manner of presen- 
 tation give it vitality and validity. It is here that we touch the 
 individual. In this sense only is the curriculum a part of school 
 environment. In this sense it becomes the most important part 
 of that environment. It is through this selective process that 
 the school promotes physical, intellectual, and moral health, 
 and brings to bear upon the pupil forms and forces that relate 
 themselves readily to adolescent characteristics. It is through 
 this that the high school trues all its educational material and 
 processes to its opportunities and just ends, giving clear vision, 
 inspiring high endeavor, and inculcating ideas of public service. 
 
 Some principles to be used in determining study-content. — 
 The great purpose of secondary education is to give the 
 adolescent an adolescent's knowledge and appreciation of the 
 choicest treasures in the experience of the race, and to initiate 
 him into citizenship. This involves an intelligent grasp of his 
 special vocation, when the secondary school is his " finishing 
 
 409 
 
4 io THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 school." This is true historically, and it accords with the psy- 
 chology and pedagogy of the period. Applied to present-day 
 education it means that the secondary period is a time for in- 
 ducting into great subjects, for developing great interests, for 
 settling the guiding habits of life, intellectual, physical, social, 
 and religious. 
 
 From the point of view of instruction the main point is to 
 lead a pupil to love a subject. We must strike directly at his 
 interests and build systematically from this point. Dominant 
 interests in the pupil and point of attack in the subject must 
 coincide. Details that the ten-year-old relishes or at least mas- 
 ters with a good grace, and the finesse and technique that ap- 
 peal to the older student find no marked favor with the adoles- 
 cent. The larger ideas, whose meaning and suggestiveness are 
 more evident, are for him. We sometimes so pervert order 
 that we repel from a subject when we might attract. 
 
 Language study as an example. — To be more specific, form- 
 work and drill in Latin should come in the pre-pubertal period. 
 The kind of work often provided for the adolescent, — work in 
 which a boy of nine or ten might be content and even enthusias- 
 tic, — repels the high school student, and doubtless explains in a 
 measure the partial dissolution of Latin classes as they finish 
 the first term's work. 1 Latin is a very useful study, if con- 
 ducted so as to realize its utility. In , the coming high school 
 content and method will be such as to adequately reward the 
 pupils who elect it. In language study generally, whether we 
 are concerned with English or with some foreign language, the 
 adolescent should be occupied, on the grammatical side, with 
 some of the larger ideas of grammar that afford stimulating and 
 inspiring application of intellectual muscle. Such application 
 may be made, particularly in the direction of self-expression, 
 or composition, which should have a splendid growth at this age 
 if rightly managed. On the other hand, he should be led to 
 love literature and get something of its spirit. Clouston says 
 that now for the first time comes any real appreciation of litera- 
 ture. The study of literature in the high school, therefore, 
 should take hold of this rising adolescent quality. The in- 
 
 iSee articles by G. S. Hall and E. B. Bryan in Ped. Sem., Vols 
 7 and 9. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 411 
 
 tensive study of pieces, as such, is a mistake psychologically and 
 linguistically. 2 
 
 Science as an example. — Again the mastery of the common 
 facts of science, as facts, comes in the elementary school. A 
 new order of objective work to meet the new power of observa- 
 tion that is dawning, and especially the study of processes, of 
 meanings, and of relations, the stimulation of great laws, and 
 the inspiration of the lives of great scientists fit the nature of 
 the adolescent and will mark the twentieth century study of ele- 
 mentary science in the high school. 3 As in literature, we too 
 often expect the pupil to occupy himself with fine details, dry 
 and abstract discussions of what are supposed to be pre- 
 liminaries of the subject, and patient investigation. 
 
 In suggesting adolescent material in these subjects hints have 
 been given as to the perversion of order and the lack of peda- 
 gogical judgment that have been too common in laying out 
 these high school courses. The same conditions may be found 
 in other subjects. It is not possible to follow the logical order 
 as laid down in a systematic treatise on a subject. Another 
 kind of logic rules. The elements of a subject found in a 
 treatise, or in a reduced copy of a treatise, — the logically ar- 
 ranged text-book, — do not, at least as ordinarily conceived, rep- 
 resent adolescent educational material. Such material must be 
 culled and arranged in an order adapted to the growth of the 
 pupil. Material not found in the book must be used to sup- 
 plement the book. Introductory lessons must be revised and 
 improved and related to the secondary period. 
 
 New text-books. — The high school is to have new text- 
 books made on a different plan. But, more important than this, 
 the text-book is to occupy its legitimate place and serve merely 
 as a secondary agency. The pupil's first work in a subject or 
 
 2 This, however, does not mean that some pieces may not be read 
 with considerable reference to detail (of a sort applicable to the age), 
 so that the pupil may get a suggestive plan for reading, and get it as 
 concretely as possible. Most of the intensive reading, however, as 
 now conducted, is not for this purpose. The meaning of it all is this, 
 that the main aim should be adolescent appreciation of literature, not 
 finesse. 
 
 3 See G. S. Hall in Ped. Sem. Note here the reorganization of science 
 in the Mass. High Schools, Rept. of Mass. Board of Education, 1912-13, 
 pp. 103, 136, and the reorganization of high school mathematics. 
 
4 i2 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 topic is to be direct, rather than indirect through some book. 
 This makes it possible for the book to fulfil its larger function 
 as a means of stimulating study and reference supplementary to 
 the direct work. Again a subject cannot be divided into sec- 
 tions longitudinally or latitudinally, one for the secondary 
 school, one for the college. Such a relation of schools does not 
 exist, or does not exist in such a form. 
 
 High school period a selective one. — The secondary period, 
 looked at from all points of view, is a peculiarly selective one. 
 Right selection secures interest. When once the pupil is se- 
 curely interested in a subject, the abstract organization of parts 
 into a logical whole will come in a more natural way than when 
 forced prematurely, and will come all the better because of the 
 firm hold which the subject has upon him. He has a logical or- 
 der quite as good as the other, and, what is of more moment 
 here, much better adapted to him. We have tried to be logical 
 in the wrong way. Probably less has been done on this phase 
 of pedagogy than on any other. It furnishes a great field for 
 investigation and study; for the kind of educational material 
 and the kind of relations are matters of peculiar concern in an 
 adolescent school. Administrators of the twentieth century 
 high school are to occupy this field and adjust the secondary 
 school to its duties and opportunities by a truer educational 
 selection. 
 
 So much has been said as to the study side of the high school 
 because it has occupied and continues to occupy the forefront 
 of attention and has absorbed most of the effort of the school. 
 It is an instinctive concession to a deep seated prejudice. In 
 reality the program of studies will be a minor part of the twen- 
 tieth century high school. The principles of selection that 
 apply to it, however, apply also to all the other influences of the 
 school, social and intellectual, some of the most important of 
 which are to be considered in the latter part of this chapter and 
 in the next. 
 
 The new high school as a factor in the revision of the 
 elementary program. — In this adjustment of the program of 
 studies and of content it will be feasible to render a very distinct 
 and long-needed service to the elementary school. Its curricu- 
 lum and curriculum-relations need readjustment quite as much 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 413 
 
 as any part of the secondary school. At present our elementary 
 grades are literally lumbered with study material that is not 
 merely extraneous to its just purposes, but is needed in the 
 higher schools. Much of grade geography, as at present out- 
 lined, belongs in the high school, not merely because it is a con- 
 fusing element in the grades and not suited to the development 
 of grade pupils, but because it is peculiarly germane to high 
 school aims and purposes. This is true also of a part of his- 
 tory, truer of a substantial portion of arithmetic, and truer still 
 of grammar. 4 The past inconsiderate exploitation of the cur- 
 riculum of the grades has caused some of the most serious 
 school problems, and has given rise to some of the most serious 
 criticism of the present day. 
 
 Some things the high school will take from the elementary 
 school. — The twentieth century high school will have a broad 
 course in geography in its science group, not a review, but a true 
 cultural and scientific course. This will relieve the grades of 
 some of their present over-load. Different departments of the 
 high school will have a strong technical course in arithmetic, 
 and there will probably be a good general course in the subject. 
 This will relieve the grades of much misplaced effort incident 
 to attempting work beyond the experience and thought-power 
 of grade pupils, and will secure a substantial foundation for 
 the mathematical work of the technical departments of the 
 high school in place of the necessarily unreliable foundation that 
 the grades now furnish, because they find imposed on them a 
 strictly impossible task. 
 
 The high school will also have in the latter half of its course 
 of training, when it can be made comprehensible and practical, 
 a broad course in English grammar, including all but the sim- 
 pler concrete work. Here again the grades will be freed from 
 a monstrous pedagogical blunder. Grammar became fixed in 
 
 4 Particularly the more complex and abstract portions of physical, 
 economic, and industrial geography, which is now well represented in 
 the grades ; technical arithmetic, — stocks and bonds, technical problems, 
 complex and abstract operations ; in history the more complicated mili- 
 tary movements, the more abstract portions of constitutional history, 
 much of " administration " history, etc. It is questionable whether some 
 of this is not out of place even in the high school, — particularly some 
 topics in history. 
 
414 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the curriculum in an age when grammar was the chief subject. 
 It was grammar of a different type, but this fact was lost sight 
 of in devotion to a name. It was the central study of the 
 early secondary school, as we have seen in earlier chapters, but 
 in the shuffle of the centuries it has been inconsiderately shifted 
 to the elementary school. 
 
 An emancipated and rejuvenated elementary school, in a 
 position to do thoroughly and interestedly work fully adapted 
 to it, will be one of the chief contributions of the twentieth 
 century high school to general education. 
 
 Method in the twentieth century high school. — Choice of 
 content is essentially a part of method. The other part is or- 
 ganization of content and application of it to the individual. 
 This part of method is to be more fully adapted to the high 
 school pupil's characteristics 5 and to the times. It is still 
 found, in the first epoch of the twentieth century, that high 
 school methods in the average school are abstract, formal, and 
 remote, far from bringing educational material and pupils into 
 vital educational relations. 6 
 
 Advance over the old high school. — In the first place the 
 more pedagogical and psychological methods which were usher- 
 ing in a new epoch in the study of typical subjects and in the 
 development of power and initiative, in the late nineteenth cen- 
 tury, 7 form a strong basis for the growth of method in the 
 new century. These methods, by whatever name known, — 
 concrete, objective, inductive, laboratory, scientific, genetic, de- 
 velopmental, — are to be more perfectly developed, organized, 
 and applied and adjusted to high school pupils and to the pur- 
 poses of high school education. The laboratory idea is to have 
 a much wider application. Without going into all details of 
 the coming method, which would be impracticable here, we may 
 note some of its principles and supplement what was said in 
 Chapter XX as to its spirit and purpose. 
 
 5 See the author's summary of these characteristics in the Jour, of 
 Ped., 17 (1904-5) : 114 ff. See also Chapter XXII. 
 
 6 It is almost gratuitous to make estimates in such things, but we 
 should perhaps not be far from the truth to say that fifty per cent, of 
 teaching effort has gone under the feet or smoothly over the head of 
 the average high school pupil, because matter and method of instruction 
 have been poorly adapted to him. See page 512, note 14. 
 
 7 See Chapter XX. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 415 
 
 The teacher the chief element of method — His qualifica- 
 tions. — The teacher of the twentieth century high school, as 
 ever, will be the chief element of method. This teacher will be 
 distinguished by a knowledge of and sympathy for the adoles- 
 cent that will be almost intuitive, by a broad mastery of sub- 
 jects to be taught, by skill in separating adolescent material 
 from the mass, by command of methods adapted to the high 
 school pupil, by power to suggest ideals, to interest, and to in- 
 spire. His method is to begin with and center in the human 
 subject, not the culture subject. With such equipment and 
 such aims he will be able to do an infinite work for the physical, 
 as well as for the psychical, boy and girl. 
 
 Physical and mental effects of method. — On the physical 
 side it may be said that every failure in determining a proper 
 curriculum, in selecting and organizing material, or in bringing 
 this material into educational contact with pupils brings a 
 mal-adjustment of adolescent forces and a nervous pressure 
 which are unhygienic and threaten distinct injury to the 
 physical adolescent. On the other hand happy selections, 
 guided by an appreciative knowledge of adolescent life, en- 
 courage spontaneity and, so far, promote the health of the 
 whole physical mechanism. Stress and strain may be abated, 
 or even abolished, by method. They may, on the other hand, 
 be increased to the breaking point. Again the teacher's mode 
 of procedure in bringing pupil and subject together conditions 
 intellectual growth. If it brings a distaste for the subject it 
 destroys its value for mental growth ; but it may quite as easily 
 do the reverse. The teacher of the twentieth century high 
 school is to have a keener sense of method. It will be interest- 
 ing to note some of the special lines of method-influence he 
 is to follow. 
 
 The psychology of method. — The adolescent must possess a 
 subject in his own way, — through personal experience, ob- 
 jectively; through discussing, relating, organizing. The time 
 for observation and objective work in any subject, 8 even in 
 language, has not passed, though the nature of such work 
 
 8 It is interesting to recall here what was said of out-of-door study 
 when discussing the physical side of the program, as it shows how special 
 opportunities for objective work are at hand. 
 
4 i6 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 changes, as we approach this period of education. Psycho- 
 logically, method now, as before, brings into play, and depends 
 upon, the perceptive powers, but a new perceptive power has 
 come, a new world of perception has opened. 9 The adoles- 
 cent gathers new facts and new kinds of facts. This work is 
 to be supplemented (not preceded), and reinforced by the in- 
 spiration of books, as stated in another connection. Such in- 
 spiration depends upon, and is conditioned by, the apperceptive 
 basis the pupil can bring to the book. This new observation 
 is accompanied by a more significant induction and inference 
 than has been possible before. The adolescent is relating facts 
 as at no previous age. Loose aggregations no longer satisfy. 
 He is not preoccupied with the sensory relations of younger 
 pupils, nor with such logical relations as appeal to the older 
 student. He is organizing knowledge into the larger wholes 
 that best suit his nature. 
 
 From a little different point of view we may say that adoles- 
 cence is the time for suggestion more, than for minute and 
 formal work, which is better suited to other ages. Form gives 
 place to spirit, form-work to interpretation. The new method 
 will therefore feel the influence of this adolescent attitude. 
 Stated in a larger way, method depends upon imagination, upon 
 the sentient processes that are maturing, and upon thought- 
 processes in the large. The pupil is under the leadership more 
 of emotional than of intellectual stimuli. He feels more than 
 he knows, and more than he can express. He is ripe for in- 
 spiration, for getting hold of things and letting things get 
 hold of him. The twentieth century method will therefore be 
 of the inspirational sort, to develop great enthusiasms, en- 
 force ideals, encourage constructive work. It will present 
 great facts and relate them in large ways to show their mean- 
 ing. It will thus enable the pupil to " find himself " in various 
 subjects of the program. Every subject has, somewhere about 
 it, material for great ideals, in the lives of its votaries, in its 
 beneficent contributions to civilization, or in some other out- 
 look which it gives for focusing and directing interest. The 
 emotional and impressionable adolescent, once vitally touched, 
 will grow enthusiastic in the subject, and at the proper time 
 
 9 Lancaster, " Psy. and Ped. of Adol.," in Ped. Sem. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 417 
 
 and place will readily take up details that would have endan- 
 gered success, if attempted earlier. Here again we touch the 
 point discussed in another place. Who can develop, control, 
 and direct the enthusiasms of the adolescent, and can mobilize 
 them, insures the progress of ideals and their fulfilment, and 
 controls the destiny of the state. 10 
 
 Once more, it is well suggested that the period in question is 
 a time for expression, that adolescent work must not consist 
 of mere acquisition. Better, it is time for a new kind of ex- 
 pression, for expression is an absolute requirement, in fact 
 the most important requirement, at all periods. It gives point 
 and meaning to education. Without it there is no education, 
 and there is no real acquisition. It assumes special importance 
 here in view of adolescent characteristics. Expression is not 
 to be confined to formal lessons in language. Each study has 
 its own peculiar expression that gives it point and meaning, and 
 is as much a part of it as the subject matter of the study itself. 
 Expression is double, language expression and application. 
 Each study has its special language expression that affords 
 valuable language training. The expression of application is 
 very varied. Several types will suggest themselves, personal 
 application, application in connection with other subjects and 
 in problems of one's profession, social application. The lat- 
 ter is the most significant. It will be considered in connection 
 with a discussion of school administration in the next chapter. 
 
 Old type of examinations to be discarded. — The twentieth 
 century high school will not be an examination-less school. 
 It will not, however, be characterized by traditional examina- 
 tions. 11 Rather it will be a school of exploration, 11 discovery, 
 development. Correlatively it will be a school that works, not 
 by mass, but by individuals, exploring the individual's power 
 and inspiring him to an endeavor equal to his best. It will ex- 
 
 10 See Burnham, in School Review. 
 
 11 From ex amino, which means first, to swarm, second, to weigh. The 
 idea of examination had its rise in this second and less natural mean- 
 ing that had to do with mere grossness, bulk. It has curiously re- 
 curred, in our use of it, to its primary meaning, because it is so often 
 merely an instrument of mass work. 
 
 Explore, from exploro, which had the simple meaning that we or- 
 dinarily attach to the English word. 
 
418 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 plore his power to follow up a subject suited to his years with 
 continuity and with effective results, his power to think and re- 
 late within adolescent limits, his power to express and to do, 
 in order to really master fundamental facts, and, as a sum of all, 
 his power to command himself. Examinations, if we are still 
 to use the word, are to be a real educational agency instead of 
 a pump. 
 
 A teacher to every 20-25 pupils. — But there is a method- 
 policy or principle that is more basal than anything thus far 
 considered, because it provides for a more intimate educational 
 contact between teacher and pupil. However good may be the 
 other elements of method they are conditioned by the size of 
 classes. High schools have grown in patronage beyond the 
 capacity of school buildings and beyond the compass of the 
 teaching force. The twentieth century high school will show, 
 as one of its distinguishing characteristics, an improved ratio 
 between the number of teachers and the number of pupils. 
 
 Effect on method. — In place of the present impracticable 
 condition under which a teacher may have from thirty to forty 
 pupils, or even more, which means long-range, and hence light, 
 training, the new organization of the high school must provide 
 for classes of from twenty to twenty-five pupils. 12 Such an 
 increase in facilities will give a new meaning and scope to 
 method, and will increase the development of adolescent power 
 many fold. 
 
 More individuality in method. — Following the genius of the 
 secondary school along the lines that have been suggested we 
 see that the general trend of method is to be toward greater in- 
 dividuality, first because of the differentiation of curricula and 
 the opportunity to select work to meet individual purposes; 
 second, because the teacher, having smaller classes, can come 
 into closer association with individuals. 
 
 The general trend of method.— Subordinate to this we see 
 that the tendency is to be toward a new type of objective work 
 
 12 William E. Chancellor says we need about one teacher to every 
 sixteen pupils. The vital point, however, is the size of the class. The 
 ratio of one to sixteen may or may not result in a proper adjustment 
 of class relations. This is a matter of organization and administration. 
 But a proper ratio between number of pupils and number of teachers 
 is a fundamental condition for securing classes of proper size. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 419 
 
 applicable to the adolescent; that work is to be initiatory, 
 taking things in the large ; that it is to be inspirational, build- 
 ing ideals and putting them into motion ; that it is to be moral 
 and may easily guide the pupil into great habits ; that, whether 
 we will or no, it is to be religious and may, without violating 
 any religious code, give the pupil a religious attitude that will 
 lead him to settle his personal religion in his own religious 
 group in a way that will fulfil high aims, to the great advantage 
 of himself and society. 
 
 The adolescent's school work will not have the organization 
 and system, the knowledge of fine details, and the deeper in- 
 sight into the meaning of things that come after wider experi- 
 ence, but it will have organization just the same, an organiza- 
 tion specially suited to it. 
 
 Central idea in method — Inspiration. — If we should select 
 one word to characterize the method for adolescence, especially 
 early adolescence, it would be the word inspirational. The late 
 elementary school gives the drill which fixes forms and pro- 
 vides " tools.'* The high school must inspire. The adolescent 
 lends himself spontaneously to such influence. The teacher 
 who can meet him with inspirational methods can send him to 
 almost any worthy achievement. 
 
 Primitive secondary education contrasted with that of 
 later centuries. — Education of early centuries instinctively met 
 the interests of boys of secondary age by its methods. 13 
 Later centuries fell away from this spontaneous and natural 
 method to something that grew more and more formal and 
 artificial. It was not a wise system of formal education added 
 to these natural means, but something supplanting them. The 
 twentieth century will reorganize method along the line of the 
 specific needs of the high school period, regarding the secondary 
 period not as a subordinate, but a dominant one, having the 
 right to prescribe conditions by which it relates itself to other 
 periods and to life. 14 
 
 13 See Chapter IV. 
 
 14 Some Contrasts. — This advance in method that has been broadly 
 outlined may be partly realized by a brief antithetic outline of the 
 average method of the last century, showing what the pupil needed and 
 what he received. 
 
 The individual boy or girl demanded attention; the school gave it 
 
4 20 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Internal and external freedom. — This organization of cur- 
 ricula and method which have been discussed in the last two 
 chapters, will secure healthful internal freedom in the high 
 school. There is to be also an external freedom, the counter- 
 part of the internal. In the nineteenth century the college 
 took a notable step toward this freedom by establishing more 
 elastic entrance requirements. 14 The plan is to be worked out 
 more consistently and with juster treatment of all elements of 
 the secondary course of training. New tests of fitness will 
 facilitate and enrich the freedom of the high school, and will 
 help us to come nearer to the power-test for determining the 
 progress of pupils. 
 
 to the study-subject; that is where it individualized most. A multitude 
 of impulses and activities demanded expression ; the school said that 
 expression should come through the logical development of the subject 
 as suggested to some adult brain. Impetuosity was there; the school 
 tamed it by formal and difficult tasks, having almost a minimum of sug- 
 gestion and inspiration. An instinct for orientation, for relating, for 
 forming great and inspiring wholes, was present; the school stifled it 
 with the memorizing of details and with severe formal study. Emo- 
 tion was budding, to be nipped by the cold logic of books. Social im- 
 pulses and altruistic thoughts were starting forward, to be barred from 
 the great life of the world, and turned, through the quest of study- 
 subjects into the egotistic narrowness condensed in the expression, 
 " what is there in it for me ? " The restless, hungry, because growing, 
 physical nature called, to be outshouted by the " course of study." In- 
 heritances conspicuous in the adolescent, and demanding nothing short 
 of the wisest care and solicitude, were ignored for the inheritances 
 of the school. The adolescent asked for sympathy; the sympathy was 
 given to the physics or the chemistry, the history or the Latin. In gen- 
 eral the glowing adolescent was chilled and contracted by the cool 
 ideas of men as applied to men; sometimes, even more unwisely, he 
 was given riotous latitude. Many of these things were good in their 
 places and in the right proportion, but they lacked that human element 
 that the adolescent craves, if he is to achieve anything but a dwarfed 
 development. The school was really more interested in its curriculum 
 than in humanity. Hence the nervous strain ; hence the physical abuse. 
 The school perverted and cramped and sometimes well-nigh ruined. 
 With the change in method that has been described the subjects of study 
 will not suffer ; they will be enhanced in value. 
 
XXV 
 
 THE HIGH SCHOOL OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY — ORGANIZA- 
 TION, EQUIPMENT, ADMINISTRATION 
 
 A lost adolescent school. — The last chapter showed that 
 the twentieth century high school is to be one adapted to adoles- 
 cents. The school of early times, — especially the early Greek 
 school, was a fair approximation to such a school. As shown 
 in earlier chapters the school for adolescents was the initial 
 school. It came long before the elementary school was inaug- 
 urated. Its instruction and training were simple and definite 
 and calculated merely to induct the novice into the inner life of 
 the community and make him possessor of the choicest inherit- 
 ances of the race. It was founded on an intuitive regard for 
 adolescent characteristics. In the course of the centuries this 
 school, or an essential part of it, was lost. The manner of 
 losing is interesting. In early times adolescent training was an 
 initiation, and coincident with, or in close connection with, 
 initiation ceremonies. There were no professions or occupa- 
 tions with technique that required study-preparation. " Life 
 in the bush," * or apprenticeship, 1 Greek junior citizenship, 1 
 or the Roman tirocinium, 1 supplied all the technique that was 
 necessary. But, beginning with the sophist schools, there 
 arose, in increasing numbers, professions and occupations that 
 required more and more insistent study and longer training. 
 At present this condition is more marked than ever. The num- 
 ber of subjects of study increased amazingly. Content of 
 studies increased very notably in amount and quality. Because 
 of these growing demands the secondary school was subjected 
 to tremendous pressure. Its tendency was to formalize its 
 course and increase the amount of formal study. Its eyes 
 were fixed rather upon what was beyond than upon itself, upon 
 
 1 These training periods, it will be remembered, followed the initiation 
 ceremonies. 
 
 421 
 
422 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 preparation for a " higher course " rather than upon develop- 
 ment of genuine secondary school power. It thus lost sight of 
 typical adolescent aims and processes. 
 
 Pressure from above. — The pressure came from two direc- 
 tions. It came most from the university, to which, as we have 
 seen, the secondary school early became attached as a prepara- 
 tory school. The striking increase in demands upon the higher 
 school for training experts and specialists in all departments 
 of effort, industrial, commercial, scholastic, professional, in- 
 creased the exactions put upon secondary education as a foun- 
 dation for university and technical college. Through this rela- 
 tion the secondary school came to be devoted to a course of 
 formal training of a rather intense type, in fact one assimilated 
 to the college type, and this status has not yet been radically 
 changed. 
 
 Pressure from vocational education. — On the other hand, 
 since the revision of its relations to the university, giving it 
 greater freedom of development, and more particularly since 
 the demand for " vocational training " became urgent, the sec- 
 ondary school in general and especially the high school rapidly 
 became the universal preparatory school for life, and as such 
 was subject to the most intense pressure a school has ever seen. 
 It became essentially formal and technical, yielding to the 
 idea, to which it was long subjected, that the study of books 
 and formal training in subjects were the preparation to be 
 sought. 
 
 A longer preparation for the high school. — As these re- 
 quirements were increased the high school in turn increased 
 demands upon elementary education. The tendency was thus 
 to lengthen and postpone the period of secondary education till 
 its outer limit was several years later than at the beginning of 
 the nineteenth century. Through influence from above the 
 scope and character of its work became radically different from 
 those of the initial secondary school, with its traditional aims 
 and methods and its stimulus to initiative. 2 From pressure at 
 
 2 The extension and postponement of the period of secondary edu- 
 cation and the demand for professional and occupational education do 
 not explain this difference fully. From the early years of university 
 attachment the university supplied both teachers and methods. Even 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 423 
 
 both ends of the line secondary education gave way in the 
 middle. One section of it was forced out, — that which was of 
 a genuinely adolescent nature. Pupils thus lost a distinctive 
 element of secondary education that is, in fact, the central ele- 
 ment, and were projected from the formal instruction of the 
 higher elementary, or grammar school, directly into college 
 aims and method. They lost a content, a method, a point of 
 view, a directing and impelling force for effort and work that 
 only a genuine adolescent school can give. Both nature and 
 science impress this fact. To this is largely due the unsatisfy- 
 ing results of present secondary education, the failure of the 
 high school to hold the attention and foster the interest of a 
 majority of high school pupils for a sustained four-year cur- 
 riculum. 
 
 The adolescent school restored. — The twentieth century 
 must bring back this lost but not outworn element of secondary 
 education. To do this it must consider pupils from the age 
 of twelve upward to the college limit. 3 It will therefore no 
 longer be a four-year high school, but one of larger extent. 
 This will permit us not only to restore that adolescent training 
 now so keenly needed, but, as the high school is a finishing 
 school in so many cases, to include something of more formal 
 and technical training. 
 
 The twentieth century high school not a four-year school 
 — A double school. — The twentieth century high school will 
 therefore be a reorganized and a double school. The first sec- 
 tion will take pupils at the end of the sixth grade of the ele- 
 mentary school. By that time all that is valuable in the present 
 congested and anachronous elementary curriculum can be well 
 done and with higher results that will make a better basis 
 for higher work, or a better introduction to life. 8 The high 
 school will then give them a preliminary training of the initia- 
 tory type, suited and necessary to early adolescent years and 
 
 before the establishment of the mediaeval university Greece and Rome 
 had established a higher education, with the secondary school as feeder. 
 The secondary school very early lost its distinctive method and was 
 supplied with another, — the one that was handiest, not the one best 
 fitted for it. 
 
 3 This presupposes a genuine revision of the elementary curriculum on 
 educational principles. 
 
424 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 calculated to stimulate ambition to carry training to a higher 
 stage. The second section of the school will be devoted more 
 to the technique of studies and vocations, verging toward the 
 collegiate type. Aside from the practical considerations in 
 the case, nature herself seems to have established a line of 
 cleavage at the end of the sixth grade, both in subjects of study 
 and in psychologic characteristics. Again at the age of about 
 eighteen comes a dividing point in the period of adolescence, 
 beyond which the adolescent seems to be ready for a type of 
 work somewhat different from that of preceding years. 
 
 The " six-year " high school. — To meet the need of a reor- 
 ganized high school the six-year high school appeared in out- 
 line in book schemes about the close of the last century. It is 
 just beginning to work itself out in actual school plans and 
 forms. In this six-year high school there are two sections 
 each occupying three years. It is a question whether the 
 magic of numbers has not influenced the division. Six and six, 
 and three and three seem artificial. They have not yet been 
 proved. The six is more probable than the three. But these 
 are only details. Whatever the actual form of the new high 
 school may be, one thing is plain, — the adolescent school and 
 its legitimate work are to be restored, for it has a distinct and 
 imperative mission, as a foundation for secondary education. 
 At present there is no foundation, and as a makeshift we are 
 using the elementary school as such, so far removed from it 
 in spirit and work that it makes a false base and renders the 
 structure insecure. 
 
 Organization of the new school — Distinctive parts. — In 
 the reorganized school the adolescent school will occupy the 
 first section, whether of three or four years. From its very 
 nature it will have a distinct organization, administration, cur- 
 riculum-content and method. It will for a time be the hardest 
 school in the whole series to adapt to its special aims. Teach- 
 ers must be trained, study-content must be worked out, organi- 
 zation and administration must be determined with special ref- 
 erence to these aims and to adolescent characteristics through 
 which the aims are to be reached. So far as we have provided 
 any special training at all we have been chiefly concerned with 
 preparing teachers to teach high school subjects and pupils 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 425 
 
 in general. We must now train them to teach and administer 
 in special sections of high school work. 4 Teachers must be 
 equipped to give real initiation into typical subjects and pur- 
 poses, and particularly into great ideals, with the emphasis on 
 the adolescent. The teacher here must forget college work 
 and method that have been impressed upon him, must be con- 
 tent to suppress many details that have generally hampered 
 early high school work, to take the subject in the large, and 
 to put into free action the inspirational side of teaching. In 
 this way the high school beginner will have a real induction into 
 the new world of science and art, literature and history, and all 
 the rest. He will get at just meanings and values, and gain 
 wide views and contacts, as a preliminary to a strong grip at 
 some particular vantage point later. On success here depends 
 success in the advanced school and in life. If a teacher has 
 not the gift, or acquisition, of large, inspirational teaching, the 
 adolescent school is not the place for him. 
 
 Methods of the two schools to be differentiated. — The pre- 
 vious chapter has given in some detail a forecast of the method 
 of the coming high school, as it would appear from a study of 
 present tendencies and of the conditions to be met. It is evi- 
 dent that typical adolescent method will come in the first sec- 
 tion of the newly organized high school, which may conven- 
 iently be named the Junior High School. Method in the Senior 
 High School and even beyond will have much of the same 
 spirit, but it will shade from that of the junior school toward 
 more technical work, for it is time to be getting the technique 
 of study and vocation. For this reason it is very doubtful 
 whether the arrangement of the two high schools by threes is a 
 scientific one. 
 
 All this means that the two high schools must have distinct 
 plants, or distinct suites, and distinct equipment, including 
 teaching force. They are so distinct in aims and methods that 
 they cannot share opportunities, except in a general way, — in 
 museums, in collections, and, perhaps, in laboratories. 
 
 4 A training school for these teachers will naturally be affiliated with 
 a great high school, i.e., a " university of high schools." For stimulus 
 to broad scholarship and for various advantages that are patent, it 
 should also be affiliated with a university. 
 
426 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 But high schools and departments of schools are to be 
 concentrated, not scattered. — So far we have been consider- 
 ing organization and administration from the point of view of 
 school ages and general educational aims. It is quite as inter- 
 esting to consider them from the point of view of special aims. 
 We found in Chapter XXIII that the coming high school is 
 to have various programs of studies suited to different depart- 
 ments or schools into which high school education is becoming 
 differentiated. Each program will give rise to several curricula 
 adapted to special ends. 5 The tendency in large centers has 
 been to place these differentiated departments or schools in dif- 
 ferent locations, one in one part of the city, another in another 
 part. Such a policy is untenable. The best fulfilment of twen- 
 tieth century high school aims requires a central and well- 
 articulated, rather than a scattered administration. A separate 
 organization for industrial and vocational education would de- 
 feat its fundamental purpose. The movement in high school 
 education must be centripetal. 
 
 The twentieth century high school is therefore to be a com- 
 munity of schools, — a university of schools, having common 
 interests and common tasks, but each school organized for its 
 special end, and at the same time in such a way as to give broad 
 training, develop broad interests, and make broad thinkers. 
 
 Dangers of isolation. — In the early days of specialization 
 the tendency was to make one's study and thought too restricted, 
 limiting it to some minute field, and especially separating it 
 from necessary correlations. The result was a narrow spe- 
 cialization that was likely to prove weak through its own little- 
 ness and inexactness. 6 A similar separation and isolation 
 would hinder or thwart the main aim of high school education, 
 viz., to make a true citizen of the world, a cementing and unify- 
 ing force, not a mere member of a group with disintegrating 
 tendencies. Civic conservation and progress depend in large 
 degree upon mutual respect between different groups of con- 
 
 5 See Chapter XXIII. 
 
 6 Specialization is a fundamental necessity in all departments of human 
 effort. It inevitably brings a kind of separation. To fulfil its purpose 
 it requires a unifying and broadening spirit, — requires, as an absolute 
 characteristic, ability and disposition to think in fundamental social, 
 civic, industrial, and political units. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 427 
 
 tributors to community wealth, tangible and intangible, and 
 upon the understanding and appreciation of one another's 
 interests. 
 
 Community ideals dependent upon centralization of high 
 school education. — The secondary school is the basal school 
 for starting these social ideas. The very psychology of the 
 secondary school pupil shows that this is the vantage time of 
 life for developing those habits of thought that make for indus- 
 trial peace and for true democracy in all directions. The high 
 school with its new vocational work offers the finest sort of 
 opportunity for carrying out this principle and carrying it far 
 enough to settle these ideas for life. Concentration of all de- 
 partments of high school work in a single plant furnishes the 
 exact conditions needed for training to think in those funda- 
 mental units upon which successful democracy rests. It makes 
 the right conditions also for creating a community of industrial 
 interests. It gives a better understanding of the other fellow 
 and his work, and at the same time it brings greater zest into 
 high school life and larger educational values. 
 
 A co-educational school. — The spirit of the reasoning we 
 have been following will make the twentieth century high school 
 a coeducational rather than a divided institution. Contact of 
 the feminine mind and the masculine mind is broadening for 
 both. A girl's points of view and intuitions are different from 
 the boy's. Appreciation comes through opportunities to under- 
 stand one another broadly. How could this be possible if high 
 school education were to be divided? Considered from either 
 the social or the intellectual point of view then coeducation 
 argues itself. The argument from social economy and school 
 finances is patent. 7 
 
 7 The social argument is stated rather aptly in the following quota- 
 tion : — 
 
 " The young woman who knows young men only in dress suits 
 will get a very false opinion of them. Woman in her hour of ease is a 
 very inferior creature to woman at work, and it is inevitable that a man 
 who knows her only in the former guise will get an unfavorable opinion 
 of the sex. When man gets to looking on woman as an amusement 
 his moral ruin is impending, because he can find plenty of women who 
 are very amusing, but not otherwise fitted for his companionship. Men 
 and women will always attract each other, but it is only by meeting in 
 their every day work as helpmates and rivals, as comrades and com- 
 
428 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Some limitations. — But, as was shown in the Appendix to 
 Chapter XX, the physiological and mental development of the 
 two sexes differs, if not in kind, yet in time. Girls mature 
 materially earlier than boys. Hence the same kind and degree 
 of scholarship-results cannot be expected of both at the same 
 age. As already suggested, therefore, there will naturally be 
 some separation, in order to bring out the best educational re- 
 sults for both. But at the same time the school organization 
 will provide abundant opportunity, both in class-room and 
 otherwise, for the two sexes to associate and to study and 
 understand one another under most approved conditions. 
 
 Principles of concentration. — A brief outline of the 20th 
 century high school toward which our chapters have been lead- 
 ing will illustrate, and at the same time extend and strengthen, 
 the argument. The school must meet three conditions: — 1. 
 The Senior High School must be distinct from the Junior High 
 School. 2. Each department of the senior school must have 
 equipment and facilities for doing its special work in an enter- 
 prising and masterful manner, and at the same time must have 
 access to means for a general, to support the special, education. 
 3. There must be opportunity for exchange of ideas between 
 departments and for rather intimate association of pupils of 
 one department with those of another. The outline will be as 
 follows for a large municipality. For smaller communities and 
 for scattered communities details will differ to suit special con- 
 ditions, but the fundamental idea will be the same. 
 
 General plan. — 1. A site that will afford an environment 
 in keeping with the highest secondary school ideals. 
 
 2. A general school building, with ample assembly facili- 
 ties, a suite of class-rooms, and general equipment in the form 
 of library, collections, and other means of interest and instruc- 
 tion. This will serve at once as a special school for those fol- 
 lowing a general curriculum or a literary curriculum, as a refer- 
 ence hall, and particularly as a meeting place for various groups 
 of pupils, and even for the whole pupil body, for common lec- 
 
 panions, that they will respect each other. All artificial substitutes for 
 such normal mingling, whether devised for scholastic, religious, or 
 financial purposes, have resulted in diseased conditions of the im- 
 agination." From an editorial in the New York Independent. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 429 
 
 tures and exercises and for the daily initial program that will 
 be both instructive and inspirational. This central school may 
 be named the school of literature, art, and music (though this 
 detail is not an essential part of the plan). 
 
 3. Various schools grouped around this center. — Closely 
 connected with this central hall by protected passages or other 
 ready means of access will be various schools, each fully 
 equipped with appliances for doing its peculiar work, and an 
 assembly room of its own to be used for special purposes. In 
 this way the following additional schools will be provided : 
 
 (a) A Science School. 
 
 (b) A Mechanic Arts School. 
 
 (c) A Commercial School. 
 
 (d) -A Horticultural tand Agricultural School. 
 
 (e) A Technical School. 
 
 (f) A Supplementary Vocational School. 
 
 Reasons for a high school of horticulture and agriculture. — 
 Only the fourth one in the list will perhaps suggest a query. 
 A little consideration, however, will show that it has a distinct 
 place even in the city. I. High school opportunities should 
 include all standard activities; otherwise some departments of 
 endeavor will be shut off that may be the very ones in which 
 certain pupils would come nearest to fulfilling the measure of 
 their ability. To choose the best each pupil should have access 
 to all. Horticulture and agriculture demand as careful educa- 
 tion and as much science, and bring into play as high a degree 
 of mentality, as any vocation or profession. They offer as 
 many charms as the best. They give returns equal to the best. 
 To shut off access to this great field of effort therefore is to 
 leave potential units of efficiency undeveloped; for the school 
 in question would give pupils an opportunity to waken dormant 
 interests in nature and nature's occupations and, in many cases, 
 to develop a skill in rural vocations that would give a broader 
 success and satisfaction than would be possible in any other 
 field of endeavor. The opportunity for broadening thought 
 and culture is evident and gives added value to the plan. 2. 
 There must be interchange between city and rural life. The 
 old stream cannot go on flowing from country to city and pre- 
 serve the integrity of population. There must be two parallel 
 
430 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 streams flowing in opposite directions. Many residents of 
 cities would succeed better in the country. The school we are 
 discussing would re-form habits, and it would start new habits 
 in city children that would take them to country opportunities 
 and country wealth, material and otherwise. To cut off 
 avenues of effort in a city and in city schools is a sure bid for 
 proletariat conditions and a proletariat spirit. 3. Much city 
 space is now wasted, considered either from the point of view 
 of beauty or from that of other utility. A utilization of vacant 
 lots and home enclosures, which would be a part of the system- 
 atic program of the school in question, would add indefinite 
 thousands to means of support and greatly add to a city's 
 wealth and beauty. 4. The " City Beautiful " would also be a 
 direct object of such a school, stimulating interest in beautify- 
 ing public and private grounds and giving definite instruction in 
 the practical working out of these ideas. Public parks might 
 well be in charge of the school and thus managed with a new 
 economy. Actual participation in the management and care 
 of such things enhances their value and significance in the minds 
 of the people. Too much done for any class of people, with 
 no thought or care or exertion on their part, cheapens the thing 
 done even in their estimation, and does not encourage a public, 
 or civic, spirit. 
 
 Social and financial advantages of a university of high 
 schools.— We are to have then, as already suggested, a uni- 
 versity of high schools. Here in close association the student 
 body, though separated naturally into special groups, is as 
 naturally united in common interests and aims. It is supplied 
 with the best conditions for following special programs toward 
 individual aims and general programs toward the central aim 
 of intelligent, well-directed citizenship. Each group learns to 
 be appreciative of every form of endeavor and generous in ac- 
 cording other groups opportunities for expression and develop- 
 ment. Each one becomes better equipped and better disposed 
 to work for common interests, because it can approximate 
 others' conception of the fundamental ideas on which healthy 
 civic development rests. Because of this mutual sympathy, 
 appreciation, and respect any community will have a surer, more 
 rapid, and more economic development. There will still be 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 431 
 
 healthful variety in unity, but the fantastic and wasteful diver- 
 gence of the present will be reduced. Such an organization as 
 is suggested will result in large financial economy in school ex- 
 penditure and at the same time give the best conditions for 
 economy of time, effort, and method in education. Community 
 ideas and community virtues are more thoroughly and more 
 quickly developed through a community of work. 
 
 Special features of the Junior High School. — In the Junior 
 High School departments may not be so thoroughly differ- 
 entiated and organized into schools, for obvious reasons. This 
 is not the period for specializing. It is rather the time, as has 
 so often been emphasized, for initiation into great ideas and 
 subjects, preparatory to more technical work. And yet, as so 
 many will, for the present, end their school life here, there 
 may be some elementary specialization. Such specialization, 
 however, must be infused with the spirit of adolescent educa- 
 tion founded upon the principles that issue from adolescent 
 psychology ; it must be adapted to the adolescent's point of view. 
 
 The Township High School an illustration of successful 
 centralization. — That the centralized high school is practicable 
 for other than very large communities is evident from the suc- 
 cess of the Township High School of Illinois that has been de^ 
 scribed with some detail in a previous chapter. 8 Its distinguish- 
 ing characteristics are a central plant accommodating various 
 departments or schools, curricula appealing to all interests, and 
 dormitories for each sex to meet the needs of pupils whose 
 homes are too remote to make daily trips feasible. These 
 facilities furnish a stimulus and outlet for all the secondary 
 activities of a large district. So broad are the opportunities 
 offered that the school performs some of the functions of a col- 
 lege, in addition to those of a high school. It is evident that 
 the conditions for such broadening are favorable, whether we 
 take the point of view of economy, or that of organization. 
 The popularity of this type of high school is prophetic of the 
 larger growth of the more fundamental idea of centralization. 
 
 Extension work. — In the twentieth century high school 
 there are to be social relations outside of the pupil body, for 
 the school is going to enlarge its clientele by extending its ad- 
 
 8 See Appendix of Chapter XXIII. 
 
432 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 vantages and inspiration to the general public, and particularly 
 to that part of it that is still young and has missed high school 
 work. In other words it is to add " public " curricula to its 
 other specialized curricula, to provide continuous and sustained 
 work of different grades for the non-school public. In this 
 way it will unite community and school in closer bonds of ap- 
 preciation. It will enlist both students and teachers in a co- 
 operative " community work," since such a scheme will furnish 
 various opportunities, within their power and time, to render 
 service, though the main work will be done by a special staff. 
 
 Universal high school education. — This twentieth century 
 high school, adapting itself wisely to all secondary school 
 interests, and organizing itself in close harmony with social, 
 industrial, and culture conditions and opportunities, with its 
 differentiated curricula and its " extension " work, is to provide 
 facilities for the attendance of all children of secondary age 
 and all others who desire secondary school privileges. More 
 than this, it is to make its facilities seem so worth while that it 
 will not only attract attendance, but almost compel it. Its mis- 
 sion is to make attendance universal. As there are in the 
 United States more than eleven million persons whose ages lie 
 between fifteen and nineteen (inclusive), while in all the sec- 
 ondary schools of the country, public and private, there are 
 only about four million pupils, it is evident that the high school 
 has a tremendous task before it. 9 
 
 A whole-year and long-day school. — The high school will 
 carry on its work not for certain restricted months and hours. 
 It will be universal in another way. It will be a whole-year 
 and long-day school, with the necessary relays in instruction, 
 quarter year credits in place of half year credits, evening classes 
 and day classes. It is thus to come up to its full economic 
 
 9 We shall of course meet the objection of those who unfortunately 
 believe that secondary education should not be given to all. But even 
 if we make large allowance here, the task of the high school will be 
 sufficiently great. The aim, however, should be, " universal high school 
 education for the capable," and the capable are all the normal. See 
 Chapter XXII, page 356. 
 
 On this matter of numbers and proportions and aims William E. 
 Chancellor has a telling and suggestive paragraph of which use has 
 here been made. For fuller figures see page 357, note 9. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 433 
 
 possibilities. This very fact will make it possible to extend 
 the ministries of high school education without a correspond- 
 ing increase of plants and current expenses. 10 
 
 But we must consider more than the outside of the high 
 school, the shell. Unfortunately at the present time more atten- 
 tion is being given to this than to some other things that are quite 
 as necessary. The equipment of the plant is the vital point in 
 high school economy. The twentieth century equipment is to 
 show a marked advance over that of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Equipment, — material. — The typical high school of the late 
 nineteenth century had the regulation laboratories for physics 
 and chemistry, sometimes a makeshift laboratory for biology, 
 a general library of a formal character and of very modest 
 proportions, a stock of text-books, and the typical school seat. 
 To this was sometimes added a lunch-room of a quasi com- 
 mercial nature. The coming high school is to have a labora- 
 tory for each department, — not merely for the sciences, but 
 for history, literature, music, art, vocational work, and all the 
 rest. Each is to be fully equipped with appliances and collec- 
 tions appropriate to the department, for studying things as they 
 are rather than through text-books. This will relieve the 
 abstractions of the older school. With each laboratory is to 
 go, as a coordinate element, a broad, well-selected collection 
 of books, written from the stand-point of the adolescent and 
 what he can and ought to get out of high school work. This 
 will relieve the forcing and general anachronism of high school 
 method. To facilitate this more vital work and to supply more 
 hygienic conditions the seating of the school is to undergo 
 striking reforms. Tables and chairs suitable for real work, 
 instead of mere book-plodding, will take the place of the 
 familiar stationary desk and seat. Finally the lunch room is to 
 
 10 Details for working out such a plan would occupy a volume. But 
 it should be noted here that in carrying out the vocational function of 
 the high school abundant opportunity will be given for combining two 
 kinds of work, study-work and the work of some occupations that may 
 reasonably claim the attention of high school pupils. This will provide 
 for general culture and for vocational training at the same time; in 
 fact the former is part of the latter. It will provide a wholesome com- 
 bination of interests and give steadying power to a large class of persons 
 not now adequately reached by high school facilities. 
 
434 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 be a correlated rather than an isolated factor in high school life. 
 It is to have intimate relations, as to principle and organization, 
 with the physical and vocational departments. These are the 
 fundamentals of the material equipment of the school. Aside 
 from these each department or school will distinguish itself by 
 details suited to the particular school or community and giving 
 a fine outlet for initiative on the part of school authorities. 
 One can at once picture many details appropriate for individual 
 schools of this university of high schools. 
 
 Equipment — Teachers — Their qualifications. — With this 
 material equipment is to come its complement, higher teaching 
 power. As already indicated, there will be many more teach- 
 ers proportionally than now, a gain that will by itself secure 
 better adolescent scholarship and larger educational values gen- 
 erally, both in training and in administration. The advance in 
 teaching qualifications, however, is to be more significant than 
 increase in the number of teachers. The nineteenth century 
 gave most attention to the knowledge side of the teacher's 
 equipment. It followed at best a supposititious method in its 
 high school teaching. The twentieth century is to have far 
 broader training for secondary school teaching, and is to make 
 this training an absolute requirement for every secondary 
 school teacher. The school in which this training will be con- 
 ducted is to organize a genuine adolescent method for the re- 
 discovered adolescent school, in the direction of the method 
 principles noted in the previous chapter. It will be the center 
 of diffusion for this more vital method. There will be devel- 
 oped a secondary school teacher who has not only a wider and 
 richer knowledge of his subjects u than has been common be- 
 fore, but a lively sympathy with the new method based upon a 
 sympathetic knowledge of the psychology of adolescence. 
 Such a teacher will be able to determine and utilize high school 
 centers of attention, to organize and unify all effort for more 
 definite and more characteristic results, and to transfuse pupils 
 with the counterpart of his own enthusiasm. 
 
 Sexes more evenly represented in the teaching force. — In 
 this distinctive teaching force the sexes are to be more evenly 
 
 11 Not merely knowledge, but power to select, adapt, and apply with 
 a view to true adolescent aims. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 435 
 
 represented. Adolescence has specific gains to be derived from 
 each sex and must suffer if cut off from due opportunity to 
 secure these gains. This would be true even if our schools 
 were not organized on the principle of coeducation. With 
 such an organization it is more emphatically true. 
 
 Supervision. — But we need to utilize the best in a corps 
 of teachers and to unify and correlate all teaching effort. We 
 must secure greater economy and effectiveness in the use of 
 educational material. We must be able to mobilize all effective 
 values in the high school. This is especially necessary for suc- 
 cess in the crucial epoch of development before the individual 
 is thrust upon the responsibility of the scholastic or the world- 
 university. Provision must therefore be made for organizing 
 the material and human factors in the high school and uniting 
 them in the most productive educational work. Hence the 
 element of supervision must be enlarged, without, however, 
 destroying the initiative of the individual teacher. A keen 
 observer remarks : — " The high school needs one assistant 
 principal with purely supervisory duties for every fifteen or 
 eighteen teachers. It cannot be run profitably with no over- 
 sight of teachers by superiors solely devoted to that purpose." 
 We supply a great deal of purely supervisory assistance in the 
 elementary school. In the equally critical secondary period, 
 the last vantage period for determining educational and per- 
 sonal interests and for forming the guiding habits of life, we 
 should have equally careful supervision. All the facts of sec- 
 ondary school life support such conclusions. The advance in 
 organization that has been suggested may easily double the 
 efficiency of the high school. The looser administration of 
 the past is a characteristic derived from the college through 
 the influences described in earlier chapters. 
 
 Administration. — Administration in the twentieth century 
 high school is to be determined by special high school charac- 
 teristics that have already been dwelt upon. In the increase of 
 administrative units in the personnel of the school the principal 
 will become more distinctly an organizer, unifier, and inspirer. 
 To make him more fully master of his opportunities he is to be 
 supplied with a business manager who will have charge of the 
 purely business details of the schools or departments in the 
 
436 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 administrative plan. In the larger systems a business man- 
 ager will be required for each school of the university of high 
 schools. 
 
 Relation of teaching and administration. — But teaching 
 itself involves administration. The old notion that a teacher 
 has two distinct functions, the function of teaching and the 
 function of disciplining, whatever that may have meant, is a 
 false one. A good teacher and a poor disciplinarian or the 
 reverse is an impossible combination. Teaching power most 
 intimately involves power to organize and administer all class- 
 room forces for lively and effective educational results. It is 
 as one of the fundamentals of teaching-method that class-room 
 management attains significance. A genuine adolescent cur- 
 riculum and curriculum-content, with their effective ideals, 
 teachers with adolescent aims and method carried out in the 
 new spirit, and an educational environment supplied by the 
 school site and the material equipment of the school to which 
 reference has been made affect and forward administration in 
 many ways. Every fine adjustment here goes far toward 
 directing activities in normal, healthful channels. The govern- 
 ment side of administration is largely settled here. 
 
 Directing principles. — But there is need of some inform- 
 ing principle that shall give scope, direction and force to man- 
 agement and administration. If we follow out the aim of 
 which we have caught fore-views at different points in the last 
 chapters it will not be difficult to determine what the general 
 plan is to be. We shall apply it here more particularly to 
 high school government, but it plays an important part in school 
 administration as a whole. We have seen that one of the dis- 
 tinguishing features of the twentieth century high school is to 
 be the direction from which aims are discovered and applied, — 
 that the general am is to be from within. This will be the more 
 evident and significant because an essential part of the high 
 school is to be restored, 12 so that there will be more freedom to 
 study the real needs and relations of the high school from a 
 view-point within the school itself. In the general policy of 
 the school there is to be less passivity, more activity, less order- 
 ing from without, more ordering from within. The main idea 
 
 12 A genuine adolescent curriculum and method. See Chapter XXIII. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 437 
 
 in organization, whether for administration or for method, is 
 to be genuine participation, not the formal participation that has 
 so often satisfied. The principle will appear first and centrally 
 in connection with curriculum, study-content, and method that 
 make a very impressive part of high school environment 
 through which pupils are inspired with ideals of government. 
 These factors produce many of the best opportunities for genu- 
 ine participation. Minds well occupied with productive activi- 
 ties under the stimulus of cooperation best learn the great 
 principles of control. 
 
 Participation in government. — But participation must ex- 
 tend beyond class-room work. The pupil is to participate, and 
 feel the necessity and value of his contributions, in these direc- 
 tions. But it is quite as essential that he should cultivate the 
 same spirit by cooperating in the government and general 
 activities of the school, though, as already shown, government 
 is largely settled by a° sound organization of curriculum and 
 method of instruction. 13 This double participation supplies 
 the mainspring of social ethics. If this were some artificial 
 scheme to be fitted over or into high school life, its value might 
 be doubted. So far from being artificial, it is suggested by 
 nature herself and is founded on very obvious principles. In 
 the first place an idea becomes strong only through the prin- 
 ciple of use, through doing. Doing is never sound and effica- 
 cious till the moving force is from within. The direction must 
 be from within outward. The plan of real participation in the 
 policies and activities of the school establishes this direction 
 and tends to make the organization and government of the 
 school issue in self-direction, as all government, to have any 
 point, must issue. Growing motives supplied by all parts of 
 school life foster the idea. 
 
 Cooperation emphasized by the psychology of adolescence. 
 — Again, the general plan is suggested and enforced by prin- 
 ciples of adolescent psychology. The high school pupil has 
 certain well marked characteristics which commend coopera- 
 tion in government. He likes to do things, likes the con- 
 crete, likes ideals rather than rules, related facts rather than 
 isolated ones. He is ready to participate, to organize associa- 
 
 13 This includes as a basal element the personality of the teacher. 
 
438 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 tions for association's sake, and also for achieving results that 
 give prestige and importance to the group. He has learned, or 
 his instinct instructs him, to subordinate himself to the group. 
 All this is due to his social feelings. Later he grasps the idea 
 intellectually from the point of view of value to the individual 
 and to the community. Action then becomes deliberative rather 
 than instinctive. In the adolescent school he is just learning 
 to socialize himself. 
 
 Adolescence is also the period for relating things. Why 
 confine this interest to relating cause and effect in geology and 
 chemistry, form and expression in language, individual and 
 group in zoology, and other similar relations? It would have 
 even more legitimate exercise in relating the various acts that 
 make up conduct to principles, motives to standards, modes of 
 self expression to ideals, ideals to environment, forms and facts 
 of government to the informing spirit beneath them and to 
 their appropriate ends, and in relating self through all these 
 avenues to the school-group and the town-group, — all this 
 under the inspiration of participation in a great enterprise. 
 Practice, i. e., expression, gives meaning to every idea and rela- 
 tion, and gives skill and efficiency in executing ideas. There 
 is every reason why the adolescent should share the responsi- 
 bility of government that gives practical expression to all the 
 ideas that have been mentioned. He will never really appre- 
 ciate government till he does. He is fond of ideals, which are 
 impelling forces. He needs to do something with his ideals. 
 Let him do it in the most productive enterprise the world 
 knows, government that issues in self-government. 14 
 
 Reasons for preferring a cooperative plan to a scheme of 
 self-government. — The adolescent needs scope, but at the 
 same time needs wide and sympathetic guidance. Cooperation 
 in school government therefore seems more reasonable than a 
 scheme of pure self-government, and it is along this line that 
 the most helpful work has been done in giving the secondary 
 
 14 The idea is not a new one. It goes back to the great school of 
 Trotzendorf in the Middle Ages ; beyond him to Vittorino's wonderful 
 school in the early Renaissance ; beyond him, in a way, to the source of 
 modern secondary school pedagogy, Quintilian. It is merely a revival 
 through the inspiration of modern pedagogy, which has for its basis 
 the best of historical pedagogy. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 439 
 
 school pupil opportunities to express himself in the govern- 
 ment of the school. To place pupil-government wholly in the 
 hands of the pupils themselves would take away one of the 
 main functions of the school, — that of suggestion, of guidance, 
 of efficient influence that come from a combination of the two 
 forces, pupil and teacher. Sharing responsibility and initiative 
 takes school government out of the realm of theory. 
 
 The late nineteenth century began to see some attempts to 
 carry out the principle of self-government. The School City, 
 the Citizen-Tribune plan, and other similar organizations came 
 into notice and had some success. But they were top-heavy 
 with details of organization too complicated for general adop- 
 tion. Simpler schemes have prevailed. Many schools have 
 been successfully carrying out the principle of student-coopera- 
 tion in one form or another. The principle will be carried out 
 with more exact appreciation of adolescent nature, and hence 
 with better adaptation to that nature. It is to become a regu- 
 lar policy, rather than an intermittent one. 
 
 Relations of cooperation to high school social life. — There 
 are in the high school special groupings and associations 
 that have been non-scholastic, extra-school associations. But 
 under twentieth century high school conditions, with the 
 broader interpretation of program and curriculum and the 
 extended daily time limits of school life, they will be more 
 closely correlated with the general work of the school. They 
 will be a definite agency in promoting school spirit and school 
 activities. These associations are the school societies of all 
 sorts growing out of the new development of the social instinct. 
 Definitely attached to the school program in its wider interpre- 
 tation, under sympathetic guidance and training that give a 
 higher freedom, they will accomplish two far-reaching pur- 
 poses. First, they will give one of the most desirable, because 
 natural, opportunities for cultivating self direction and co- 
 operation in forwarding the great interests of the school. Such 
 organizations that rise from the natural flowering of the social 
 instinct will give a zest to school spirit, and, rightly encouraged 
 and developed, will advance important school movements far 
 beyond bounds that could be reached by less natural agencies. 
 Here perhaps lies the safest and soundest solution of the high 
 
440 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 school social problem left by the nineteenth century. The first 
 result accomplished carries the second with it. The adolescent 
 may be occupied, even absorbed, in achievement in place of the 
 vapid interests offered by high school " society " life when no 
 pains were taken to give his cravings higher exercise, or when 
 the pains taken took a non-adolescent direction. The society 
 idea must be one of the presuppositions of the twentieth cen- 
 tury high school. It readily adapts itself to cooperative plans 
 for government, and, while keeping strictly within the natural, 
 healthful interests of high school pupils, may be brought to a 
 higher fruitage in making the social side of the twentieth cen- 
 tury high school worthy of the school and its opportunities. 
 
 Cooperation in school government as a means of devel- 
 oping interest in community ideals. — Power as it slowly 
 develops in the adolescent's life should overflow into commu- 
 nity life. This gives meaning to it all, and so appeals to the 
 adolescent. It gives relations, and so again appeals. It is sug- 
 gestive and it leads to great wholes, and still again appeals. 
 An acquisition, as already suggested, is never complete till it 
 has expression. Expression is never complete till it unites the 
 individual to the world. Failure to give such application in 
 school life brings limitation and loss. It affects the whole 
 personality. The physical rebounds to great ideals equally 
 with the psychical. Adolescent personality owes quite as much 
 to the first as to the second. 
 
 So then esthetic ideals attained in study will be worked 
 out in school grounds 15 and home grounds, school walls and 
 home walls, school order and home order, school means of 
 esthetic culture and home means of esthetic culture; and to 
 the school and home applications will be added applications in 
 wider circles. Literary ideals will find expression in the owner- 
 ship of fine books, fine inside and outside. Civic ideals will be 
 applied not only in school government, but in civic relations 
 to the community. Principles of science will be applied to 
 bettering school equipment and school hygiene, and will find 
 similar expression in the home and the town. Appreciation of 
 the advantages of high school education will develop interest 
 
 15 The school environment thus may be made a distinct means of de- 
 veloping ideals. 
 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL 441 
 
 and stimulate participation in high school extension work. All 
 these ideas remain in large degree unknown till they are seen 
 in their practical relations. They are not realized in their full 
 meaning till they have the larger application in social life. The 
 teacher's function does not end with teaching his subject. He 
 must be a constant stimulus to this higher education. 
 
 Federation. — So far we have considered the high school 
 individually. But high schools have long been united more or 
 less loosely in associations, and have been influenced by com- 
 mon standards. There are two conditions for securing enter- 
 prise and progress, whether for a person or for an institu- 
 tion, — 1, individual freedom to develop initiative; 2, coopera- 
 tion that secures the best for all. But this cooperation must be 
 of a type that stimulates without hampering and without con^- 
 fining the individual to the pace that a closely centralized system 
 might impose on the whole organization. As already noted, in 
 the early history of the high school customs and sentiments, 
 methods and matter were imposed from above and by associa- 
 tions dominated by university sentiment. At the close of the 
 nineteenth century, however, a certain freedom for individual 
 development and adaptation had been attained. There had also 
 grown up a kind of group spirit, an indigenous tendency to 
 develop common norms and standards and to influence as many 
 high schools as possible to adopt them. It remains for the 
 twentieth century to develop a larger power of association that 
 will give higher and broader standards and a more stimulating 
 unity, but at the same time conserve individual freedom. This 
 is a delicate enterprise. It may be carried out by federating 
 local associations through a central association made up of dele- 
 gates from the local bodies. The present committee on the 
 reorganization of secondary education is a step in this direc- 
 tion. Such a federation would develop and recommend norms, 
 methods, and general guiding principles, and would encourage 
 high schools in all sections to work out types of high school 
 education adapted to particular needs. In this way the high 
 school would maintain and utilize the best ideals, become in a 
 way a clearing house for both individual and group thinking, 
 and would make high school ideals not only progressive but 
 effective. 
 
442 THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Conclusion. — Under the favorable conditions thus sup- 
 plied for individual initiative, and with the inspiration and 
 knowledge that come from association, the twentieth century- 
 high school is to study its obligations and opportunities more 
 intimately and intelligently and enter upon the larger mission 
 that such a study will suggest. Its work is not to be play, on 
 the one hand, nor an unwelcome drudgery on the other. It 
 is not to be a luxury, a social privilege, but a democratic neces- 
 sity. It will not be characterized as abstract, formal, perfunc- 
 tory, remote and out of touch with present needs, impractical. 
 It will be developmental in method, cooperative in government, 
 responsive in attitude, cosmopolitan in study-opportunities, uni- 
 versal. It will be a real initiation into the choicest treasures of 
 the race, — its acquisitions, its satisfactions, its ambitions, its 
 opportunities, its ideals. It will help its pupils to understand 
 themselves and the vocation to which they are hastening ; it will 
 develop public spirited appreciation of others and a generous 
 spirit of cooperation. The adolescent school will have been 
 restored. It will assume leadership in developing community 
 standards and ideals. The twentieth century high school with 
 its immense possibilities is to stand out as an embodiment of 
 the most inspiring educational ideal of the ages. It will hold 
 the most important place not only in perfecting the worker for 
 his work, but, what is quite as important, in equipping him for 
 the more profitable employment of his leisure. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 A representative and useful, but not exhaustive, list of books and arti- 
 cles bearing upon the topics discussed in the High School. 
 
 Adams, G. B. Civilization During the Middle Ages. N. Y., 1903. 
 
 Aelian, Variae Historiae (eit.). 
 
 Allen, F. D. Lectures on the Roman Drama, including scenic antiqui- 
 ties, etc. 
 
 Allen, F. D. Introduction to the Critical Study of Homer. 
 
 Allen, F. D. Lectures on the Greek and Roman Religion and Religious 
 Institutions. 
 
 Allen, F. D. Remnants of Early Latin. Boston, 1880. 
 
 Allen, F. H. The Great Cathedrals of the World. 2 vols. Boston, 
 
 Appian. The Civil Wars, in his Roman History (translated by H. 
 White, N. Y. and London, 1899). Locus clas. B. C. IV, 30 (Becker). 
 
 Aristophanes. Clouds. Locus clas. 75 ff. (Monroe). 
 
 Aristotle. Politics (translated by B. Jowett, 2 vols., Oxford, 1885). 
 
 Arnold, M. A French Eton (including chapters on schools and uni- 
 versities in France and the development of secondary instruction 
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 Atkinson, J. The Shah Nameh (tr.). London and N. Y., 1886. 
 
 Augustine, Aur. (Saint Augustine.) City of God (tr.). N. Y., 1903. 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus. Meditations, tr. by G. Long. London, 1901. (See 
 Monroe's Source Book, 377.) 
 
 Baikie, J. Sea-Kings of Crete. London, 1910. 
 
 Banks, J. The Works of Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis (tr.). 
 London, 1889. 
 
 Barton, G. E. Sketch of Semitic Origins. N. Y., 1902. 
 
 Becker, W. A. Charicles, or Illustrations of the Private Life of the 
 Ancient Greeks, (tr.). N. Y., 1904. 
 
 Becker, W. A. Gallus, or Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus 
 (tr.). N. Y., 1904. 
 
 Bell, S. A Study of the Teacher's Influence. Pedagogical Seminary, 
 7 : 492. 
 
 Bentley, Ella H. Sex Differences Brought Out by Child Study. North- 
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 Bolton, F. E. Secondary School System of Germany. N. Y., 1900. 
 
 Botsford, G. W. and Sinler, E. G. Hellenic Civilization. N. Y., 1915. 
 
 Brodrick, G. C. History of the University of Oxford. London, 1886. 
 
 Brown, E. E. The Making of Our Middle Schools. N. Y. and London, 
 1903. 
 
 Brown, J. F. The American High School. N. Y., 1909. 
 
 Browning, 0. Educational Theories. N. Y., 1900. 
 
 443 
 
444 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Bryan, E. B. Nascent Stages and Their Pedagogical Significance. 
 
 Ped. Sem., 7:357- 
 Burk, F. L. Growth of Children in Height and Weight. Amer. Jour. 
 
 of Psychol., 9 : 253. 
 Burnham, W. H. The Study of Adolescence. Ped. Sem., 1 : 174. 
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 School Rev., 5:652. 
 Bury, J. B. A History of the Later Roman Empire. 2 vols. London 
 
 and N. Y., 1887. 
 
 Capella, Martianus. Nuptiae Mercuri et Philologiae, edited by U. F. 
 
 Kopp, 1836. 
 Capes, W. W. University Life in Ancient Athens. N. Y. 
 Cato. De Re Rustica. Locus clas., 143 (cited by Clarke). 
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 2:308. 
 Cicero. De Amicitia, Brutus (De Claris Oratoribus), Epistolae, De 
 
 Legibus, De Officiis, Orationes, De Oratore, De Republica, De 
 
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INDEX 
 
 Roman numerals refer to chapters, Arabic to pages. 
 
 Academy, — aim, program, meth- 
 od, 3288. ; a feeder, 330. 
 
 Administration,— 77, 86, Q2f. ; in 
 20th century high school, 4238., 
 431 ff., 435ff. See also chapters 
 on primitive times, primitive 
 tribes, Greek education, Roman 
 education, etc. 
 
 Adolescence,— 131*., igi., 24, 441"., 
 55, 57ff., 60, 64, 7sf., 105L, 125, 
 132L, 149J., 151, 314, 36>f., 369ft-, 
 411, 414ft"., 421 ff., 424ff., 431, 
 
 433ff- 
 
 Adolescent School, — See Secon- 
 dary School ; Adolescent School 
 lost, 42iff. ; found, 4238. 
 
 Agricola, — Some of his educa- 
 tional ideas, 264. 
 
 Agricultural High School, — 338ff«, 
 390ff., 4291. 
 
 Aims, — see Ideals; see also 
 Graphic Summary, insert oppo- 
 site page 442. 
 
 Alfred, — educational service, 197. 
 
 Aristotle, — compared with Plato, 
 73i. ; aims, program, method, 
 73ft., 92ft".; his state, 92; con- 
 tributions, 74ff. 
 
 Aryans, — 14L, 19. 
 
 Ascham, — Method in language, 
 267. 
 
 Athletics,— 367fT. 
 
 Beginner's Latin Book, 260, 276f. 
 Buchanan, — his secondary cur- 
 riculum, 267. 
 
 Capella, — abstract of his gram- 
 mar, 206ff. 
 
 Cassian and early Monastic 
 Schools, — 191 f. 
 
 Cassiodorus' School, — 191. 
 
 453 
 
 Catechetical School, — 187, 191. 
 
 Cathedral Schools, — 195, 268. 
 
 Chantry Schools, — 268. 
 
 Charlemagne's Service to Educa- 
 tion, — 197. 
 
 Cicero, — compared with Quin- 
 tilian, 129; references to educa- 
 tion, 161 f. 
 
 Cities, — their growth and effect 
 on schools, 21 5f. 
 
 City School, — growth, aims, pro- 
 gram, and method, 235ft., 289; 
 significance, 238L 
 
 Civics, — community civics, 362. 
 
 Co-education, — 8, 26, 54, 77, 81, 
 83, 85, 89, 92, 104, 127, 187I, 
 223, 307I, 3nff-, 427f- 
 
 Colet's School, — 266. 
 
 College, — origin of, 223. 
 
 Commercial High School — High 
 School of Commerce, — 337f ., 
 3«4f. 
 
 Compulsory Education, — in early 
 times, 85, 91, 93 f. 
 
 Cooperation in Government, — 
 436ff. 
 
 Curriculum, — elementary and gen- 
 eral, 9f., 24ft"., 41, 42ff., 49, 51 ff., 
 56f., 59f-, 80, 83f., 95ff-, I02ff, 
 140, I44ff., i87f., 195, 236f., 278, 
 295, 3^7, 348f«, 4i2ff., 422; sec- 
 ondary, I2f., 268., 29, 3of., 33ff., 
 44f., 54, 56f., 59f., 65f., 67f., 7if., 
 74ff., 79ff-, 84f., 89ff., iosff., 
 H5ff., I22f., 125, I26f., I3lf., 
 133, i4off., i85ff., 190, 191, 196L, 
 i99f., 202f., 2i8f., 222, 224, 228, 
 23iff., 236ff., 246f., 252f., 255ff., 
 264ff., 268ff., 278, 282, 273ft., 285, 
 286ff., 289, 29off., 295f., 30off., 
 303, 305ff., 324, 327, 329, 331, 333, 
 334ff-, 337, 338ff., 343*?-, 349ff-, 
 36off., 37 iff-, 3778. Typical cur- 
 
454 
 
 INDEX 
 
 ricula of different types of high 
 schools, 377ft. Content, 409ft. 
 
 Degrees, — 221 f., 228; degrees in 
 "grammar," 222, 228. 
 
 Democracy in Secondary Educa- 
 tion,— 308, 310, 355ft-, 426ft. 
 
 Discipline, — ■ see Government. 
 
 Donatus, — abstract of his gram- 
 mar, 210 ft. 
 
 Early Christian Centuries, — 
 schools of, 184ft*., 214L ; new 
 ideals, new school-forms, 184ft. ; 
 chief characteristics of the 
 period, 189. See also Graphic 
 Summary (general). 
 
 Education, Science of, — 73ft., 
 12.9ft., 2ggi., 3141". 
 
 Eighteenth Century Secondary 
 Education, — 285ft. 
 
 Elective Principle, — 318, 372ff. 
 
 Elementary Education, — gi., ioff., 
 15ft., 24ft., 41, 42ft., 49, 56L, 80, 
 83L, 95ff., 102ft., 140, 144ft-, 
 i87f., 195, 197, 236U 327, 348f., 
 412ft. ; a rejuvenated elementary 
 school, 422. See also Graphic 
 Summary (general). 
 
 Elyot's Secondary School, — 25of . 
 
 Emancipation of Secondary 
 School, — 352f . 
 
 " Enlightenment," The, — 286ft., 290, 
 
 303. 
 
 Episcopal Schools, — 223f . 
 Equipment of High School, — 
 
 433* 
 
 Erasmus, — some of his educa- 
 tional ideas, 264. 
 
 Evolution of Secondary School, — 
 343ft- 
 
 Examinations and Examination 
 Reform, — 221, 228, 417L 
 
 Extension Work of High School, 
 43i f- 
 
 Fathers, Christian, — educational 
 
 views, 181 ft. 
 Federation of Secondary School 
 
 Associations, — 441. 
 Feltre, da, — typical secondary 
 
 school of Early Renaissance, 
 
 245ft. I comparison with Quin- 
 
 tilian, 249. 
 
 Folk-lore,— 6f., I5f., 17, 23, 33, 
 39, 52, 56, 105, 108, 109. 
 
 Francke, — influence in forming 
 secondary school ideals, — 290L 
 For realization of a real pro- 
 gram see Hecker. 
 
 Fraternities, Fligh School, — 305f., 
 439f. 
 
 Girls, Education of, — 77, 81, 83, 
 85, 89, 104, 187L, 307f., 311ft., 
 427L See also Coeducation. 
 
 Government, — 25, 88, 103, 135, 
 145, 147, 149L, 202, 204, 223, 
 247L, 259L, 262, 305I, 435; 
 cooperative government, 436ft. 
 
 Gradation, — 80, 83, 94L, 139ft., 
 228, 343, 423ft. 
 
 Grammar School, — 114ft., I2I > 
 129ft., I39ff-, 184, i86f., 190, 26S, 
 280, 302, 323ft., 378ft. 
 
 Graphic Summaries, — Greek qual- 
 ities, 64L ; Greek and Roman 
 qualities compared, ggft. ; Ro- 
 mans, early and late, H2f. ; evo- 
 lution of secondary education, 
 insert facing page 442. See 
 also Secondary Education in 
 Index (end of topic). 
 
 Greek, — fixed in curriculum, 294f. 
 
 Greek Education, — social forces 
 at work, educational aims, pro- 
 grams, methods; — early period, 
 48ft.; later period, 61 ft. ; new 
 teachers, 66f. ; Greek contribu- 
 tions to edcuation, 70. See also 
 Graphic Summary (general). 
 
 Greeks, — characteristics, 62ft., 64ft. ; 
 compared with Romans, ggi. 
 
 Guarino, — some educational ideas, 
 249. 
 
 Guidance* Vocational and Educa- 
 tional, — 372f . 
 
 Guilds, — 216. 
 
 Guild Schools, — 237f., 268. 
 
 Gymnasium (German), — 259, 295, 
 301. 
 
 Hecker, — influence toward a new 
 secondary school, 291. 
 
 Hesiod, — educational ideas, 44, 47. 
 
 High School, — 302f., 331ft.; dif- 
 ferentiations, 303L ; ideals and 
 aims, 33 if.; programs of studies 
 
INDEX 
 
 455 
 
 and curricula, 331 f., 333, 334ft-, 
 377ff. ; manual training high 
 school, 336 ; high school of com- 
 merce, 337f. ; agricultural high 
 school, 338ft., 425f . ; method, 341 ; 
 vassalage, 350L ; emancipation, 
 352L; problems and needs, 
 353ft.; democratising of high 
 school education, 355ft.; 20th 
 century high school, 409$. ; jun- 
 ior high school, 424ft.., 431. See 
 also Graphic Summary (gen- 
 eral). 
 
 Higher Education, — see Univer- 
 sity ; also pp. 303, 348ft. 
 
 Homeric Age, — political organiza- 
 tion, 3gf . ; educational ideals, 
 educational forces, curriculum 
 and method, 40ft. See also- 
 Graphic Summary (general). 
 
 Humanism, — 24off., 250, 252ft. ; 
 New Humanism, 294; Newer 
 Humanism, 301. 
 
 Hygiene, — 366?. ; social hygiene, 
 personal hygiene, sex hygiene, 
 369ft. 
 
 Ideals and Aims, — 8f., 13, 251., 29, 
 30L, 40, 42, 5 if., 56, 59f., 62ft., 
 65, 67, 71 i-, 74%, 79U 821., 88f., 
 90, 93, 97U 99ff-, noff, 112ft., 
 1301., I35f-, 1381., 164ft., 169ft., 
 i8of., 1841., 189, 193, 198, 205, 
 213L, 2i9ff., 2241., 233ft., 240ft., 
 245 f., 253ft., 260ft., 264ft., 282, 
 283f., 286ft., 293f., 296ft., 30of., 
 305ft., 308, 310, 314ft., 327, 329, 
 33i, 333*-, 337$; 343ff., 347ft-, 
 355ft., 360, 363ft-, 414ft-, 423ft-, 
 427, 432, 440. See also Graphic 
 Summary (general). 
 
 Initiation, — 13, 18, 191., 26ft., 33^., 
 55, 60, I05f., 125, 205. 
 
 Ipswich School, — 26~6f. 
 
 Jesus — Teacher, — 164ft. ', funda- 
 mental characteristics of his 
 teaching, 166; principles, teach- 
 ing qualities, objective teaching, 
 167ft. 
 
 Junior High School, — 424f., 428, 
 431. 
 
 Latin, — fixed in secondary cur- 
 
 riculum, 252ft., 258, 260, 266 and 
 XVI generally, 274f., 285; meth- 
 od, ngi., 124, 144ft., 163, 188, 
 i9of., 20off., 204, 22of., 223, 225, 
 23 if., 247f., 250, 253L, 258, 260ft., 
 264ft., 268ft., 274ft., 282L, 285f., 
 3i6f., 410, 414. 
 
 Leibnitz, — new curriculum, 289. 
 
 Lily, — Latin grammar, 271 f. 
 
 Linguistics, — rise and predomi- 
 nance, 67, 114L, n6ff., 119L, 122, 
 131L, 139ft. See also 410, 413L 
 
 Luther, — educational ideas, 264L 
 
 Lycees, — 291, 302. 
 
 Manual Arts, — 291, 302, 334ft. 
 
 Manual Training High School, — 
 334ft. 
 
 Mathematics, — enlarged in secon- 
 dary curriculum, 23$, 236%., 275, 
 289ft., 301. 
 
 Mediaeval Secondary Education, — 
 ideals, programs, methods, serv- 
 ice, 193ft.; & new school, I94f. 
 See also Graphic Summary 
 (general). 
 
 Method, — general, ioff., 15ft., 24ft., 
 31, 42ft., 53, 57, 65f., 79, 89, 94, 
 95f., 103ft., 169ft., i88ff., 20off.; 
 elementary , ioff., 15ft., 25, 42ft., 
 53, 57, 9i, 95f-, 103ft., 144ft-; 
 secondary, iof., 12ft., 18, 26ft., 
 31, 33ft., 42ft., 44f., 54f., 57f., 60, 
 6 5 f., 68f., 71 f-, 74ft-, 77, 79, 8 4 ff., 
 89, 90, 97, 105ft., 119ft., 125, I27f., 
 132?., 134ft., i47ft., 168, 169ft., 
 179ft., i8of., i88f., i90f., 200ft., 
 
 202f., 220f., 223f., 225, 228f., 
 
 23 if., 238, 247f., 256ft., 260ft., 
 264ft., 269ft., 274, 275f., 282, 
 285ft., 298, 2'99f., 316ft., 324f., 
 329f., 341, 346f., 351, 363, 366f., 
 37of., 409ft., 414ft., 425, 433L 
 See also Graphic Summary (gen- 
 eral). 
 
 Monastic Orders, — 194, 206. 
 
 Monastic Schools, — 194ft., 223, 
 268. 
 
 Moral Education, — 103, 118, 141, 
 147, 149, 419. 
 
 Navajo School, — 36. 
 Neander, — some of his ideas as to 
 education, 265 f. 
 
456 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Nineteenth Century Secondary 
 Education, — 2936:. ; political so- 
 cial, and religious influences 
 affecting education, 2gsi. ; ideals, 
 2Q3f., 296ft"., 3i4ff. ; progress of 
 studies, 295 f., 303; the High 
 School, 302ft.; new phases of 
 school life, 305ft.; high school 
 social life, 305ft.; universal sec- 
 ondary education, 308, 310, 
 (355ff.) ; secondary school col- 
 lege relations, 309; needs, 31 1» 
 32if. ; method, 316ft.; secondary 
 school principles, 3181" . ; a secon- 
 dary school philosophy, 3i8f. ; 
 training for secondary school 
 teachers, 3i9ff. ; outlook and 
 problems, 353ft. ; no settled type, 
 355 ; typical high school curricula 
 and programs of studies, 377ft". 
 See also Graphic Summary 
 (general). 
 
 Oratory,— 65ff., 114ft"., 136. 
 
 Orders, Religious, — 194, 206. 
 
 Organization, — see Administra- 
 tion. See generally chapters on 
 secondary education of the dif- 
 ferent periods. 
 
 Origen's School, — 191. 
 
 Philosophy, Schools of, — 68f. 
 
 Physical Education, — 10, 13, 24, 
 27f,. 44f., 52, 54f., 59, 62, 74, 83f., 
 85, 94, 96, 105L, 118, 144, 146, 
 363ff. 
 
 Plato, — compared with Aristotle, 
 73f. ; educational principles and 
 educational forms, 73ft. ; his 
 state, 78f., 81 f. ; contributions, 
 74ff- 
 
 Play,— 83f., 91, 95, 105, 3o6f., 
 367ff. 
 
 Popular Education, — see Public 
 Education; "popular" secon- 
 dary school, 327. 
 
 Preparatory School, ("feeder" of 
 the University), — 220, 230, 
 278f., 309, 324, 330, 332, # 35ofi\, 
 420, 422 ; changes in relations of 
 secondary school to university, 
 309, 352f., 420, 422. 
 
 Primitive School,— gi., I3f., 15ft*., 
 26ff., 3off., 33m See also Graph- 
 ic Summary (general). 
 
 Primitive Times, — social organi- 
 zation, ideals, acquisitions, edu- 
 cation, iff. 
 
 Primitive Tribes To-day, — social 
 organization, ideals, acquisitions, 
 education, 21 ff. 
 
 Professional Training for Teach- 
 ers,— 312, 3i9ff. f 333, 415, 419, 
 424f ., 434- 
 
 Programs of Studies, — gi., iaff., 
 3of., 42ff., s6f., 70, 87f., 98, 108, 
 I23ff., i4off., 163, i85ff., i9off., 
 203f., 224, 236ff., 246ff., 250, 
 256ft., 264ft., 274, 289ft"., 29Sf., 
 3O0ff., 324, 327, 329f-, 333ft; 
 347^., 36oft\, 37iff., 377ft. 
 
 Public Education, — 11, i6f., 26f., 
 3if., 33ff-, 42ff., 45, 78ff., 81, 86, 
 91 ff., 137, 235f., 263, 309ft., 33i ff. 
 
 Public Schools, — see Public Edu- 
 cation. " Great Public Schools," 
 " Grammar Schools " {Eng- 
 land), 121, 139, 280, 302. 
 
 Quintilian, — aims, principles, pro- 
 gram of studies, method in his 
 secondary school (grammar 
 school), 129ft".; his school the 
 model for future secondary 
 schools, I37f. 
 
 Rabelais, — some educational ideas, 
 265. 
 
 Realschule, — 291. 
 
 Renaissance Secondary Education, 
 — ideals, programs of studies, 
 methods, — early, 240k. ; later, 
 252ft". ; spread of education, 
 279ft". ; Renaissance contribu- 
 tions to education, 273ft. ; state 
 schools, 263. See also Graphic 
 Summary (general). 
 
 Renaissance Educators, — 245ft"., 
 249f., 254ft"., 260ft., 264ft". 
 
 Rhetoric, Schools of — 67, 122. 
 
 Revaluation of Studies, — 377ff. ; 
 content-pedagogy, 409ft". 
 
 Ritteracademie, — 2891. 
 
 Roman Education, — ideals, curric- 
 ula, methods, — early, 99ft. ; 
 later, noff. ; Roman Grammar 
 
INDEX 
 
 457 
 
 School a ruling type of secon- 
 dary education, itfi . ; decay, 
 164. See also Graphic Sum- 
 mary (general). 
 Romans, — qualities of, etc., ooff., 
 112L 
 
 St. Paul's School,— 266, 268. 
 
 Scholarship, — idea emphasized by 
 early universities, 231. 
 
 Science,— fixed in curriculum, 
 286ff., 296L, 298, 301; conf. 411. 
 
 Science of Education, — 73ff., 
 129ft*., 29Qf., 314L 
 
 Secondary Education, — primitive 
 times, 9ft*., I2ff., 18; primitive 
 tribes to-day, 26ff. ; primitive 
 compared with modern, 2Qi. ; 
 Homeric, 41 ff. ; early Greek, 
 54ft*.; later Greek, 65ft. ; Plato 
 and Aristotle, 8off., 84ft*., 97f . ; 
 early Roman, iosff. ; /ate/' i?o- 
 man, H4ff. ; Cicero and Quintil- 
 ian, 140ft"., 147ft". ; _ early Chris- 
 tian, i86ff. ; mediceval, 1946?. ; 
 ^ar/y university period, 21 /ff., 
 222ff., 230; ^ar/y Renaissance, 
 245ff. ; /ate Renaissance, 252ft.; 
 (rapid growth of secondary 
 schools in Renaissance, 27gft.) ; 
 17th and 18th centuries, 285ff. ; 
 igth century, 293ft". ; the High 
 School, 302ft., 323ff. ; evolution 
 of secondary school, 343ff. ; 
 changing status of secondary 
 school, 347ff. ; 20th century prob- 
 lems, 353ff. ; 20th Century High 
 School, 359ft"., 409ft"., 421 ff. ; 
 graphic summaries 9f., 301*., 
 42ff., s6ff., 70, 87f., 98, 108, I23ff., 
 i6iff., 190ft"., 203f., 224f., 246ft*., 
 256ff. ; also graphic summaries 
 in insert opposite page 442. 
 
 Secondary School, — model form 
 early established, I37f . ; differ- 
 entiations, 303, 333ff., (see also 
 all references under Secondary 
 Education) ; position in an edu- 
 cational system historically and 
 naturally, 347ff., 359L See also 
 graphic summaries under Secon- 
 dary Education. 
 
 Semler, — influence toward a new 
 secondary school, 291. 
 
 Seventeenth-Eighteenth^ Century 
 Secondary School, — ideals, pro- 
 gram, method, new leaders, 
 growth in different countries, 
 285ft. See also Graphic Sum- 
 mary (general). 
 
 Six- Year High School,— 423ft". 
 
 Social Hygiene, Sex Hygiene, — 
 369ff. 
 
 Social Studies, — history, geogra- 
 phy, science, etc., 286ft"., 296ft"., 
 301. See generally XVIII, 
 XIX. 
 
 State Schools, — 263, 309ft"., 396ft". 
 See also Public Education. 
 
 Status of Secondary School, — its 
 evolution, relation of secondary 
 school to university, 278, 318, 
 347ff., 359I, 420, 42iff. 
 
 Studies, — see Curriculum; content 
 of studies the supreme concern, 
 409ft". 
 
 Sturm, — his secondary school, 
 255ft. ; comparison with Quin- 
 tilian and Da Feltre, 259; his 
 school a culmination, its influ- 
 ence, 255, 259, 282f. ; other ideals 
 of the period, 260ft. 
 
 Supervision, — 20th century high 
 school, 435. 
 
 Sylvius, — ' 249. 
 
 Teachers, — 11, 14, i6ff., 251"., 33ft., 
 42'f, 45, 54I, 57, 59f., 66, 7if., 
 76, 89, 91, 104, 106, 119, 134, 
 149, 164ft"., 186, 188, I94f., 223, 
 245ft*., 2S4ff., 26off., 263, 319ft"., 
 415, 418, 424L, 434 ; central qual- 
 ities, 415, 419, 424I, 434. See 
 also Graphic Summary (gen- 
 eral). 
 
 Terminology, — new, more scienti- 
 fic, 304f., 376. 
 
 Text-books, — medieval, 199^-, 
 
 2o6ff. ; origin of modern idea 
 of text-book, 228; typical Re- 
 naissance text-books, 268ff. ; 
 new text-books, 276T, 288; 
 20th century text-books, 41 if. 
 See also chapters on secondary 
 school of different periods. 
 
 Thoroughness, — different types, — 
 363- 
 
458 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Township High School,— 392fi\, 
 
 43 1- 
 Training for Secondary Teaching, 
 
 — 319ft., 415, 424U 434- 3 
 Trotzendorf, — some of his educa- 
 tional ideas, 265. 
 
 Twentieth Century High School, 
 
 — ideals and aims, 360, 363ft".; 
 program of studies, 360ft., 37*ft-> 
 374ff., 377ff-, 409ff- ; method, 
 362f., 366f., 409ft-, 4i4ff-, 424**-, 
 434; vocational idea, 363ft . ; 
 physical education, personal hy- 
 giene, 363, 365ff; 369ft-; ath- 
 letics, 367ft.; election, educa- 
 tional guidance, 372, 375*-; vo- 
 cational guidance, 372f. ; reval- 
 uation of studies, 373ft. ; reform 
 in terminology, 376, (see also 
 3041".) ; inheritances and prob- 
 lems, 376f. ; typical curricula, 
 377ft.; study-content (basal ele- 
 ment of method), 409ft.; teach- 
 ers, 424L, 434; examinations, 
 4171". ; adolescent school lost — 
 found, 42 iff.; six-year high 
 school, 423ft.; junior and senior 
 high schools, 4241"., 431 ; organi- 
 sation of high school education, 
 424ft. ; concentration — univer- 
 sity of high schools, 426ft.; co- 
 education, 427$.; township high 
 school, 431 ; extension work, 
 43if. ; continuous sessions, 432; 
 universal high school education, 
 432; equipment, 433ft.; sex dis- 
 tribution of teachers, 434f-; su- 
 pervision, 435 ; administration, 
 435ff. ; cooperative government, 
 
 437^' J federation, 441. See also 
 Graphic Summary (general). 
 
 Universal Secondary Education, — 
 308, 310, 355ff., 432f. 
 
 United States, — educational devel- 
 opment, 323ft.; the Grammar 
 School, 323ft. (a "feeder" 324) ; 
 "popular" secondary school, 
 327$.; the Academy, 328ft. (a 
 "feeder" 330); the High 
 School, 331ft. (a "feeder," 
 332) ; growth of the High 
 School, 332ft. ; differentiations, 
 333ft.; Manual Training High 
 School, 336; High School of 
 Commerce, 337f . ; Agricultural 
 High School, 338ft.; 20th Cen~ 
 tury High School, 359ft. 
 
 University, — origin and rise of, 
 213ft. ; reviving scholarship, 
 2141"., 218; secondary education 
 in the university, 2igi., 2231". ; 
 admission, 2igi. ; preparatory 
 school, 220, 230; aims, curricu- 
 lum, method, equipment, 2i8ff. ; 
 degrees, 221 f., 228; general edu- 
 cational conditions of period, 
 226f. ; contributions of period, 
 227ft. See also Graphic Sum- 
 mary (general). 
 
 University of High Schools, — 
 426, 429ft. 
 
 Vassalage of Secondary School, — 
 351 f.; emancipation, 35<2f. 
 
 Vocational Idea, — 303, 363ft-, 
 386ft., 422, 429ft. ; a study of vo- 
 cations, 372f. 
 
 Vocational High School, — 302f ., 
 333ff-> 343, 385ff., 429ff. 
 

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