aass_LlBS4=SS Book ■ K"^ \ V DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUGATIQN BULLETIN, 1916. NO. 23 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS BY SHERMAN C. KINGSLEY U2ABETH Mccormick MEMORIAL FUND CHICAGO AND F. B. DRESSLAR PEA80DY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS. NASHVULC TENN. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFHCE 1917 Monograph BXTLLETIKr OF THE BITBEAXJ OF EDUCATION, NoT».--With the exceptjlons indicated, the documeuts named below will be seat tree of charge apoo application to the Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Those marked with an asterisk (♦) are no longer available for free distribution, but may bo had of the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, upon payment of the price stated. Remittances should \yc made In coin, currency, oi- money order. Stamps are not accepted. 1916. *No. 1. No. 2. *No. 3. *No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. *No. 7. *No. 8. *No. 9. No. m No. 11. No. 12. *No. 13. *No. 14. *No. 15. *No. 16. No. 17. *Na 18, No. 19. No. 20. No. 21. *No.22. No. 23. No. 24. No. 25, No. 26. No. 27. *No. 28. No. 29. Educatlou exhibits at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. W. Carson Ryan, jr. 25 cts. Agricultural and rural education at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. H. W. Foght' Placement of children in the elementary grades. K. J. Hoke. 10 cts. Monthly record of current educational publications January, 1016. 5 cts. Kindergarten training schools. Statistics of State universities and States colleges, 1915. Monthlj^ record of current educational publications, February, 1916. 5 cts. Reorganization of the public-school system. F. F. Bunker. 20 cts. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1916. 5 cto. Needed changes in secondary education. Charles W. Eliot and Ernesto Nelson. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1916. Problems involved in .standardizing State normal schools. C. H. Judd and S. G. Pai-ker. Monthly record of current educational publications. May, 191G. 5 cts. State pension .systems for publis-sehool teachers. W. Carson Ryan, jr., and Roberta King. 10 cts. ■ Monthly record of current educational publications — Index, February, 1915, to January, 1916. 5 cts. Reorganizing a county system of rural schools. J. Harold Williams. 10 cts. The Wisconsin county training schools for teachers in rural schools. W. E. Larson. Public facilities for educating the fklien. F. E. Farrlngton. 10 cts. State higher educational institutions of Iowa. Accredited secondary schools in tiie United States. Samuel P. Capen. Vocational secondary education. Monthly record of current educational publications, September, 1916. 5 cts. Open-air schools. S. P. Kingsley and F. H. Dresslar. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1916. Commercial education. Glen Levin Swiggett. A survey of the educational institutions of the State of Washington, State higher educational institutions of North Dakota. The social studies In secondary education. Arthur W. Dunn. 10 cts. Educational survey of Wyoming. A. C. Monahan and Katherine M. Cook. • (CoDtlnaed on p*Se 3 of cover.) DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1916, NO. 23 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS BY SHERMAN C. KINGSLEY ' ' ELIZABETH McCORMICK MEMORIAL FUND CHICAGO AND F. B. DRESSLAR PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS. NASHVILLE. TENN. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE I9I7 CrL/ ^ 3ryc{-/_ ADDITIONAL COPIES or THIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ■WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 50 CENTS PER COPY D. of D. JAN 8 1918 CONTENTS. Page Letter of transmittal 5 Introduction 7 Chapter I. — Sites and buildings 9 Chapter II. — Equipments and cost of open-air schools 35 Chapter III. — Social and economic conditions of open-air school children 51 Chapter IV.^Lunches, their character and cost 61 Chapter V. — Health supervision 78 Chapter VI. — Records and forms 91 Chapter VII. — Open-air schools in Germany 105 Chapter VIII. — Open-air schools in Great Britain and Ireland 133 Chapter IX. — Open-air schools in other foreign countries 145 Chapter X. — -The open-air school movement in the United States 167 Chapter XI. — rreventoria, sanitaria, hospital, and vacation open-air schools 178 Chapter XII. — Educational organization and curricula of open-air schools 196 Chapter XIII. — Results of open-air schools 218 Appendixes : Appendix A. — Social, economic, and hygienic condition of 886 families of 1.0G2 open-air pupils in 15 cities 241 Appendix B. — Estimated expense of equipping and maintaining an open-window room with full regime of medical and nursing service 243 Appendix C. — Recipes for open-air schools 245 Appendix D. — List of Chicago menus, materials used, and their cost 251 Appendix E. — Suggestions for open-air classes 258 Appendix F. — Legislation and committee recommendations 2G2 Appendix G. — List of open-air schools 264 Selected bibliography 271 Index 281 FIGURES. 1. Model of an open-air school and grounds on the unit plan, as exhibited at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, 1915 10 2. The first open-air school, Charlottenburg, Germanv 11 3. Plan of buildings and grounds, " The Forest School," Charlottenburg 12 4. ITfficulme open-air school. Birmingham, England. The school garden 13 5. Plan of buildings and grounds. Open-air Recovery School, Kettering, England 14 6. Interior Providi-nce (U. 1. 1 Open-air School 15 7. Sea Breeae Hospital, Coney Island 16 8. Outdoor activities at Sea Breeze Hospital, Coney Island, N. Y 17 9. Site of first year-round open-air school, Chicago, 111 19 10. Elizabeth McCormick Open-air School No. 2, on roof of Bowen Hall 20 11 Open-window room. New York City. Double-hung window 21 12. Tables and chairs replace stationary desks in the first open-window room at the Franklin School, Chicago, 111 ^ 22 13. Floor plan of open-air school unit. St. Louis 25 14. The first Nellie Leland School, Detroit. Mich 26 15. Plans of the Nellie Leland Open-air School, Detroit, Mich 27 16. Cherry Open-air School, Toledo, Ohio 2S 17-18. Plans of the open-air school built by the Columbus Society for the Preven- tion and Cure of Tulierculosis 29 19. Edward Mott Moore Open-air School, Rochester, N. Y 30 20. First-floor plans, Edward Mott Moore Open-air School. Kochcstcr. X. Y 30 21. Second-floor plans, Edward Mott Moore Open-air School 31 22. Plan for complete school plant composed of units of Fresno typo 31 23. Third-floor plan. Eagle School, Cleveland, Ohio 32 24. Grammar School. Coronado. Cal 33 25. Revere School, Canton, Mass 34 26. The sitting-out bag used in open-air schools in New York and elsewhere 36 27. The sitting-out bag fastens with metal snaps, easily manipulated by children — 37 28. Type of wrap allowing cold air to enter about neck and shoulders 38 29. Sitting-out bag used at Providence (It. I.) Open-air School 39 30. The Eskimo coat should be large enough to go on over sweater or heavy wrap — 40 31. The Eskimo suit gives pei-fect freedom of motion 41 32. The lumberman's boot, resoled with canvas 42 33. A leather boot, with upper part felt 4.3 34. The ordinary steamer chair is unhygienic for children to sleep on 43 35. Suggested tvpe of cot for open-air use 44 36. Locker devised by St. Louis open-air school for storing cots and Eskimo suits-_ 4;) 37. Thermometer rack for use in schools where temperatures are taken 4J> 38. Cloak rooms fitted up for kitchens by the Chicago Board of Education 47 39. Supply closet used in "cloak-room kitchen." Chicago 49 40. A one-room apartment — _ p_ 41. The kind of home that produces malnourished children oo 3 4 CONTENTS. Page. 42. The airy dining room of tlie Cliarlottenburg Open-air School 62 43. Dining room at Uflfculme Open-air School, Birmingham, England 6.3 44. Kitchen of open-air school, liochester 64 45. Dining room of Edward Mott Moore Open-air School, Rochester, N. Y 6-5 46. Domestic science equipment utilized for open-air school children, Aulmrn. N. Y_ 67 47. An inexpensive kitchen equipment has served Providence, R. I., since 3 008 69 48. Domestic science class preparing dinner for open-air school, New Britain, Conn 70 49. Indoor lunch for open-air school pupils 7;} 50. Lunching out of doors in the first open-air school in Hungary 74 51. Lunch in an open-air school near The Hague, Holland '. ' 75 52. Recording pulse and temperatui-e in a Chicago school 80 53. P^ntrance examination, Shurtleff School, Chelsea, Mass 81 54. On a day like this, physician and teacher need to see that children are warmly clad 85 55. Personal hygiene, Chicago Open-air School 86 56. Weighing in a specially devised slip 88 57. Weighing in the regular open-air suit ; 89 58. Weighing slip devised in the open-air schools of Chicago 95 59. General view of buildings and grounds of the Charlottenburg School 3 06 60. Children at the Charlotteulnirg School resting under the trees 108 61. At the Charlottenburg Open-air School both boys and girls have separate walled-in spaces for outdoor gymnastics 109 62. Exterior of open-air school building, Elberfeld, Germany 118 63. The delightful setting of the Elberfeld Open-air School is illustrated by this view of the children at rest 119 64. Reclining chair used for rest period in open-air school at Nurnberg, Germany — 123 6."). Dormitory for residential pupils, cpen-air school at Nurnberg, Germany 124 66. Interior of open-air school classroom, Elberfeld, Germany 125 67. An open-air recitation at Munchen-tiladbacli. (Germany 127 68. Open-air shack used for rest hour at Munchen-Gladbach, Germany 128 69. Thackley Open-air School, Bradford, England 136 70. View of one of the porches, Thackley Open-air School, Bradford, England i;.7 71. Open-air recitation, Barnsley, England- -----:; J^^ 72. Bermerside, a residential open-air school supported by the city of Halifax 1.^9 73. Open-air school for normal children at Carnarvon, Wales 1-10 74. All classrooms in the Carnarvon School open into this marching corridor 141 75. The open-air pavilion used as a schoolroom at Bermerside . 142 76. A recitation under the fir trees at Murthley, Perthshire, Scotland 1« 77. Open-air school near The Hague, Holland i-^^ 78. Open-air school, Szombathely, Hungary IM 79. The Forest School in Victoria Park, Toronto, Canada ]')g 80. Open-air pavilion at Sandringham, Australia. lOb 81 The first open-air school in the Ignited States (Providence. R. I.> - 1()9 82! An open-air schoolroom in AUentown, Pa., used for both recitation and rest 1(0 83. Anemic girl l.ix 84. Anemic boy : :}'2 85. The health that comes from the out-of-doors J^n 86. An open-window room .-7--^ r— cTV--- r^vf ""S 177 87. Rest period, Elizabeth McCormick Open^air School No. ^2 17^ 88 Rest period, Elizabeth McCormick Open-air School No. 2 Interior tul)erculosis preventorium at Farmmgaaie, N .)__ — -. -—_- I'lan of the tul)erculosls preventorium for children at Farmmgdale. JN. J 179 90 Herman Kiefer Sanitarium Open-air School, Den'Oit. Mich _ l»U 9l' View from Sea Breeze Hospital for Surgical Tuberculosis, Coney Island, N. \- 181 O'' Massachusetts Hospital School, Canton, Mass j-^- 9.3. Exterior, East River homes — .-i—-—- |of 94 Children's cottase at Chicaco municipal tuberculosis sanitarium i»4 it- ?Sw^a^rn^P^eTe°n\S"m,°m^^^^^^^^^^^ J87 II- gSL|^e^^^'4rSzlbaii^r(^I^i^gai^rO^ 198 99 Goits and chickens are important members of the school family at the Bowring 100 c'Sen'^on^^'Ichoot^ouVn'v'Sin?!^^ 201 lO?' Brea%ing"exercises°U'plaUrm Idjoining the school tent, Spvingfleld, Mass__ 203 10-' \ school Irani en on a citv roof. Horace :\Iann School, New >ork City_- - 205 £0.3; Computing height of trees, Uffculme Open-air School, Birmingham, England- 208 104. "The open-air smile" LIST OF FORMS. Page. t Face of phvsical history card used in open-air schools in Chicago 92 2 Reverse side of phvsical history card used in Chicago open-air schools 93 s! Social history card used in (""hicago _ w^ 4. Parent's consent card used In Chicago open-air school _________ »b I'arenfs con'sent card used in Chicago open-air school-___---— Face of record used in. open-air school work in < leveland, Ohio. r, Face of record used in open-air scnuoi woin. m ^ .. .> .ui.,., w... o7 1. Reverse of rec(.rd card used in Cleveland r-xf-i oS S Face of record card used in open-air scihool work Newark, N. .1 »•' 9. Reverse side of record card used in Newark, N. J- -— ^JJ" 10 Face of record card used in open-air school work, Syracuse. N. Y i''^ 11. Reverse side of record card used in Syracuse, N. ]---^ ,,- . iXo 12 Face of record card used in open-air school work in New \ov\s. i"^ 13. Reverse side of New York record card LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Department ojf the Interior, Bureau or Education, Washington^ June 8, 1916. Sir: Modern political, social, and industrial life demands some degree of education for all people. Modern humanitarian idealism recognizes the right of every child to such education as will enable it to live happily and successfully. That no child may be denied this right and that societ}^ and industry may be served most effec- tiveh^, most progressive countries of the Avorld have enacted laws for compulsory school attendance through the elementary grades or to the age of 12, 14, or IG. But many children are afflicted with tuber- culosis in some form; some are poorly nourished and are anemic; others suffer from various other physical defects. For these, regular attendance upon indoor schools may be very injurious. The edu- cation of the schools is important, but life and health are more important. Some means must therefore be found by which these children may acquire education without danger to life or further impairment of health. It has been fully demonstrated that the open- air school rightly conducted is much better for these children than the ordinary schools, housed too often in dusty, overheated, and badly ventilated buildings. So it has come about that, although the modern open-air school is of very recent origin, it is now found in most or all of our larger cities and towns and in many of the smaller ones. Its special value both for education and for health is due to the combination of pure fresh air, proper nourishment, and a freer regimen which makes possible a wiser alternation of work and rest than is permitted by the schedule of most schools. The movement in this country for the establishment and main- tenance of open-air schools has been hastened through the initiation and financial assistance of various volunteer societies and private foundations for the prevention of tuberculosis or for the general conservation of public health. One of the foundations which has been especially helpful in this movement is the Elizabeth ISIcCormick Memorial Fund, of Chicago, 111., established by Mr. and Mrs. Cyrus Hall McCormick in memory of their daughter, " to improve the con- dition of child life in the United States." This foundation has assisted very largely in the establishment and maintenance of open- 5 6 LETTER OP TRANSMITTAL. air scliools in the city of Chicago. It has also rendered valuable service by gathering and publishing information on the equipment, organization, and work of open-air schools and by advising school officers in all parts of the country in regard to these. I was, there- fore, glad to accept the cooperation of this foundation in the preparation of this manuscript, which I am transmitting herewith, on the organization, equipment, and conduct of open-air schools in this- and other countries. To this end Mr. Sherman C. Kingsley, director of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, was appointed a special collaborator in this bureau ; and Dr. Fletcher B. Dresslar, special agent of the bureau and professor of health education in George Peabody College for Teachers at Nashville, Tenn., was requested to w^ork with him. In their work they had the assist- ance of Miss Mabel Broun Ellis. The manuscript was prepared after a very careful and thorough stud}^ of open-air schools in most or all of the more progressive countries of the world. Fortunately, the material from Europe was collected before the outbreak of the present war. I recommend that the manuscript be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of Education. The importance of the subject and the widespread interest manifested in it justify its publication. Respectfully submitted. P. P. Claxton, C oniTnissioner. The Secretary or the Interior. INTRODUCTION. Open-air schools represent one of the hitest developments in public- school organization. They came as the result of a desire for better conservation of the health of those children who, by reason of a tuber- culous affection, poor nourishment, or other debilitating conditions, were unable to profit physically and mentally by the life and work of regular indoor schools. This method of dealing with physically defective children signalizes one of the most interesting and decided changes undertaken in school management for many centuries. In- door schools have for the most part grown and developed under the idea that teachers had to do with the minds and not with the bodies of children, while open-air schools are based on the conception that the first essential to a worthy education is sound bodily health. The former grew out of the error of assuming that mind is not closely associated with the physical body and that early mental training was paramount to the demands of health ; the latter have grown out of a new emphasis on the value of health and physical soundness and recently discovered facts bearing on the nature of certain diseases and the best methods of protecting human life from the possible effects of these diseases. Naturally, as in the case of all progressive movements, many direct and indirect causes have contributed to this end. Chief among these were the discovery of the germ which causes tuberculosis and the great value of an out-of-door life and nourishing food in the treat- ment of those afflicted with this disease. The world is directly in- debted to Dr. Koch, of Germany, for the former and mainly to Dr. Trudeau, of America, for the latter. In addition to the impetus gained by these discoveries the study of children both in health and disease has been encouraged in the past generation as never before, and hygiene is now recognized as of more worth than medicine. No one with an unbiased mind can read the accounts of the history of open-air schools and the results they have already achieved with- out in some measure forecasting the time when the same conditions and the same sort of care will be extended to the whole school popula- tion. Surely there is greater reason for keeping the school children of this or any other nation from sickness than there is for attempting to save them after their health and physical vigor have been im- 7 8 INTEODUCTION, paired. The opinion expressed by the late Dr. Arthur T. Cabot that in the future " all schools will be open-air schools," is in line with this changed emphasis, and when considered in connection with the results already attained in open-air schools seems eminently reasonable. The chief purposes of this bulletin are to record something of the history and progress of the open-air school movement, to point out some of the results which have been attained through this means of dealing with delicate school children, to designate in some detail the programs followed in such schools, and to bring together in a convenient form other information which may be needed by those who are planning to organize and equip schools of this character. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Chapter I. SITES AND BUILDINGS. The original open-air school -vvas located in a forest, and was called a forest school. This fact has had an important influence in the selection of sites upon which open-air school buildings were to be built. The forest plan has not been followed generally in the United States, however. In a few notable cases parks and large grounds have been utilized for this purpose, but many American open-air schools are on the roofs of city buildings, in old school- houses, or on vacant lots and beaches. There are some special needs in open-air schools which can not be satisfied short of large grounds, where nature study may be undertaken readily and naturally, where gardening is possible, where playgrounds are ample, where there is room for rabbit hutches and cages for pets, and especially where the air is clear and pure, and where the children may be removed from the distressing noises of city life. Children in open-air schools are usually sick or anemic because they have been cheated out of the birthright all children should have — fresh, clean air. opportunity to get acquainted with the lives of plants and animals, good food, and a chance to play in the open; and roofs, vacant lots, or other available in-town spaces for getting the children out in the fresh air are only makeshifts, after all. In Europe the arrangement of buildings and the choice of sites for open-air schools have followed in general the lines laid down in the original open-air school at Charlottenburg, Germany. The Charlottenburg School is situated in a beautiful pine forest. The ground is rolling and sandy. The buildings are of inexpensive con- struction, but are carefully planned for the purposes of the school and are grouped in convenient relation to each other as well as to the outdoor features of the place. The immediate grounds are not only ample for the buildings, but they afford room for both vege- table and flower gardens, each child having an individual allot- ment. There is also an open-air gymnasium surrounded by an 9 10 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLSo SITES AXD BUILDINGS. 11 inclosure, where the children have sun baths in connection with open-air exercises. Another section is set apart for ]3hiy, where the children are allowed to engage in games and sports of their own choice. They build wonderful trenches and construct buildings and other devices to suit individual fancies. Adjoining this, and usually merging into it, is a section where pets of different kinds are kept. The children not only care for the pets but help to build cages, pens, and houses for them. The forest extends in every direction from the school and affords large possibilities foi' walks and natuie study, such as the obser- FiG. L:.--riJc lir.st larlotlouburs, Germany. ration of seed distribution, study of plant and animal life, the change of seasons, and other aspects of nature. Experiences gained in these different activities are utilized in drawing work, arithmetic, geograph}', reading, and in fact have a bearing on nearl}^ all school subjects. Drawing lessons, as well as arithmetic, have an added interest when the work is applied in the construction of a pen or house or some article of conA'enience or comfort for the children's animal friends. The whole plan and conception of the school enables the teachers to make an ally of nature in their great work of education. These 12 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. ^:^^^-- ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ■X. ^ ■- ^ ^ 4S^ "^ H ^ ^ ^ ^^' •^ ^ ^^ii ^•^ » I * !»• * * rii'j *: ** „ * * "^ ^ lli** Is t ^ ^ % ^.^ ^ ^ 4 a ^ ^ S^^ *. ^ J ^ ^ ^ ^ I »" jJt >^ >«, 4^ rr*r r-^t=T — r+i r*i irni r"fei rh^ >* vT ^ ^ HS-^^" i^^ '^'^^ J^ ^ -^ SITES AND BUILDINGS. 13 features not only keep the children in the fresh air and sunshine, but bring them into direct contact and cooperation with the primary and fundamental interests of a child's life. While few sites for other European schools are as ample as that of the Charlottenburg School, the general features are much the same. At the Uifculme Open-air School, near Birmingham, Eng- land, the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Barrow^ Cadbury, the immediate site is adequate for the school buildings, for gardens, playgrounds, and quarters for the pets and gives ample space besides. Moreover, it adjoins the estate of Mr. and Mrs. Cadbury, and the open-air school pupils are allo^^ed access to the grounds. Shooters Hill Open-air Fig. 4. — Uffculme Open-Air School, Bii-minsbam. England. The school garden. School, near London, is also located near a large forest. The chief medical officer of the Board of Education of London, in his report for 1913 (p. 258), outlines the considerations w^hich in his opinion should enter into the establishment of open-air schools, and, in gen- eral, the schools of England have developed as he indicates. This report states : The site should be sheltered, though fairly open and easily accessible. One acre of land should be available for, say, 50 children. The buildings should be inexpensive and constructed in such a way as to allow of cross ventilation and maximum admission of air, with adequate protection against stormy weather. In winter some means of heating is advisable. The classrooms must be adapted for the various educational methods of the open-air school, including manual work. These classrooms should be constructed for 25 pupils. The 14 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. school premises should consist of an administrative building, classrooms, and a resting shed. On the question of administrative detail, the requirements are a kitchen, diningroom, doctor's and nurses room, and jirovision lor sliower baths. As a usual thing, the schools abroad are established for a considerable number of children, 100 or more. SITES AXD BUILDINGS. 15 The same report states- that there should be a head teacher for from 120 to 150 children and a teacher for each 25. The teacher selected should have special knowledge of nature study, manual training, hygiene, and physical exercise. Thei*e should be a fully qualified nurse and the necessary assistants for cooking and serving meals and for bathing, say, 4 women for 120 children. The earlier open-air schools in the United States made their be- ginnings in less favorable quarters than are enjoyed by the European fichools. In this, as in many other enterprises in the United States, private initiative led the way, and such expedients as unused school- FiG. 6. — Interior of Provideuce (R. I.) Open-air School. houses, ferryboats, roofs, porches, tents, and remodeled buildings were pressed into service. The first open-air school in the United States Avas established in Providence, E. L, in 1908. Like most open-air schools established since, it had its impetus and its initial support Avholly or in part from individuals and organizations actively engaged in antituber- culosis work. Dr. Mary S. Packard, whose letter is quoted below, had been connected with charity organization work for a number of years and had been instrumental, with Dr. Ellen Stone and others, in starting the Providence League for the Suppression of Tubercu- losis. In the summer preceding the inauguration of the Providence 16 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. school they had taken a group of children who were predisposed to tuberculosis to a country place belonging to a friend. They en- countered numerous difficulties in carrying on the project; but their earnestness and zeal and their ability to demonstrate to the com- munity that these children were in no sense a menace to the health of others allayed the fears of the community and made possible the establishment of this summer school. Dr. Packard's letter to Dr. Jay Perkins, president of the Provi- dence League for the Suppression of Tuberculosis, written August 14, 1907, is as follows : Do you think it is too early to attempt to have a single small school, neces- sarily ungraded, for those [tuberculous] children, arranged so as to approsi- FiG. 7. — Sea Breeze Hospital, Coney Island, N. Y. mate an out-of-door school? It would, of course, be an experiment and in all probability would not be undertaken by the public school authorities; but we have thought it might be run very inexpensively, and that possibly the Provi- dence League for the Suppression of Tuberculosis or some other society would bear the expense of housing and heating, and that the city would supply a teacher. Probably there are some tuberculous teachers. The building would be very simple; it is suggested that the horse sheds of the Friends' meeting- house, on North Main Street, could be arranged for it, and that the owners would be willing, since they are using their meetinghouse so little and have given the yard for a playground this summer; or the little house on Conanicut Street, now used as a pure milk station, probably could be had rent free. We shall have about ten children at the camp who will soon have to go back to the ordinary schools, or would be at home in close rooms, and you will know of many more than these who should liave an out-of-door life either dur- ing the day or the night, if it is impossible to give them both. Now that the SITES AND BUILDINGS. 17 general interest in tlie prevention of tuberculosis is so much greater than ever before, do you think that some such experiment might be started this fall? This letter met with an enthusiastic response. The Charlottenbiirg School at this time was only in the third year of its existence, and little or no data were at hand for guidance and direction. Plowever, the school department of Providence had alread}^ shown its pro- gressiveness by establishing the first ungraded room in the United States for retarded children, and the board members were alive to the educational importance of this new opportunity of rendering real service to children in need. Fig. 8. — Outdoor activities at St-a Breeze Hospital, Coney Island, N. Y. The League for the Suppression of Tuberculosis stood ready with offers of assistance. A schoolhouse not at that time in use, and cen- trally located, was requested for the purpose of a fresh-air school, and the committee on city property not only granted this request, but made all tbe changes desired, which included the remodeling of windows of one room and the installation of stoves for heating and cooking. These arrangements were so carefully made that they have been continued almost without change up to the present time. Another similar effort was going on at about the same time in the city of New York. For many years the xVssociation for Improv- ing the Condition of the Poor had been taking children from the congested districts of New York to Coney Island for recuperation 97855°— Bull. 23—17 2 18 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. during the summer months. Among the thousands of children bene- fited were many children suffering from tuberculosis of the bones and joints. In order to meet the needs of these children, the asso- ciation established at Sea Breeze, Coney Island, in the summer of 1903, a seaside tent camp for the treatment of children suffering from tuberculosis of the bones and glands. The New York Board of Health estimated that there were from 4,000 to 5,000 children under 15 years of age in that city suffering from nonpulmonary forms of tuberculosis, and that at least three-fourths of these children were to be found in the tenement districts. The report on the experiment, written at the close of this first summer, states: It was a pathetic group of children who came to us in .Tune, so weak and emaciated that it was necessary to send one adult with each child. It is not an exaggeration to say that at the present time it would be difficult to select among normal children in our tenement district 50 who look as happy and as rugged as those among our earliest patients who have remained until the end of the summer. * * * These children have lived out of doors practically every hour. Each of the four dormitories accommodates 12 children and is ventilated with 15 windows always open, so that even at night the ventilation is thorough. In 1904 the Xew York Board of Education sent a teacher to in- struct these children. The original purpose was not to conduct a school, but to take a group of these little children and restore them to health, not only gratifying their desire to play like other children, but putting them on the way to useful citizenship. The results achieved at Providence and Sea Breeze, reinforcing as they did those at the Charlottenburg School, marked the beginning of a rapid development of open-air schools in the United States. Boston, Mass., made use of a park refectorj^; New^ York City secured a ferry boat and converted it into an open-air school. In other cities tents and buildings of inexpensive construction were pressed into service. So far in the United States the open-air school has attempted, first, to take care of anemic, undernourished, debilitated children. These schools have had the problem of providing not only for proper class- rooms but facilities for kitchen, cliningroom, bathing, rest period, and for the physician's and nurse's use. A tent structure or cheap building often serves satisfactorily for the classroom work, provided there is near it a building which will afford these other facilities which are indispensable. The first open-air school in Chicago was conducted by the Chicago Tuberculosis Institute in cooperation with the school board in the summer of 1909. A tent was placed in the yard of the Graham School and this, together with rooms in the school plant, enabled the organizations to carry on a summer's work for 30 anemic and SITES AXD BUILDIXGS. 19 debilitated children. The results of this experiment were so grati- fjdng that the friends of the movement felt that Chicago should go forward and conduct a year-round school. The best available site that could then be found was the roof of the Mary Crane Xursery, which is located almost at the exact center of population of Chicago. Large numbers of children needing spe- cial care lived in the congested tenements surrounding this building. The roof equipment was not designed or constructed for open-air school purposes but had been used as a fresh-air station for sick babies during the summer time. The building was a tent-like struc- ture 14 b}' 25 feet, built of asbestos board. There was also a canvas Fic. JJ. — Sitf of tir5;t year-rouud oijeu-air school, Chicago, 111. shelter of about the same dimensions, which was used to accommodate the children during the rest period. Outside this tent Avas an inclo- sure which afforded some space for recreation. The kitchen and dining-room were located in the rooms of the nursery, one floor below. There was no heat on the roof. The floor of the schoolroom was made of common boards covered with linoleum. The windows were hinged from the top and could be raised and lowered by pulleys and ropes from the inside. These windows thus formed an open zone for air, but could be closed from any side against the storm and wind. The room was equipped for 25 children, but from the beginning there was always a large waiting list, and the number sometimes 20 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. rose to 30. During the first year the children ranged from 6 to 16 years of age, and from the point of view of their educational progress represented eight grades of the elementary school. Two years later another school was opened on the roof of the Hull House Boys' Club, which adjoins the Mary Crane Nursery. On this roof there is now a locker room, lavatories, shower baths, and toilets, and a large resting shed which is anchored to a frame made of gas pipe. The building here is also of asbestos board. This site connects with another roof, that of Bowen Hall, another of the Hull House group of buildings, and this roof is used as a garden, Fig. 10. — Roof garden, Elizabeth McCormick Open-air School No. 2, on roof of Bowen Hall, one of the Hull House buildings. where both vegetables and flowers are grown. The dining room and kitchen are on the top floor of the Hull House Boys' Club, just under the roof structure. In the United States many cities have adapted ordinary school- rooms to open-air school work by simply opening the windows. In a room where there is a ventilating system the out duct should be cut off when the windows are opened. When this detail has been observed, no interference has occurred with the ventilating system. Care should be taken also that children do not sit in immediate drafts and that the wind does not blow directly on them. This is' easily taken care of by using screens or ventilators to deflect air SITES AND BUILDINGS. 21 currents upward. Sometimes an alteration in the windows is neces- sary, or the removal of a side wall and installation of a different type of windows may be desirable. In the original open-air school in the United States, at Providence, the windows were hinged at the top and could be swung to the ceiling by means of a pulley. In the open- window rooms in Chicago a canvas ventilator has been found to be one of the most practical ventilators. The principle of this ventilator is the same as that of ventilators in commercial use; the difference is that it allows the windows to be half open and provides a greater intake. In New B^iG. 11. — Open-window room, New York City. Double-bung window. York City, where there are now more than 200 open-window rooms, the double-hung window is the type most generally used. Dr. John B. Todd, of Syracuse, N. Y., advocates a ventilator made by stretching unbleached muslin over a frame and operated after the manner of an ordinary wire screen. This slides up and down according as it is desired to have the upper or lower sash open. 22 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. In selecting locations for open-window rooms, it is preferable to have those with two exposures. South and east or south and west exposures, other things being equal, are most desirable. In the first open- window room in the city of Chicago one room was used both for recitation work and for the rest period. The desks were removed and w^ere replaced by tables and chairs. The tables and chairs could be pushed to one side to allow placing the cots for the rest period. These cots were kept in a corner or on one side of the room. Fig. 12. — Tables and chairs replace stationary desks in the first open-window room at the Franklin School, Chicago, 111. The children wore their ordinary street wraps. It was found necessary, however, to provide extra clothing for schoolroom use, and now an Eskimo coat and lumberman's boots are furnished by the Elizabeth McCormick Fund for each child in an open-window room. The temperature averages about 55° in these rooms in the winter months. There are now 15 such classes in Chicago. In some of these open-window rooms a portion of a cloakroom is partitioned off and converted into a kitchen. In other instances a gas plate is placed in a corner of an ordinary schoolroom which is used as a diningroom. A good-sized kitchen cabinet will hold the necessary dishes and cooking utensils. There has been no difficulty SITES AND BUILDINGS. 23 SO far in the schools where open-window rooms exist to find space that satisfactorily accommodates these added features. The open-air school movement has reached a phase where it is receiving a permanent embodiment in definitely planned and con- structed buildings for the purpose. A number of cities have already built permanent buildings and others have them in contemplation. Still other cities are modifying their schoolhouse architecture and are providing for special open-air classes and more adequately pro- viding for fresh air and sunshine in all the rooms. Besides the definite details of planning and constructing build- ings to accommodate the different features of open-air schools, a number of cardinal points should be kept in mind. A mistake often made in open-air school structures is the use of wide overhanging eaves instead of windows to give protection against wind and storm. This not only fails to give control of these elements, but has the great disadvantage of shutting out the sunlight in winter and the free movement of air in summer. There should be regular window's or canvas covers for such openings, preferably windows, because it becomes necessary at times to close the building on the side from which the storm or wind is coming. Dr. I. N. Woodruff, medical director of open-air schools in New York City, calls attention to the difficulty of constructing out-of- door classrooms so that they will be satisfactory in both warm and cold weather. He says: The type of classroom required in warin weather is one in which there is a maximum amount of air movement and in which the roof is so constructed as not only to shut off the sun's rays, hut with an air space to act as an insulator to prevent tlie air underneath the roof from becoming too heated. For this and other reasons Dr. Woodruff considers that most of the classrooms for anemic children in New York are open-window rooms rather than outdoor classes, and says that for New York City children he distinctly prefers them to the outdoor classrooms. The site for an open-air school should be well drained and sup- plied w^ith abundance of pure water. An open-air school should not be located on a bare hilltop, nor set in a damp, shaded valley. One naturally associates an open-air school with trees and rolling lawns, with abundance of sunshine over all. An ideal situation can not be found short of the outlying country sections of the city. The problem of transportation needs to be solved. A natural forest in some accessible place, yet out of the main currents of the hurry and worry of modem life, seems to offer the best opportunity to meet the hygienic needs of such children as are gathered together for open-air school work. The presence of the trees stimulates the children to an observation of nature and begets in them a love of 24 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS. outdoor life, which is of vital importance for them if they hope to reach any large degree of strength and usefulness. The orientation of the open-air school building, despite the fact that many more liberties can be taken in its construction than in that of the ordinary classroom structure, nevertheless calls for cer- tain common features. There is no value in useless exposure to winds and biting weather. There is value, however, in sunshine and in fresh, pure air, wholesome food, and abundance of quiet, un- disturbed repose. It is important, therefore, that structures used for open-air work should receive abundance of sunshine, yet not so much as to interfere with the children in reading, writing, or any other task requiring close application. It is therefore justifiable to open a rest shed toward the south, so as to get a full amount of sunshine, if only the eyes of the children while reclining may be shaded from the strong light. With proper precaution, indeed, it is better for children to sleep and rest in the sunshine than in the shade. When, however, the children are working at their books, the same rule for proper lighting of the classroom, that is, receiving the light from the left, to prevent the direct rays of the sun from falling across the page, is applicable. Open-air classrooms ought to get their main light from the east or west, so that there will be a thorough sunning each day, and at the same time a chance to regu- late the light in such a way as to prevent eyestrain. Some heat is desirable in classrooms in open-air schools, especially in the northern latitudes of the United States. The diningroom, kitchen, showers, and toilets should always be properly heated. Many open-air schools have no heat in the classroom, but this makes it necessary in cold weather to use soapstones, extra foot covering, electric warmers, or other devices. Even these expedients, though they incur inconvenience and expense, are preferable to a schoolroom kept air-tight in order to conserve the heat. If heat is introduced into an open-air classroom, care should be taken to avoid the old-time mistake of closing windows and keeping them shut in order to conserve the heat. The children must be kept comfortable; but this can be done by proper attention to clothing, exercise, and food. It is an advantage to be able to modify the tem- perature in cold weather, but open-air school teachers must see that the air is kept fresh and stimulating, and that the stove or heating plant is made to serve, not to dominate. The air must be kept fresh and pure. Even permanent open-air school buiklings are of comparatively inexpensive construction. The first open-air school in St. Louis, Mo,, was located outside the city, on a lot which commanded a good view and which provided space for play and for gardens. Its first build- ing Avas of a simple shack construction, and here the early years of SITES AND BUILDINGS. 25 the school were spent. One teacher has been in charge since the beginning and has been able to keep in personal touch with all the children who have been through the school. The success of this school and the need of additional facilities have led the school au- thorities of St. Louis to secure permanent grounds in the city and to enlarge the work. They purchased a large dwelling occupying a block which adjoins the Harris Teachers' College. The dwelling- house has been remodeled and will furnish quarters for the dining room, kitchen, showers, lockers, nurse's and doctor's rooms. The ground plan of this new" school is shown in figure 13. The plant is to accommodate 175 tuberculous children. Three one-story buildings will project as wings from a loggia which provides a covered passage between the different buildings and connects with the main building. Heating and other service pipes run in the floor of this loggia and Fig. 13. — Floor plan of open-air school unit, St. Louis. under the floors of the classrooms. The cost of this building will be $37,500, and the estimated yearly cost of operation $LiG,250. In September, 1912, Mr. Frank B. Leland presented to the city of Detroit a building and grounds known as the Nellie Leland Open- Air School. (For building and plans, see figures 14 and 15.) It was first constructed to accommodate 25 children, but in the year fol- lowing it was enlarged to double the capacity and now has 50 chil- dren. Originally the expense other than the teacher and school equipment was paid by the Detroit Society for the Prevention and Study of Tuberculosis. In 1914 the city assumed the entire expense for the operation of the school. Toledo, Ohio, has a new building known as the Cherry Street Open- Air School. Schoolrooms, diningroom, and kitchen are provided on the first floor; dormitories, musicroom, and bathrooms on the second floor. The schoolrooms are screened and have canvas windows open- 26 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. ing on the inside. It accommodates 60 children, 30 of whom remain at the school both day and night. Expenses of food and nurse are paid by the Anti-Tuberculosis Society. The balance of the expenses are met by the board of education of Toledo. (See figure 16.) Columbus, Ohio, has an open-air school building, erected by] the Columbus Society for the Prevention and Cure of Tubercu- losis, at an expense of $6,111. The frame building shown in figure 18 contains a large schoolroom, diningroom, kitchen, lockers, lavatories, storeroom, bath, nurse's and recitation rooms. An 18-foot porch surrounds the building. The board of education provided the site and pa^^s for school supplies, teacher, and caretaker. The Anti- Tuberculosis Society bears the other expenses. The capacity of this school is 25. Fk;. 14. — The flrst •Nellii' Leland Scliool. Detroit. Mich. Rochester, N. Y., is another city which began its open-air school work in a modest way and has grown through its success into per- manent quarters, as illustrated in figure 19. The new building is located in a city park, 8 acres of which have been gi\en to the school exclusively for open-air school purposes. The site is easily accessible to the cars. The present building accommodates 65 children and cost $18,000. The plans call for the construction of an additional wing, which will enlarge the capacity of the building to 130. SITES AND BUILDINGS. 27 In 191-2 the city of Oakland voted a $2,000,000 bond issue for the construction of new school bnildinojs. In order that this sum might be most advantageously spent, the board of education created an honorary commission, composed of school men, architects, sanitary engineers, and sociologists, to recommend a program for schoolhouse construction. Their opinion was especially requested on gymnasia, lunchrooms, provision for the department of health developments, d H mi ? r^ O ■-'---^■^ r.----_-r^-"^ COST. 37 plied with clean, warm underclothing, good stockings, and warm shoes are much more likely to suffer from cold than are the others. Often the exterior appearance will mislead the teacher. The open-air school outfit in general use in this countrj^ has been developed from either the sitting-out bag type or the so-called Eskimo suit. The sitting-out bag is made from a long strip of heav}^ canvas, lined with blankets and doubled over at the bottom to form a pouch into which the children thrust their legs. Some bags come onlv to Fig. -The sitting-out bay lastoiis with metal snaps which are easily manipulated by children. the waist, others to the shoulder line; but the best design is that which permits one end to fold about the shoulders in the form of a cape. j\Ir. Frank H. ISIann, secretary of the Xew York City committee on the prevention of tuberculosis, who devised such a bag for use in the Xew York and Brooklyn schools, describes it thus : The gai'ment is made of heavy brown felt. The bottom is square in shape and reinforced with extra heavy material about 1 inch in thickness to protect 38 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. the feet from cold weather. In addition the bottom is covered with a special detachable piece of canvas to insure against wear and tear. The system of fastenings was specially devised to facilitate convenience in getting in and out of the bag. A series of snap catches all the way from head to foot makes the means of access far more pi'uctical than the old way of step- ping in and out from the top. Hooks around the garment at the center enable the wearer to buckle it snugly about the waist. Another interesting new feature is the pocket at the side provided for hand- kerchief and mittens. These bags cost $4.50 to $5.50. They will last indefinitely. A cap, overcoat, or sAAeater, warm overshoes, and mittens complete the outfit, w^iich need not, all told, cost more than $10. Fig. 28. — This type of wrap allows too iniiny chances tor cold air to enter about ueck and shoulders of children. The chief advantages of these bags are the ease with Avhich the children can get into and out of them, the convenience with wdiich a large class of different-sized children can be equipped without spe- cial fittings, the durability of the bag, and the comparativel}^ low cost. Unfortunately, however, the sitting-out bag deprives the child of freedom of motion. He can not go from desk to blackboard without stepping out of the bag, and in cold weather this means either get- ting chilled or keeping quiet. The principal of a private open-air school for voung children writes: EQUIPMENT AND COST. 39 Tlu> iiuiiii objection to the opeii-iiir sdiool work in cokl weather is that, having put the children into their bags, I find in oi'der not to spend all my time in getting them in and out I have to keep them sitting for an hour and a half without much change of position. This is contrary to all my convic- tions ; but as there seems to be almost no restlessness or complaint I have concluded that the fresh air counteracts this disadvantage.* The Boston schools have discontinued the use of the sitting-oiit bags because of inability to clean them properly after continued use. Dr. Ayres, in Open- Air Schools, page 133, says: "The children are very apt to regard them as ideal places for collecting and guarding a miscellaneous collection of the treasures of childhood, including food supplies, which they store up for future possi- ble need." If the sitting-out bag completed the whole outfit which the open-air schools must supply, the argument about the cost of fitting might hold good, but the sAveaters, stockings, and caps must be of the right size, and this in itself necessitates taking meas- ures of individual chil- dren. The Eskimo outfit is a two - piece pajama suit, with hood, made of heavy woolen blankets. It slips on over the ordinary school clothing. Designed in the Elizabeth McCor- mick Open-Air Schools in Chicago, its picturesqueness has won wide publicity, and its utility has been demonstrated by five years of con- stant use. It gives perfect freedom of motion, satisfactory warmth, cleans nicely, and wears well. Its disadvantages are the initial cost and the necessity of fitting the suits to individual children. Four-pound single blankets, which are heavy enough for any but the most exposed open-air schools, can be bought at Avholesale for Fig. 20. — SittinK-out bag iissed at I'rovidenco (R. I.) Open-air School. Excellent lor lower part of body, but insufficient protection for neclc and shoulders. 1 Letter from Mrs. Ada C. Beckwith, New Rochello, N. Y. 40 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. about $4.85. They are 70 by 80 inches in size, and one will make a complete suit for a child under 12. For larger children three blankets will make two suits. For teachers and matrons a long hooded coat may be made of the blanket material. This coat is lined below the waist and slips on easily over outer Avraps or sweaters, cleans well, and is universally becoming. Eskimo suits for children are now handled by several commercial houses. They usually run in five sizes: No. 1 for children 5 or 6 years of age; No. 2 for those 7 or 8 5^ears of age; No. 3 for those 8 to 10 years of age ; No. 4 for those 10 to 12 years of age; and No. 5 for those 13 and 14 years of age. The suits cost $5.15. Care must be ob- served either in ordering or making the suits to get them large enough. It must never be forgotten that they are put on over the child's ordinary cloth- ing, and often over the sweater or extra wrap. So simple is the pat- tern that groups of club women or domestic science classes can easily follow it. In Cleveland, Ohio, the girls in the sewing classes of the Technical High School made the suits. In Pittsburgh the chairman of the clothing committee of the Civic Club gave the use of two rooms in her house and the help of a seamstress for two weeks to the women of her committee who made, in that time, 26 of the suits, including two long Eskimo coats; one for the teacher and one for the matron. If mothers wish to provide their children's suits themselves, they ought to conform to the color and style of blanket recommended by the school. To introduce a variety of stripes, checks, and colors into an open-air classroom is to destroy that element of picturesqueness which contributes no little to its success. Fig. 30. — The Eskimo coat should be cut larj enough to go on over sweater or heavy wrap. EQUIPMENT AND COST. 41 The boots used with the Eskimo outfit are the so-called " lumber- man's boots." They reach to the knee, and the trousers of the Eskimo suit are tucked into them. The soles are reinforced with heavy canvas, which prolongs the life of the boot. They are slit over the instep, and eyelets are put in for lacing, in order to give greater ease in putting on the boots over the shoes; they cost $1.35. The fleece-lined, sheep-skin boot that can be bought for $1.55 wears out too quickly to be practical for the children. Some teachers prefer it, however, to the higher lumberman's boot. Fig. 31. — The Eskimo suit gives perfect freedom of motion. Recently a heavy leather boot, with upper part of felt, lacing nearly to the knee, has been placed on the market. It cost $2.50, but it will give double the service of the felt boot. It has also the advantage of permitting the child to remove his own shoes, which is not possible with the felt boot. The fact that the use of this boot requires the children to remove their shoes gives the teacher an opportunity to note whether the stockings of the pupils are wet or even damp, a very important consideration for the health and safety of the children. The warm overshoes with leggings, which some schools provide, while doubtless warm enough for open- window rooms, do not seem sufficiently heavy to protect against the cold of the roof schools. 42 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS. A mocha kid glove with flannel lining gives much more freedom to the fingers than a mitten, and it will not crock or chap the hands. If it fits loosely enough, the children can easily handle pencil or chalk during the coldest weather. The gloves clean satisfactorily, and with ordinary care will last two seasons. The}^ cost about $12 a dozen. SLEEPING COTS. The introduction of a rest period into the open-air school program brings with it the necessity for further equipment. The earliest Fig. 32. — The luuiberman's boot, resoled with canvas. Cost, .$1.15. American schools, following the example of Charlottenburg, provided steamer chairs, but experience shoAvs that a child trying to sleep in a steamer chair almost invariably knots himself up into an uncom- fortable tangle of arms and legs which hinders deep breathing and prevents the complete relaxation which sleep should give. The chairs are heavy and awkward to handle. It is hard for a child to lift them oi- move them about, and few American <)i)en-air schools have room enough to avoid a certain amount of daily adjustment of fur- niture. EQUIPMENT AND COST. 43 A light-weight cot which can be folded into small compass is much to be preferred. For ease in handling and storing, a canvas cot which folds over at the head and foot into a rec- tangular shape is better than one which doubles up in the middle down its whole length. If the space which can be used for the rest period is limited, in- stead of the ordinary G- foot cot one may buy a made-to-order cot 5 feet 2 inches long and 28 inches wide, which is quite large enough for the average 14- year-old child. Strips of heavy canvas across the points of greatest wear, and especially reinforced corners, prolong its use- fulness. Such cots can be ..,^ qq . , ^u ■ ^ ... . . ,. !• IG. 33. — .\ Ipather boot, with uppor pnrt Mt. bought for $3. Cost, $2.r^o. Tig. 34. — Tht ordiuury steamer <.bair is unhygieuie for chiklreu to sleep on. Note the uncomfortable positions in this picture. 44 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Blankets or sleeping bags Avill be needed for the rest period in cold weather. The sleeping bag shown on this page can be made of canvas and lined with shodcW blankets at a cost of $4.45. It launders well and lasts indefinitely. One double blanket in addition gives ample protection without too great weight. In open-window rooms the double blanket alone is equally satisfactory. The care of this equipment requires no small amount of time and thought. St. Louis has devised a good locker in which cots, blankets, Eskimo suits, boots, and gloves can be conveniently stored away by the children themselves. Something of the sort must be provided for use at night and during vacations. Each locker space and every article of personal equipment, from cot to gloves, should bear an identifying mark. Numbers are better than initials, since articles so marked are easily transferable. Ordinary laundry labels marked Fig. 35. — Suggested type of cot for opeu-air us(>. with indelible ink prove satisfactory. Gloves should be fastened by tape to the coats. DISINFECTION. All articles of clothing, blankets, and sleeping bags should be laundered or disinfected at the end of the first half year of use, during the summer vacation and always at any change of ownership. Blankets ought to be shaken out and sunned frequently. EQUIPMENT AND COST. 45 A simple method of disinfecting blankets is to sprinkle a sufficient quantity of formaldehyde over them and put them in an air-tight box for 24 hours. If a large num- ber of blankets are to be disinfected at once, they should be hung on clothes lines in a room which can be sealed and disinfected. The method here given is the one usually em- ployed by the Chicago Department of Health in disinfection of school- rooms. Formaldehyde dis- infection is most efficient if the temperature is above 60° F. and the atmosphere not too dry. ^Vlien the air of the room (as in many steam-heated buildings) is very dry, the vent cocks of the radiators may be opened for a few minutes to permit the escape of steam into the room, or vessels containing Avater may be placed in the room. 1. Ingredients for 1,000 cubic feet of air space: (a) Paraformaldehyde, 30 grams (7i drams). (b) Potassium permanganate, 75 grams (1S| drams). (c) Water (hot, if possible), 90 cubic centimeters (3 ounces). 2. Procedure : ^ (a) aiake the rooms to be disinfected approximately air-tight by sealing with gummed paper all doors, windows, chimney flues, etc. (&) Freely expose all articles in the rooms; place clothes, etc., across backs of chairs, or hang them on a clothesline ; open books and place them on end ; open all drawers and closet doors. (c) Secure enough vessels or dishes, one for every 1,000 cubic feet of air space to be disinfected, put about 1 inch of water in each, and place the mixture pans in them. (d) Place in each mixing pan the contents of one carton of potassium permanganate (75 grams), (c) Measure, in the aluminum cup, 90 cubic centimeters of hot water for each outfit, pour over permanganate crystals, and let them dissolve. Fig. 36. — Locker devised by St. Louis Open-air School for storing cots and Eskimo suits. 1 The local health department can usually be called upon for this service, 46 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Procedure — Continued. (/) When all the pans used for the space to be disinfected have been prepared, pour into eacli the contents of a carton of paraformal- dehyde (30 f?rams). In doing this be careful to add the first charge of paraformaldehyde to the pan furthest from the exit left open, and then in succession to the others in the order of distance from the exit. Before adding paraformaldehyde remove all your surplus material and equipment from the room. A ^^! ( d 1 \ I -p- € lO 1 ^ £KK^ -^HH> -^/. ^KK> ^ ^ ^ f ^ 3. Length of time necessary for edicient disinfection, four hours. 4. Always advise a thorough scrulihiiig and ventilating of the room al'ler dis- infection. {('Iiicdfjo (III.) Field lUnploijec's Handbook. liHiatu of Mcdirdi [mpcction, pp. 61-63.) EQUIPMENT AND COST. 47 BATHS, SCALES, AND OTHER EQUIPMENT. In schools where daily shower baths are given, each child must have a rubber cap and two Turkish bath toAvels. Paper towels are better for all other purposes. Soap may be provided in the liquid form more conveniently than in individual cakes. Toothbrushes, combs, hairbrushes, nail files, and other small toilet articles help to impress the lessons of personal hygiene which the open-air school aims to inculcate. The individual thermometers needed in schools Fio. 38. — Cloak rooms adjoining open-air class rooms have been fitted up for kitchens by the Chicago Board of Education. where temperatures are taken may be conveniently kept in a recep- tacle similar to that illustrated in figure 37. The top of the ther- mometer is thrust into a cork which fits the test tube, and the mer- cury end is suspended above a pad of absorbent cotton soaked in formaldehyde. In the interests of accuracy, the school scale with measuring rod should stand in the bathroom so that the children may be weighed, and their measurements taken without the variable factor of cloth- 48 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. ing. A weighing slip of unbleached mnslin protects against un- necessary exposure of the person. FURNITURE. A list of the furniture needed for kitchen and diningroom for 25 children follows: Kitchen equipment. ' Articles. Asbestos mats Bread board Bread box Bin, flour Bin, sugar Boi er, double Bowl, mixing Broom Brusb, scrub Can opener Cupboards Dish cloths - Dish towels Drainer, dish Egg beater Food chopper Gas range Kettle, stock, granite Kettle, potato, granite Kettle, tea KJnife, bread Knile, carving Knite, paring - - . Knives and forks pairs. Ladle, soup Measiu-ing cup Milk bottle opener Mop and stick - . Nutmeg grater Pail, gaibage Pail, scrub Pan, frying Pan, ginger Pan, dish Pan, roasting Pan, sauce Pitchers Potato masher Salt jar Scale, family Scrub cloth Smk, enamel Skimmer Spoon, basting Soap shaker Stool Strainer, soup Table, kitchen Toaster Towel rack. Do Total. Number. Size or kind. For the stove . Oval No.3 25 pound China, 2 quart . Sm'aii.'!!!!!-!. Large . Dover. No.3.. 4 gallon, with cover . 10 quart, with cover. No.8 Saw Steel Heavy tin Tin.. From the dairy. With cover Small Iron, No. 8 1-9 bv 134 Oval," 15 by 19 With cover, 12 pound. Granite Enamel, 3 quart Wire 25 pound. Approxi- mate cost. With back and drain board . Heavy tin do Wire 3 feet high With drawer (28 by 48 inches). For dish towels. For paper towels $0.06 .25 1.50 1.25 1.15 2.25 .35- .35 .15 .15 25.00 .14 .90 .55 .15 2.00 25.00 3.00 1.35 1.15 .25 .60 .15 .30 .15 .05 .50 .05 .50 .20 .50 .76 .55 1.10 .29 1.50 .15 .35 1.25 .15 15.00 .10 .10 .18 1.75 .65 2.25 .15 .25 .25 96.73 EQUIPMENT AND COST. Dining room equipment. 49 Articles. Number. Bowls, soup Chairs Cupboard Knives and forks pairs. Ladles, soup Mugs, enamel Plates Do Sauce dishes Salt shakers Spoons, dessert Spoons, table Spoons, tea Tables, dining room Tureens, soup ! . Total. Size or kind. No. 30. For the table White enamel 3 by 3 9 inches, edge to edge. 8-inches, edge to edge. 4 inches, edge to edge . Glass 21 feet by 30 inches White enamel, 1 gallon. Approxi- I Approxi- mate price, matejcost. $0.17 .60 25.00 1.90 .15 U.35 .15 11.40 1.75 .10 1.20 1.25 1.15 1.50 $5.10 18.00 25.00 2.25 .30 3.38 .90 3.50 1.88 .40 .50 .13 .75 40.00 3.00 105. 09 1 Price per dozen. Fig. 39. — Supply-closet kitchen formerly used as a cloak room. In cities where open-air schools are financed by agencies other than the board of education the board can ordinarily be depended 97855°— Bull. 23—17 i 50 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS. upon to provide the schoolroom equipment of desks, blackboards, books, etc. If one room is to serve for recitation and rest, movable chairs with attached desks are recommended. They give wide pos- sibilities of arrangement of floor space, can be chosen with reference to the size of the occupant, and otherwise conform to the usual re- quirements of school hygiene. Movable blackboards give the extra room for board work sometimes needed when the wall space is largely taken up with windows. The personal equipment and the articles needed for dining room and kitchen have been frequently provided by some private agency, but there is a distinct tendency on the part of boards of education to recognize their obligation in this regard. Since practically all articles remain the property of the school and never become the possession of the individual child, there seems to be no good reason, except that of expense, why other cities should not follow the example of Cleveland, Buifalo, Cincinnati, Eochester, New York City, and others in paying for all facilities that are necessary to insure to these children reasonable opportunities for preserving health and acquiring that modicum of knowledge which our conception of public education demands as the prerogative of each child. Chapter III. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF OPEN-AIR SCHOOL CHILDREN. An effort has been made to secure as careful information as pos- sible on the ph3^sical, social, and economic condition of the pupils who attend open-air schools in the United States.^ For this purpose a questionnaire was prepared and sent by the Bureau of Education to a number of open-air schools. The securing of answers to these questions devolved upon teachers, nurses, and physicians whose time was alreadv more than filled. Many of the points called for were not covered in any existing record forms and, as a consequence, it was necessar}'^ to make original investigations and to seek information from new sources. This often involved visits to the home, to chari- table organizations, conferences with parents, interviews with family physicians and other interested people. The points covered in the questionnaire concerning open-air school children were as follows: 1. Total number in household? 2. How many in household have tuberculosis? 3. What relation are they to the child? 4. Is any other exposure to tuberculosis Icnown? 5. Estimate of income per month for family during six months immediately preceding admission of child to open-air school? 6. How much rent is paid per month? 7. Number of rooms occupied by household? 8. How many of these rooms are used as sleeping rooms? 9. Does the family occupy a detached house? A tenement? 10. Have they a private yard? A vegetable garden? 11. Is general intelligence of family held high? Medium? low? At time of admission. At end of school year. 12. Cleanliness, gootl? Fair? Bad? Cleanliness, good? Fair? Bad? 13. Ventilation, good? Fair? Bad? Ventilation, good? Fair? Bad? 14. Overcrowded? Overcrowded? 15. Irregular meals? Irregular meals? • 16. Alcoholism? Alcoholism? 17. Hour of retiring, of child? Hour of retiring of child? 18. Does child occupy bed alone? Does child occupy bed alone? 19. Room alone? Room alone? 20. How many windows in bedroom? How many windows in bedroom? 21. Are windows open at night? Are windows open at night? 1 Special considerations have made the gatherings of accurate data difBcult. Both doctors and teachers have had all they could do to give the proper physical and educational care to the children, and records when made came as added duties. Those and other difficulties were encountered in getting information about pupils in open-air schools. When it came to matters of comparison of gains in weights, school attendance, and school progress, it has generally been impossible to get reliable information from regular school records. 51 52 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS, Replies were received from the following cities for the schools and number of children indicated : Tupils. 7 16 Boston Mass. : Geo. J. Angell School L. Crocker School Lafayette School 8 Washington School 5 Winchell School 10 Chicago, 111. : Burr School 34 Foster School 33 Franklin School 118 Graham School 117 Haines School 27 Hamline School 37 Holden School 38 Moseley School 41 Open-air Schools Nos. 1 and 2 65 Open-air School No. 3 28 Seward School 34 Sheridan (Phil) School 35 Thorpe (Ole A.) School 36 Cincinnati, Ohio : Dyer School 26 Guilford School 24 Cleveland, Ohio : Eagle School 97 Murray Hill School 26 Pupils. Ky. A \i (1 u b o n Louisville, School Minneapolis, Minn. : Geo. Bancroft School Peabody School Montclair (N. J.) School Newark, N. J. : Elizabeth Avenue School Montgomery School Morton Avenue School New York, N. Y. : Class Public School No. 12_ Class Public School No. 21_ Class Public School No. 33_ Oakland, Cal. : Hawthorne School Pittsburgh, Pa.: Irene Kauf- man School Providence (R. I.) School Rochester (N. Y.) School St. Louis (Mo.) School Schenectady, N. Y. : McKinley School Washington Irving School Springfield (Mass.) School 15 25 29 14 15 15 15 20 19 41 24 18 25 26 45 15 15 Total (16 cities, 40 schools) 1, 263 In man}' instances it was impossible for those who gathered the information to get full and complete answers, and it is therefore equally impossible to give detailed information on all the points concerned and for all of the children returned. These data haA'e been carefully studied and tabulated by a trained social worker. Not onl}^ have the returns to the questionnaire been studied and classified, but subsequent correspondence has been necessary to verify certain points and to get fuller information where answers were incomplete or equivocal. The first item in the questionnaire calls for the number in the households of the pupils in open-air schools. This question was answered for the families of 587 children in cities outside of Chicago and for 488 families of children in Chicago open-air schools. The average number in the families of these two gi-oups is 6.12 and 6.2, respectively. These a;re unusually large averages. It should be borne in mind, however, that the open-air schools, especially in the Ignited States, concern themselves with undernourished, physically debilitated childi-en. The size of the family is at least one of the factors in the ])roblem of insufficient food, SOCIAL AXD ECONOMIC COXDITIOXS OF THE PUPILS. 53 The number of rooms occupied by these families and the character of the dwelling occupied are matters of special interest in the light of the foregoing statement. The average number of rooms per family for the Avhole group was 4-}-. The prevailing tj'pe of house in the congested quarters of Chicago is the four-room fiat. Many of these fiats contain two rooms of fairly good size and two smaller rooms, just large enough for a double bed, but sometimes only large enough for a three-quarter bed. The family is usually restricted to the kitchen and possibly one other room during the day, and to the two bedrooms at night. Fig. 40. — A one-room apartment. In this home the mother worked in a factory, and the older girl was kept from s(*hool to care for other children. One room must, of course, be used as a kitchen; another ma}" be the living room, but this usually also serves as a sleeping room. The proportion of the living quarters used for sleeping purposes ranged from 45 per cent to 79 per cent. About 14 per cent of the families live in one, two, or three room homes. As a rule the incomes in these families are the lowest of the group studied ; as a rule, also, the families were large and in many of the homes conditions were such that good school work could not reasonably be expected from the children. In the majority of the homes each bedroom was occupied by more than two persons. This meant for some families four or five people in one sleeping room. In this connection it should be re- 54 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. membered that there was an average of more than one tuberculous member for each family studied. Twenty-eight of the families studied, or 7 per cent, were living on their own property. In some of these cases, however, the house was mortgaged, and in their efforts to meet financial obligations the family itself lived in two or three rooms in order that they might rent the balance of the building and thus increase their mer.ger in- come. Some of the worst conditions of overcrowding were found in these homes. The average rent for all the families studied is $12.34 per month. This item varies not only as between different cities, but in different parts of the same city. For instance, the average amount paid per room per month in one district of Chicago by the families having children in open-air schools is $4; in another $1.97. In New York City it was, respectively, $4.57 and $4.16 per room per month for two different schools; in Pittsburgh, $4.25, and in Providence, R. I., $1.90. The question regarding the character of the dwelling was answered for 375 families and shows that 73 per cent lived in tenements and 27 per cent in detached houses. A detached house does not mean, in this study, a separate dwelling for one family, but might contain two or three apartments. It simply means that the building was separated from other buildings by some width of air space. One question asked was whether the family had or had not a pri- vate yard and vegetable garden. There were practically no answers to the question from the schools outside of Chicago. It was answered by comparatively few of the Chicago families, and when answered was in the affirmative. These replies show that 60 families had a yard. It should be recalled that 73 per cent of the families of Chicago children covered in this study lived in tenements, and the yard was used in common by two or more families, and was prin- cipally as a space in which to dry clothes. The tenement districts of modern cities mark the final retreat of the children from a life in the open. Mrs. Albion Fellows Bacon, in her book " Beauty for Ashes," speaks of " the essential unright- eousness of the 25-foot lot." Tenement houses in congested quarters of large cities usually rob the child of both the front and back yard. There are often two and sometimes three tenements on one of these 25-foot lots. When this is the case the essential unrighteousness is usually discernible in the children who live in such tenements. Nineteen of the families were indicated as having gardens. A garden meant, however, a vegetable or flower garden, and any little plat along the fence was called a garden. Any return of vegetables from such gardens would be comprehended in a few radishes, onions, beans, lettuce, and possibly peas. In no case were the gardens ap- preciable factors as a source of food supply. They were unques- SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE PUPILS. 55 tionably of value, however, in the life of the family, for, no matter how small or insignificant, they gave diversion and a profitable use of time to fathers and mothers as well as children. Window boxes, kegs, and other receptacles, where struggling plants and sometimes vegetables grew, were evidences of the tenacity with which people hold to the desire to grow things from the ground. Wlien the yard and the garden with their tasks and chores and pets, and chance for initiative in work and play and for the development of responsibility were cut away, and when the home shrank from the ranch, the farm, an individual house on a lot with its own garden and vard. to the three or four rooms on one floor leA'el of a tene- FiG. 41. — The kind of home that produces malnourished children. ment house, and when ready-made and ready-to-serve commodities were brought into the home, new conditions, problems, and responsi- bilities came into the schoolhouse. The question concerning tuberculosis was answered for 598 Chicago open-air school children and from 620 open-air school children outside of Chicago. Of 598 Chicago open-air scliool children, 450, i. e., 75 per cent, were diagnosed as tuberculous (lungs, glands, bones, etc.). 136, i. e., 23 per cent, were suffering from anemia and malnutrition. 12, i. e., 2 per cent, were suffering from other defects (heart troubles, etc.). 56 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Of 620 open-air school children in different cities, 259, i. e., 42 per cent, were diagnosed as tuberculous (lungs, glands, bones, etc. ) . 322, i. e., 52 per cent, were suffering from anemia and malnutrition. 12, i. e., 2 per cent, were suffering from other defects (heart troubles, etc.). 27, i. e., 4 per cent, not recorded. Those who are familiar with work of this kind know how difficult it is to get full and accurate information on this point. Families shrink from examination, often making efforts to conceal the fact that a member of their household has the disease. Moreover, it takes a minute and careful examination to discover tuberculosis in its in- cipient stages. Accordingly, these figures are undoubtedly below the mark. The questionnaire shows, however, that there was an average of 1.8 tuberculous persons in each of the Chicago families of open-air school children and an average of 0.8 in families outside of Chicago. In the city of Chicago the Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium has clinics scattered over the city and a large percentage of the children in Chicago open-air schools reach these schools through the clinics. The absence of an activity of this kind in other cities might easily account for the smaller number of tuberculous children in open-air schools. These defects are the most prominent, but as the whole physical condition of the child receives attention, many other defects, such as diseased tonsils, adenoids, decayed teeth, and defective eyes, are discovered. Of 598 Chicago open-air school children, 188 had dis- eased tonsils, 165 had adenoids, 466 had decayed teeth, and 152 had defective eyes. Of 620 open-air school children in different cities, 175 had diseased tonsils, 131 had adenoids, 347 had decftyed teeth, and 107 had defective eyes. The standard of living is a topic which has been much discussed in the literature of social and economic writers in recent years. The question of a living wage has been made the sole topic or has had an important place in many sociological and charitable conferences, and it is receiving more and more attention by all charitable organi- zations and associations whose work has to do with industrial or social conditions. In his book Principles of Eelief (pp. 34-36), Dr. Edward T. Devine gives $600 a year as the amount on which at that time (1904) a family, consisting of man, wife, and three chil- dren, could live in New York City and maintain a minimum standard of health and efficiency. In 1909 E. C. Chapin published a book on "The Standard of Living among Workingmen's Families in New York City." This was based on an extensive study of 391 budgets and working conditions in the year 1907. He placed the minimum income on which efficiency could be maintained at $900 to $1,000 (pp. 245-250). Since 1907 the SOCIAL AXD ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE PUPILS. 57 articles consumed in laborers' families haAe risen in cost about 21 per cent. In its annual report for 1912-13 the New York xVssociation for Improving the Condition of the Poor (pp. -lo-oO) gives data on the budgets of families cared for in its Home Hospital. This study jDlaces the minimum income on which health and efficiency may be maintained at from $1,000 to $1,150 for the Borough of Manhattan. One of the most definite budget studies so far undertaken was made in the years 1913 and 1914 by the funds to parents department of the Cook County (111.) juvenile court. This is the department which administers the mothers' pension work for Chicago and Cook County. The aim is to keep dependent children in their own homes, provided the mothers are fit persons, in other respects than financial ability, to have the care and custody of their children. The purpose of this work is not merely to keep people from starving for a given period, but to give such care to the family as may reasonably be expected to make efficient citizens of the children. A trained dietitian is in charge of this work, and a detailed study has been made of more than 1,000 family budgets. Actual items of expense were carefully tabulated, and the conclusions arrived at were based on purchases and needs of families dealt with in the courts. The conclusion reached by this study was that, in Chicago in 1913-14, an income of $75 per month was necessary to maintain a family of five or six in a state of physical and moral efficiency. It is not the purpose of this chapter to establish what a minimum standard of income should be, or to argue the merits of the conclu- sions reached by any of the authorities quoted. The purpose is simply to give the results of studies made as a background for the discussion of the social and economic conditions of children in open- air schools. Military authorities agree that men can not succeed as soldiers without being properly fed and nourished. They also find that it is almost as important to be well shod. The country is beginning to question whether its school children can do the work ex- pected of them on anything short of like conditions. It is realized, of course, that $75 in the hands of one family may accomplish very different results from the same amount in the hands of another family. But a certain amount of food, clothing, and shelter is necessary for everybody; furthermore, as human beings are constituted, every family, sooner or later, has its share of sick- ness and other unexpected misfortunes, and no income is complete that does not make some provision for medical and dental service, for sick time, rest, and recuperation. The families studied by the Cook County juvenile court were all city families, and the other studies also related to families living in crowded city districts. It is to be understood, therefore, that under such conditions there is 58 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. no subsidiary contribution to the family's maintenance in the way of a garden, milk from the family cow, or eggs or meat from a poultry yard. Everybody probably knows families living on smaller sums of money than $75 a month, but conditions differ. It is to be remembered also that, in the studies referred to, the whole needs of the family are considered. The sums mentioned as minimum incomes mean that the family should take care of its neces- sities and that the earnings should not be supplemented by hospital or dispensary care, charitable relief of one kind or another when the misfortunes come. The amount given by the juvenile court through the " Funds to Parents Act " is to relieve the families from the necessity of receiving aid from any other source. The budget studies by the juvenile court of Chicago show the dis- tribution of the $75 per month about as follows : 1. Rent $12.00 2. Food 29. 00 3. Fuel, light, and ice 5. 00 4. Household expenses 1. 00 5. Clothing and personal expenses 13.00 6. Car fare 1 2. 50 7. Insurance 2. 00 8. Furniture ^ 2.50 9. Education 1.00 10. Care of health (including dentist) 4.00 11. Recreation 2. 00 12. Emergencies 1.00 75. 00 As a working basis for relief work the juvenile court treats the item of rent separately, because it varies in different families and in different parts of the city, and because sometimes families own the house in which they live. Since the average rent is about $12, an allowance of that amount is made in the budget. The remaining $63 is divided by five, the usual number in the family. This makes $12.60 per individual per month, and this is the basis on which budgets for families are calculated. Where there are six or more people in the family, the allotment is slightly reduced; where there are less than five, the individual per capita is increased. It is under- stood too, of course, that the needs of small children are less than those of adults or of children who are working. However, in these families ages average fairly evenly, and the sum mentioned ($12.60) is reckoned as necessary to maintain health, strength, and efficiency. Accepting this standard, therefore, for the purpose of comparison, and understanding that each one who reads this will reserve the right to establish his own standard, the adequacy of incomes of open-air school children covered in the questionnaire is as follows : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OP THE PUPILS. 59 The income was inadequate — In 329 of 371 Cliicago families, or 88.7 per cent ; tlie average income being $5.97 per individual. In 335 of 398 families outside of Chicago, or S-1 per cent ; the average income being $6.41 per individual. The income was adequate — ■ In 37 of 371 Chicago families, or 13 per cent ; the average income being $15.70 per individual. In 63 of 398 families outside of Chicago, or 16 per cent ; the average income being $18.83 per individual. The figures show that the families having an adequate income are comparatively small. Their average membership is 5.2, compared with 6.4 in the group of families having an inadequate income. Prac- tically all the families in Chicago below the adequate income basis are on the books of from one to five agencies which give material, medical, nursing, or other relief.^ The returns on the question of alcoholism were so indefinite and incomplete that it is impossible to give any definite figures. Alco- holism is clearly a factor in some of these families, but there was no medical diagnosis or other study aimed definitely at this problem. Obviously it would be impossible to give any accurate information on this question without such study and observation. In the Chicago open-air schools, where the services of a municipal sanitarium nurse were available, an improvement of home conditions in families of alcoholists resulted from the definite work of the nurse. In some instances measures were instituted to curb the ability to get liquor ; in other instances treatment in some institution was secured. Aside from the physical effects of alcohol, the cost of drink is espe- cially serious in homes from which open-air school children come. When the open-air school work was begun in Chicago it was be- lieved by many friends of the movement that three or four months in an open-air school would be .sufficient to establish a child's health. With favorable home conditions, and where the child has no very serious troubles, this may be true. The experience of the Chicago schools is that a much longer period is desirable for the majority of children. Where it has been possible to keep the child over a considerable period, it has been found that improvement is much more marked in the second year than in the first, and in the third than in the second. Many of the children in open-air schools should, in our opinion, have an opportunity to spend their whole school course in open-air schools. Facts set forth in this chapter give some of the reasons why this is true. Many of the children in the open-air schools have had several years of adverse conditions before entering school at all. 1 This study of incomes covered the first half of the year 1913, when industrial conditions were normal in the United States. 60 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLSw They are under height, under weight, under nourished; they have more than their share of defects; a large percentage of them are tuberculous. The infant welfare movement that has done such notable work in many of the large cities of the United .States has thrown a strong light on this subject. The work began in the care of sick babies. It was found, however, that even in babyhood it is often too late to begin after the baby has once become ill. The great feature about the infant welfare work now is to discover the baby and care for him before he is ill at all. The open-air school has helped to reveal the unfavorable condi- tions of certain children in the public schools. It has gathered these children together in small classes, and through medical work, proper feeding, and rest it has demonstrated that nearly all of them will respond and thrive under such treatment, and that it is profit- able to put forth efforts in their behalf. The friends of the movement realize, however, that bad housing conditions, inadequate incomes, ignorance, and other adverse en- vironmental conditions can negative anything that the open-air school can do for certain of these children. The final salvation of these children involves not only child care, but a readjustment of the child's w^hole environment. Chapter IV. LUNCHES— THEIR CHARACTER AND COST. Most of the children Avho have been admitted to the public open-air schools in American cities give evidence of habitual undernourish- ment. In 1913-14: the total number of pounds under weight for 210 Chicago children on admission to open-air schools was 1,820.07, an average of 8.66 pounds per child. Only 24 out of 210 pupils weighed what the average child of the same age, height, and sex should weigh. Such clinical symptoms of malnutrition as undersize, pallor, loose and flabby skin, bad breath, bad condition of mucous membrane about eyes and mouth, are usually present. The children are easily exhausted physical^ and prove quite incapable of prolonged mental exertion. The body does not develop energy enough to stimulate and sustain the nervous system properly. Lack of adequate and properly prepared food and failure to assimi- late are the chief causes of malnutrition. The income of the families of open-air school children in 14 cities, as revealed in Chapter III, is clearly inadequate to cover the barest necessities of decent living.^ Society pays the penalty for this social maladjustment in damaged children. No mother, however competent, can purchase milk and eggs and fruit on a bread-and-coffee income. Few women are trained in a knowledge of food values, and those w^ho might, by Avise marketing, double the nourishment they give their children, have never been taught how to buy. A child can not assimilate food properly when such conditions as hurried and irregular meals and nervous exhaustion due to insuffi- cient sleep or irritation by vermin hinder the digestive processes. All these elements enter again and again into the life stories of the chil- dren who come to the open-air schools. Malnutrition is so prevalent among these children that out of 54 American cities listed maintaining open-air schools for physically subnormal children there are only two that do not find it necessary to make some kind of provision for serving food at school. These 1 See tables on p. 52, 61 62 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. are Denver, Colo., and Oakland, Cal. In both cases the fresh-air rooms are located in the good residence portion of the city, where the children's poor physical condition can not be attributed to lack of sufficient nourishment at home. Few of the American open-air schools except those at sanitaria and hospitals give more than three regular lunches a day, and most of them find two enough. These comprise ordinarily a breakfast of cereal and milk, bread and butter, and cocoa or some hot drink, and a noon dinner which includes soup and a meat course with vegetables Fig. 42. — The airy dining room of tlie Charlottenburg Open-air Scliool. or a meat course and dessert. The plan everywhere is to give the highest j)ossible caloric value consistent with simple and inexpen- sive meals. It is estimated that the daily ration of a child of 10 years, weigh- ing 60 pounds, should yield about 1,600 calories and be composed approximately of 60 grams of protein, 40 grams of fats, and 250 grams of carbohydrates. The following table is based upon the esti- mates of acknowledged experts in school dietaries of Switzerland, Germany, and England, respectively: LUNCHES THEIR CHARACTER AXD COST. 63 Daily food needs of the average child, aged 10 years, weight 21 to 28 kilos.^ Fat grams. . Protein grams.. Carbohydrates grams. . Calories" Calories per kilo Protein per kilo grams . . Tonsig. 23 48 282 1,531 66 1.7 Erisman. 41 eo 225 1,540 55 2.1 Crowley. 288 1,937 72 2.4 Average of 15 experts. 40 60 250 1,600 58 2 I Table reproduced by permission from School Feeding, Louise Stevens Bryant. J. B. Lippincott & Co., 913, p. 243. This estimate can easily be made to fit an older or yonnger child by serving larger or smaller portions of food. Fill. 43. — l>iuiu;j; rouni ;it I'ffculme Open-air Sthool, Birniinghani. England. Since the meals given at the open-air school are planned only to supplement the food given at home, and not to take its place, it is necessary to know approximately what the actual food value of each childs home ration is. In the Elizabeth McCormick Open-Air Schools in Chicago a definite effort was made to study these home meals. Each child was asked to write down when he came to school in the morning what he had had for supper the night before and what his breakfast had been. Dinners were provided by the school. The nurse who visited the home went over the records with the physician and was thus able to correct anj'^ obviously improbable statements. The reports gave a monotonous list of bread with tea 64 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. or coffee for breakfast, and suppers composed mainly of cheap bakery- goods and fried meats. The diet of the poor is particularly deficient in protein and fat, since the food articles that provide these elements, such as milk, eggs, butter, and meat, are apt to be expensive. Home breakfasts in particular are rarely planned to meet the needs of grow- ing children. On the basis of such reports as these the physician in charge estimated that the children in this school, who were largely Italian, received about 450 calories at holne. It is safe to conclude that the pupils of the class who have thus far attended the public open-air Fig. 44. -Kitchen of open-air school, Rochester. The girls of the school do most of the cooliing, under the direction of a domestic science teacher. schools for physically subnormal children probably receive less than 600 calories in their home breakfasts and suppers. In order merely to bring their food supply up to normal, at least 1,000 calories should be supplied during the day by the open-air school. Furthennore, the pupils are exposed during certain months of the year to extreme cold, and even normal children under such conditions need an in- creased supply of food to make up for the calories transformed into !)ody heat and given off. The private open-air schools recognize this fact Avhen they ser\e hot lunches during the winter to their well pupils from excellent homes. LUNCHES THEIR CHARACTER AND COST. 65 Students of school feeding agree that the school meal, if it is a midday dinner, shall supply at least one-half of the daily require- ments in heat units and more than half of the fats and proteins. At Eochester, N. Y., the daily menus are carefully worked out in the folloAvins: wav : I'm. -i'o. — Dimug rouiii ot Edward Molt Mooru Upeii-air School, Kuchoster, >>'. MKxr. Breakfast — Oatmeal with sugar and cream. A glass of milk. Lunch at 11 o'clock — A glass of milk. Dinner — Pot roast of beef. INIashed potatoes. Corn. Bread and butter. Baked apples with cream. Afternoon lunch — Cocoa and bi*ead. Milk. Food value of the Rochester daily menu. BREAKFAST. Food material. Oatmeal pound . . Milk (whole) quarts. . Sugar pound . . Total for 30 children Per capita Amount. Grams of — Protein. 113.5 180.0 Carbohy- drate. 49.6 217.2 450.3 271.2 453.6 293.5 266.8 1,175.1 9. 7 8. 8 39. 1 Cost. 0.075 .360 .070 ; .505 .017 97855°— Bull. 2.3—17- 66 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS. Food value of the Rochester daily menu — Continued. 11 O'CLOCK LUNCH, Food material. Milk for 30 children quarts. Per capita Amount. Grams of — Protein. 150.0 5.0 181.0 6.0 Carbohy- drate. 226.0 7.5 Cost. Cents. 0.300 .010 DINNER. Potatoes (1 peck) pounds. . Beef (rump roast) do Corn (canned) cans. . Apples peck. . Brown sugar '. pound. . Milk (whole) quarts. . Butter pound . . Bread loaves . . Total for 33 individuals . Per capita 121.5 437.5 38.1 86.4 240.0 3.4 166.8 1,093.7 33.1 6.0 641.2 16.2 120.0 289.6 289.1 21.6 1,383.7 41.9 999.0 258. 3 3, 597. 6 430.0 361.6 963.2 6, 609. 7 200.3 0.325 1.120 .300 .400 .066 .480 .300 .200 3.191 .093 AFTERNOON LUNCH. Milk (whole) quarts. . Cocoa can.. Sugar pound. . Bread loaves . . Total for 30 children . Per capita 180.0 26.6 287.7 8.6 181.0 32.5 10.8 224.3 7.4 226.0 42.5 226.8 481.6 956.9 31.9 0.300 .115 .035 .100 .550 .018 TOTAL FOR THE DAY. Per capita . 278.8 Summary for month of June, 1912. Twenty school days. Average attendance, 29, including three teachers. Total food values : Grams. Proteins 27,203.6 Pat 32, 547. 05 Carbohydrates 66,931.8 Amount of food per capita per day : '■ ^ Grams. Proteins ^^- ^ Fat ^^- ^ Carbohydrates ^^^- ^ Calories ^' ^^^- ^ The daily per capita cost of such menus is from 14 to 15 cents. A similar diet plan is in use in Louisville and Lexington, Ky. ; Spring- field, Mass.; Detroit, Kalamazoo, and Ypsilanti, Mich.; St. Louis, Mo. ; Montclair, Newark, and Orange, N. J. ; Albany, Buffalo, Syra- LUNCHES THEIR CHARACTER AND COST. 67 cuse, and Utica, N. Y. ; Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo, and Colum- bus, Ohio; Allentown, Erie, Pittsburgh, and Williamsport, Pa.; Richmond, Va. ; and Kenosha, Wis. The menus which follow cost between 11 and 12 cents daily for each child, provided the buying is done at wholesale. The average food value is between 1,100 and 1,20Q calories, and the children in the Chicago schools have made as satisfactory gains in weight on this simple diet as they did in earlier years on a three-course dinner with two lunches. Fig. 46. — Domestic science equipment utilized for open-air seliool cliilclren, Auburn, N. Y. Sample Menus foe a Week, Elizabeth McCormick Open-Air Schools, Chicago. MONDAY. Morning lunch — Cocoa, bread, jelly. Noon dinner — Browned beef stew, boiled potatoes, mashed turnips, bread, milk, farina pudding. Morning luncli— Milk, bread, apple butter. Noon dinner — Lima baked beans, cabbage salad, apple sauce, bread, milk. WEDNESDAY. Morning lunch — Milk, bread, sirup. Noon dinner — Beef loaf with tomato sauce, baked potatoes, cliocolate pudding. 68 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. THURSDAY. Morning lunch — Cocoa, raisin bread. Noon dinner — Milk, bread, vegetable soup, rice pudding Morning lunch — I\Iilk, bread, jam. Noon dinner — Creamed salmon, mashed potatoes, bread, milk, stewed prunes. Average number of calories per child per day, 1,100. Average cost of food per day per child, 11 cents. Average cost of service per day per child, 7f cents. Total cost of food and service per child per day in Cliicago Open-Air School, 18* cents. There are few cities where dealers will not grant wholesale rates to an open-air school, even if the amount purchased is small. Twelve cents a day will provide for each child a pint and a half of milk, all the bread and jelly he can eat, a nourishing soup or stew and an inexpensive dessert. It is possible to work out a great enough variety of combinations to avoid the deadly institutionalism of "bean day," "fish day," etc. Racial and religious customs must be respected in planning the menu. Many children refuse milk at first, but a quiet insistence upon a little each day, combined with the example of their fellows, soon converts them. One of the most important services the open- air school can render is the development of a real liking for whole- some, simple food on the part of these children, most of whom have never known cereals or meat soups. Simple meals keep dowm the cost of service and equipment. It is quite possible to equip the cloakroom which usually adjoins an ordi- nary recitation room with gas stove, sink, cupboards, and kitchen tables at a cost of about $70. ^ The social value of the meal is better secured by a separate dining place than b}^ the use of desks in the recitation room for tables. The equipment need not be expen- sive. Plain deal tables scoured white or covered Avith Avhite oilcloth or laid Avith paper napkins for doilies may stand in any con- venient room. Good taste, as well as economy, should be considered in the purchase of dishes and silver. The simple act of breaking bread together may bring teacher and pupils into a new and delightful relation. A Avise teacher welcomes this opportunity of knowing her pupils "off guard " and gladly con- tributes the dignity of her presence to the common table. The children themselves can be trained to serve the food, to wait on table and. when desirable, to wash the dishes and put the dining I'oom in order. Unless the school receives cases of open tuberculosis, there is no need of sterilizing dishes. A hemmed square of un- 1 See complete list of kitchen and dining-room orjuipment on p. 48. LUNCHES THEIR CHARACTER AND COST. 69 l)leaclit'(l innsliii, with a roiiiui opeiiing- for the head, makes a good apron for either boys or girls to wear Avhen on kitchen duty. In Sj^racuse, N. Y., and Providence, R. I., the teacher plans and helps prepare the meal. The Providence children bring a lunch from home and supplement it with one hot dish prepared at school. An assistant relieves the Syracuse teacher while she cooks the dinner. It is asking too much, however, to expect a teacher to carry such heavy work for an indefinite period of time. To teach an ungraded Fic. 47. — Au inuxpeusive kitchen equipment whicli has served Proviileuee, R. I., since 1908. Only one hot dish is prepared at noon, however, and the children supplement this with lunches brought from home. room of 25 pupils is a serious undertaking, and she will need all her time for her school duties. A few cities are seizing the opportunity to make the work of their domestic-science classes more vital by turning over to them the su- pervision and preparation of food for the open-air school. In CleA'eland and Cincinnati, where the whole expense of the fresh- air w^ork is defra.ved by the board of education, the girls in the do- mestic-science classes plan and prepare the diets for the anemic pupils. These classes are all in public-school buildings. Where open-air schools are provided at some distance from the other schools, the plan might not be so practicable. At Columbus, Ohio, the young Avomen in the domestic-science de- partment of the Ohio State University have planned the menus and 70 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. worked out the food values of every meal served at the open-air school, which is conducted jointly by the city board of education and the antituberculosis association. South Manchester, Conn., has utilized its school of household arts for practically all the work at the open-air school of 25 children. The department is thoroughly equipped with modern cooking uten- sils of all kinds and is under the charge of a capable domestic-science teacher. The school is attended by 75 girls, each one of whom receives a 2-hour lesson each week. The schedule is planned so that a girl does not repeat the same lesson period until after 15 weeks. The girls attend in classes of five, in the following manner : 8.30 to 10.30 ; 10.30 Fig. 48. — Girls of domestic science class preparing dinner for children of open-air school, Now Britain, Conn. to 12.30; 1.30 to 3.30. In this way 15 classes are accommodated weekly. Each group moves up one period each week, thus allowing the girls to become familiar with all branches of the work. The fol- lowing program gives an excellent idea of the work done each day : A.M. 8.00. Make cocoa. 8.10. Put nuig.s and napkins at place on table. Put one plate of crackers, piled evenly, in the middle of each table. 8.20. Pour cocoa into mugs. Wash kettle and cooking utensils. Put one shovel of coal on each side of the fire. Pull damper forward. LUNCHES THEIR CHARACTER AND COST. 71 A.M. 8.30. Clear tables, wash mugs, put crackers in tin box. Fill teakettle, bring in towels — if wet, liang on kitclien rack; if dry, fold and put away. 9.00. Sweep diningroom floor. Sweep bathroom floor, wash and wipe the bowls. On pleasant days open all upstairs windows at top and bottom, except bathroom window. 9.15, Prepare vegetables and dessert for dinner. 10.30. Everything to be served at noon should be in its dish or kettle ready to heat at 10.30. Put kettle of water to boil for potatoes on front of stove. Cream one-half pound of butter for bread. Spread butter; put one bread plate on each table. Fill a bread pan with extra slices spread and ready to replenish bread plates during dinner. Always cut bread thin and arrange evenly, without crumbs on plate. 10.45. If serving baked potatoes, put them in oven at this time. 11.00. Anything to be baked, such as soufRe or scalloped dishes, should be in oven between 10.45 and 11.00. Put potatoes in boiling water for boiled or riced potatoes. Finish the cooking of all things to be hot for dinner. Set table. Put plates and soup bowls in warming oven. 11.30. Arrange dessert on individual dishes, if it is to be served cold. Any pickles, butter, cookies, etc., to be served should be put on table at this time. Cooks and waitresses have light lunch. 11.50. Fill mugs with milk. 11.55. Serve food on individual plates. Place on table. 12.00. Waitresses take place at left of hostess. Pass bread, always going first to the one at the head of the table. Pass other food as needed. Take plates to kitchen if more food is desired. When first course is finished and all have stopped eating, remove plates, two at a time. Serve dessert. Pass cakes, etc. During dinner the cook in kitchen replenishes plates brought out for second helping by waitress. Put kettles to soak as soon as empty. 12.30. Waitresses and cooks serve themselves to dinner in kitchen. Fill teakettle. 12.45. Clear table, scrape and pile dishes. P.M. 1.00. Leave dishes piled in order, kettles soaking. Put soiled towels to boil every Friday. 1.30. Wash kettles and pans, then dishes. Prepare any vegetables or dessert that can be made for next day. Wash spice jars and shelves every Tuesday and Friday. 2.00. Empty all waste baskets. Sweep and dust diningroom. Clean bathroom. Wipe off tops of tooth-powder boxes ; brush up tooth powder ; scrub bowls with Dutch Cleanser ; wash and dry ; dust bathroom ; sweep floor ; empty towel basket and replace it. Wash out ice box every Monday. Make bread. 2.15. Sweep upper hall, front stair, front halL Close upstairs windows. Wash windows when possible. Wash towels and hang straight to dry. Sweep and dust parlor. 2.30. Put away cooked food prepared for next day. Empty milk cans, put milk in ice box, rinse cans in cold water, wash, and put on porch. 3.00. Put food in fireless cooUer. Sweep kitchen floor. Wash linoleum. 3.15. Wash inside and outside of teakettle. Set it upside down on draining board. Wash stove and black twice a week when stove has cooled. 3.30. Close windows downstairs. Leave everything in perfect order. 72 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. An idea of the combinations arranged niav be obtained from the following menu for the week : Monday: Hanil)iu"g steak, mashed potatoes, celery, lu-oad and butter, milk, cup custard. Tuesday: Roast beef, baked potatoes, creamed caulitiower. ))read and butter, milk, bananas. Wednesday : Roa,st laiub, s\\eet potatoes, succotash, English apple tart. Thursday : Minced lamb on toast, baked potatoes, tomato sauce, canteloupe. Friday : Stuffed baked bluefish, creamed potatoes, bread and butter, pudding. A cup of milk is always included in the menu. The instructor estimates that these dinners cost only 13 cents per capita. The children of the open-air school help to keep the cost of food low by raising many of their own fruits and A^egetables in a good-sized garden plat back of the school building. The provision of meals for one or two open-air classes can be met by a private organization or by a board of education without much difficulty. But when a citj^ like New York or Boston faces the problem of making open-air schools available to every child who needs them, the financial end demands serious consideration. It is significant that both these cities recognize their responsibility to the child with open tuberculosis by providing for him at public expenso in hospital or sanitarium schools. But the anemic or malnourished children, many of them in contact with open cases of tuberculosis at home, are estimated to form at the lowest estimate 2 per cent of the whole school population, and any plan that contemplates the care of all children of this class in a large city becomes a serious problem. Boston has worked out a plan by which every child in an oi^en-air class has a chance to purchase a glass of milk or a hot drink — cocoa, chocolate, broth, or chowder — at a cost not to exceed 2 cents claih^ Gas or electricity is installed either in the teacher's room or an ante- room adjoining the open-air classroom. In most of the classes the luncheon is prepared by the teacher; in a few it is prepared by the school matron. The children are expected to supplement the hot dish by a luncheon brought from home, and the school nurses are instructed what articles of food are best to recommend to the parents for these lunches. In buildings AA'here hot luncheons are served for the open-air classes the other pupils of the school have the same privilege of purchasing the hot mid-session luncheon, but the fact that the morn- ing session in Boston closes at 12 o'clock permits most of the children to go home for a regular midday meal. In New York City the committee on the study and prevention of tuberculosis of the Charity Organization Society provided food. LUNCHES THEIR CHARACTER AND COST. 73 equipment, and medical supervision for the first open-air classes. The board of education soon assumed the expense of equipment, but could not undertake to suppl3' the food. Realizing that their funds were limited and that the number of anemic children ran into the thousands, the committee early tried to determine whether the work could be successfully carried on without food. After three j^ears of experiments the supervising physician. Dr. I. Ogden Woodruff, concluded that except in isolated instances poverty was not the cause of the children's subnormal condition, and that irre- spective of home conditions they made substantial improvement in haemoglobin and general physical tone without the provision of Fn:. 4'.). - liidour lum-h lor open-ail' school pupils, Chicago. food at school. Accordingly, the two lunches of crackers and milk, which were previously given in the morning and afternoon, have been discontinued. The children may bring food from home if they wish. It must be remembered, however, that some heat is furnished in the New York open-air rooms and that none of the children are supposed to be actively tubercular. Dr. Woodruff does not Avish, however, to be considered as advocating running open-air schools preferably without feeding, for he believes there can be no hope of improving the nutrition of poorly nourished and anemic 74 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. children by merely bringing them in contact with the fresh air. He says: We shall always include in a group of children picked out for the fresh-air classes those who are poorly nourished, those convalescing from illness, those exposed to tuberculosis or with a family history of the disease. The nutrition of these children we wish to raise to as high a point as possible; if we can, to a point beyond the normal. If we are going to attain a proper measure of success in this respect, it is certainly necessary to include additional feed- ing as an integral part of the work.^ Chicago's experiments, though conducted for a short time only and with a comparatively small number of children, seem to indicate that the anemic child will lose, rather than gain, if he is put under true open-air conditions without extra food. Fig. 50. — Lunching out of doors in the first open-air school in Hungary, dining room is only used in bad weather. The Indoor The difficulties which open-air schools have encountered in their efforts to collect money from children for their meals are due largely to the actual poverty of the families represented, and in the second place to the inability to compel the attendance at the open- air school of a child who needs the treatment but whose father re- fuses to pay, although able to do so, A tubercular child who is excluded from the public school by the health regulations of State or city can be forced into the open-air school by the compulsory education law, but with a mal-nourished child, exposed to tuberculosis in the home, but not himself a menace to others, it is in most places impossible to compel the transfer to an open-air room. 1 Fifteenth Annual Report, City Superintendent of Schools, New York City, defective children, p. 55. Reports on LUNCHES THEIR CHARACTER AXD COST. 75 In the following cities the board of education already pays for the food served at the open-air schools : Hartford, New Britain, and Waterbiiry, Conn.; Cambridge, Chelsea, and Springfield, Mass.; Detroit, Mich.; Montclair and Newark, N. J,; Buffalo, Saranac Lake, and Utica, N. Y. ; Cincinnati and Cleveland, Ohio; Pittsburgh, Pa. ; Providence, E. I. ; Green Bay and Kenosha, Wis. In Illinois the law permits cities of 10,000 population or over to provide diets for the tuberculous poor. The only State legislation in this country directly dealing with school feeding is a recently enacted law in Massachusetts which gives any city the right to provide meals for school children free or at cost, provided 5 per cent of the voters file a petition to have Fig. 51. — Lunch in an open-air school near The Hague, Holland. the question put on the ballot, and provided a majority at election time vote in favor of it. The Anti-Tuberculosis Association of Springfield, Mass., circu- lated such a petition in 1913 and the city voted to assume the food expense of the open-air school. European countries have long since incorporated school feeding into their general system of public education. School feeding has been made a subject of national legislation in France, Switzerland, Holland, Great Britain, and Denmark. It is national in scope, sup- ported by the municipalities in Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, 76 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS. Finland, Austria, and Belgium. Similar legislation is under way in Russia, Spain, and the United States. In Germany about 250 cities have some form of school feeding. The children are expected to pay Avhen able to do so. About one- fourth pay. At the Charlottenburg Forest School each applicant for admission must present a card filled out bj^ his father, which states the parent's trade, income, rent, number in family, and other facts which affect his ability to pay the nominal sum charged for school care. Children whose parents' names are already on the list of public or private charitable associations are admitted to free meals without question. The establishment of " Cantines scolaires," or school restaurants, was made obligatory in France in 1882. About 1,400 now exist. In Paris 68 per cent of the meals were given free during the year 1908-9. In England the " Provision of Meals Act " of 1906 gave the local education authorities in England permission to install school res- taurants as part of the regular school equipment. Two hundred cities have introduced the lunches. Food is furnished at cost to those able to pay and free to the others. The same system is fol- lowed in the English open-air schools. In all these countries meal tickets are used by everyone, so that the children themseh'es need not know who pays and who does not. Free tickets are distributed only after a thorough investigation of the families who ask for them. This accords with the conviction of social Avorkers in America. The mal-nourished boy indicates something wrong with the family, and possibly with society as well. He can not be regarded simply as a detached unit reporting from the unknown at 9 o'clock every morn- ing and disappearing into space at 4 each afternoon. Any plan of school feeding which undertakes to deal with him alone is de- fective. The Philadelphia school lunch committee, Avhich has worked for four years under the careful direction of such experts in child care as Prof. Lightner Witmer and Dr. Walter S. Cornell, believes that a school visitor who will investigate and try to rectify wrong home conditions is an essential part of any well-rounded school-lunch plan. In the open-air schools the nurse makes this connection between home and classroom. If she adds to her general nursing informa- tion a practical knowledge of the food materials suitable for various nationalities and grades of income, her visit supplements the purpose of the school feeding in the best possible way. LUNCHES THEIR CHAKACTEE AND COST. 77 There should also be a definite connection with some agency Avhicli will try to restore the family to that point of economic independ- ence where it can provide sufficient nourishing food for the child at home and pay for such lunches as are served at the school. Until that point can be reached, the advocates of school feeding- argue that they are justified in their efforts by the necessity of pro- tecting society from disease and physical incompetency, and by their avowed purpose to make the necessary provision of food for school children not a relief measure, but a means of education. Chapter V. HEALTH SUPERVISION. When the Russell Sage Foundation in 1911 tabulated the results of its study of medical inspection in 1,046 American cities, it found a " relatively chaotic " condition. " Medical inspection " might mean an examination conducted by physicians for the detection and exclu- sion of cases of contagious disease; it might mean tests conducted by teachers or physicians for the detection of defects of vision or hearing ; or it might mean complete physical examinations conducted by physicians. Dr. Ayres found that, while 443 cities had at that time " regularly organized systems of medical inspection," 279 other cities had " some sort of medical inspection." About one-fourth of these 443 cities employed school nurses, and about 1 city in 7 had a school dentist. The physicians almost always received inadequate pay for their services and frequently gave only part of their time for the school work. One hundred and six cities had placed the ad- ministration of the medical inspection in the hands of the city health department, while 337, or nearly three- fourths, depended on the board of education for health-inspection service. Though condi- tions have improved very much in the past five years, these state- ments still remain approximately true. In England and Germany the open-air school was first developed by the regular school authorities. In America the impetus came from outside, largely from the antituberculosis forces; and the initial health supervision of open-air schools has been for the most part financed by private agencies. In many cities, where the medical and nursing supervision of the open-air schools has been satisfactorily inaugurated, the work has later been taken over by the regular medical staff of the board of education or the city. This is a desirable arrangement if the board of education is willing to meet squarely the proposition that open- air schools demand a highly specialized supervision, and also that the class of children who attend these schools require much more time from both physician and nurse than the average school child. Cleveland has put one man, a recognized expert on tuberculosis, in charge of all the open-air school work of the board of education. The 78 HEALTH SUPERVISION. 79 medical inspectors are instructed to refer to him any tuberculous or anemic children whom they find in their routine work in the schools. He is the court of last resort for diagnosis. He has personally in- spected all the children in the schools in the tenement districts and has carefully examined all who showed signs of tuberculosis infec- tion. For the school year 1912-13 this meant 5,138 inspections, 2,549 physical examinations, and 503 reexaminations. He also planned and supervised the program of the open-air schools, which, in addi- tion to the regular school work, included a daily shower bath, rest period, and three meals at school per day. In Newark, N. J., the chief medical inspector of the board of edu- cation, Dr. George J. Holmes, has worked out a detailed scheme of supervision for the city's open-air school for tuberculous children and the three open-window rooms for anemic children. The essential features in his plans are as follows: Up to date no pupil has been permitted to enroll in the open-air class unless it is evident after a medical examination that he or she suffers with pulmonary tuberculosis. The cases are discovered by the medical inspectors in the various schools. Immediately the diagnosis is made by a medical inspector, the case is assigned to a school nurse to visit the home. It is her duty to obtain and record on a printed form a complete record of the family history, previous history of the pupil from birth, present history of pupil, and social history of family, also ob- taining written consent for the examination of the pupil by the supervisor of medical inspection. The pupil then visits the supervisor in his office, accompanied usually by one or more relatives. The supervisor at this time conducts a complete examina- tion covering the general condition of the pupil, recording weight, per cent of haemoglobin, height, the condition of the eyes, nose, throat, heart, lungs, etc. Should the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis be confirmed by the supervisor, the Von Pirquet tuberculin test is at once conducted and the results recorded at subsequent visits. Recommendation is then made by the supervisor to the superintendent for the transfer of such pupil to the tubercular class. This school receives a daily visit of a medical inspector whose duty it is to inspect each pupil for the presence of contagious or infectious disease ; to consult with the teachers and nurse regarding any pupil in particular ; to conduct a complete physical examination of each new pupil on arrival, record- ing his findings and making his recommendations in writing to the parents ; lo refer such pupils requiring treatment to the school nurse, with the request to make a home visit and cooperate in the cure of each defect or disease ; to weigh each pupil weekly, recording the weight on forms supplied, investi- gating and recommending for treatment and special care all pupils not gain- ing or losing in weight or running an abnormal temperature; to recommend to the supervisor regarding the cure and arrest of the disease and the transfer of the pupils cured back to the regular school. No pupil has been transferred back to its regular school or' permitted to go off the roll definitely without the weight, height, and haemoglobin index being recorded and a definite recommendation stating that the medical inspector finds the pupil well and the disease arrested, and not then unless his findings are corroborated by the supervisor after a careful physical examination. 80 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS, The school nurse follows iip (he recommendation of the medical inspector in respect to each pupil, visiting all the homes, consulting with the parent or guardian with regard to the physical condition of the pupil and his needs ; making observation of the home conditions with respect to the housing, especially the sleeping apartments; inquiring into the nourishment of the inipil at home and his hours of rest; and instilling in the parent an interest in what is being done for the pupil and a cooperation which, with very few exceptions, has been appreciated, with the result that teeth have been repaired, tonsils and adenoids have been removed, glasses obtained, and a variety of surgical and other medical treatments instituted with i-esulting benefit to the pupil. * * * To be assigned to an open-window class each pupil must be subnormal in weight or in general health. This includes pupils who are anemic, frail. Fu;. 52.- Recurdins puLse ;iud temperature iu ;i Chicago scliool. under weight, or convalescent from disease. Each pupil is required to sub- mit to a complete physical examination by the medical inspector, which in- cludes weighing, measurement, and ascertaining the per cent of hremoglobin. The health supervision consists of the daily visits of a medical inspector foi- the detection of contagious disease and general supervision of the health of the pupils; the monthly weighing of pupils and recording of same; the examination of pupils for the detection of disea,se and defects; the home visits of the nur.se to bring about the correction of defects and diseases; and the improvement of health of pupils by urging that treatment be obtained, that home sanitation be improved, and that diet and hours of rest be properly regulated.* * See Proc. Fonrtli Internat. Cong. School Hygiene. Vol. II, pp. 103-119, HEALTH SUPERVISION. 81 The frequency with which observations are made of the children's pulse and temperature varies in different cities. A rise in tem- perature is the most significant index of the child's physical con- dition and often indicates something wrong Avhich would otherwise escape notice. Wherever possible the temperature should be taken at least once a day, preferably in the morning. The nurse should also take the weights of the children at least once a month, before and after vacations, and immediately after any prolonged absence from school. The weights should be taken stripped, and the scales should be frequently tested to insure accuracy. Not the least important contribution which the nurses can make to the extension of open-air work is the keeping of accurate records. They are the basis for reports on all work done either by nurse or Fig. 53. — Entrance oxaniiuatiou, Shurtleff School, Chelsea, Mass. physician and determine whether or not the children are making proper improvement. They are a form of health bookkeeping on which the budgets for succeeding years are based. The physicians and nurses assigned to special duty at open-air classes are probably doing the most thorough piece of health in- spection and valuable reconstructive work now carried on in the public schools. They have an unusual opportunity to set high standards of efficiency. The chance to do intensive work with a small group of children under the best attainable health conditions at school and adequate nursing supervision at home challenges every scientific mind. It is a hopeful, stimulating, and joyous task. Wherever open-air schools have been established the results have so conclusively demonstrated the value of careful health work that 07S55°— lUill. 2^—17 (> 82 OPEN-A-IR SCHOOLS. they have furnished a powerful argument for making such care available to all public-school children. In 1913 New York City created the position of medical super- visor of open-air schools and gave the appointment to Dr. I. Ogden Woodruff, who had for three years voluntarily carried on the work as a consulting physician of the committee on prevention of tubercu- losis of the New York Charity Organization Society. The duties of this position are to select from the regular schools those children who need open-air treatment and to supervise and standardize meth- ods of management in the open-air classes which are conducted in connection with the public schools. New York City cares for its tuberculous children in day camps or sanatoria. Dr. Woodruff examines the applicants for admission to these schools, but the medical supervision is otherwise in charge of the local attending physician. Dr. Woodruff is thus responsible only for the super- vision of the fresh-air rooms for anemic children and the fresh- air rooms for normal children. In a personal letter, which we print by permission, Dr. Woodruff outlines his plan of work, as follows : The initial selection and examination of the children is made by the medi- cal supervisor, as follows : First. From a group of children referred by teachers, school physicians, and nurses as seeming to need special care on account of their general appear- ance. But very few children in my experience can be chosen from this group. Teachers are very prone to consider a child's mental ability as an index of his physical condition rather than to refer cases on their physical condition alone. Both teachers and school nurses and the average school medical in- spector frequently mistake the sallow skin, particularly if accompanied with light hair, which characterizes so many of the Jewish and Italian children, for anemia. A record of malnutrition on a child's card is not always reliable, because in many instances the school inspector determines malnutrition by the comparison of the weight of a child with the average weight for that age. Thus among Italian and Jewish children a great deal of malnutrition may be suggested simply because these children are frequently somewhat shorter for their age than the American, Irish, or Scandinavian. Obviously in any such instance no true malnutrition necessarily exists. Second. A personal inspection of the classrooms is made by the medical supervisor, who selects those children which appear to him in poorest condi- tion. Here again certain care has to be exercised not to take too many chil- dren whose physical condition is caused by some local trouble, particularly adenoids. On account of the expression, the shape of the jaw, posture, and shape of t)ie chest which a marked defect in breathing produces, these children appear, I believe, in many instances, to be in poorer health than they really are. It has been my experience that unless the adenoid condition can be removed, little permanent or even temporary benefit can be obtained in the open-air class. Third. A third group of children is selected by cooperation with the associa- tion of tuberculosis clinics. At my suggestion this year the secretary of this association i-equested that a list of the schools attended by each child of tuberculous parents under the care of the clinics be sent in to the association. Fourth. In addition to children who are poorly nourished and anemic, par- ticular attention has been given to selecting children whose nervous systems seem to be distinctly unstable, both those of a highly nervous kind and those who have incipient chorea and who tend to develop it during the school year. HEALTH SUPEEVISION. 83 Cluldron who give a history of frequent absences on account of ill health are also considered unless it is evident from examinations that these absences are due to the presence of some local physical defect. Cases of cardiac disease have so far been admitted to these classes ; but personally I am still in doubt as to the desirability of taking fairly advanced cases of heart disease into the so-called anemic classes. That these children remain in better health I think there is no doubt, but I have not yet made up my mind that it is right to admit cases so far advanced that there is little likelihood of the children reaching adult life, when such admission means the exclusion of other physically abnormal children Avho would be likely to reach adult life and become useful citizens. The physical examination of these children includes examinations for the heart and lungs with the children stripped to the waist, the inspection of the throat, examination for adenoids, for carious teeth, and of the glands in the neck. The examination for adenoids consists only in noting mouth breath- ing, uasal obstructions, and the presence or absence of a high-arched palate. If such defect is presumably present, the child is referred to a nose and throat clinic for a more thorough examination, or an operation, if necessary. Digital examination of the nasopharynx does not seem justifiable. The posture is noted and chest configuration, also the general condition of the child, the presumable presence or absence of anemia, condition of the hair and eyes. Anemia is now generally determined by the medical supervisor on the child's general appearance. The htemoglobinmeters with which one can work rapidly are so inaccurate as in my opinion to be of little or no value. The more accurate ones take so much time that it is not possible to use them. A child may be put in the class for anemics, or removed, only by the order of the medical supervisor. The parents' consent must be obtained. So far complete physical examinations have not been made at intervals during the year, but only on admission and discharge. The medical supervisor visits each class at least monthly. Heights and weights are taken monthly. No medicine is given to the anemic children. If tonics or drugs are considered necessary, the children are either referred to dispensaries or to their family physician. There is no special nurse for the anemic classes, but the board of liealth nurse in each school cooperates in the work. Boston has a director of school hygiene appointed by the board of education who has taken great interest in extending the open-air and open- window room work. Dr. Harrington thus described in the 1913 repoi't of the Boston school committee the method by which children are assigned to open-air classes: All children assigned to the open-air classes are selected by a complete medical examination by the school physician. Each child in the public schools is examined each year by the school physician. The findings of these examina- tions are given to the school nurses, to whom is assigned the follow-up work necessary to remedy or cure the defects found. The anemic, the glandular, and the undersized children are specially noted by the school physicians and school nurses for assignment either to open-air classes or to fresh-air rooms in the ordinary school organization. All children assigned to open-air classes are weighed and measured regularly four times each year. Those children not showing a gain are reexamined by the medical inspector or at the out-patient department of the Consumptives' Hospital, and are closely followed up by the school nurse. Daily temperatures 84 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. are taken of children who do not show a gain in weight and who might be chissified as tuberculous. This temperature taking Is done by our school nurses. Each year the school nurses w^eigh and measure a specified number of chil- dren monthly. This monthly weighing and measuring was begun four years ago with the children then 5 years of age, and has been . continued during succeeding years with the children 6 years old, 7 years old, and 8 years old, respectively, each year. This year we weigh and measure all childreu 9 years of age. The primary object of this weighing and measuring was to establish a monthly norm of gain in height and weight of children from 5 to 18 years of age, inclusive. It has served, however, to give us a line on children not gaining in weight who otherwise might have escaped detection. All children living in families where there has been a death from tubercu- losis during the preceding two years are examined at the out-patient depart- ment of the Consumptives' Hospital, and are either assigned to open-air classes or, if found tuberculous, are sent to the hospital school at Mattapan. The school committee furnishes the school equipment and the teachers for the children assigned to the hospital. These children are permanent residents in the hospital, and do not return to their homes until cured.^ In Chicago the medical inspection of the public schools is carried on by the department of health. In 1913-14 there was a total en- rollment in the 273 elementary schools of the city of 332,248 children and an average attendance of 261,447. To cope with the enormous task of inspecting this army of children a medical inspector and a school nurse are assigned to field work in each of the 100 districts into which the city is divided. Physicians are paid from $70 to $80 a month. They each give about three hours daily to the work. They pust perform vaccinations and exclude for contagious disease, and they are expected to give each child an examination for the detection of physical defects. Each man has thus, on the average, over 2,500 children in his charge. Experience demonstrated the fact that these doctors, already over- burdened with their own duties, could not take time for the detailed examinations and daily supervision required for the successful op- eration of the open-air schools. Accordingly, the Elizabeth McCor- mick Memorial Fund, a private foundation which had borne all the expense of tlie open-air schools other than teacher and school equip- ment since the establishment of the work in Chicago, volunteered to employ the physicians. In 1913-14, 13 physicians on the salary list of the McCormick Foundation did the medical work for 19 open- air schools. Three of these men were chosen from the staif of the jNIunicipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium; the other 10 were school physi- cians on the staff of the department of health, already assigned to schools where open-air schools were located. The monthly reports of these men give an average for the year of 19.G hours' work for each school month, or practically an hour a day. 1 Boston School Committoo, An. Rep., 1!)ir!, pp. 55-60. HEAI-TH SUPEPtYISTON. 85 During 1913-14 six visiting nui'ses were assigned to open-air school duty by the dispensaries of the Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium and seven by the department of health. The Municipal Sanitarium nurses gave an average of two and a half hours daily to the open-air schools. The school nurses of the department of health found their own duties too heavy to enable them to spend much time in visiting the homes of the open-air pupils, and occasionally attention to the remediable physical defects was delayed, but their hearty support and cooperation never failed. The medical staff met bimonthly with an advisory staff of repre- sentative physicians. The general conclusions they reached regard- FiG. 54. — On a day like this, physiciau aud teacher need warmly clad. to see that children are ing the class of child to be admitted to the open-air school and the best way of caring for the pupils after admission are typical of the opinions held in other cities, and perhaps give as fair an idea as can be obtained of the health standards toward wiiich the open-air schools are tending. These conclusions are embodied in the follow- ing outline for the medical and nursing organization of open-air schools of Chicago. This outline was prepared by the supervising physician in conference with the attending physicians, the medical staff, and the director of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, 86 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS. the superintendent of schools, and the president of the Chicago Mu- nicipal Sanitarium. REQUISITES OF MEDICAL NURSING SERVICE. Original medical examinations require about 30 minutes. Preliminary to such examinations the nurse should visit the home; secure, on form provided by the school, written consent of parent for examination of child and admission to school; should acquaint herself with sleeping arrangement, cleanliness of home, health of other members of the family, and arrange, if possible, to have one of the parents present at the medical examination. For accurate diagnosis the child should be stripped to the waist. Fig. 55. — Personal hygiene, Chicago Open-air School. There should be a reexamination at the end of the first term or the begin- ning of the second, at the end of the year, or when the child leaves the open-air school, and at other times if conditions warrant. Findings should be carefully recorded. At all examinations a parent, nurse, teacher, or matron must be present. Duties of attending physicians in open-window rooms : Visits should be made about 9.30, giving the nurse opportunity to make observations of temperature, pulse, and respiration, before his arrival. Daily routine will be about as follows: 1. Conference with the principal regarding truancy, insubordination, re- quests for transfer, complaints of parents, granting of work certificates, and any condition bearing on health. 2. Conference with tlie nurse regarding children needing special attention on account of new symptoms. HEALTH SUPERVISION. 87 3. Examination of emergency cases or children suspected of having infectious diseases. 4. Tliroat cultures should be made in diphtheria suspects if this has not already been done by the nurse, and a written notice left for the school in- spector, so that other children from the same family may be inspected. 5. Daily conference with teacher with particular reference to children who seem to be lagging in their school work. Children will often begin to show incapacity for school work or irritable disposition several days before develop- ment of definite symptoms. The teacher having the children constantly under observation can be of great assistance to the attending physician in picking out children who need special medical care. 6. Physicians should daily inspect classrooms, sleeping rooms, and dining- rooms — (a) With special reference to ventilation. (&) With reference to temperature. (c) With reference to odors which may suggest lack of sufficient venti- lation. 7. Thermostats in open-window rooms and rest rooms should be inspected frequently to see that the maximum amount of heat is turned on, so that air currents in the rooms will insure the maximum change of air. Too high a temperature is evidence of failure to ol)tain sufficient outside aii*, and should be regulated by opening windows at the top rather than by shutting off heat. 8. The outlet ducts should be frequently inspected to see that they are kept constantly closed. These outlet ducts, if left alone, permit bail air from other rooms to enter open-window rooms. 9. The clothing of children should be observed to see that none are too lightly or too heavily clad for the temperature. This should receive daily attention as it is often found that on mild days children have sufficient extra clothing to keep them in mild and constant perspiration. 10. Children who show frequent elevation of temperature, inability to fix iittention upon studies, or unusual fatigue, should be placed on all-day rest. It will frequently be found that all-day rest a whole week Avill bring about sufficient improvement to render this treatment unnecessary of repetition for many weeks. 11. Children with acute colds should be kept on all-day rest and isolated from other children until completely recovered. 12. Reduction in the amount of school work should be prescribed by the physician for all children whose physical condition unfits them for the regular routine of study. 13. Observations of departure from normal are valueless lanless they lead to medical treatment which will correct the.se conditions. The physician alone should decide just what particular modification of the usual routine should apply to a particular child. 14. The first requisite of an adequate physical examination is a complete per- sonal history, which should be obtained by the nurse in the home and should cover all the infections and illnesses from which the child has suffered, with the dates of each. This should be followed by as much more detailed information as can be obtained regarding the family history, with particular stress upon exposure to infection. Wlien tuberculosis is known to exist in the family it is important to discover whether the disease existed during the lifetime of the child and whether the child came in contact with anyone who may be assumed to have been an open case. Accurate observation should be made of height, and the degree of departure from the normal should be recorded. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. 15. Single observations of pulse, respiration, and temperature are of little value, and conclusions should not be drawn regarding these factors until a sufficient number of observations have been made. 16. In recording general appearance of the child, note pallor, fatigue, and relaxed muscular balance as indicated by the way the child stands. 17. Teeth. — Number of decayed teeth should be recorded. 18. Eyes. — In addition to defects of vision, records should be made of inflam- matory conditions, and careful search made for keratitis, which will often lead to the discovery of tuberculosis. Trachoma should be promptly detected. 19. Ears. — Aside from defects of hearing, careful observations should be made for ear discharges, and these being discovered, very definite effort should be made for the removal of the cause, and plans for the effective carrying out of treatmerit. 20. Nose. — Nasal obstructions should be a matter not merely of record, but should be followed up continuously until the defect is corrected in a way not detri- mental to the child's health. 21. Adenoids. — If present may cause the velum to stand away from the posterior pharyngeal wall, and the pressure of this growth behind the velum pre- vents the reflexes of this region which are normallj' present upon depression of the tongue. 22. Tonsils. — Enlarged tonsils should be classified according to the degree of enlargement and interference with respiration and the pressure of pus in crypts. The normal distance between lonsils is 1 to 1.2 inches. 23. Glands. — More definite standards should be adopted for the observation of enlarged gliinds and their classification as to size and number, so that different observers recording en- larged glands will mean the same thing. Any palpable glands should be recorded. Submaxil- lary glands escape notice unless head is thrown forwanl. Numerous small pali)able cervical glands are more suggestive of tuberculosis than a few glands of large size. Large bronchial glands often produce a systolic murmur at the border of the sternum between the first and third rib when the head is thrown back (Smith's sign). 24. Heart. — The discovei-y of adventitious sounds in the heart should lead to i-epeated examination, and careful differentiation should be made between functional and organic murmurs. Fig. oti. — Weighing in a specially devised slip. (Chicago, 111.) HEALTH SUPERVISION. 89 25. Lungs. — First examinntion ol" the lungs should ho sullieiently detailed to dotermiiie marked departure from the normal condition, leaving more detailed examination for subsequent and repeated observation. 26. Sputum. — Sputum examinations should be made as frequently as there is acute increase of cough. 27. Blood. — A Tallquist h.ipmoslobin estimation should be made at least twice a year. Nurses sliould observe : First, evidence of acute infection and new symptoms as they appear; second, signs .suspicious of contagious diseases (this should include observation of the hair, nose, eyes, mouth, and skin) ; third, throats on complaint, or changes in voice which might arouse suspicion ; fourth, tempera- ture, pulse, and respiration ; fifth, suitability of clothing ; sixth, cleanliness of teeth and skin; seventh, home conditions, covering all the observations on the family and social history chart, and sliould note on the chart changes which occur in home conditions, particu- larly acute illness in the family or other conditions of transitory c h a r a c t e i- which have a bearing upon tlie present condition of the child, in order that addi- tional rest may be pre- scribed for the child in the school to counteract tempo- rary unfavorable conditions in the home and to elucidate present conditions ; eighth, temperature and hygrometer readings in open-air rooms. Teachers should obserxe ; First, the adjustment of windows and screens ; sec- ond, that no child is unduly exposed to drafts; third, that children are properly clad — (a) that heavy sweaters, Eskimo suits, coals, and heavy underwear are not worn in mild weather; [h) that children are sufficiently clad when weather suddenly turns cold; (c) that children are properly attended to wlien they have wet feet ; fourth, which children have had glasses prescribed and that they wear them; fifth, which children fail to hear readily, and espe- cially failure of hearing on part of children who usually hear well ; sixth, the development of acute colds and nasal discharges ; seventh, development of signs of nervousness and irritable disposition ; eighth, development of listlessness and inability to concentrate; ninth, failure of interest in school work; tenth, increa.sed interest in school work, and whether it is due to elevation of tem- FiG. 57. — Weighiug in the regular open-air suit. (St. Louis, Mo.) 90 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. perature or to general improvement of physical condition ; eleventh, evidence of chilling if children's hands are cold, for children will often suffer without complaint; twelfth, evidence of weariness in the morning, and should learn if due to late hours at home; thirteenth, cleanliness; fourteenth, personal habits of children ; fifteenth, restlessness during rest period ; sixteenth, extreme lassitude and inability to waken; seventeenth, evidence of failing appetite; eighteenth, that on returning from bath the hair is thoroughly dry, and observe caution not to permit the children to return to schoolroom too soon after bath. Efficient nursing service is absolutely indispensable for carrying out this program. " The school nurse," says Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, " supplies the motive force which makes medical inspection effective." This is particularly true in an open-air school, where parents must under- stand what is done and cooperate in the work to an unusual degree, if good results are to be obtained. The nurse may be asked to help the mother plan an outdoor sleeping porch; she may need to teach her that milk and cocoa are better than coffee for a child's breakfast ; she must see to it that a boy goes to bed early and sleeps with his window open, instead of sitting until 10 o'clock in the foul air of a motion-picture theater; she must often show how to guard against infection through a tuberculous member of the household; and in all these instances she must be prepared to meet with unfailing tact and cheerfulness a frequent lack of comprehension which will yield only to repeated efforts and a sympathetic approach. The duties of the nurse in an open-air school and the points which she should especially observe in her daily visits are outlined in the preceding section. In addition she should be free to visit the homes of any children who are absent from school, and. if possible, on the day on which the absence occurs, unless information on the cause of absence can be obtained from a reliable source. If a child is absent from school for trivial causes, or if frequent visits to the home do not rectify conditions, a written report of the case should be made to the physician in charge. Each child in the schools should be visited in his own home by the nurse at least once a month and oftener if the case demands. Chapter VI. RECORDS AND FORMS. It is the purpose of this chapter to present some detailed informa- tion touching the kind of records usuall}^ kept for open-air schools, and to make certain suggestions on records in general. The record card should serve not only as an aid in the treatment of the individual child while he is in school, but taken together with the other records it should be so kept as to be of social value to the community. The physical examination should be thorough. All points should be accurately co^'ered and recorded at the time the examination is made, and not trusted to memory with the expectation of entei'ing them at some future time. The open-air school usually has certain record cards and forms in addition to those used in regular school work. Form 1 is the physical-record card used in the open-air schools in Chicago. It is 7 by 10 inches. It is an evolution developed from forms previously used. Before its adoption it was submitted for criticism and sug- gestion to different schools and to many social workers. The card has given satisfaction. A commendable feature is that it makes possible a comparison of the child's condition on admission and on discharge. It is an advantage to have this in easily comparable columns. The social-history card shown in Form 3 is kept by the nurse, and the aim is to give a picture of the child's home and environ- mental conditions. The difficulty to be corrected often lies in the home. The teacher and those responsible for the child's educational work can much more intelligently perform their duties toward him if they have an understanding of the conditions covered in this card. In Chicago and in many other open-air schools it has been found desirable to have a parents' consent card. As has been said, the physical examination of open-air school children is ordinarily much more thorough and painstaking than that given through health inspection in the regular indoor schools. Moreover, there is usually an immediate need of correction of physical defects. The uniform 91 92 OPETv'^-ATR SCHOOLS. use of a parents' consent card makes it certain that the parent is apprised of the fact that his child needs some kind of special atten- tion. This card should authorize the physician to make such exami- nations and tests as may be required to reveal the exact physical condition of the child and to determine steps necessary to cure de- a a o z o 5 s a o a o Q 1 K O 1- X .1 z o i J I 1 1 i - 1 Q I 2 : ° 5 CD ■S J o s 1 1 H o Q 1 z o p z o H a p u 1 1 K O z < a a !- : o > u 1 1.1 Q b 5 2 S2 I* < 1 1 < H 1 if 1 1 i •o 5 1 z U < i- 1 X I 6 1 s c > 1 ii: is g 1 s s J 1 z 1 e i a 1 S 1 1 1 1 i Q i. S z fects, and should be signed by the parents. Forms 4 and 5 illustrate parents' consent cards used, respectively, in Chicago, 111., and New- ark, N. J. In order to make the physical examination thorough, the child should be stripped to the waist. Figure 58 illustrates a slip that has been devised in the open-air schools of Chicago, to be used in this EECORDS AND FORMS. 93 connection as well as in weighing. It is the practice in the Chicago schools to have the mother or the nurse present at such examinations. Forms 6 and 7 represent the face and reverse sides of the record card used in Cleveland. Ohio. The provision of this card for com- paring the weight of a given child with the normal weight of a child of his or her age, sex, and height deserves attention. Weighing should be carefully done. In the first place an accurate pair of scales should be secured, and they should be kept balanced. It is difficult to secure accurate weights unless the children are Form 2. — R- 1 ■S E 1 o 5 I • E £.1 ■2 ,> IT IT < U < z > > O 5 d o o c o Q. O c T > c: e o o cc E >r m «. o 3 E c c C in 6 c > z o 5 o CJ E o X (/ > c £ ■q ] E c o f f— ?-< K.' ^ H fl a> ^ f^ £ S <« a = " " o ^ .2 -^ o +^ ^ a 'o — , 0) - « .2 a,y- ca m 3 "? 2 - ■:a rt mot* to •^ as .2 "5 ^ £ 'S '? 5 CO 'O 4 <: o c/3 (A to < ID O I/I o > a. VI z o in o 7i I Q. II) U) o z 2 o ifl z o i z i u Z (0 CD 3 «1 in < S a z in 0. in a X 1- I u UJ 1 IT u. h I Gi 1- X iii s J < a: z 1 o ti is a T H ^ a y 9 -M 6 ^ o g exercises for the correction of orthopedic defects are a part of the school program and a matter of record. Records need to be carefully and painstakingly kept. The friends of open-air schools should in every way urge upon their constituen- cies the importance of including records and record keeping as a 97855°— Bull. 23—17 7 98 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. part of the necessary expense of the schools, and pains should be taken to get this information to the school board and to the public in usable form. THE HOME H. A. T.- Plumbing a 3 s _ pi I 1 I HOME INVESTIGATION No. Rooms- Cleanliness- L. or D Work in Home- Name and Address of Landlord Porch, Roof, Tent, Garden, Woods Available Recommendations ECONOMIC CONDITIONS Rent— Aid from Societies . THE PATIENT Careful Intelligent or Ignorant Needed Food, Clothing, etc. - Sleep Alone Separate Room -Daily Quantity of Milk- - Temperate Separate Bed L. or D THE FAMILY Names, Ages, Health, and Occupation of Family- FoKM 7. — Reverse of record ca4.*d used in Cleveland. EECORDS AND FORMS. 99 <_ I- Q. < I o o i? X LU 1- < < o T C/1 o < z 2 2 D z O UJ 1- < 1- X. < z >■ t- Is < _l < o < ii UJ 1- < u tr O o o p 1- < o X UJ If) Z g i < 2 o m "o Q 1- X o I 1- I I si i! in 2 S D < 3 2 CD >< >->->- V zzz 3 z <5 ° ^ I ^ «S Q "^^ o a S> o o o , 1 1. l z ^ 1 U J J 8 < 5 § e0 '5 X 1 I T 102 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. i • 1 Q J^ i Q J^ :» ^ Q j^ 1 Q RECORDS AND FORMS. 103 104 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS. ^ ? Chapter VII. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. Founding and development. — In the school year 1902-3 the Char- lottenburg Board of Education undertook, more than it previously had undertaken, to adapt its school organization and methods of teachino; to the physical needs of the children. Discussions with the school physicians resulted in an agreement that physically debilitated children needed care in special classes along lines already followed in (lermany's school system for a number of years with mentally sub- normal children. In considering the particular needs of such children it seemed im- portant both to the schoolmen and to the plwsicians to transfei- them from the city to the pure invigorating air of the country. In the early discussions of this problem, the establishment of a school sani- tarium where children might stay day and night seemed to oft'er the only feasible solution. Dr. Baginsky, who had devoted much of his time to the needs of physical!}' subnormal children, had advocated such a plan for many years; iinally, however, the discussions led to the idea of a school for delicate children where both educational and health needs might be provided for, and the result was the Charlottenburg Forest School. While the discussions that developed this plan were in progress, the leaders of the movement Avere active in other lines. One com- mittee was searching for a site. In their quest they turned naturally 10 the Griinewald, a wooded tract extending for many miles in the vicinity of Charlottenburg. An attractive site was found, and the real estate company which owned the land was easily persuaded to put a tract at the disposal of the school for a period of years. The domestic management of the school was another problem which was receiving attention. Dr. Xeufert and Dr. Bendix secured the co- operation of the Charlottenburg branch of the Vaterlandische Frauenverein. a nation-wide woman's organization affiliated with the German National Red Cross. This group undertook the house- keeping and nursing service and also provided a Doecker housekeep- ing shack, thereby saving $1,125 to the municipality. In May, 1904. the detailed plan was presented to the Charlotten- burg Board of Education and was accepted by unanimous vote. On 105 106 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. June 7, 1904, the school physicians gave their assent, and within a week the bill creating the forest school passed both houses of the municipal government, accompanied by an appropriation of $8,000. On July 5, 1901, the representative of the royal Government at Pots- dam gave his approval, and on August 1, 1901, the Charlottenburg Forest School was opened. Already the educational campaign which led to action by the different branches of the government had at- tracted nation-wide attention to the school. Site and equipment. — This first site of the Charlottenburg For- est School was in a vast forest of pines and firs, about 8 minutes' walk Fig. 59.- -General view of the buildings and School. grounds of the Charlottenburg Open-air from the nearest street-car station. On one side a mound of earth formed a natural boundary. The ground was covered with grass, ferns, raspberry and blackberry bushes. The air was pure, and abso- lute quiet gave relief to the over- wrought nerves of city children. The school building was a shack made of waterproof pasteboard and wood. It contained two classrooms, a room for the superintendent of the school, another for the teachers and the school equipment. One side of the schoolroom was almost entirelj'^ occupied by largo French windows reaching from the floor to the ceiling and swinging OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 107 on hinges outward. Additional windows and transoms were provided in the opposite walls and in the roof. At the ends of the room were two wardrobe closets, one for boys and one for girls. Each child had a hook for his coat, hat, and satchel, and a shelf for his blanket, each item of the set bearing the same number. In bad weather the class- room was used as a diningroom and playroom as well. Instead of desks, the room was equipped with folding tables and chairs in order that it might be readily cleared for this purpose. At some distance from this building was a spacious floored porch or resting shed entirely open to the south, but protected against heavy showers by overhanging eaves. On the opposite side of the grounds was the housekeeping section. The main building was the five-room shack furnished by the Vaterliindische Frauenverein. It contained kitchen, nurses' room, a pantry, and two rooms for servants. The nurses' room was also used for the medical examinations. The kitchen had a small porch where much of the household work was tlone. In front of the housekeeping shack was a gravel-strewn space to indicate the children's diningroom. As there was no roof, this was used only in good weather. Planks were laid to keep the dampness from the children's feet. In addition to its service as a diningroom, the children often used it as a place to play, study, and recite. The supplies of the school were kept in wooden shelters near by. A cellar dug deep in the earth furnished a satisfactory place, even in the warmest summer months, to keep milk and other perishable foods. A big dog served as the guardian of the forest school at night. His kennel was near the supply shelters. The school was supplied with water free of charge by an extension of water pipes from the municipal plant at Charlottenburg. In still another shack were the lavatories and bathrooms — both showers and tubs — and in still an- other, separate toilets for the boys and girls. Gardens for the children were another feature of the grounds, each child having an individual lot. Another feature was the out- door gj^mnasium. Here by means of a high inclosure the children were given an opportunity for gymnastic exercises, affording sun and air baths for the whole body. This was used alternately for the boj^s and the girls. The site not only afforded additional space for all these features, but there still remained large areas where the original character of the forest was preserved. Small arbors were erected here and there, affording cosy spaces where the older girls especially loved to retire with a book or needlework. The immediate grounds com- prised about 8 acres. History. — The school opened with an enrollment of 95 children from the Charlottenburg public schools. The number soon reached 120; it remained at this point until October 1, when some of the chil- 108 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. dren graduated and others moAed away. The school was closed for the year on October 29, 1904. The teaching staff consisted of four teachers — three men and one woman. Other Avomen teachers gave their services afternoons to supervise and share the recreation period with the children. The school grew in numbers from year to year, and the period spent at the forest school was lengthened until at the present time it is open all the year excepting from Christmas until Easter. During that interval the children attend a special school in the city. The Fig. UO. — Children at the Charlottenburg School resting uuUer the trees. lu weather they use the resting shed shown to the back of the picture. forest school now accommodates 260 children, and there are 9 teachers. In 1910 the forest school was obliged to move, as the site it occu- pied was required for the extension of the municipal subway. In this emergency the board of education of Charlottenburg made a 10-year lease of an area nearly double the size of the original site from the Royal Prussian Department of Forests. This site is also in the Griinewald and is as easily accessible as the other. The shacks containing the classrooms, the housekeeping depart- ment, the resting-shelters, and the open-air gymnasium were OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IjST GERMANY. 109 transferred to the new grounds. The experiment had proved so satisfactory that the authorities gladly added new buildings and equipment for the jjlant. Adminisfrafion. — Even this brief narration of the establishment and development of the Charlottenburg Forest School indicates a corresponding deepening of the basic idea. Its founders realized that they were dealing with a vital problem and were not satisfied merely with having conceived the plan and provided the physical features necessary to its develoi)ment. They realized that the real Tig. 61. -At the Charlottenlmrg Open-air -School both boys and girls have separate wallod-in spaces for outdoor gymnastics. problem was evolving methods and principles. It is difficult to trace these steps, because inner progress and growth in an organization or institution like the spiritual development of an individual can not accurately be expressed by facts or figures. Class of ckildi'en to he admitted. — The first problem that pressed for solution was to determine and to set forth characteristics that made a child a suitable candidate for the forest school. The forest school afforded a new resource, and both teachers and physicians studied the children with that new interest which is born when an 110 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. added practice or invention in the world offers a new possibility for discovered need. Both teachers and physicians decided upon much the same cases for this special treatment. The teacher was led to the conclusion because he wanted to advance the educational standards of the chil- dren, and the physician because the health of this type of pupils seemed to need special care. Thus it happened that the Charlotten- burg Board of Education and the organization of school physicians agreed to make the forest school — a recuperating place for anemic, nervous, scrofulous children, and children with slight heart or lung troubles, who could not stand the usual five or six hour period, but were not sick enough to be entirely exempt from school attendance. These children needed to be strengthened and their power of re- sistance increased by living as much as possible in the open air, by having sufficient exercise, by getting nourishing food, and if neces- sary, special baths. At the same time an adequate education had to be provided, so as to insure their keeping up with their grades in the public school. According to this agreement the following classes of children are excluded from the forest school: Children with open tuberculosis; children with serious heart troubles ; epileptic children ; children with chorea and the serious forms of hysteria ; children with open forms of scrofula ; children with contagious diseases. Management. — The school faced new administrative problems when it undertook to accomplish the twofold task of caring for both the educational and the hygienic needs of the children. The school site and equipment have already been described. The mere description of the plant indicates that the educational prob- lem in the forest school has to be handled in an entirely different way from that customary in the regular schools. The relations be- tween the teachers and pupils are also different. In the forest school the children are kept not only during usual school hours, but all day long. They even spend Sundays and holidays " at school," and are therefore under the supervision and in the company of the teachers for seven full days per week. The children originally admitted were pupils from the second to the seventh grade. Pupils of the first grade were not admitted, be- cause 6-year-old children, so delicate and sickly as to render them candidates for the forest school, are exempted from school attend- ance. In 1912 this rule was broken by admitting from the first grade 20 children who had begun their school life on the previous Michaelmas. The curriculum was the same as in the public school, with the modification, however, that only the essentials of every subject were taught. This made it necessary to shorten the periods considerably. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. Ill The time assigned to recitations amounted to 12 hours weekly for the second grade, 13 hours for the third grade, 14 hours for the fourth grade, 15 hours for the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. Such classes as natural science, gymnastics, and music were con- ducted out of doors whenever possible. During the recitations of two grades the other children rested, played, or busied themselves in various ways. In 1912 the curriculum for the public schools in Germany was revised, and the daily program of the forest school was adapted to correspond to this revised curriculum. The six grades represented from the beginning in the Charlotten- burg Forest School had but two classrooms at their disposal; only two recitations therefore could go on at once. This made it some- what hard to arrange the educational program for each day. The lessons lasted half an hour; after each half hour there was a recess of 5 minutes; after each hour, a recess of 10 minutes. The children were never taught more than two hours at a time. Program for the first year of the forest sehool. Classroom A. Classroom B. Bays. Time. Grade. Subject (•> hour). Subject (J hour). Grade. Subject (J hour). Subject (h hour). Monday . Tuesday. 8. 00- S. 55 9.0.5-10.00 10.20-11.15 11. 25-12. 20 3.00- 3.55 4. l.'i- 5. 10 5. 20- 6. 15 8. OO- 8. 55 9.05-iaOO 10.20-11.15 11. 25-12. 20 3. 00- 3. 55 4. 15- 5. 10 5. 20- 6. 15 8. 00- 8. 55 9. 05-10 00 10 20-11. 15 11.25-12.20 3. OO- 3. 55 4. 15- 5. 10 5. 20- 6. 15 8.00- 8.55 9. 05-10 00 lO 20-11. 15 11. 25-12. 20 8 8 7 7 6 6 8 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 and 7 5 6 8 8 7 7 Sand 7 8 8 7 7 Catechism and Bible study. Mathematics German Mathematics Catechism and Bible study. Arithmetic." Geography German History Catechism and Bible study. Geography German Writing Natural sc i- ence. Arithmetic Geography Writing Arithmetic do 5 5 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 4 4 3 3 6 5 5 3 3 4 4 Catechism and Bible study. Arithmetic..".. Catechism and Bible study. German Catechism and Bible study. Arithmetic German do do Arithmetic German do do Natural s c i - ence. German do Arithmetic German Catechism and Bible study. .\rithmetic German. Writing. Arithmetic. Writing. German. Writing. Natural s c i - ence. Arithmetic. do Geography. . . do German. do History. do Arithmetic. .do Writing Gymnastics... German do Local geogra- Music phy- Wednes- day. Catechism and Bible study. Arithmetic. Music. Arithmetic German Arithmetic German Gymnastics. German. Catechism and Bible study. Do. Do. T h u r s- German Arithmetic Writing German Natural s c i - ence. 5 5 3 3 Catechism and Bible study. Arithmetic Catechism and Bible study. German Do. day. do Writing. Arithmetic Arithmetic. German. 112 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Program for tlie first year of the forest school — ^^Continued. Classroom A. Classroom B. Days. Time. Grade. Subject (J hour). Subject (ihour). Grade. Subject (§ hour). Subject (i honr). Thurs- day. Friday . . 3. 00- 3. 55 4.15- 5.10 5. 20- 6. 15 8. OO- 8. 55 9. 05-10. 00 10. 20-11. 15 11. 25-12. 20 3.00-3.55 4.15- 5.10 5. 20- 6. 15 8. 00- 8. 55 9. 05-10. no 10. 20-11. 15 11. 25-12. 20 3. 00- 3. 55 4. 15- 5. 10 5. 20- 6. 15 7 8 (i 6 7 7 8 8 7 8 8 7 7 (i 6 7 German do Arithmetic Gymnastics.. . Natural s c i - ence. Writing German Writing German do 4 3 5 4 4 3 3 5 5 6 5 5 3 3 4 4 6 and 5 German do Natural s e i - ence. German Arithmetic German Arithmetic German Arithmetic Geography Catechism and Bible study. Arithmetic Catechism and Bible study. German Arithmetic German Gymnastics... .\ritlimetic. Writing. Geography Arithmetic German do History. German. Local geogra- phy- German. do Do. do Do. Arithmetic ... do Geography. do History German History Arithrnetic German do Arithmetic Natural s c i - ence. Natural s c i - Satur- day. Catechism and Bible study. Arithmetic Catechism and Bible study. Geography Catechism and Bible study. ence. German. Do. Arithmetic. German. Do. Catechism and ..do Bible study. The average size of the forest school classes is 20 to 25 pupils, as compared with 40 to 50 in the regular classes of the public schools. The forest school teacher, therefore, is able to devote much more time and attention to each individual child. But these 20 or 25 children thus brought together in the forest school were selected from different public schools, and on account of their poor physical condition most of them had attended school irregularly. This meant that the teacher was obliged to spend considerable time in creating the uniform standard ,of attainment that is exacted in the regular public school. Moreover, the method of teaching had to be modified to meet the special needs of individual children. Health considerations came first. Mental strain and crowding, at the expense of physical welfare, for the sake of passing examinations or making grades was not tolerated. Such considerations also governed the teachers' attitude in matters of punishment and discipline. It was, of course, out of the question to deny meals to a stubborn child or even to exclude him from the games in which all the children joined. Severe reproofs, reprimands, ironical remarks, and even jokes at a child's expense were scrupu- louslj'^ avoided. Encouragement and praise and as much parental kindness as possible wei-o the means by which these children Avero to be ruled. Despite all these difficulties, and the considerable shortening of the periods, the children were expected to keep up with their grades at OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IX GERMANY. 113 the public schools and to be able to reenter them on discharge from the forest school. If a child were slow in understanding, the teacher could not waste time during the period by further explanations. He would, rather, find an opportunity outside of school time for talking things over and remoA'ing the difficulties. In this regard it was a wonderful help that the intercourse between teachers and pupils was not confined to school hours. The everyday life afforded excellent opportunities for assisting backward children to conquer short- comings. The Charlottenburg Forest School, like nearly all the German forest schools, is based on the coeducational plan. While Germany as a rule does not favor coeducation in her schools, it is deserving of emphasis that no disadvantages whatever as a result of coeducation have been reported from the forest schools. On the other hand, beneficial effects were observed. Says Dr. Neufert, writing of the Charlottenburg Forest School : Many a duU and listless lad was seriously disturbed if the bright girl at his side habitually raised her hand quicker tlian he in response to the teacher's questions ; he soon tried very earnestly to equal her. The girls, on the other hand, were impressed by the boys' deliberateiiess and presence ot mind and answered less impetuously. The manners of the boys were decidedly improved by the presence of the girls, who as a rule were neat and well behaved. Medical care and supervision. — The selection of children for the forest school is made by the regular physicians of the Charlotten- burg public schools, but the physician of the forest school examines each case and admits the children. Dr. S. Bendix has been in charge during the whole period of the school's existence. Special attention is given to heart and lungs and general condition as indicated by complexion, development of the muscles, nutrition, and similar indi- cations. The findings are entered on a specially designed schedule. The weight of tlie child is taken on admission and fortnightly there- after. Since 1906, height, chest expansion, and the Tallquist blood test have been made a part of the record. Urine is examined only on special indication. This same thorough examination is given on the discharge of the children. During their stay in the forest school the children are under a con- tinuous medical and nursing supervision. In the early weeks of the school the doctor pays a daily visit. The same is the case the last three or four weeks of school. In the intervening time at least three visits a Aveek are made by the physician, and oftener if there is spe- cial need. Little medicine is given. Almost entire reliance is placed upon the efficacy of pure air, sunshine, and a wholesomely regidated life. There are many things, however, to which the physician gives stiict attention. He prescribes the dietary, advises as to the clothing the 97855°— Bull. l.>3— 17 S 114 ' OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. children wear, gives careful supervision of exercise and recreation, prescribes warm baths for seriously anemic and nervous children and saline baths for scrofulous children. In 1905 32 children received three saline baths a week. Each child is given two or three shower baths a week and a cleansing tub bath at least once a fortnight. Since 1911 special attention has been given to orthopedic defects. An examination by a specialist proved that many of the forest school children suffered from slight curvatures of the spine and other malformations. In the months of August and September, 1911, an experiment was tried with 40 girls who were suffering from curvatures and other orthopedic defects. The treatment consisted chiefly of specially devised gymnastic exercises. The results were so satisfactory that his scheme of exercises is now given to all the children who have such defects. The physician is assisted in his work by a Red Cross nurse who is responsible for carrying out his directions. She weighs and takes the height of the children and gives whatever help may be neces- sary in emergency cases until the physician can be called. As the nurse gives her whole time to the forest school and stays both night and day, she is able to supervise the housekeeping. The forest school's purpose is not alone to tide the children over a certain crucial period, but also to secure if possible a lasting im- provement in health. Since the children are nearly all anemic and underfed, a most important factor in attaining this purpose is food. The managers of the school reasoned that they could not depend upon the chance of the children receiving the proper kind of food at home. If the results were to be of any permanent value to the child and if the school assumed the responsibility for the results, the feeding had to be provided by the school. It was consequently decided from the beginning that the feeding furnished by the school should render the child independent of further home feeding. The following plan of meals was instituted at the school : 7.45 a. m. Porri(l?:e of rice flour or rye flour, rolls and butter. 10.00a.m. Milk (average 1 pt.), buttered rye bread. 12.30p.m. Meat (3.2 oz.), vegetables, potatoes, legumes (6.4 oz.). 4.00 p. m. Milk (average 1 pt), rye bread with jam or marmalade. G.30 p. m. Porridge of oatmeal, or cocoa or pie, buttered rye bread. Care is taken to give the greatest possible variety. Sample dinner menus will show how varied a diet was supplied despite the simplicity that prevailed : IMacaroni and smothered beef. Irisli stew. Mixed dried fruit, dumplings, and bacon. Carrots and pork roast. Porridge of barley and Frankfurts. Noodle soup and beef. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IJST GERMAXY, 115 String beans and roast of mutton. A'egetable soup with boiled beef. Rice boiled in milk and pork sausage. Veal, potatoes, stewed fruit. Meat loaf, potatoes, prunes. Lentil soup with beef. Pea soup with pork. Both teachers and nurse are interested in persuading the children "with small appetites to eat their portion. The appetite once aroused is very seldom discouraged. Many children ask for a second or even a third helping. Since 1906 the attempt has been made to keep the most delicate children in the forest school until Christmas, and since 1909 these children have been retained in a special class and supplied with special treatment according to the forest-school plan. The forest school is open practically all the year around. The phj^sicians of the forest school may admit the same child year after year. It is there- fore possible for a. very delicate child to enjoy the benefit of the forest school nearly all his school time, or at least as long as the physician thinks necessary. The children reach school at 7.45 a. m. Some walk, but those living at a distance use the surface car line. The street car company provides a special car running on a regular schedule. A teacher and the children from a given district gather at the most convenient stopping place and go to the school together. On arrival, a breakfast consisting of porridge, rolls and butter is eaten. At 8 o'clock sessions open for two gi'ades and last two hours. At 10 o'clock a mid- morning lunch consisting of one or two cups of milk and buttered rye bread is served. Then sessions begin for two other grades, while the rest of the children play about the grounds or in the gymnasium or are busy with needlework or books. At 12 o'clock a bell announces dinner. The diningroom under the high fir trees is a feature which never loses its appeal to the children. It has an especial attraction on Sunday, when a dessert is added to the dinner. A rest period of one and a half to two hours is observed daily. For this purpose camp chairs and blankets are provided. At first the children objected to the rest hour, but they learned to keep quiet and after a few weeks nearly all the children fell asleep almost as soon as they settled in their chairs. At 3 o'clock the remaining two grades have their recitations. At 4 o'clock they have their afternoon milk, with brown bread and jam or marmalade. Some grades may have one or two periods after this lunch, but most of the children are at liberty to devote the whole afternoon to play and exercise and in the latitude of Berlin the summer afternoons are long. In November some of the children return to the city. During the latter weeks it is often necessary to use the buildings for the play 116 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. periods. Practically the same regime is carried on in the special school which the children attend in the city from Christmas to Easter. Results. — -The Charlottenburg Forest School undertook to improve the health of its children, and it hoped at the same time that it might succeed in keeping them from losing in school standing. In order to discuss physical progress it is necessary to understand the class of children dealt with. The pupils in the Charlottenburg school may be divided into the following groups : 1. Anemic children, i. e., children suffering from anemia and its consequences, rapid heart, headache, nervousness, nasal hemor- rhages, etc. 2. Scrofulous children, i. e., children suffering from enlarged glands and other symptoms of scrofula, for instance, eczema, in- flammation of the eyelids, etc. 3. Children with organic heart disease. . 4. Children with positive pulmonary difficulties. Between August 1 and October 29, 1901, 122 children attended the forest school: 15 of these had to be discharged for one reason or another after a short time. Only 107 children stayed three months, or nearly three months, in the forest school. Their physical gains are recorded in the following way. Pysical results of three months'' stay at the school. 1. Anemic children. Numlier. Deteriorated . Unchanged.. Improved Cured 2. Scrofulous children . Deteriorated . Unchanged.. Improved Cured 3. Children with organic heart diseases. Deteriorated . Unchanged.. Improv ed Cured 4. Children with positive pulmonary troubles. Deteriorated . ITnchanged.. Improved Cured Per cent. 2.9 26.4 32.4 3S.3 21.0 57.9 21.1 50.0 50.0 4.S 3S.1 3S.1 10.0 Of course it is not to be expected that either organic heart disease or lung troubles can be completely cured in so short a time. The children with heart troubles are recorded as improved if certain OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GEEMANY. 117 symptoms, siicli as rapidity luul difficulty in breathing, have de- creased or disappeared. The same is true regarding the children with lung troubles. An improvement in nutrition has always been considered a most important factor. The gains in weight are very striking; 118 children who were weighed on admission and discharge showed a total gain of 082.00 pounds, or an average gain per child of 5.78 pounds. Sixty-seven children who had been in the forest school fully three months were present on the first and last weighing day (Aug. 2 and Oct. 29). They showed a total gain of 414.35 pounds, or an average gain per child of 0.03 pounds. Eleven of these children showed a gain of from 10 to 10 pounds. These results were attained by the plain and simple means of medical and nursing care, out-of-door life in all kinds of weather, exposure to the sun, baths, nourishing food, and a considerable shortening of recitation periods. The pupils looked like different children after the first week's sta}^ at the forest school. Instead of being pale and listless with big, sad eyes, they had grown into youngsters with a tanned complexion, glowing cheeks, their eyes bright and eager. The usual question of visitors in these first weeks, " Is not the forest school a school for sickh'- children ? " seemed en- tirely justified by the appearance of the children. The improvement of the children's physical condition was sub- jected to a severe test during the rainy, damp days of the rather cold October of 1904. Although they stayed out of doors nearly all of the time, not one of them caught cold. Educational results. — Data are lacking on which to base definite comparisons of school progress with the previous record of these children, but certain observations of progress and improvement while the children were in the open-air school, and also of their standing in the regular classes when they were returned to the city schools, have been made. The difficulties to be overcome by teachers and pupils, due to previous irregular attendance of the children on account of ill health and to the fact that the}'^ were gathered from different schools and different conditions, have already been discussed. Increased eager- ness and alertness on the part of the children became apparent within a short time after admission to the school. Lack of interest was complained of on the part of only 3 out of the 120 pupils. Most of the children were proficient in their studies; nearly all of them lived up to their abilities. Lack of advancement was observed in only 5 out of 120 pupils, but in some of these cases a special reason, attributable to the child's physical condition or his home environ- ment, explained the difficulty. In 13 cases the advancement of the children in all or many of the subjects studied was considerably 118 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. improved. One child that the teachers were about to transfer to a subnormal center made such marked progress that even after having been returned to the regular school he made normal advancement. The Charlottenburg Board of Education, however, desired to get information on the educational results in addition to the reports of the forest-school teachers. Some weeks after the children's return to the regular public schools the board asked the superintendents of three of these schools to report on the scholarship of the returned forest-school children. The statements were strongly in favor of the forest school. The greater eagerness and alertness of the children were particularly emphasized. Moreover, in the beginning of Jan- FiG. 62. — Exterior of open-air school building, Elberfeld, Germany. uary, 1905, official reports on the scholarship of the forest-school children were required. According to these reports, the scholarship in 108 cases had remained the same or had improved. In only 12 cases had it deteriorated. In estimating the value of these results, it must be remembered that, owing to the limited capacity of the forest school, only the most needy, delicate, and sickly children could be admitted — children sub- jected to bad home conditions and some of them even to temporary illnesses. Moreover, a considerable time had elapsed between the time the children left the forest school and the time this scholarship test was made, and adverse conditions had again had their influence OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IX GERMANY, 119 on them. Their physical condition, therefore, was not the same as it had been on discharge from the forest school. The results of this first j'ear, therefore, show that the pedagog- ical purpose of the forest school — not to retard the child mentally — is attainable and had been accomplished with most of the children. The intimacy in which the children lived with their teachers and with each other proved to be good training and helped to improve deportment. Mutual helpfulness developed, and the feeling of friend- ship and comradeship was strengthened. The discipline and direc- tions necessitated bv their dailv life in the forest school made the Fig. ua. -The delightliul setting of the Elberfeld Open-air School is illustrated by this view of the children at rest. children very helpful and created an esprit de corps which aided much in their management. Public opinion. — Public opinion, influenced by the understanding attitude of the daily press and the pedagogical and medical periodi- cals, was from the beginning strongly in favor of the forest school. At first the parents of the children, however, met the new institution with a hearty distrust and could not easily be persuaded to have their children transferred to the forest school. But this distrust changed rapidly into the keenest interest. They came to visit the school from which their children returned full of life and spirits and refreshed after the days that had been sultry and oppressive in the city. 120 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Visitors became so nuincrous that they had to be limited to certain hours of the day. Sunday afternoons are now set apart for visiting- parents Avho, from distrustful opponents, have grown into the most ardent supporters of the forest school and are often very effective cooperators in the work. Besides the parents, the forest school had many other visitors. Representatives of municipal and State govern- ments, organizations and individuals who were interested in social betterment, came not only from all parts of Germany and other European countries, but even from beyond the ocean. The forest- school children were greatly rejoiced Avhen, on June 10, 1907, the German Empress spent a few hours wdth them. The volunteer work that was heartily undertaken by some of the Charlottenburg public-school teachers has already been mentioned. Valuable help has been given by the street car company. Not only did they put special cars at the disposal of the school at certain hours, but issued tickets at a considerably reduced rate (75 cents a month) and carried 10 of the poorest children free of charge. The municipal government purchased tickets for 30 other children whose parents were too poor to pay. Budget. — The forest school is entirely supported bj^ the Charlotten- burg municipal government. The expense for the establishment of the school in 1901 amounted to $5,259.37. Since then it has been necessary to complete and enlarge the plant and to renovate parts of it. The considerable amounts required have alwaj^s been voted by the Charlottenburg municipal government. The teachers in charge of the forest school get their board free of charge, and as thej^ are required to give the Avliole clay and Sundaj'^s to the school a monthly addition is also made to their salary. The food has cost from 12 to 13 cents per day per child. Parents who are financially able are expected to pay, and a special record form is used in securing data on this point. At first difficulties were met with, but the more the parents grew conscious of the benefits their children derived from the forest school, the readier they were to contribute their share. In 1901, $250 was collected from parents. Forest schools have been established since 1904 in the following cities : OPEiS^-AIR SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 121 Cities- in irhich forest scliools have b<;cii estahliahed since I'.tO'i} Name of city . Name of school. Date of open- ing. Supported by- Length of term. Attend- ance. Period for which children are ad- mitted. I. PRUSSIA. Aachen (Rheinprov - inz). Cassel Elberfeld (Rheinprov- - inz). r i e s h e i m- Main. Hu.snmfSchles- w i g-H o 1 - stein). Mtienchen- Gladbach. (Uheinpro V- inx). Saarlirnecken (Rheinprov - inz). Z i egenhal s (Schlesien). II. UAVARI.V. Nuremberg in. SAXONY. Chemnitz (Sachsen). IV. IIAMnilRO. Waldschule Aachen. Kinderer- holungs- s t aett e Cassel. Waldschule " D II r g- holz." Waldschule Griesheim .lulv 17,1907.. Under con- strue t i o n summer of 1914. Stadtgemeinde Aachen. Walderholungs- staetten, E. V. Cassel. Rekonvaleszen - ten-Verein Kl- berfeld and Elberfelder Ver- ein fuer ( lemein- wohl, R. V. Gemeinde Gries- heim. April to October. All sum- mer. April to Novem- ber. 120 during summer. 170... As long as physician thinks nec- essary. Waldschule Muenchen- Gladbach. Waldschule Saarlirue- cken. AValdschule Ziegenhals. Kinderwal- d e r h o 1 - ungshei m Rueckers- dorf. Kinderwal - derhol- ungshei m Chemnitz. ILxmburg ' Waldschule ! Bergedorf. V. LUEBECK. Luebeck . VI. ALSACE- LORRAINE. Muehlhausen (Elsass). Waldschule Luelieck - Wesloe. Waldschule Mu e h 1 - hausen. May 2S, 1906. July 1,1914. July 7, 1910.. Under con- struct i on summer of 1914. May 7, 1906... Stadtgemeinde Muenchen-Glad- bach. Stadtg e m e i n d e Saarbruecken. Graeflich von Bal- lestrem 'sche Gueter-Direk- tion, R u d a (Oberschlesien). Verein zur Be- kaempfung der Tuberknl o s e , V,. V. Nurem- 1 )erg. Verein zur Be- kaempfung der Schvvindsuch t in Chemnitz und Umgebung, E. V. -Ml sum- mer. .do. .do. All the year around. .\11 the year around. 3r>0 to 400 duri n g summer. 240 to 2S0 duri n g summer. About 200 3 to 4 weeks. As long as physician thinks nec- essary. As long as physician thinks nec- essary. Stadtge m e i n d e Muehlhausen. April to October. April to October. As long as physician thinks nec- essary. As long as physician thinks nec- essary. I This list is doubtless not complete, since the beginning of the war made it impossible to secure fnrthT information. 122 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Extension of open-air schools in Germany. — The experiences and successes of the Charlottenburg Forest School were strong incentives to other cities to make similar provisions. In 1906, the secretary of the Royal Prussian Department of Educa- tion issued the following statement : In the Zentralblatt fiir die gesamte Unterrichtsverwaltung in Preussen, September to October, 1905, a detailed account of tbe Charlottenburg Forest School is given. In regard to the dangers that exist in large cities and in almost all indus- trial places for the normal physical development of children and adolescents, all institutions are to be sincerely welcomed that will help to secure a higher degree of health and strength to the young people. The more satisfactory these measures are, the more they deserve the most careful attention and the most vigorous support. Among them the forest school, because of the peculiar connection of physical and educational purposes, commands keen interest. I therefore call the atten- tion of those branches of the Royal Government concerned to the article above mentioned, and in compliance with a special order of His Majesty the Emperor and King, I request its widest consideration. Further, I desire to lend whatever help is possible to all cities and country places that plan the establishment of similar institutions, and desire to be informed when any such institutions should be founded in your district. This served to give the greatest possible publicity to the Charlot- tenburg experiment, at least in Prussia. Many schools, particularly those at Muehlhausen, Muenchen- Gladbach, and Elberfeld, have closely followed the Charlottenburg plan. Fundamental dissimilarities that ajDpear are largely attribu- table to the fact that scarcely any of these schools — with the excep- tion, perhaps, of Muehlhausen, Muenchen-Gladbach, and Aachen — are as purely municipal institutions as the cr.e at Charlottenburg. Their establishment was due either to the initiative of some social-welfare organization, for instance, in Elberfeld, to the Eekonvaleszenten- Verein and the Verein fiir Gemeinwohl, or to the fact that a certain amount of money has been donated or bequeathed to the municipality and dedicated to this definite purpose. Responsibility in such cases is shared by the board of trustees of such foundations. The closest cooperation, however, of the municipal government is always re- quired because of its right to supervise the public schools. Under certain circumstances a forest school may be an entirely private institution. It may, for instance, be established by the man- agement of some big industrial enterprise in connection with other welfare features for the benefit of its laborers. One of these schools is the forest school in Ziegenhals, Upper Silesia, Avhich was estab- lished, owned, and managed by the Graeflich von Ballestrem'schen Gueter-Direktion, Ruda, Upper Silesia. As a rule the period for which the children are admitted is very short in these schools (in Ziegenhals three to four weeks). These schools, therefore, may OPEN-AIK SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 123 hardly be considered as a part of the public-school system, but pro- A'ide a recovery place for the children where the danger of retarda- tion is eliminated. Nearly all of the forest schools have one great advantage over Charlottenburg in that they are locally connected with one or more special welfare institutions. The institutions that are above all others fitted to have a forest school attached to them are the so-called recovery places in the woods. The plan to establish these recovery places was formed in 1899 by Dr. Wolf Becher and Dr. Kudolf Lennhoff after an investi- gation into the housins; conditions of tuberculous laborers in Berlin. Fig. 64. — Type of reclining chair used for the rest period in the open-air school at Nuremberg, Germany. In some stages of tuberculosis the most important advice of the physician to his patient is to spend as much time as possible, not only out of doors, but in pure and invigorating air. No one knows how long such advice has been given and received without anybody being specially concerned as to the patients' possibility or oppor- tunity of obeying instructions. It is the purpose of the " Kecovery Places in the Woods " to fur- nish the laborers in the large cities with this opportunity, despite the long distances and other apparently overwhelming difficulties. The recovery places had to be equipped for a whole day's sojourn; they, therefore, had to afford a shelter when it rained, a resting place 124 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Avhen the patients M-ere tired, and an opportunity to get nourishing food when they were hungry. In 1900 the first recovery place in the Jungfernheide, near Berlin, was established for men. Soon after one was started for women. A natural development led to the estab- lishment of recovery places especially for children as early as 1902. The first children were introduced into the recovery places by coming along with their fathers. After the establishment of recovery places for women, many more children were brought, be- cause their mothers could not come and leave their children at home alone and uncared for. Good results were shown in the children, but tlieir presence was a drawback to their mothers. The next step was, Ficj. 65. — Dormitory tor residential pupils, opeu-air school at Nuremberg, tiermauy. therefore, to create the same kind of provision for the care of chil- dren, apart from the quarters of the men and women. Now there are about 90 recovery places in the woods in Germany.. They are sometimes managed by the municipalit}^ but more often by some local organization for combating tuberculosis. The site of these recovery places is always exactly what the site of a forest school ought to be. When, therefore, the plan of estab- lishing a forest school was conceived in a community where recovery places in the woods existed, it seemed the only natural and economical thing to connect them. Undoubtedly the problem of equipment is much easier if, for instance, the housekeeping plant can be utilized OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 125 to its full capacity ; the bathing facilities can be much more complete, and drainage and plumbing much more in accordance with the re- quirements of modern hygiene, if adequate machinery can be afforded. Early in the experience of these recovery places it became evident that both night and day care was needed by certain of the patients. Accordingly, some of the recovery places installed conveniences for overnight care along much the same lines as that followed in night camps in America. The original recovery places were primitive and suitable for use in summer only. In time some of them extended their work over the whole year, and this, of course, required the in- FiG. GO. — luterior of opeii-air school class room, Elberfeld, (icriiiauy. stallation of light and heat and general provision for the luirdships of winter weather. Nearly all the recovery places are now under medical supervision. A phj'^sician is duh'' appointed, who has his office on the grounds. His duties are to examine and advise the patients. In the early days of the chidren's recovery places it was difficult to get the consent of the parents to leave the children in the recovery places as long as the doctors thought necessary. The fathers and mothers feared retardation at school. To meet this objection the recovery places introduced the idea of educational work. In this they had the ex- ample alread}^ set in the forest schools. This feature spread rapidly through most of the recovery places in Germany. 126 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. The fact that these recovery places were established with the sole purpose of improving the children's health keeps the emphasis en- tirely on the physical side. In most places the educational work does not pretend to take the place of school. Its main object is to keep the children from forgetting what they have already learned, and to keep alive and active the habit of study. For this purpose many children's recovery places, for example, that at Chemnitz, have introduced one hour's daily school time for all the children of school age who are not put on full rest by the physician. Some of the recovery places have kindergartners as teachers. Some, however, have developed the educational side to a degree that is very nearly equal to that at the forest school. The Eueckersdorf children's recovery place, owned and managed by the Nuremberg organization for fighting tuberculosis, is typical. It was established in 1910. It has stood strongly for the principle that the length of stay ought to depend entirely on the child's physi- cal condition, and that a long stay securing a lasting benefit is of far greater value in the fight against tuberculosis than merely temporary improvement. In this case, therefore, the educational problem has had attention from the beginning. In 1911 the recovery place was open all summer and educational work closely akin to the Forest School plan was provided for the children. Each child is expected to get one hour and a half of schooling a day, besides one hour de- voted to physical culture and gymnastics. The children's recovery places — though usually not managed by the municipal governments — found as a rule their readiest public support when they planned to develop a forest school. The teachers and the equipment of the schoolroom are mainly furnished by the municipal government, through its board of education. The regu- lar supervision of the educational work to which the whole public school system is subject is also vested in the school board. Some forest schools in Germany admit children under about the same conditions as described for Charlottenburg. Muehlhauseh makes the probability or even the certainty with which perma- nent benefit can be predicted for the child a determining point in his selection. Despite this fact the children first admitted to the Muehlhausen Forest School seem to have been in worse condition than the Charlottenburg forest school children. Muehlhausen had, in consequence, more serious initial troubles with the adaptation of children to the unaccustomed conditions than Charlottenburg. Per- haps another circumstance may have proved disadvantageous in this regard. The Muehlhausen Forest School is situated on a hill, and the children, after a ride on the surface lines, have a steep hill to climb to reach the school. Fortunately the municipality could keep over night the children that suffered most from the exertion. A OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 127 Home for Convalescent Children occupied the second floor of the old manor, the first floor, basement, and grounds of which furnish quar- ters for the forest school. The children's recovery places are alwaj^s in closest touch with all the other organizations and institutions whose object is to combat tuberculosis, particularly with the so-called information and aid sta- tions for tuberculous people. These organizations are comparable to tuberculosis dispensaries common in the United States. These sta- tions select the children for the recovery-places in the woods and therefore for the forest schools connected with them. Without disre- garding anemia and malnutrition, they consider first the exposure of the child to tuberculosis and his predisposition to possible infection. Cases of open tuberculosis are excluded in all these schools. Fig. 67. — An open-air recitation at Mimchen-Gladbach, Germany. Applications for admission always greatly exceed the capacity of the recovery places. These children are selected who are most ex- posed to the danger of tuberculosis infection and belong to the most needy families. The Rueckersdorf recovery place, for instance, for- mulates the conditions as follows : 1. Anemic, undernourished debilitated children. 2. Children exposed to tuberculous infection, or predisposed to tuberculosis. 3. Children with incipient or suspected tuberculosis. 4. Scrofulous children (suffering from tubercular glands). 5. Tuberculous children (closed cases). 6. Children with chronic bronchitis. The school life of the children is guided everywhere by the same principles. Some forest schools, especially those in the recovery 128 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. places, make a stronger point than Charlottenburg o,f having all the recitations out-of-doors. Only in case of absolute necessity do their children retire into a more or less improvised classroom. After each recitation some of the recover}^ places have an intermission of the same length, instead of the 5 or 10 minutes' recess as in Charlotten- burg. The medical treatment is much the same as at Charlottenburg. Everywhere emphasis is laid upon strictly hygienic measures. The feeding also closely follows the Charlottenburg plan. In Muenchen- Gladbach the dinner is more elaborate than in the other forest schools, but the children are supposed to get their breakfast at home. The Muehlhausen school started with five meals a day, but after some time decided to omit the 4 o'clock milk or cocoa and to make the Fig. 68. — Opeu-air shack used for rest hour at Miinfhcn-Cilaclbach. (Jerniany. supper a little more ample. The forest schools at Muehlhausen, El- berfeld, and Nuremberg decided from the beginning to provide ac- commodations for both day and night care for some of the most delicate children. In 1913 Nuremberg made tlie attempt to keep the Eueckersdorf re- covery place open during the winter. Definite data as to the results are not available, but the report for 191B, covering the first two months of the winter school, states that, judging by the short experi- ence, the experiment seemed very promising. The connection of the forest schools with the children's recovery places aiforded the first opportunity to German children of having a forest school all the year round and to be taken care of in the most effective way. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 129 The success of the forest schools is entirely satisfactory everywhere. All reports state that the percentage of forest-school children who are not able to keep up w ith their grade when returned to the regular school or who fail to make one grade in a year is no larger than that among the regular school children. The greater alertness of the chil- dren after their return from the forest school is frequently noted. The improvement in the ph3^sical condition shows particularly in gains in weight. Elberfeld, for example, reports for the year 1912, after the forest school had been open for 195 days, an average gain of 3.4 pounds for 170 children whose attendance was between 21 and 195 days. Sixty-six children are gi'ouped according to their attend- ance. Gain in iccifjfit of cJiildren at the Elberfeld forest school. Children attending. Period of attendance. Gain in weight. Average gain. 5 Days. 195 Pounds. 31 63 111 Pounds. 6. 18 15 More than 100 4 2 46. 21 to 100 2.41 The reports of Muehlhauseii show the average gains of the forest- school children for all the years since the school was opened : Gain in weight at the Muehlhauscn forest school, hy years. Year. Children attending. 190S 100 1907 200 1908 ; 200 1909 1 200 1910 200 1911 ; 200 1912 ! 200 1913 j 200 Period of attendance. Average gain. May 7 to Oct. 31 . May 6 to Oct. 2(1. May 4 to Oct. 24. May 3 to Oct. 23. May 3 to Oct. 22. May 2 to Oct. 21. Mavl to Oct. 19. May 5 to Oct. 25. Pounds. 4.6 4.44 4.26 4.72 3.98 4.73 5.45 4.13 Gain at Muehlhnnsen, 1912 report. Number of children. 9 44 57 43 14 12 Gain in weight. Pounds. 0to2. 2 to 4. 4 to 6. 6 to 8. 8 to 10. 10 to 12. 12 to 14. 15. 4 1 Judging from conditions governing admission, the physical status of children in the Rueckersdorf recovery place corresponds more nearly to that of the Chicago open-air school children than to that 97855°— Bull. 23—17—9 130 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. of any other German school. The Rueckersdorf results may there- fore be of special interest to those who wish to compare them with results obtained in American open-air schools. Gains in iceight in Rueckersdorf open-air school. Years. Children attending. Average attendance. Average gain in weight. 1910 65 108 74.9 74. 08 60 69.84 Pounds. 5.50 1911 5.88 1912 131 158 6.57 1913.. . 6.91 The following tables showing improvement in general physical condition are taken from the annual reports of the Nuremberg- Rueckersdorf recovery place for children : Physical condition at Nuremberg-Rueckersdorf recovery place. Principal diagnostic findings. Number of children. Improvement. Doubtful Excellent. Marljcd. Good. Moderate. cases. 1910. 29 24 8 1 3 5 5 2 6 6 3 1 2 22 11 15 11 3 2 2 1 Incipient tuberculosis 1 Chronic bronchitis 1 14 7 1 17 16 3 4 3 1911. 65 57 37 3 2 6 Scrofulosis (thyroid glands) Tuberculosis 2 6 28 7 2 1 1 2 1 2 34 6 1 1 23 7 1 1 8 2 1912. 108 97 23 4 2 2 6 4 Incipient tuberculosis 1 Tuberculosis .... ... 1 1 other defects... 2 1 134 Most of the schools record weight, height, chest expansion, and the Tallquist test. The results as indicated by these different points are equally satisfactory. All the forest schools try to keep track of their pupils after they leave. The children discharged from the forest schools connected with the children's recovery-places remain under the supervision of the information and aid stations for tuberculous people, and there- fore are under medical supervision indefinitely. As a rule children from the forest schools are reexamined within three months after OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. 131 discharge from school. These reexaminations show that in most cases the improvement has lasted. Other differences in the management of individual forest schools may be traced to different underlying ideas. Those who lay the greatest stress upon the permanence of the good that is done will, like Charlottenburg, tend more and more to secure for the children a long and uninterrupted stay at the forest school ; while those who believe its benefits should be widely spread will tend to observe a shorter period and reach a larger number of children. Muenchen- Gladbach as a rule shifts her pupils every two months; Aachen every six weeks. Muenchen-Clladbach has a regular attendance of 90 to 100 children. By her system, which, however, is elastic, it is possible to make the forest school accessible to 350 or -iOO children in the summer. There is also a divergence of attitude on the question of tuition. As a rule forest schools are free of charge. But the different munici- ])alities may take a different attitude as to the extra care the children receive. Some forest schools, for instance, Nuremberg, advocate giv- ing the advantages of the forest school free of any extra charge. Others, like Charlottenburg, try to get at least the expenses for food defrayed by parents who can afford it. Other forest schools — for example, Muenchen-Gladbach — try to be as nearly self-supporting as possible. Parents with a yearly income of $500 are expected to pay per day 20 cents per child; those with an income of from $500 to $750, 25 cents; with incomes of $750 to $1,000, 30 cents per child; where the income is more than $1,000, 35 cents per child. These rates, however, may be reduced for special reasons. Other children are paid for by welfare societies and the municipal government makes a grant of $1,250 a year for the schools. The following will give an indication of the cost of forest schools in Germany: Muehlhausen, $3,012.05; Muenchen-Gladbach, $5,000; Elberfeld (buildings, etc., $4,545.29, other $790.45), $5,335.74. The Muehlhausen report for the school year 1913-14 gives the fol- lowing interesting tables on the running expenses of the forest school since its foundation. Expenses of the Muehlausen forest school, 1906-1918. Years. Number of children. School days. Total running expenses. Expense for food. Total expenses per child a day. Expense for food per child a day. 190G 100 200 200 200 200 200. 200 200 150 147 147 147 146 146 145 147 $3,877 5,690 6,027 5,562 5,915 5,803 6,363 6,612 $2,695 4,121 3,892 3,832 3,858 3,723 3,925 4,000 CenU. 26 19 21 19 21 20 22 23 CmU. 18 1907 1908 14 1909 13 1910 1911 13 14 1912 1913 132 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. The expense for food per child a day is about the same every- where. Liiebeck reports 15 cents; Elberfeld, 17 to 18 cents. Forest schools are not inexpensive institutions. They not only require addi- tional facilities of plant and equipment, but also an added amoimt of personal attention by people who are competent as teachers, physi- cians, and nurses. The schools should be regarded as an investment, the interest of which comes back to the community with the increased health and efficiency of its citizens. By this standard Germany has put her stamp of approval on the forest school. In her painstaking work with the children Germany learned that compulsory school attendance meant danger to the health of a considerable percentage of her school children. Sh^ set about to devise a plan that would not only avert this danger, but which would, on the other hand, build up resistance and overcome those weaknesses by the application of the best therapeutic measures known to her scientific men. The plan she devised robs the child of neither health nor education, one at the expense of the other, but for her pupils, whose needs have here- tofore not been discovered, understood, nor reached, she evolved a plan which gives them both education and health. Chapter VIII. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. ENGLAND. The publication of the first detailed report of the Charlottenburo; Forest School early in 1906 immediatel}^ aroused the attention of European educators. Among those who spent some time at Charlot- tenburg was Dr. Frederick Rose, a medical expert employed by the London County Council. He returned from his first visit an enthu- siastic convert to the cause of open-air education, and later made a second visit only to find his first impression verified and strengthened. As a result of his report to the London County Council, that body, in 1907, opened an experimental open-air school in Bostall AYood, near London. One hundred anemic and physically debili- tated children received care during the summer months, following practically the same daily program as the children at the Charlot- tenburg school, except that only three meals a day were given instead of five. The success of the experiment led in 1908 to the extension of this work in three open-air schools, located at Birley House, Montpelier House, and Shrewsbury House, three private estates near London. The schools were in session frofti June 1 to October 31. School hours were from 9 a. m. to 7 p. m. each week day, except on Saturday, when school closed at 1 p. m. The children could remain Saturday after- noon if they wished for games, under the supervision of a teacher. One afternoon a week was set aside for visitors, and no one was admitted on other days except by special permission. About 80 children were on the roll of each school, and the average attendance for each was approximately 72. Each school w-as fortunate in having for the exclusive use of the children large and well-wooded grounds, from 1 to 6 acres in extent. Kitchens, dining rooms, bathrooms, and offices were provided in the old mansion on each estate, but Doecker portable buildings, com- pletely open on one side, were purchased for classrooms, and here or imder the trees the children spent most of their time. A two-hour rest pei-iod followed the noon meal. Each child had a steamer chair and an army blanket assigned to him at the school. Clogs and blanket coats were the only other articles of clothing regularly supplied. The specimen time-table and dietary appended are typical of the arrangements still followed by most of the English day open-air schools. 133 134 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. 5Q d 1 ■>. i '". \ T3 '^ u< o 6 d d d 1 O 1 g OOCCG 1 p o « 05 o o o o p fi ft fi Ur lO .9 Ph o -d o . 1 M c •o S 1 3 i i ca § ?5 o o o o o ^ ■d •a -a ■a •o ( p- ^ " o c 1 :§■;!: c4 U3 O ^ TO S5 »-* ; c : 1 fl iO d o o o o i o o :.g : ..o «l 13 ■d T) -a d S .siiii Ph pi o 1 i "§ to ^ M .'B d > ■> ::>»;; o t ui 1 £ 5 3 IfesSfe ^ ■^ o .3 CO rl O S-S g 1 C 3 ;! 3 .^ oj C3— 03 P5 -Ife P5 « f.g •So •S'^'S^.g .a«^5.g T- rt © Oj — ^.^ O fc, ^ '-^ in d j 1 ; ; ; ; ; ; 3 O O O O O 2 -c-dTS-cd ^ : ; ; ; : o 1 (3 >- s ® ®2 — a ® P ;!; "S-P i: « c3 ? c ^ : o : 6 : f 1 ;l ;l i 3 ;x '.j: • ^■« ,-H c•.!:• • >> 1 1 Hill 1 1 , 1 1 I i >. 3 C n « a E ' e S 3 H V 13' 3 ^ 3 3 3 Q 1 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND. Specimen dietar]i table. 135 Breakfast.. Dinner Tea. Porridge and milk, sugar. Staff ' — Same, plus tea, bread and butter, bacon. Roast beef, peas, potatoes, sago pudding. Staff— Same, plus soup. Milk and water, bread and jam, bread and dripping. Staff— Tea, bread and butter, bread and jam, toast. THURSDAY. Breakfast.. . Porridge and milk, sugar. Staff — Same, plus tea, bread and butter, haddock. Dinner i Boiled beef, dumplings, dried vegetables, potatoes, boiled rice and sirup. Staff— Same, plus soup. Porridge and milk, sugar. Staff- Same, plus tea, bread and butter, eggs, bacon. WEDNESDAT. Porridge and milk, sugar. Staff- Same, plus tea, bread and butter, bacon. Boiled leg of mutton, haricots, Boiled cod, parseley sauce, potatoes, stewed prunes, potatoes, boiled currant custard. I pudding. Staff— Same, plus soup. Staff- Same, plus soup. Weak tea, bread and butter, ! Milk and water, currant and cake. Staff— Tea, bread and butter, cake, toast. Porridge and milk, sugar. Staff— Same, plus tea, bread and butter, oloaters. Tea. Chocolate, currant and white bread and butter. Staff— Tea, bread and butter, toast. Lentil soup, bread, boiled jam roly-poly. Staff— Same, plus steak .bread and butter, pudding. white bread and butter. Staff- Tea,bread and butter, toast. SATURDAY. Porridge and milk, sugar. Staff— Same, phis tea, bread and butter, eggs. Stew of mutton, barley, onions, potatoes, tapioca pudding. Staff- Same, plus soup. Milk and water, white bread and butter, cake. Staff"— Tea, bread and butter, cake, toast. No tea. - Instructors and officers. The course of study was correlated with the natural surroundings of each school. The general features of the curriculum at the Birley House and Shrewsbury House (Shooter's Hill) schools are described in the chapter on Educational Organization and Curricula (seep. 205). At the Birley House School, which is also conducted by the Lon- don County Council on a well -wooded estate near the city, the head- master has organized the curriculum on a colonization scheme. His methods are thus described in a recent bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education : ^ At the Birley House School Mr, Green, the headmaster, has organized the curriculum on a colonization scheme. Various minerals — coal, iron ore, copper ore, lead ore, and gold quartz — are buried in different parts of. the garden, and the children go out to prospect for these. The finders become captains of industry. To work the mines the captains of industry engage laborers at the labor exchange, which is managed by one of the pupils, or receive applications for work. Boring is then proceeded with, shafts are sunk, winding apparatus is constructed, and the mineral is brought to the surface. Here arises the need of coal, and a system of transportation in the form of a miniature railway is organized, furnaces are set up, factories are planned, the possible markets for the products are considered, and the importance of a merchant service is recognized. So much for the industrial side of the colonization plan. Side 1 Kandel, I. L. 57, pp. 107-108. Elementary Education in England. U. S. Bu. of Educ, 1913, Bui. No. 136 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. by side with this, the agricultural plans are developed. A portion of tlie garden is cleared and a miniature farm of six fields is prepared, and the dif- ferent modes of fencing are applied to these fields. The ground is plowed and crops are sown in rotation, including wheat, potatoes, turnips, barley, oats, clover, and cabbages. A thatched log hut is built and furnished to serve as a homestead for the farmers, and the necessary outhouses — ^barn, stable, wagon shed, pigsty, hen roost, and dog kennnel — are built around it. The nature-study scheme is correlated throughout with the work done on the farm and with the gardening operations. The general manual work is as varied as the activities which stimulate it. A rabbit warren, an aviary, insect cases, garden frames, cases for the weather instruments, etc., constitute the work in wood. Other media, involving puddling clay, making of concrete, and the mix- ing of cement, are employed in constructing a pond and making the garden and agricultural rollers on the basis of a drainpipe. Sufficient scope is afforded FxG. GO. — Thackley Open-air School, Bradford, England. in this scheme for the work in practical arithmetic in the measurement of lengths and distances, in estimating costs and quantities, in finding heights by means of simple measuring instruments, in making the graphical records of rainfall, barometer, thermometer, sunshine, etc., and in working out the other' calculations required in connection with the garden and manual work. Pro- vision is made in the time-table for the other subjects of the curriculum, i. e., geography, history, reading, composition, drawing, and singing. The per capita cost of these schools for the summer of 1908, includ- ing salaries of teacher, nurse, attendants, rent, repairs, taxes, equip- ment, books and teaching apparatus, fuel, light, and water, exclusive of food, was about $120, as compared with a per capita cost of $30 in the ordinary school. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND. 137 The education committee pays street-car fare when necessary. A fee of 50 cents a week is now charged each child who is able to pay, but the fee may be remitted entirely in cases of poverty. The physical results are judged largely by gains in weight and height, by increase in chest development, and by the hemoglobin test. A medical examination takes place every two weeks, and great care is taken to tabulate the results carefully. The reports of English schools are particularly valuable in this regard. Several of these statements on results are included in the chapter on Kesults (pp. 229-232). Fig. 70. — View of one of the porches, Thackley Open-air School, Bradford, England. The elementary education act of 1899, under the section on defec- tive and epileptic children, made special provision for the education of physically defective (crippled, tuberculous, anemic, etc.) and mentally defective children. The law states that the school medical officer must examine and select the children and that not more than 20 children be allowed to a teacher ; that the curriculum must include manual training and that the hours of instruction be short. Pro- vided these requirements are met and the school is properly certified by the education authorities, a grant of about $20 a child may be made from the taxes and will be paid by the board of education to the authorities of the school. There may also be a grant for medical 138 OPEK-AIR SCHOOLS. treatment and care under part 1 of the medical grant regulation of the board of education. This amounts ordinarily to about $40 a child. There are now 34 schools certified by the board of education for the reception of tuberculous and delicate children. The tuberculosis legislation of 1911 provided a grant of $7,500,000 for making grants in aid of sanitaria and other institutions of the United Kingdom for the treatment of tuberculosis — $500,000 of this sum was set aside for grants to sanitarium schools for children suffering from pulmonary or surgical tuberculosis. The tuber- culosis legislation also provided for the compulsory notification of all cases of pulmonary tuberculosis and the school medical officers A i/' i. m^^ Ili'^^BSaS:' Hmf'S^^S-, i ' * ^m 1 f k .;^;^^..sA|| ^ m 'J^.^,V«\ ^V\Ok\iLJ^^^^^^^^^^B /.# ^ - 1% -^ ^^J'^^^U - ^ r_ . f " '^..v.v - 4 - ^.' ■ .N.JiMM|L.. 1 / ^i Kyrov f" ' %IM ^1*} i'"" ^ _,^^ w^^^ ■ M ^- -■^•:,2»- -'^■.■^.,,,^^ ^. Fig. 71. — Opeu-air leoitatiou, Barnsley, England. have used these reports in tracing sources of infection and examining the children in houses from which tuberculosis has been reported. Thanks to this generous provision for support and to the excellent results attained by the early schools, the development of the open-air school movement in England has been rapid. In the English year- book of open-air schools and children's sanitaria for 1915 the folloAv- ing are listed : Day schools for children suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis. Barnsley (West Riding, Yorks) Queen's Road Council School for Tu- berculous Children. Kettering (Northamptonshire) Council School for Tuberculosis Children. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND. 139 Day ,schu()h for children suffering from pnhnoiiaiij tiibcrculoi^is. — Continued. Norwich (Norfolk) Clare House Couucil School for Tu- berculous children. Paddington (London) Kensal House Council School for Tu- berculous Children, Harrow lload. Reading (Berkshire) Whitley Council School for Tubercu- lous Children. York (East Riding, Yorks) Castlegate Council School for Tuber- culous Children. Fig. 72. — Bermerside, a residential open-air school supported by the city of Halifax. Rcsidoitial sanitarium schools for children suffering from pulmonary tuhcrculosis. Harpenden (Hertfordshire) National Children's Home Sanitarium School. Holt (Norfolk) Sanitarium School. Peppard Common (Oxfordshire) Kindercot Sanitariiam School. Nayland (Suffolk, West) East Anglian Sanitarium School. Residential sanitarium, schools for children suffering from surgical tuberculosis. Alton (Hampshire) Lord Mayor Treloar Cripples' Hos- pital School. Birmingham (Warwickshire) Woodlands Sanitarium School. Eastcote (Middlesex) St. A'incent's R. C. Home for Physi- cally Defective Children. East Clandon (Surrey) Alexandra Hospital School. Heswall (Cheshire) Royal Liverpool Country Hospital School. 140 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Day open-air schools for delicate children. Birmingham (Warwielvsliire) UffL-ulme Opeu-Air Council Scliool. Bradford (West Riding, Yorkshire) Thackley Open-Air Council School. Bristol (Gloucestershire) Open-Air School. Darlington (Durham) Open-Air Council School. Halifax (AVest Riding, Yorkshire) Bermerside Day Open-Air Council School. Kettering (Northamptonshire) Open-Air Council School. l.ewislmm (London) Birley House Open-Air Council School, Forest Hill. IJncoln (liincolnshire. parts of Lindsey) --South Park Open-Air Council School. Norwich (Norfolk) Colman Road Open-Air Council School. Sheffield (West Riding, Yorkshire) Whiteley Wood Open-Air Council School. Woolwich (London) Shooter's Hill Open-Air Council School. Plumstead. Fig. 73. — Open-air school for normal fhildreu at Carnarvon, Wales. Residential schools of recovery for delicate children. Claeton-on-Sea (Essex) The Ogilvie School of Recovery. Halifax (West Riding, Y'^orksliire) Bermerside Residential Open-Air Council School. Manchester (Lancashire) Swinton House (Physically Defective) Council School. Roby, near Liverpool (Lancashire) Bowring House Council School. West Kirby (Cheshii-e) Convalescent Home for Physically De- fective Children. In addition to schools for sick or delicate children, many private open-air schools are being established for well children, and archi- OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND. 141 tects are experimenting "vvitli types of school-house construction which will make it possible to convert all schoolrooms into open-air classrooms. In general the open-air classroom conforms to one of three types: (rt) Increased open-window space. (h) Removal of one side wall — veranda form. (c) A loggia arrangement. These ends may be met either by special classrooms attached to ordinary schools or specially constructed elementary schools on open- air lines. Examples may be found at Denton Holme, Carlisle. Bur- ton Latimer, Bradford, Sheffield, and other places. The country school. — Liverpool, Manchester, London, and other large cities are building country schools to which debilitated town i'u;. 74. — All class rooms in the Caruarvou School oppii into this marching corridor. children may be sent for short periods during the summer months. There is practically no attempt at formal instruction, but the lessons which are provided are based on nature study, manual training, and domestic duties. (See p. 212 for description of curriculum at Tlob}'- House.) » Playground classes. — The report of the chief medical officer of the London Board of Education for 1913 records 88 playground classes in the city and classifies them as follows : (a) A playground class established us a center for delicate children from neighboring schools, the class being formed of suitable children from these schools and working in the open air all summer. Four classes. 142 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. (b) A class of delicate cliildreu of various educational standards selected from one school. One class. (c) A class of children in the same standard of one school only, the same class being taken out each day of the week. Fifty-three classes. (d) A playground class in which the pupils are drawn from a particular school only, but various classes are taken out in the open in rotation. Thirty classes. London started this system in 1909. It is now extended to Bir- mingham, Blackburn, Bournemouth, Halifax, Sheffield, and else- where. Some of the classes recite in playgrounds adjacent to public- school buildings, others in public parks and open spaces situated in easy walking distances of public-school buildings. Fig. 75. — The open-air pavilion used as a schooh'oom at Bermerside. The curriculum in most of these classes is planned to include extra physical exercises, manual work, and school gardening. SCOTLAND. Scotland has no special schools for tuberculous children, but many of her schools for physically defective children are conducted on modified open-air principles. Aberdeen, Dundee, Goran, and Pais- ley are among the smaller cities where this work is carried on. Glasgow has established 18 centers for the education of physically defective children, but they are for the most part located in ordi- nary school buildings, without much possibility of introducing open- OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS IN SCOTLAND. 143 air methods. The school board has recently built a large special school with open-air classrooms, which provides for physically and mentally defective children in entirely separate sections of the same building. Two other special schools of the same type are soon to be constructed. Children who need more day care are sent to the Biggart Memorial Home, Prestwick, Ayrshire. Edinburgh, after experimenting successfully with the open-air edu- cation of physically and mentally defective children at the Willow- brae school, has joined with the Children's Holiday Fund Association in conducting an open-air school at the Children's Village in the high hill country at Humbie, about 20 miles from Edinburgh. There Fig. 76. — A recitation under the fir trees at Murthley, Perthshire, Scotland. are five little cottages and a schoolhouse in the " village," which is used as a summer outing camp by the Holiday Fund Association. During the school year the board of education pays the holiday fund a certain sum per pupil for board and lodging and the parents of the children are charged according to their circiunstances. Twenty pupils are sent out at a time, and the average stay during 1913 was nine and a half weeks. The school medical officers select the children from the delicate and physically debilitated pupils of the public schools. They react quickly to the healthy conditions in which they are placed, and last year the average increase in weight was found to be a half pound per week for each pupil. A quickening of intelli- gence and increased interest in work and surroundings are frequently noted by the teachers and by the children's parents. The schoolhouse 144 OPEN-AIE SCHOOLS. is SO constructed that one entire side can be thrown open, and practi- cally all the classes are conducted thus in the open air. The study of tuberculosis among school children in Scotland is receiving particular attention from several medical inspectors, and the general opinion of medical men seems to be decidedly in favor of extending open-air schools in Scotland in much the same way as in England. IRELAND. To the Woman's National Health Association, under the leader- ship of the Countess of Aberdeen, belongs the credit for attempting to introduce open-air schools into Ireland. During the Ui Bresail Exhibition, which was held by the association in Dublin in 1911, an open-air school was conducted as an object lesson, and since that time teachers in a few cities have regularly taken classes out of doors for recitation in favorable weather. There is as yet no medical inspection of schools in Ireland and very little on which to build a well-organized open-air School system; so, although the commission- ers of national education are thoroughly in sympathy with the idea, no classes have as yet been organized. The National Health Associa- tion is laying the foundations for the work by establishing school playgrounds and summer outing camps and by aiding in prevento- rium and sanitorium construction. Chapter IX. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN OTHER FOREIGN COUNTRIES. ITALY. Open-air school work in Italy ^^ as begun by the Anti-Tuberculosis Association of Padua in December, 1902. The head of the associa- tion at that time was Senator Achille de Giovanni, who was also a professor at the University of Padua. Through his efforts a site was secured at Barbarano, a suburb of Padua. The first colony accommodated 10 children and a teacher. Later the city of Padua gave a subsidy to assist in tlie establishment of two more pavilions, which increased the number of children cared for to 30. No attempt was made to make the teaching conform to that of the public-school system, and the experiment was called an open-air colony rather than an open-air school. In 1905 a somewhat larger colony was opened on the outskirts of Padua, under the direction of Dr. Alesandro llandi, chief of the medical service of the city. The Red Cross Society furnished tents, and other benevolent associations secured the equipment and paid the current expenses. The children were chosen from the pupils of the primary schools by a special committee. They ranged in age from 5 to 12 years, and 54 were received during the two months in which the colony was open in the first year. During September they were kept out in the open air eight hours a day and were given two meals at school ; in October the school day was shortened to six hours, and only one meal was provided by the school authorities. These colonies have now developed into open-air playgrounds. In 1913 there was an average attendance of 200 children. The play- grounds are used for keeping children under observation until it can be determined whether they need additional care, and in build- ing up those whose physical condition needs only the day open-air life. Children who need further attention are sent by the medical committee to mountain colonies or colonies by the sea or are placed out in suitable country families until their physical condition im- proves, when they are once more accepted in the open-air playground and remain until the medical committee considers them ready for discharge. 07855°— Bull. 23—17 10 145 146 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. The Gymnastic Association of Padua has cooperated with the Anti- Tuberculosis Association in the management of these playgrounds. The president of the association has ruled that all the girls shall at- tend the lessons " without corsets, wearing broad-toed shoes, and with- out earrings." The classes were not at first intended for instruction, but merely for physical recuperation ; it was not until 1907 that the city of Padua appointed a public-school teacher to take charge of the work. In this year the school medical inspectors began to separate from the other children in the public schools those who were physi- cally less developed or whose health was in such condition as to re- quire particular attention. Many of them were found to be children of families who were known to the Anti-Tuberculosis Association. In 1908 four special classes, called the " classes for sickly children," were opened by the municipality. They were, from the beginning, allowed to have shorter hours of school, and the requirements of the program were somewhat reduced. "VVlien the weather permitted, they were sent to the open-air playgrounds for recitation. At other times rooms in the ordinary public-school building were used. In 1911-12, 702 children, nearly 30 per cent of the first and second grade children in the city, were registered in these classes. In 1913, 15 classes for sickly children were conducted by the board of educa- tion, and it was considered that the actual needs of the situation in Padua were thus met. In 1909 the city built a large and beautiful open-air structure for the use of the special classes. The style of building is that commonly seen in the European schools, a long shacklike structure, and as usual in Italy, open on all four sides, with canvas curtains which can be lowered if necessary. Most of the Italian schools are in session only from spring to fall, and the climate makes it possible to conduct them satisfactorily without more permanent buildings. The board of edu- cation is thoroughly in sympathy with the movement, and purposes to construct additional open-air school buildings until all who need such care are accommodated. The children remain in the open air from 8 o'clock in the morning until 6 at night, having one meal at 11 and another at 4. They spend the first hour of school day in rest, re- laxation, and breathing exercises. About 600 children were thus bene- fited in 1912. No statistical reports are available as to the results of the work, but the opinion of physicians and teachers is unanimous as to the remarkable improvement which the children show. Traveling open-air schools. — Milan, Rome, Genoa, and Florence are also carrying on similar work. Rome has attained some fame because of the traveling open-air schools, or schools where the pupils carry a folding camp chair and books over their shoulders and walk from place to place under the direction of their teacher, holding OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN ITALY. 147 informal recitations wherever their fancy leads them to stop. There are certain objections to this method : First, that it is not practical for small or sickly children, since it is too fatiguing to carry along all the articles needed, especially when the roads are in bad condi- tion; second, that they have insufficient protection in case of storm. It may further arouse complaint on the part of landowners if the children happen to trespass on private property. The Florence open-air school. — The school in Florence is located in a large apple orchard, and a lemon conservatory with large win- dows is used as a schoolroom. It was opened on April 13, 1912, and has continued Avithout interruption even during summer vacations. A class of about 30 children Avas chosen from the elementary schools by the physician of the board of health and the director of the clinic for children. Lessons were alternated with gymnastic exercises, games, short walks, and gardening. School hours were from 9 to 4 in winter and in summer from 9 to 6. Food was served three times a day. The physician in charge records a gain in Aveight superior in nearly every case to the normal increase in weight for the age of the child. Chest development also has been greater than normal. The expenses of the school are equally divided between the com- munity and the anti-tuberculosis society. The teacher receives extra pay as compensation for the longer hours on duty, and during the period when school lasts until 6 p. m. he is relieA^ed in the afternoon hours by a teacher paid by the municipality. The children receive Avarm milk and bread when they arrive at school, a Avarm lunch at noon, and a second lunch at 4. The breakfast and first lunch are furnished by the association and the second by the municipality. The school equipment is provided by the municipality, but the asso- ciation gives each child a woolen raincoat and a winter cap and a large straw hat for the summer. The purposes of the school have been to give assistance to sickly children or children predisposed to tuberculosis, and to make the institution an effective means of teaching prophylactics and the beginning of a rational reform in the hygiene of the elementary school. Prof. Alberto Graziani made an extensiAe report to the Fourth International Congress of Physical Education, in which he summed up admirably the attitude of educators in Italy on the open-air school moA'ement and the conclusions Avhich they had reached. He believes that the congestion of cities, the poverty of the Avorking classes, the lack of suitable amusements which Avould develop spirit and body alike, and the increasingly difficult struggle for existence compel a readjustment in the lives of many thousands of children if they are to be given a chance for healthy, normal development. " Growth of children in the open air," he calls the " last Avord in 148 • OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. modern educational methods," and points out that the open-air school originated in the necessity of bringing up children in a healthy- environment and in the fact that this period of the development of children coincides with the period of their attendance at school. Weight, height, chest expansion, and condition of blood are the physical tests which he would have applied to the children in the open-air schools. Wherever the natural conditions of the place permit, he thinks it is best to choose a hilly location for the open-air school, with woods and abundant water. There must be good drainage, and, if the site is not naturally wooded, many trees should be set out, preferably fir trees or resinous bushes. The size of the grounds should be propor- tioned to the number of pupils, but space should Ibe left for the con- sstruction of sleeping sheds, general offices, garden, orchard, and pla}'^- ground. The schoolrooms should be formed by large pavilions, about 10 by 15 meters, with a cement floor, and open on each side and equipped with strong curtains or with folding doors. The roads and grounds ordinarily used by the pupils should be covered with a thick layer of sand or gravel, and the whole area should be fenced in. School hours should be long enough to keep the pupils the greater part of the day. Three and a half hours of intellectual work is enough. Teachers should be chosen from those who volunteer to do the work, and those whose own condition demands open-air life should be given first consideration. Meals should be given at regular hours, one immediately after arrival, the second at 12.30, and the third half an hour before dis- missal. If only two meals are served, the first should be given at 11.30 and the second at 5. The two meals should represent two- thirds of the total nourishment and should contain a great portion of albumen. Meals should be followed by rest in the open air for not less than an hour and a half. After not less than three hours from the first meal the children may take a bath. Physical exercises are advisable, if properly supervised. Jumping, running, respiratory exercises, and modified singing are especially good. The children should wear clothing that permits full liberty of movement and leaves their bodies as improtected as possible, so that air and light can act directly on their skin. Neck, arms, and legs must always be unprotected, and the pupils must wear short stockings and sandals. Prof. Graziani sums up his conclusions as follows : 1. We must have faith in the advantages that may be derived from the open- air school, for f)ur contentions are corroborated by suflicient experience. 2. Tlie aim of tlie open-air school is to make possible the ijnnvth of the sick child in the open air. 3. All tlic large cities where congestion is great should have open-uir schools. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 140 4. The open-air sch(X)I is tlie necessary supiilement to the special classes. 5. The open-air scliools sliould be completed by holiday playgrounds. G. The open-air school should be a vast, shady space in which pavilions or ])orches may be erected to be used as schoolrooms. 7. The open-air schools will be preferably located outside the city ov in its immediate vicinity. The children will walk to the school, or if the distance is excessive, means of transportation should be provided. It is not necessnrj-, although preferable, that they be erected on the hills or in woods. 8. The open-air school ought to be a nuuiicipal institution. 9. The open-air school shall function only during the day. 10. The children of the open-air schools will be chosen among those physically needy, or among those whose parents have not the opportunity to take care of them properly. 11. The hours of the open-air school will be regulated according to local conditions, and the time devoted to instruction will be shorter than in ordi- nary schools. 12. The program to be followed in the open-air schools will be very simple and will be of a practical and solid character. 13. The physical education in the open-air schools should consist of exercises in running and respiratory gymnastics. A shower bath should betaken as often as possible. 14. In the open-air school proper food should be abundantly supplied, and the clothing should correspond to the requirements of the school. 15. The teachers of the open-air school should be chosen among those who spontaneously apply for such work, and preference given to those who ofCer par- ticular qualifications. 16. The open-air school is to be preferred to the many other institutions whose object is prophylaxis through open-air life, because it is more economical, more practical, and the benefit may be extended to a larger number of individuals. In any case it may be considered as a useful supplement to the other institu- tions. 17. The open-air school should bo constantly supervised by school physicians. FRANCE. Preventive work among the children of tuberculous parents had already taken form in two definite directions before the da}^ of the open-air school in France. Grancher had put into operation his splendid plan of "" preserving the seed corn of the Nation " by send- ing delicate children from the homes of the tuberculous poor into selected families of healthy peasant stock where they could get nour- ishing food and outdoor life through the critical years of childhood. His own statement of the purpose and methods of the work as stated in a report published in 1915 deserves reproduction : When tuberculosis enters a small dwelling and attacks father or mother, the infection of the children is almost inevitable, and it has seemed to me that the best way to fight against tuberculosis was to snatch away its prey. In this tuberculous family, the work of preservation takes the children who are still in good health, from 3 to 10 years, and places them in the country in the families of peasants equally healthy, where our pupils spend all their school life until they are 13 ; even longer, for we are sure that many remain in the country and found peasant families. 150 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. The pupils are put in cliarge of good pliysicians of the neghborhood, who se- l(^ct the homes of the peasants and care for our children without charge. Men and women teachers vie in their interest in our pupils. Each child costs the oi'ganization, all expenses included, from 1 franc (20 cents) to 1 franc 20 centimes a day, according to where he is placed. This selection of the still unspoiled seed corn of the human race realizes the formula which Pasteur applied to silk growing. An ideally simple and scientific formula. It is for the child the best which can be opposed to the devastating scourge of tuberculosis ; for, from the medical side, it gives a complete and radical solution. It suppresses, in fact, all the (auses of tuberculosis; the remote causes, as the poverty and wretchedness of the large cities which prepare the soil, and the immediate cause, family infec- tion. From the social side, the child removed from promiscuousness of a dwelling infected with tuberculosis, and placed during a long period of his life in a good house, with plenty of fresh air and an abundance of food, becomes a new being, physically and morally. He reaches adolescence full of vigor, and may then choose between life in the country or return to the city. According to our experience of ihe last four years, the country will be most often the choice. Finally, saving these children, almost all condemned to become tuberculous, will destroy for the future so many centers of contagion and will little by little lessen the extent of tuberculosis. All these advantages have not escaped the notice of those who are familiar with the work, and powerful friendships among statesmen, philanthropists, and physicians have helped to put it in the front rank in the antituberculosis campaign. ^ Vacation colonies. — As a result of the second activity, the vacation colony idea, originated by Pastor Bion, of Zurich, in 1870, and pro- moted by many private philanthropic societies and by certain mu- nicipalities, 81,358 French children, in 1911, spent from three to six weeks at vacation colonies. The scheme of operation which the city of Havre has developed at the municipal colonies of Grosfys and Montgeon may be taken as typical of others. Created by the city council on May 30, 1906, the management of the colonies is vested in a commission of 22 persons, who serve two years. Twelve are chosen from members of the city council, and they may add to their number 10 other persons " known to be interested in vacation colonies." The head of the department of public instruction is ex officio chairman of the association. The commission exercises full control over the selection of children for the colonies, the method of placing the pupils, the organization and supervision of the colonies, and the raising of funds for their sup- port, if the city appropriation is not sufficient. Every year they must make a general report, which includes the financial statement to the city council. The colony of Grosfys utilizes a country iestate near Havre, with a great country house large enough to accommodate nearly 200 1 From Prevention dp TEnfance contrp la Tuberculose, Paris, 1912, pp. 1-2. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN FRANCE, 151 children at a time. The colony of Montgeon occupies specially con- structed barracks in the forest of Montgeon close to the city of Havre and owned by the city. The present plan is to use Montgeon for the less needy children and Grosfys for those who are more debilitated. A plan has just been undertaken, however, which provides for some 400 of the most needy and unfortunate children a stay in both colonies, which ex- tends their vacation over the whole summer. In addition, many children are sent to Montgeon for the day only, leaving Havre by street car or on foot at 7.30 in the morning and returning in the evening. They are given a good dinner of soup, meat, vegetables, and desert at noon, but receive breakfast and supper at home. The children at Grosfys observe the following daily program : A.M. 7.00 Rising hour; the children uncover the bed and open the windows and proceed to clean their shoes and make their toilets. 7.4.') Breakfast ; the children are required to remain at least 2."> minutes at the table. 9.00 A walk through the woods. 10.4.5 Return. 11.00 Make the beds. 11.30 Luncheon ; the children remain 40 minutes at the table ; rest in the court. P.M. 2.00 Luncheon in the open air. 4.20 Walk. 6.00 Return. 6.30 Dinner ; the children remain at the table 40 minutes. 7.45 Hour of retiring. Gymnastic exercises, different games, reading, and letter writing occupy the spare moments. No visits can be paid the children by their families except by special permission, and great pains are taken to prevent too frequent guests. The improvement in weight, height, and chest measurement, for both boys and girls, is marked. The cost of food per day amounts to about 10 cents per pupil, and the total expense, including management and supervision, amounts to a little over 20 cents per pupil. In the report made by the commission to the city council at the end of the season of 1913, the committee recommends that the "atten- tion of the municipal administration and the university authorities should be called to the advantages which would result from the estab- lishment of an open-air school at Montgeon. The vice president of the commission, Dr. Profichet, has submitted to the commission a plan for receiving in an experimental way 100 sick children, 50 boys and 50 girls, who might be profited by the fresh-air treatment during the school year, leaving at Easter time if necessary. The 152 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. same recommendation Avas made for the colony of Grosfys, with the alternative suggestion that it might be used as a rest-recovery place for adults if not available for an open-air school. Open-air schools. — The first open-air school in France was founded in 1904, at Montigny-sur-Loing, at the entrance of the forest of Fontainebleau, by M. Durot, a teacher who was moved by the deli- cate health of most of his little pupils to try to get them out of the poorly ventilated schoolrooms and their insanitary homes in the slums of Paris. He began the work without any help whatever, but it soon enlisted the support of physicians and educators, and in a short time he was able to erect a suitable building. Lyon was the first city in France to have a municipal open-air school. In 1907 the Castle of Vernay, on the banks of the Saone, was thrown open to the work of caring for sicklj'^ children from poverty- stricken homes. Pupils are received in groups of 45 for periods averaging about three months. They follow the usual program of forest schools, and register the usual gains in health and mentality. Nimes, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Dijon haA^e also excellent open- air schools. League for open-air education. — The League for Open- Air Edu- cation was founded at Paris in November, 1912, by M. G. Lemonier, assistant editor of a school journal called " Hygiene in and through the school" (L'Hygiene a et par I'Ecole). Among its early mem- bers were M. Marcoux, prominent in antituberculosis work, and Mme. Jeanne Girard, school inspector of infant classes in Paris. The objects of the league are : First, to promote school hygiene and physi- cal, intellectual, and moral education by conducting and popularizing open-air classes and school journeys. Second, to encourage, assist, and award prizes to all undertakings and experiences of this nature. Third, to promote, and if necessary, to found, playground classes, schools, and medicopedagogical establishments in the open air, whether through public agencies or private initiative. Fourth, to place members and pupils of the society free of charge in houses where the rules of hygiene are observed. The association is supported by a membership created according to the size of the yearly contribution and ranging from the class called "founders," Avho pay a minimum fee of 1,000 francs yearly, to an honorary membership who pay 5 francs. No charge whatever is made the children who enroll themselves as pupils. The annual income is to be spent in the folloAving Avay : First, prop- aganda for education in the open air, by conferences, placards, bul- letins, reviews, etc. Second, diplomas, prizes, and grants to persons and groups who shall have helped by their acts to develop theory into practice. Third, organization of school journeys, visits, walks, fam- ily excursions with studies and demonstrations in the open air, and OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND. 153 playground classes. Fourth, the establishment and installation of open-air classes of open-air schools by the location or purchase of ground sites, or estates or by construction. Fifth, the organization of school restaurants to distribute strengthening food to the pupils of the association. Sixth, the organization of vacation colonies or rest recovery places. The first undertaking of the league Avas to start school journeys in the Paris schools. The second was to undertake a study of open-air schools of various types, the results of which are to be published. Various other similar undertakings are being started. Many organizations of like purpose are affiliating themselves with the league, and the plan is to call an " Open- Air Congress " as soon as the branches number 100. SWITZERLAND. The type of open-air school for which Switzerland is best known is that developed by Dr. Rollier, of Leysin, and Dr. Bernhard, of St. Moritz, in connection with the sun cure of surgical tuberculosis. Complete elementary education is noAv provided for the little pa- tients, who sit with arms and legs exposed to the healing rays of the sun, reflected from fields of snow. Photographs of boys clad only in loin cloths, sandals, and shade hat skiing or tobogganing down the Alpine slopes have made the spectacular side of the treatment widely known. The details, however, are carefully and slowly worked out, and the most minute precautions are observed in begin- ning the work. Admission to the sanitarium is followed by a period of rest in bed, during which time the doors and windows of the room are gradually opened until the patient is accustomed to prolonged con- tact with the high mountain air. Then he is wheeled out on the balcony for gradually lengthened periods of time. Every day tem- perature, pulse, and respiration are carefully recorded; and tests of blood and urine are frequently made, so that the individual reactions can be noted. When it is certain that the patient is really acclimated, he is dressed in some white material, given snow spectacles and a white hat or a white umbrella, and is taken to the solarium, or " sun parlor," to begin the real treatment. Exposure to the direct rays of the sun is always begun with the feet, Avhich are uncovered only for five minutes at a time for three or four times the first day with an hour between each exposure. On the second day the leg is bared as high as the knee. It is usually a week or more before the head and neck are stripped of covering. As the treatment pro- ceeds, the skin turns a copper brown, Avhich gradually changes to a chocolate hue. This is called pigmentation, and is considered the best index of improvement. It is said to render the skin immune 154 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. from bacterial infection. This continued exposure to the sun is particularly efficacious with tuberculous abscesses and sinuses, for it kills the germs and does not injure the living cells. In time children enjoy from four to six hours' exposure daily, and can go on with school work while taking the cure, Switzerland has five open-air schools of the ordinary type, situ- ated at Lausanne, Geneva, Neuchatel, Bischofzell, and Zurich. Zu- rich is the most recently established and may be taken as typical^ of the rest. The town has taken a lease of 30 years on a wooded tract of about an acre and a half on the outskirts of the city. The main building includes on the first floor a large diningroom, with kitchen and office, and on the second floor a classroom for use in bad weather, and rooms for the housekeeper and teacher. A large veranda opens direct from the diningroom upon the playground. The school physician and public-school teachers together choose the children who are debilitated and seem to need change and extra food. Tuberculous children are cared for in the sanitarium schools. Each morning the children gather at the tram station in town and proceed to the school in groups under the guidance of a teacher. At 8 a. m. comes the breakfast of bread and milk; at 10 o'clock bread and fruit ; dinner at 12 ; and supper at 6. After breakfast one-half of the children attend classes, while the other half play games, and after the morning luncheon the process is reversed. The class periods are 25 minutes each, with 5 minutes intermission between recitations, and there are four such periods during the morning. After dinner come two hours of complete rest, followed by two hours of play or excursions through the woods. The local board of education pays the salary of the teacher and the cost of the school materials. Children who are able pay 1 mark a day and any deficit is made good by the Children's Benevolent Society. The school was started by the Anti-Tuberculosis League, and the cost of the building was raised by private subscription and contributions by various benevolent societies. The famous holiday colonies or vacation homes which are now common in all the European countries were begun in Switzerland by Pastor Bion, of Zurich, in 1876. In 1909 more than 8,000 Swiss children spent three or more weeks on such trips at a total cost of 44 francs per head. At first the whole expense was met by voluntary contributions, but of late the municipalities have realized the value of the work and are beginning to assume the cost. The plan is to send the children in groups of about 20 and in charge of a married teacher, sometimes to an inexpensive hotel in the country, but more often to houses built or rented for the express purpose. Some towns have provided holiday homes of their own. In addition to the colonies, some children from the lower grades are sent to peasants' homes in OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN DENMARK. 155 the country to help in the lighter forms of farm work, in watching the goats or tending the cattle. The Guild of the Wandervogel consists of about 1,000 boys and girls over 14, who go off in separate groups under the guidance of a teacher on long tramps at least once during the year. Each group carries along a big aluminum pot which will boil a gallon or more of soup, and they camp at night wherever the fancy strikes them, often sleeping on hay or straw in barns or in the open. They now own three mountain huts, which are the centers from which the excursions start. School gardens and day school journeys have also been developed by certain cities as a means for giving the children proper training in the open air. DENMARK. The open-air school movement in Denmark has developed from the summer vacation colonies, and is still conducted largely in con- nection with them. Denmark has for years been in the habit of arranging exchange vacations between children living in the city and those living in the country. Groups of city children are taken to country homes and given a few weeks' experience of country life, while at the same time the country children are enjo3dng the sights of the city. The vaca- tion colonies, however, are planned especially for sickly and mal- nourished children, who need definite physical care. The open-air vacation colony for delicate children, organized by the Children's Aid Association of Copenhagen, illustrates the kind of work which is carried on. This association realizes that the cause of sickness and physical subnormality in school children is often largely due to the economic situation and condition of their homes. In many cases the homes are not able to restore the children to strength after a long sickness. In other cases children suffer from chronic undernourishment. Experience has shown that it is possible to re- store such children to full strength by a stay in the country under good conditions for a couple of months during the summer, or at least to give them such a good start that the chances are favorable for a complete recovery. The municipality of Charlottenburg has given to the Children's Aid Association free use of a farm owned by the city, at Lille Belle- gaard. The farm buildings have been considerably remodeled, and free transportation is provided for the children on the street rail- way. The colony was started in 1905. and since that time it has had under its charge 973 children. At present it is open from May 15 to September 16. During the summer 136 children are cared for, in 156 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. two divisions, with periods of two months each. A medical certifi- cate is required from each applicant for admission, and these appli- cations are then passed on by the examining physicians of the board of directors. Preference is given the children who come from the poorest homes. The children meet at 8 o'clock in the morning and are sent home at 7 o'clock in the evening. They have four meals daily : Breakfast at 8, luncheon at 11, dinner at 3, and supper, including all the milk they can drink, before they are sent home. On birthdays the flag is raised, and the children have chocolate. The total number of days present in 1912 w^as 7,084, the total cost of the food was about $1,000, and the daily per capita expense for each child was about 13 cents. The management of the house, is in charge of a matron, assisted by the older children. The children are taught how to set the table properly, to wait on table, wash dishes, and perform other simple household tasks. Shoes are bought for all the children and blouses are provided for the boys and aprons for the girls, in order to save their own clothes as much as possible. They are also given toothbrushes, nailbrushes, soap, and towels. Except for the time necessary for meals the children spend the entire day in the open air. After dinner one hour's rest is given in reclining chairs. On rainy days the barn on the farm is used and the time is passed in play, dance, and song. It is easy to see from the changed appearance of the children, from their greater liveliness, perseverance, and excellent appetite that such a life has an excellent influence on them physically and mentally. They are w^eighed once a Aveek, and the reports show that they make good gains. Results of stay In. the colony, on iDciflltf. Total weight. Increase in weight. Number of children. Total. For each child. First division f52 days in the colony): 35 bovs Pounds. 1,984 1,982 Pounds. 68 98 Pounds. 2.0 35 girls ... 2.8 3, 900 166 2.4 Second division (54 days in the colony): 34 bovs 1,944 1,792 190 177 5.7 32 girls .5.5 66 children . 3,730 373 5.6 In order that the children may not, during their absence from school, fall too far behind their class, an open-air school is con- ducted at the colony, in which lessons are given in Danish, arithme- OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN SWEDEN. 157 tic, nature study, and singing. The children are divided into six classes. Each class has two half-hour lessons daily in Danish and arithmetic. There is abundant opportunity for nature study in field, garden, and farm. The children have small gardens in a corner of the com- mon garden. They are supplied with plants, but the arrangement is left entirely in their hands. Most of them raise flowers, radishes, cabbages, and peas. Prizes are awarded to the best gardeners. In another corner of the garden the children are permitted to dig and work to suit their own pleasure. They build caves, castles, and forti- fications. A sand pile, seesaw, and swing are highly popular. The day passes so rapidly with games and study that there is hardly time enough for all that needs to be clone. In the evening, after supper, the children stand in line in the 3'ard while the flag is carried to the front; then, with drums and fifes playing, they are led to the street car for the homeward journey. Each of the divisions has three day excursions — one trip on the steamboat to Elsinore, one visit to the zoological garden with lunch- eon, and one trip to the Deer Forest. NORWAY. The city of Bergen maintains an open-air school at Mjolfjell, to which 30 delicate children from the city are sent for a month's rec- reation and instruction. The community has appropriated 1,000 crowns ($268) for this experiment. SWEDEN. Sweden is said to lead the other nations of the Scandinavian group in respect to the provision of school gardens and vacation colonies. In many of the larger cities of Sweden it has been customary during the last few years to send school children who are in special need of building-up into vacation colonies during the summer. They were started in Stockholm in 1884; and 350 colonies, a total of 8,751 children, had been sent from that city between 1885 and 1900, ex- clusive of some colonies provided by certain industrial companies for children belonging to their workmen. Between 25 and 30 children were sent in each group. They remained about two months, and the total daily cost per child amounted to about 15 cents. In 1907 Stockholm seriously considered the question of establish- ing a forest school. The municipality appointed a commission to make a general investigation into the teaching of sick and delicate children, and the decision was that it would be better to extend the work of the vacation colonies, rather than to proceed Avith the forest school at that time. 158 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. HOLLAND. Various cities in Holland have interested themselves in summer colonies for needy children and in the school- journey movement. Recent information on but one open-air school has been secured. This is maintained by a private organization and is now located in the sand dunes near The Hague. The work was begun in 1905 on a very small scale in a private house and garden which had been given^ rent free, for six weeks. The funds supplied were meager, and the 42 children who were admitted were compelled to bring their own forks, spoons, etc. The society supplied food and instruction. ■'■*:. ■ ^0^(,r^^^^ ^-■-^-- j^ A ■■'■ ->«*-^i| mm A Fig. 77. — Open-air school near The Hague, HollaDd. In 1906 another house, with beautiful large gardens, was also giveUj rent free, to the society, and here the children stayed three or four months. As the work went on and increasing numbers of children applied for admission, the interest of the public grew until the city authorities became interested, and in 1913 gave the ground for the establishment of a new and larger school. The society bought several Doecker portable houses and prepared to accommodate 50 children. The pupils admitted are from 7 to 13 years of age. Children of tubercular parentage are given the preference. The medical officer of schools of The Hague conducts the physical examinations. Children with heart disease, chorea, or other nervous complaints are not admitted. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. 159 All the expenses are paid by private contributions. Each child is supposed to pay 6 cents a day. Any deficit must be met by the so- ciety. At the head of the establishment is a social worker who gives her services without pay and directs the teachers as well as the household staff. She is assisted by a nurse, a cook, a cleaning woman, and two teachers. The responsibility for the children's welfare, however, is made to rest as much as possible upon the parents. As soon as any difficulty arises as to the child's health, character, or scholarship, the parents are consulted. Parents' meetings are held frequently, and the medical officer discusses with them the necessity of fresh air, cleanliness, and plain but abundant food. The physician visits the school daily for a short time, and once a week conducts a thorough examination of one-sixth of the children, so that once in' six weeks every child gets a thorough physical examination. The amount of pliysical exercise which may be taken is designated by badges, which all children wear. A white badge is given the children who may run about and play and attend the lessons; a blue badge for those who may go to school, but are not allowed to run about or play vigorously ; a red badge for those who are on complete rest and may neither play nor take part in school work. Such games as foot- ball are allowed only to those with white badges, and skipping is for- bidden to all the children. Twice a week each child gets a shower bath or a tub bath, according to the doctor's instructions. Toothbrushes are provided, and the teeth are cleaned regularly each morning at the school. Twenty minutes of breathing gymnastics are prescribed for each child daily, except for those who are on complete rest. The children gather at 7.30 at the station in The Hague and are escorted to the school by the nurse. They arrive about 8 o'clock, and at 8.15 a breakfast is served, consisting of porridge, bread and but- ter, and milk. At 10,30 they are given a glass of milk and a piece of black bread, and at 12.15 a dinner of meat, potatoes, vegetables, and a dessert, sometimes a pudding and sometimes fruit. After din- ner they rest from 1 until 2.45, At 3 they are given milk and black bread again, and at 5.30 they have supper of bread and butter or bread and jam, with milk. They leave the school at 6 and reach the cit}'^ station at 6.30. The lessons are given as far as possible entirely in the open air. Each child has instruction for 2 hours in the morning and 45 minutes in the afternoon. The needle work and gardening are done by both boys and girls, and add greatly to their enjoyment of the school. Otherwise the curriculum corresponds to that in use in the legular schools in The Hague. After leaving the open-air school and returning to their own school in toAvn, the children are kept under careful supervision, and 160 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. at Christmas and Easter, following their stay at the open-air school, they are again examined by the medical officer, and if necessary enrolled for a second summer in the open air. Up to this time the school has been open only from the 1st of May to September. It is the plan of those interested to hold sessions the year round, as soon as finances will permit. The purposes of the school, as its promoters outline them, are : First, physical education. The restoration of health to weak children predis- posed to tuberculosis, by fresh air, rest, cleanliness, and good food. Second, intellectual education. By teaching during shorter hours and with smaller classes. Third, moral education. By cultivating the feeling of unselfishness, readiness, and responsibility, perseverence, and tolerance. Fourth, home education. By giving each child a small but responsible task in the household — as clearing away and washing up breakfast and dinner things, preparing vegetables for the table, waiting on table, etc. Fifth, love for nature. By giving the children small gardens, and by making them responsible for the care of the whole place, and by taking them on nature study walks in the woods, among the dunes, and along the seashore. HUNGARY. The first open-air school in Hungary was established at Szom- bathely, by the Anti-Tuberculosis Association of Vas County, in' 1908. This association was also the first to conduct a free dispensary for the treatment of the tuberculous poor, and the open-air school arose in part from its knowledge of the conditions in which children in the families under its treatment were growing up. The city of Szombathely placed at the disposal of the association a 10-acre tract of wooded land, on which the association built a small frame structure consisting only of kitchen, office, and a large open- sided room used for recitation and rest in bad weather. During the first summer the school session lasted only six weeks, but even in this time the gains in weight, in haemoglobin, and the improvement in appearance and mental vigor were so noticeable as to convince the city authorities of the value of the school. Accordingly, in 1909 the municipality constructed a larger build- ing with two dormitories, two verandas, kitchen, provision room, and living quarters for the matron. The building has a southeastern exposure and is located on the edge of the forest, where the growth is not too heavy to prevent free access of the sunlight to all the rooms. A good spring provides water for all purposes. There are accommodations for 50 children, 20 of whom remain all night. The head physician of the Anti-Tuberculosis Association and the chief dispensary physician select the children who are to be admit- ted. Only physically debilitated children are chosen, and those with OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN HUNGARY. 161 tuberculosis and anemia are given preference. They must come from needy families who are unable to get for them open-air treatment in any other way. No children suffering from advanced tuberculosis or having any contagious or organic diseases and no epileptics are admitted. The children meet at 6.30 in the morning at a school building in Szombathely and proceed to the forest school under the guidance of a teacher. The teacher is expected to look them over before start- ing, and if any one appears to be ill, to send him home. Even in case of bad weather the children are expected to meet at the city school noted above, as the teacher alone decides whether it is Avise to Flu. 7S. — Oyen-aii' school, Szombathely, Iluugary. attempt the trip to the forest school. If they do not go, they are taught in the school building in town. The daily program is similar to that in other forest schools. It includes a two-hour rest period and the daily cold-shower bath. Each pupil receives a blanket, underwear, a gymnastic suit, and shawl or collar made of a material called " loden," which are all numbered and may not be taken from the school. Even plates and drinking cups and other table utensils bear numbers and ai-e used by the same pupils each day. The matron has charge of the dormitories at night and is expected to instruct the resident pupils on days Avhen the teacher can not bring 97855°— Bull. 23—17 — -11 162 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS, the others out from town. Under her direction the older girls assist in setting the table, washing the dishes, and making the beds, taking turns in the assignments from week to week. The boys at the same time care for their own dormitories and work about the school grounds. During the months when the school is not in session the matron visits the parents of the children who have attended the school and prevails upon them to keep the children in attendance at the dispensary. She explains to them the value of home sanita- tion, including heating, lighting, and general hygiene. If small operations are necessary, she will secure the written consent of the parents for such an operation, and take the child to the hospital or dispensary to haA'e it done. She is expected to keep a record of this follow-up work and turn over the notes to the Anti-Tuberculosis Association. The teacher is supposed to be governed by the regulations issued by the city board of education. He appears at the meetings of the school board of the third district and reports on conditions at the forest school, thus keeping the supervisors informed of the progress of the work. He is instructed to pay special attention to individual instruction and to give plenty of manual work. He must see to it that the children do not overexert themselves mentally or physically, and try to direct their education in such a way as to render punish- ment unnecessary. He must make a w-ritten report regarding the progress made by the pupils to both the board of education and the Anti-Tuberculosis Association. Many educators and officials in Hungary have gone on record in favor of open-air schools. Dr. Sandor Gerlitz, in a lecture de- livered before the Hungarian association for child education at Budapest on January 11, 1913, said: It will not be surprising to note that the diseases caused by poor housing, especially tuberculosis, are lessening the population when we consider that 58,000 childi-en are living in overcrowded rooms in Budapest, in some cases with 6 others in the same room. More than 60,000 children have died of tuberculosis in Hungary within the last 10 years. The number of those who contracted the disease, no one is able to judge. The largest number of children naturally are the victims of immediate contagion on account of poor housing conditions and on account of contact with other consumptive relatives. * * * yov this reason and for the sake of affording protection against tuberculosis until such a time when we will be able to eliminate the healthy children from families affected by tuberculosis, education in the open air must have an enormous importance. * * * By following this method we will be able to save many children, who otherwise would become sure victims of the disease, for society and the nation, and will succeed in gradually wiping out this great peril. OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN CANADA. 163 CANADA. In Canada the antituberculosis movement has been largely re- sponsible for establishing the earliest open-air schools. They have sprung up in connection with hospitals, dispensaries, and sanitaria, and in only one instance has the board of education been directly responsible for the work. This exception is at Toronto, where a true forest school has been conducted by the board of education in Victoria Park since 1912. The park is close to the town and easily accessible by street car, and the Toronto Street Railway Co. gives free transportation to the open-air school pupils. Wooden shacks were erected which give pro- lection to equipment over night and in which the children can recite, "^^::.'*:^^"£. Fig. 79. — The Forest School in Victoria Park, Toronto. Canada. and rest in rainy weather. The children arrive at 8.30 and leave at 0.30. Upon arrival the}^ have a breakfast of cereal and bread and butter; at 10.30 a glass of milk, with bread and butter; at 12 a dinner of soup, meat and potatoes, a vegetable and a dessert ; and at 5.30 a light supper of milk, bread and butter, jam or cookies is served. At 1 o'clock all join in a two-hour rest period, for which the board of education provided wooden cots with woven wire springs, a single blanket, and a small pillow. These articles are all numbered, and each child is responsible for the care of its own. Teacher and nurse camp in the park over night, w^hile the man principal and 10 or 12 of the mcst needy boys camp in army tents. 164 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. The nurse teaches the children how to use a tooth brush, and each child is required to clean his teeth after each meal. She gives talks on cleanliness, care of the body, wholesome food, manners, deportment, and nature study, and also requires breathing exercises. Every day a certain number of the pupils take a tub bath. The teeth of all the children are put into good condition by the dental inspector, who removes stains and tartar, takes out jagged roots, and fills the decayed teeth. At the close of the school year 1913 he reported as follows : I wish to draw your attention to the beneficial results of the regular and careful brushing of the teeth by the children under the nurse's guidance. At the close of the school the mouths of these pupils were, in practically every case, models of cleanliness. If the same regular care that was practiced in the forest school could be carried out in all our public schools it would revo- lutionize the mouth conditions among children. The testimony of the principal touching the changed dispositions in the children is significant. He says : The children came to the school dull, stupid, and unresponsive, with but little evidence of developing mentality. It was a great pleasure to watch the awak- ening and quickening intelligence ; to see apathy, dullness, and stupidity re- placed by intelligent alertness and activity ; to note the bright eye and quicken- ing movements ; to see the natural interest in everything that surrounds the child, which evidenced an awakening mind, but even this quickened mentality is not the only result, for the child has learned something in deportment — to lift his hat to a lady ; to smile back " thank you " for a service rendered ; to eat and drink decently at the tabl(i ; to appreciate the beauty of a view, wild flowers, the lure of the woods and majesty of the rolling sea ; to recognize his Creator in the things of nature. There has been an uplift to the whole moral being, the effect of which I believe will never entirely pass away. The school was in session from June to September in 1912, and from May to November in 1913. Seventy children were in attend- ance the first year. In the second year the number had increased to 100, and the board of education voted to establish a second school for 125 children in another part of town. Open-air schools in connection with preventoria are conducted at the Mountain Sanatorium in Hamilton, Ontario, which is main- tained by the Hamilton Health Association, and accommodates 20 children ; at the preventorium of the Imperial Order of the Daugh- ters of the Empire, in Toronto, with a capacity of (50 children ; and at the preventorium of the London Health Association, of Byron, Ontario. The Royal Edward Institute for the Study, Prevention, and Cure of Tuberculosis, at Montreal, has an open-air school for 35 children, on a second-story porch of the dispensary building. The pupils are all under the supervision of the dispensary at home as well as in school. School is in session the year round, and the curriculum OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS IN AUSTRALIA. 165 follows that in use in the Montreal city schools. In the first year of its existence all but 4 of the children successfully passed the citj^ school examinations for their grade. The medical officer reports the following results for the year 1912-13 : Of the 37 cases treated in the open-air scliool during the year, there are 3 pretubercular, 19 early cases, 11 advanced, and 4 far advanced. The residts may be- classified as follows : (1) Pretubercular patients — These attended only a short time, but were improved in health. (2) Nineteen early cases — 8 have been sent back to other schools as being cured; 5 dropped out before a conclusion had been reached; 6 are at present attending school. (3) Eleven advanced cases — 3 of these have been returned to other schools as cured; 1 case left showing improvement; 1 case left not improved; 2 dropped out ; and 4 are at present at school. (4) Four far-advanced cases— 2 of these are still at school ; 1 left improved in health; and 1 has since died. The cases which have been discharged as cured and sent back to the other schools show no active disease whatever in the lungs, all signs of the disease having disai)peared. The future of these will depend a good deal on their home conditions, but given suitable hygienic surroundings and reasonable attention at home, I feel sure that they will be able to resist any further encroachments of the disease. The Sick Children's Hospital, at Toronto Island, in 1910 opened the Heather Club Pavilion for tuberculous children, where an open- air school with a capacity of 50 is carried on for six months of the year. In 1913 the National Sanitarium Association opened an ex- cellent hospital and open-air school for 80 tuberculous children at Weston, Ontario. With so favorable a start and with the public interest constantly stimulated by the public-health association and the antituberculosis leagues, open-air school work in Canada bids fair to establish itself as an integral feature of the public-school system of the Dominion. AUSTRALIA. The climate of Australia is particularly favorable for open-air work. The supervisors of grammar school work throughout the various districts of Australia report that the custom of taking classes out-of-doors for recitation is increasing, and strongly advocate its ex- tension, particularly in geography and arithmetic classes. School gardening and out-of-door nature study are features of the cur- riculum in all parts of the island. Open-air classrooms of the type shown in figure 80 have been erected near Sandringham, Victoria. They accommodate 50 children each and cost about $650. They are built of wood and roofed with iron. Three of the walls are boarded to a height of 3 feet, and above are filled with navy canvas blinds which are adjustable and can be 166 OPEi^-AIR SCHOOLS. opened to any height. The fourth side of the building is entirely inclosed. The buildings are constructed on sleeper plates and are thus easily portable. Many schools have play pavilions of similar construction which are used as open-air recitation rooms in fair weather. RUSSIA. Early in 1914 a letter was received from Moscow, Eussia, stating that it was the plan to reorganize the Prince Peter Georgievitch Fig. so. — Open-air pavilion at Sandringham, Australia. Oldenbourgsky Elementary School into a forest school, and asking for information on methods of management and programs of work. It has been impossible to secure any further information about the progress of the school. MISCELLANEOUS. Requests for information on open-air school work have come from Japan, China, India, and South America, but no definite under- takings have been reported. Chapter X. THE OPEN-AIR SCHOOL MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. When the news of the Charlottenburg school reached the cities of xVmei'ica, it found many people thoroughly alive to the fact that every community has its share of physically backward, anemic, and tuber- culous children, and that something should be done for them. New emphasis on the problem of the debilitated child has resulted from every new movement in the social service field in the last quarter of a century. One of the distinguishing features of this period has been its emphasis on human values and the constructive agencies which have been set to work to improve conditions. In aiding needy families, social workers have helped to secure hospital, medical, and other service for physically subnormal chil- dren. Visiting nurses have given them physical care and endeavored to adjust the home to their needs. Truant and probation officers have found such children a difficult part of their problem and have tried to keep them in school or to befriend them in trouble and get them out of court. The social settlement has become an important factor, and its Avorkers have taken such children into their clubs and classes and endeavored to supplement their fragmentary education. Country outings and the Boy Scout movement took such children for vaca- tions in order to give them fresh air and to improve their physical tone. Vocational guidance workers have undertaken to find them jobs and to make them secure in industrial pursuits. Social workers have found, too, that this type of child is father to the man without a job — who requires charitable assistance, almshouse care, hospital and sanitarium treatment, or possibly a correctional institution. Experiences gained in these and other fields had crystallized public opinion and created a sentiment that at once recognized the open-air school as a resource that was needed to help solve the problem of the debilitated child. Two lines of work deserve a special mention in this connection, for, more than any other influence, they created a background for the open-air school movement — health inspection in public schools and the antituberculosis crusade. 1G7 168 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Health inspection. — This work began in a systematic way in the city of Boston in 1894.^ Its original purpose was to control the spread of contagious diseases. It had been observed that compulsory school attendance often meant compulsory contagion, for outbreaks of such diseases were of frequent occurrence on the opening of school each autumn. In an effort to control this problem the city was di- vided into 50 districts, and a medical inspector chosen for each. The physician's duty was to detect and eliminate from the schools those who were suffering from communicable disease. This experiment proved so successful that it was copied by other cities. It was soon discovered, however, that mere elimination of contagious disease was only one phase of a very large problem. The child who called atten- tion to himself by such communicable disease was often found to be suffering from other defects which needed attention. Defective vision and hearing, inability to see the blackboard or hear the teacher's voice, nose and throat difficulties, and many other ailments were found by these medical inspectors, and many of the children were suffering to such an extent that their educational progress was seriously handicapped. In this Avay health inspection, now almost universal in the larger cities, came into existence as an educational measure. Everywhere this work detected large numbers of children who needed attention which the schools as ordinarily conducted were not prepared to give. The retarded and badly classified child as a problem in school man- agement and efficiency was discovered. It was found also that children of this type are among those who early fall out of school to become applicants for blind-alley jobs and to swell the ranks of those who make unsuccessful efforts at filling their places in society. The summaries of health-inspection work in the public schools have called attention of the public to the problem of the physical welfare of the whole school population as no other movement has ever done. Antituberculosis crusade. — Perhaps the influence that has most pointedly challenged attention to the needs of school children has been the antituberculosis crusade. Tuberculosis has for years been recognized as one of the most prominent causes of poverty. Con- sumption has appeared on death lists since the time of Hippocrates. Social workers in numerous agencies have been called upon to aid in the fight against this disease. Tuberculosis was regarded as hereditary, and the attitude toward it was one of helplessness and resignation until, in 1882, Dr. Robert Koch isolated the tubercle 1 Elmlra, N. Y., had a school medical inspector as early as 1872. See annual report of the board of education, 1912-1.!, p. 12. OPEN-AIR SCHOOL MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. 169 bacillus and proved that the disease is contracted onl}^ by taking the tuberculosis germs into the body. Then in 1885 Dr. Edward L. Trudeau established his cottage sanitarium in the Adirondack Moun- tains and by the application of therapeutic measures demonstrated that sufferers from incipient tuberculosis can be restored to their families and friends, to earning capacity and usefulness. These inspiring and revolutionary facts laid a new obligation upon society. The antituberculosis crusade was one of the results. A rapidly increasing number of societies — National, State, and munic- ipal — undertook to convey this news to the world through a cam- paign of education. These societies have carried on one of the most KiG. SI. — The lirst open-air school in the United States, I'rovidence, K. 1. definite and effective crusades that has ever been waged against any disease. It has had two objects in view : First, to acquaint the people with the new facts and to preach the gospel of fresh air, sunshine, rest, nourishing food, and wholesome living; and second, to estab- lish sanitaria, hospitals, and other relieving agencies, for there was not alone the problem of prevention, but also that of caring for those who were already victims to this disease. One of the most important agencies in this field is the tuberculosis clinic. This feature of the work places at the disposal of people, especially in the congested districts, a station properly equipped and manned with efficient doctors and nurses. To these stations anvone 170 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS, who suspects he has tuberculosis may come for examination and treat- ment. It early became the practice in these rapidly multiplying clinics to examine all the children in homes where some adults were afflicted with tuberculosis. The result has been that more than 30 per cent of all the children from such families examined in these clinics show signs of infection. While tuberculosis is no respecter of persons or economic conditions, it is nevertheless most prevalent in crowded districts and homes of the poor. The income is reduced because the breadwinner is stricken and the family is obliged to live in cramped quarters, not infrequently in two or three rooms. Under these conditions it is almost inevitable that infection should spread to Fig. 82. — An open-air school room in Allentown, Pa., which is used for both recitation and rest. The cots are folded and stacked in the rear of the room. For the rest period the chairs are moved forward, the cots then occupying the main floor space. the children, especially when their resistance is weakened through improper nourishment and care. While the doctrine of hereditary consumption has been exploded, improper housing, overcrowding, and low wages make the spread of the disease almost as inevitable as if it were hereditary. When it became known that tuberculosis is a community-born dis- ease, that it is fed to the children in their food, taken into their bodies from contact with the clothing of a sick patient, or from sputum carelessly scattered, a new obligation was laid upon these Avorkers, and they became aggressive in their efforts to create institu- tions and agencies for the proper treatment and care of children from homes where the disease prevailed. OPEX-AIR SCHOOL MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. 171 No definite census has ever been made of the number of chikh'on needing treatment in open-air schools. There have, however, been many local studies and estimates, and these place the number of children needing such care at from 2 to 10 per cent of the total school population. The following estimates are taken from studies made in many different places. The Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium of Chicago, which con- ducts 10 clinics scattered over the city, has on its books a list of 8.000 children who are tuberculous. The commissioner of health of the city of Chicago in 1914 instructed the health inspection staff of the Chicago schools, consisting of 100 phj^sicians, to make a study of the children in need of open-air school treatment in their respective dis- tricts, and to report to him at the end of the school year. This inspec- tion, which was casual, but which was nevertheless a conscientious effort on the part of the doctors to discover the children, resulted in a list of 5,248, or approximately 2 per cent of the total school population. According to Dr. Leonard P. Ayres,^ for the year 1909-10 in the city of Boston the candidates for open-air schools were selected by room teachers and nurses and submitted to the medical inspectors for final decision. There were then approximately 90,000 children in the Boston schools. The children selected by the teachers were reexamined by the school physicians, and 4,489 children, or almost 5 per cent of the entire membership, were found to need such care. Dr. Ayres also quotes from figures in Atlanta, Ga., where health in- spection showed that children suffering from malnutrition, anemia, and cardiac diseases were 5.18 per cent of the total number. From St. Paul in 1909, 2.7 per cent were suffering from cardiac disease and tuberculosis. At Appleton, Wis., 3 per cent were suffering from malnutrition. Dr. Ayres also quotes Dr. Henry R. Hopkins, of Buffalo, chairman of the committee on open-air schools of that city, who said in 1910 that about 7 per cent of the children in the city needed the same sort of treatment. F. L. Hoffman estimates that 12,000 children of school age die an- nually from tuberculosis in the United States. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, in their book on Prevention of Destitution (Chap. lY, p. 66), have the following to say about medical inspection in England : When we get the child to school, knowledge of its condition becomes forced upon the community. The first results of systematic medical inspection are bringing home to our minds what every teacher knows, namely, that a large proportion of the children are not in a fit state to have the public money spent on teaching them, because they are suffering to such an extent from neglect as 1 Open-Air Schools. 172 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. to be unable to obtain full advantage of the instruction. What emerges from the cautious summaries of the chief medical officer of the Board of Education for England and AVales (Scotland and Ireland being at least as bad) is that out of all the 6,000,000 children in the elementary schools about 10 per cent suffer from serious defects in vision, from 3 to 5 per cent suffer from defective hearing, 1 to 3 per cent from suppurating ears, 8 per cent from adenoids or enlarged tonsils of sufficient degree to obstruct the nose or throat and to re- quire surgical treatment, 20 to 40 per cent suffer from extensive and injurious decay of the teeth, 40 per cent have unclean heads, about 1 per cent suffer from ringworm, 1 per cent are affected with tuberculosis of readily recognizable form, and one-half to 2 per cent are afflicted with heart disease. Fig. 8o. — Anemic If one takes the lowest estimate, 2 per cent, as the number of chil- dren in the total population whose physical condition is such that it interferes with the school work, it would mean 400,000 such chil- dren in the United States; if 10 per cent is correct, it would mean 2,000,000. The original purpose of the open-air school was to secure outdoor life for the delicate child. Then came the plan of providing a shel- ter against inclement weather, to extend the period beyond the sum- OPEN-AIR SCHOOL MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. 173 mer months. Later came the idea of bringing the " outdoor " into the school by throwing the windows open wide. The open-air school aims to so conduct the school life of the physically subnormal child that it will tend to restore him to normal physical and mental vigor. Class of children generally admitted. — On account of the large number of physically debilitated children in the public schools the open-air school, especially in the United States, has endeavored to care, first, for the children who are anemic, undernourished, or whose general appearance indicates lack of resistance to disease; children Fig. 84. — Anemic boy. exposed to tuberculous infection by members of their own homes and who themselves show signs of infection by reaction to the tuber- culin test, by elevation of temperature, by enlarged glands, and other similar signs. Class of children generally excluded. — Those suffering from any communicable disease, and with severe diseases requiring absolute rest or hospital treatment; the mentally defective; children with open tuberculosis, i. e., forms of tuberculosis in which the tubercle bacilli are given off in the bodily excretions ; children suffering from 174 OPEX-AIR SCHOOLS. tuberculosis of the bones, joints, and glands, which can not be pro- tected by proper dressings, are usually excluded. Characteristics of the open-air school. — Children should be ad- mitted to the open-air school or open-window room on the basis of a thorough physical examination. Moreover, the period in the school should be covered by a medical and nursing service which under- takes to correct physical defects and handicaps and to adjust the work of the school to individual capacities and needs. Efforts should be made to secure the most advantageous cooperation of the home with the school work. A smaller numher of pupils to each teacher. — The open-air school aims to give a small number of children to each teacher — from 20 to 30 has been agreed upon as the proper size of class. This enables the teacher to understand her children better and to deal with them more nearly as their needs require. Fresh air and sunshine. — The open-air school gives the child the physical advantage and mental stimulus afforded by an adequate amount of fresh air and sunshine. The school is characterized by a greater freedom of movement and a more elastic program than is usual in the schoolroom. Food. — The anemic and undernourished condition of ph3^sically subnormal children is largely due to insufficient or improper food. The open-air school undertakes to supply this lack by furnishing food in sufficient quantity and variety and wholesomely cooked. A well-ordered meal is in itself a spiritualizing and refining influence as well as a body builder. No other hour of the school day has greater possibilities for the wise teacher than the one which con- cerns itself with the preparation and serving of food and the break- ing of bread. Rest. — Many of the children are suffering from conditions which call for an unusual amount of rest. Most children get too little sleep, and the irregular hours and lack of adequate sleep among tenement-house children are well known. Open-air schools gen- erall}^ have adopted the plan of giving all tlie children a period of an hour or more rest each day. In special cases the rest period ex- tends to a day or more, until temperature subsides and physical con- dition improves. This can be done at school. It is often impossible at home. Curricula. — The work in the open-air schools is generally charac- terized by greater freedom and elasticity. It should be more along motor and sensory lines — manual training, gardening, handwork of different kinds. The more intimate relationship of the teacher makes it possible to apply stimuli in more original and less tech- nical ways than she is able to do in regular indoor school work. OPEX-AIR SCHOOL MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. 175 Personal hygiene. — Personal hygiene is emphasized, dental needs are cared for, while frequently deca^'ed teeth and diseased mouths are corrected. Bathing, regular habits of cleanliness, regularity of meals, the acquiring of a taste for proper kinds of food, and right habits of eating are taught. The aim of the school is " to weave to- gether these different features in a process of education and hygienic living."' The open-air school came into existence to meet the needs of this army of distressed children. It is significant that nearly all the civilized countries came upon the problem in very much the same way, and almost simultaneously Fig. 85. — The health that comes from the out-of-doors. reached similar conclusions as to the necessity of action. The results obtained in the open-air schools have been such that the movement has had a rapid development in the United States. The original school was established in Providence, E. I., in 1908. By the end of that year there were 3 such schools; in 1909 there were 7; in 1910, 15. So far the number of schools has doubled each year until now there are more than 1,000 open-air classes in 168 cities of 32 different States. The presence of an open-air school in a community is always a stimu- lating influence for better general health. Directly or indirectly it helps to move the public to action, looking to better ventilation, not 176 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. only in the schoolrooms generally, but in homes and public places as well. It is an object lesson of strong educational value. Nobody has ever questioned the adequacy of the total supply of fresh air. The open-air school stimulates the community to see that each one gets his share. There is fresh air outside every building, and the efficiency of every schoolroom in the land can be increased by the periodic opening of windows and letting some of it in. The friends of the open-air school moA^ement believe that in time the community will be satisfied with nothing short of right conditions of ventilation and hygiene for the whole 20,000,000 school children in the United States. These pupils spend 100,000,000 hours each school day in school- rooms. This means 11,415 years each school day, or 2,283,000 years Fig. 86. — An open-window room. in the 200-day school year. One of the greatest possibilities for loss of time and efficiency is in the listlessness, inattention, and the half- asphyxiation of school children, due to overheat and bad air in the , schoolrooms. The vitality of this movement is illustrated by the permanent buildings which are being constructed for open-air school purposes and by the attention which is being paid to health considerations on the part of school authorities. Still more signifioant is the fact that programs covering the whole field of physical welfare of school children are in process of evolution in different cities. In Boston the school committee is committed to the following policy : OPEN-AIE SCHOOL MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. 177 1. The extension of open-tiir schools until every child needing sucli treatment is provided for. 2. A maximum temperature of 66° F. for all classrooms. 3. Windows open on one side of each closed room at all times. 4. Periodic flushing of each classroom with fresh air. 5. Physical instructors in high schools relieved of duties one day each week to inspect and report heating and ventilating conditions in elementary schools. k '¥ '" A - - . ^ F^^HHIII^^^^Hk^. -^ ' mKSiLfm' i,^A * « ■ ■' _^:»J|. '-^^Vi^^gr^ :!^0'^msKm ^S.st. -^^w?^ ^^^t- - — ^^ * '^ /■ '^^^ r?"^iP&' ^■: l^^i^ V illpS^ « ^Kfe^^^^^ \ ■'^^^^m H^^HHBri^ .i*f^- Fig. 87. — Rest period, Elizabeth McCormick Open-air School No. 2. 6. The use of parks for open-air classes. The park board and recreation commission have given the school committee permission to use buildings and parks suitable for open-air classes. Cleveland, New York City, Pittsburgh, Providence, and many other cities are deA^eloping similar programs. In California whole cities are reconstructing their school buildings on the open-air principle. The movement is thoroughly under way. Its goal is not only to see that each physically debilitated and backward child is cared for, but also that all the children of all the schools are given their full fresh-air and hygienic rights. 97855°— Bull. 2.3—17 12 Chapter XL PREVENTORIA, SANITARIA, HOSPITAL, AND VACATION OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. The key to the solution of the tuberculosis problem is " safety first " for the children in the homes of consumptives. The danger from tuberculosis is, and always has been, particularly great in the homes of the poor, especially in families living in two and three room tenement homes, with poor ventilation and lack of sufficient sunshine. A number of different agencies and institutions have been created to protect the children from the ever-present menace of such homes. Germany esijablished "recovery places in the Avoods." In France one of the most effective methods is that of placing children from tuberculous families in carefully selected countrj?^ homes. They are kept in such places for a period of years or until their health is established. In the United States, and in many other countries as well, day camps, preventoria, sanitaria, and hospital schools have been called into service. It is this class of agencies and their relation to the open-air school that will be discussed in this chapter. PREVENTORIA. A preventorium is an institution established for the purpose of taking children who are under grade physically, and who come from homes where there is tuberculosis, and caring for them in such a way as to prevent them from falling victims to this disease. At the present time there are at least four preventoria of this sort in the United States: The Farmingdale Preventorium, in New Jersey; Kidge Farm, Deerfield, 111. ; the Lakeside Preventorium, near Hoxie, R, I. ; and the Buckeye Road Fresh-Air Camp, near Cleveland, Ohio. The first institution for the effective rescue of anemic, under- nourished children in the families of the tuberculous poor was built in 1900 at Farmingdale, N. J., by the New York Association of Tuberculosis Dispensaries. Dr. Herman Biggs, then commissioner of health in New York City, estimated that there were 40,000 chil- 178 PREVENTORIA. 179 Fig. 88. — Interior tuberculosis preventorium at Farmingdale, N. J. Fig. 89. — Plan of the tuberculosis preventorium (or cbildieu at Farmingdale, N. J. 180 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. dren exposed to tuberculosis in poor homes in New York City alone. The tuberculosis dispensaries scattered over the city were in touch with thousands of consumptive patients. The majority of them were the fathers and mothers or older brothers and sisters of younger children who were in constant peril from infection in the two, three, and four-room tenement homes of the tuberculous poor. The doctors and nurses found it impossible to safeguard these children by anything they could do in and for the homes. There was urgent need of some near-by institution where they could be sent that they might be entirelv removed from the danger of infec- FiG. 90. — Herman Kicfer Sanitariuiii Open-air School, Detroit, Mich. tion and that their resistance might be built up. There was then no such place. The summer-outing resources of relief societies and settlements were unable to meet the needs of tuberculous children, and, besides, their work was confined to two or three summer months and their children were sent usually for a stay of only one or two weeks. Accordingly the Association of Tuberculosis Dispensaries pur- chased a tract of 170 acres of land in the sandy pine belt of Farm- ingdale, N. J., easily accessible to New York City, and on it built a sanitarium school. The plant consists of a reception pavilion, where all the children are quarantined for three weeks following admission, PKEVENTORIA. 181 a small infirmary, a school for boys, another for girls, and a large administration building, which includes a dining room accommo- dating 150 children. The children are selected by the physicians of the Association of Tuberculosis Clinics and are taken from families in which there are patients under their care. The children are those whose physical condition makes them particularly susceptible to infection. The sanitarium school receives these children for a continuous period of night-and-dav care. The average length of stav is about three I'm. 'Jl. — View iioiii lliL \( rauda, Sea Breeze Hospital for Surgical Tuberculosis, Coney Island, N. Y. months, and as the capacity of the institution is 150, about COO chil - dren are dealt with in the course of the year. The preventorium is partly supported by voluntary contributions and partly by a per capita allowance from the city. Thus far the cost, including all expenses, has been less than $1 per day for each child. The observance of a simple, wholesome mode of life, which includes fresh air, sunshine, food, sleep, play, exercise, cleanliness, regularity, and a spirit of comradeship between teachers, nurses, attendants, and the children, is mainly relied upon for results. The average gain in weight for the usual three months' period is 7 pounds. There are occasional records, covering a longer period, running as high as 25 pounds. The bearing, mentality, vigor, and spirit of the children — though there is no such definite instrument 182 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. comparable to weighing scales to provide a tangible measure for mental life — show every evidence of equal improvement. The exam- ining physician says that it is almost impossible to recognize the children on discharge, so great has been the change in their appear- ance. In such an institution as Farmingdale, where health is avowedly the first consideration, school life might be expected to take second place. On the contrary, it is so well provided for that the children lose nothing from their grade standing by their stay at the sanita- rium. Three licensed teachers are provided by the New York Board of Education, and in a two-hour school period a day for five days a week they have found it possible to keep the pupils up to their pre- Fk;. 92. — Massachusetts Hospital School, Canton, Mass. vious school grade. Indeed, many children could advance a class (luring their stay at the sanitarium were it thought wise to increase the length of school hours. This is true in spite of the fact that the children received are, on the average, one grade in scholarship below the normal standing for their age, and many of them are even more retarded. In addition to the regular school work, Avhich corresponds to that of the grades in New York City schools, the girls are taught to sew, the boys to do gardening, and all the older children are assigned small household tasks in the sleeping shacks or in the dining room. They have free range over the broad acres of pine land and get a first-hand acquaintance with the fields and with the woods. PEEVENTOEIA. 183 In the summer of 1914 a group of philanthropic women opened a small preventorium at Ridge Farm, near Lake Forest, 111. In its construction and management they followed the Farmingdale experi- ment, and it is the plan eventually to introduce the work of the regular open-air schools as well. Fig. 93. — Exterior, East River Homes. Half of the building to the right of the picture is leased by the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, and occupied by families where tuberculosis is one cause of dependency. Note open win- dows and beds on balconies. A small institution of the same general nature was conducted near Hoxsie, R. I., by the Anti-Tuberciilosis Association of Providence during the summer of 1913-14. A preventorium for tuberculous children has been maintained, but no school work is undertaken. The purpose here is chiefly to build up the resistance of specially needy children. 184 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. SANITARIA. A sanitarium is an establishment where convalescents, or persons suifering from disease, may be received for medical treatment, rest cure, and the like; in recent usage the term is particularly applied to places where patients suffering from tuberculosis may undergo open-air treatment. A sanitarium school receives children in the early stages of tuberculosis, either of a surgical or pulmonary nature. These are definitely sick children, and, though they follow much the same daily program as in a preventorium, they are not allowed so much exercise and their hours of school are shortened. Many sani- taria, however, are doing what is really preventorium work. Sanitarium open-air schools in England. — The sanitarium schools for children in England have already been described.^ Dr. Esther Carling, medical superintendent of the Kingwood and Maitland Sanitarium at Peppard Common, Oxon, England, makes Fig. 94. — Children's cottage at Chicago Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium. Provides for 2.5 children. The school room is at the right end of the building. the following suggestions on general arrangements for sanitarium schools : First, it is well to provide for all classes of tuberculosis at the sanitarium, taking care that separate blocks be provided for the surgical cases and that the incipient and advanced cases of pulmonary ttiberculosis be separated. This will mean separate wings or blocks for the following groups: (a) Little chil- dren; ih) sick children; (c) larger boys; {d) larger girls; (c) isolation or observation cases; (/) surgical cases, if included. Second, a separate room must be provided for the schoolroom, if possible, preferably adjoining an open-sided central hall, which should be empty of all furniture save a piano and some simple apparutus for remedial exercises. This liall can be used for assemblies and for drill and play in wet weather. All " sitting-still " lessons can thus be followed by a march around the hall or a few minutes' drill and remedial exercises. Third, the provision of simple apparatus for Swedish remedial exercises is essential for a sanitarium school. Many of the children are underdeveloped 1 See p. 139. SANITARIA, 185 and others have the beginnings ^f malformations, which careful remedial exercises may completely correct. Fourth, a dental room or a surgery in which dentistry can he comfortably and effectively carried on is also essential. Any treatment of tuberculosis in chil- dren that does not make provision for dental care is faulty. It often happens that it is hard to get to a good dentist from a country sanitarium. Fifth, there is less objection to a big ward for children than for adults, pro- vided that about one-half of the children in each section are accommodated in small rooms of one, two, or three beds. This may be desirable for the sake of discipline or on account of noisy sleep or coughing; and small rooms also allow Fig. 95. — Ridge Farm Preventorium, Deerflekl, 111. a certain amount of adjustment of the sexes, if there happen to be, for instance, more boys than girls in the institution. Sixth, room should be left for children's gardens, and these will be better worked if each plat has a path around it and if a stand-pipe for water is avail- able nearby. Seventh, while the number of children that are to be provided for must vary with the needs of the locality, the essential thing is that the sanitarium school should be so arranged that every individual child should be known fully and personally to the responsible officers. A minimum of 60 and a maximum of 100 children is the best number to provide for.^ New York Municipal Sanitarium Open-Air School. — Eeports have been received from 25 sanitarium and hospital schools in the United 1 Carling, Dr. Esther. " Construction and Management of a Sanitarium School for Chil- dren." In Yearbook of Open-Air Schools and Children's Sanitaria. Edited by T. N. Kelynack, M. D. Pp. 16-2t5. 186 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. States. One of the largest of these schools is that connected with the New York City Municipal Sanitarium, located at Otisville, N. Y, In 1913, at the request of Dr. Lederle, health commissioner of the city of New York, and upon the recommendation of the board of superintendents, the Board of Education of New York authorized the organization of classes at the Municipal Sanitarium for the benefit of children of school age avIio came under the care of the above-named institution. These classes were made an annex to Public School No. 14, Man- hattan, and began work on November 3, 1913. For two years pre- vious the sanitarium authorities had been attempting to conduct classes for the children who were patients at the institution, but they had been dissatisfied with the kind of work which was accomplished, , and felt that it would be decidedly more advantageous to have the work done under the supervision of the educational authorities of the city. The aim of the school work is to enable these children who ar6 forced by ill health to leave the city temporarily^ to resume their school work without loss of time or standing upon their return to the city. The curriculum, therefore, is similar to that in use in the city schools, but modified, wherever possible, to meet the special rieeds of the individual child. Upon discharge from the institution each child receives a transfer card which entitles him or her to admission to any public school in the city in which there is a grade corresponding to the one indicated on the card. In 1914 there were 92 boys and girls, ranging between the ages of 5 and 15 in the Otisville Sanitarium School. Two school sessions are held daily, from 9.30 to 11.30 in the morning and from 2 to 4 in the afternoon. Other cities. — Louisville, Ky., Detroit and Grand Eapids, Mich., Boston, Mass., and Cincinnati, Ohio, have also successful open-air schools for tuberculous children in municipal sanitaria. Chicago has provided for 250 children in the beautiful cottages of the municipal sanitarium opened in 1915. Open-air, schools at State sanitaria. — The policy of State sanitaria with regard to open-air schools is in process of development. The experience of Massachusetts in this regard is therefore significant. Previous to 1910 Massachusetts had no sanatarium provision for tuberculous children under 14 years of age. In that year sanitaria were opened at North Reading, Lakeville, and Reading, and a few applications were made at each place for the admission of young children having pulmonary tuberculosis. They were admitted and cared for, but it was considered undesirable to have them in close association with the adult patients and it was found much easier to SANITARIA. 187 care for several children together than for one or two. They were more contented when together, kept by themselves iiioi-e. and they v^^^4> &^r^ '^:^:':- ^ :"■ " • ^" '-^ " s| [1 r kl^ ^^HI^B '"^^^^^^^^^H ###■" ' ^ 1^^^"^ a '•!■ - ^Hk^'' r^^^^^l Fig. 9U. — Harlowarden Preveutoriuni, juaintaiued by the United Charities of Chicago, near Joliet, HI. annoyed the other patients far less. It was therefore decided to send all the children to one of the sanitaria and make more adequate pro- vision there for their care. 188 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Westfield was chosen, and under the superintendency of Dr. Henry D. Chadwick, the school has rapidly increased in numbers and efficiency. In May, 1914, Dr. Chadwick wrote : We have about 125 children at the present time, all being sent to the sani- tarium because of pulmonary tuberculosis. The school work is secondary to the sanitarium treatment. The pupils have fewer rises of temperature, and gain weight more steadily during the period when school is in session than during vacations. Each child attends but one session of two and one-half hours daily. The school is graded according to public-school standards. The four higher grades attend the morning session, and the first four grades the afternoon session. In addition to this a few children are continuing some of their high-school studies. Because they live in the open air so much and have widely opened windows in the schoolroom, they are always eager and alert and can accomplish in one session the average day's work done in the public school. Many of the children are backward in their studies because illness has pre-, vented regular attendance at school before coming here. • ,; After a thorough review of their previous school work they are not only read^ to go on easily with their proper grade, but in many instances have been able to go into an advanced class. Iowa, Maryland, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, and Wisconsin are among the States which conduct open-air schools at State sani- taria for tuberculosis. HOSPITAL OPEN-AIR SHOOLS. A hospital is an institution in which medical treatment is given to the sick and injured. A hospital open-air school is planned for those children who are bed cases or who require individual nursing care. Most cases of surgical tuberculosis are cared for in hospitals. The earliest and possibly the best illustration of such a school in this country is to be found in the Sea Breeze Hospital for the treat- ment of surgical tuberculosis, maintained at Coney Island by the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. The hospital was founded in 1904 " to demonstrate for American hospitals, and more especially for American city and State hospitals, the healing power of outdoor treatment in the salt air for nonpul- monary forms of tuberculosis in children." Such methods had long been familiar to European physicians. As far back as 1791 England had built the first permanent seaside hospital at Margate. Italy, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Portugal, and Spain have all made similar provision for their tuberculous children. The hospital was planned to be in operation during the summer months only, but even in that short period of time its success was so marked that it was decided to continue the treatment through the winter. The New York City Board of Education assigned a teacher, HOSPITAL OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. 189 and an ungraded school was conducted for the children, at first mainly as a therapeutic measure. A small frame schoolhouse was built and equipped with specially designed desks and chairs which could be adapted to the comfort of the deformed and crippled pupils, most of whom were in casts or on crutches. Blackboards and school equipment were provided by the board of education. No heat is furnished to the schoolroom, but the children are so accustomed to sleeping and living out-of-doors at the hospital that they seldom mind the winter winds. A room has now been fitted up in the hospital building for the kindergartners. It is hard to raise flowers and vegetables on the sandy soil by the schoolhouse, but perseverance works wonders, and the tiny plat where blossoms do persist is one of the chief joys of the children. Manual work and gardening occupy a large part of the day. There are fre- quent recesses, and at intervals during the forenoon tlie teacher goes to. the long verandas where other little patients are strapped on boards or held immovable in casts, and gives them 5 or 10 minute lessons in reading, history, or oral English. It is surprising how much can be accomplished in so short a time. The patients are mostly young children or those who have never re- ceived any schooling at all prior to their admission to the hospital. Some of them have now been carried as high as the fifth or sixth grade, and do very satisfactory work. The Massachusetts State Hospital School. — The Massachusetts State Hospital School for the care and education of the crippled and deformed children of the Commonwealth, at Canton, has been prac- tically a residential open-air school since its opening on December 1, 1907. The school occupies 65 acres of rolling land on the shore of a beautiful inland lake. It has about 18 acres of woodland. The dor- mitories are really out-cloor pavilions, only closed and heated for a short time while the children are rising in the morning or retiring at night. The classrooms and dining rooms are always open to the air. Three hundred children are cared for, and the percentage of sick- ness from tonsillitis, croup, catarrhal colds, and other foul-air dis- eases, usually so high in institutions of this sort, has been negligible, a fact which the superintendent attributes entirely to the open-air conditions. Most of the pupils are able to attend school on an average of an hour and a half daily. They receive instruction in kindergarten and first-grade work, reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geog- raphy, history, language, drawing, nature studies, and music, accord- ing to their individual requirements, but special emphasis is laid upon the practical work which they are taught to do. The girls, in addition to receiving carefully graded instruction in sewing and cooking, do practically all the housework of the institution. The 190 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. boys have been taught to assist with the construction of new build- ings, to do most of the farm work, and to assist the engineer in planning the plumbing and lighting of the buildings. Sloyd work is given on three days of every week with printing and cobbling lessons in connection with it. Among the children trained in industrial work, a number have found steady work out- side. One permanently crippled boy who was instructed in the engine room found a good place as a first-class licensed fireman, with a prospect of advancement. The study of forestrj^ is also carried on with a view toward fitting the boj^s for future self-support. Open-air schools for children with surgical tuberculosis are car- ried on at the James L. Kernan Hospital and School for Crippled Children at Baltimore, Md., and at the Chicago School for Crippled Children. Home Hospital^ New York City. — On March 18, 1912, the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor inaugu- rated an important experiment in the combined home and hospital treatment of families in which tuberculosis was one cause of depend- ency. The association leased 24 apartments in the East River Homes, a model tenement building at Seventy-eighth Street and John Jay Park, New York City. The families who were moved into the apartments had already been receiving aid from the associa- tion, and each had one or more tuberculous members. The association attempted to demonstrate the medical and eco- nomic practicability of treating as a unit a family in poverty and afflicted with tuberculosis. The results obtained during the first year were so satisfactory that on November 24, 1913, a second section of 24 apartments was leased, enlarging the hospital to 40 families with 120 patients. An operating room and a dental clinic have been estab- lished. Seventy-four families, containing 361 in^viduals, of whom 226 had tuberculosis, received medical care between March 18, 1912, and January 1, 1914. Thirty-five of the families have at the time of writing left the hospital; 23 of them sufficiently improved to bring about social and economic rehabilitation. Since the association has realized that the great problem in the fight against tuberculosis is to prevent infection of new victims, the children are receiving the greatest attention. An intensive study of 196 Home Hospital children showed that about one-third of them already had tuberculosis and approximately another third were prob- ably infected. At the Home Hospital the children are practically isolated from the infected adults. The food for the whole family is carefully planned by a trained dietitian, and the children receive extra nourishment twice daily. Two open-air schoolrooms and an VOCATIONAL TKAININO FOK TUBERCULOUS CHILDREN. 191 oi)en-air kindergarten room have been constructed on the roof of the tenement building. Teachers were furnished by the New York City Board of Educa- tion. At their admission over 75 per cent of the children were in very bad physical condition, most of them with such pathological symptoms as enlarged tonsils, adenoids, glands, etc. With defects corrected and their life in the open air, they have made remarkable improvement. But most important from the standpoint of eco- nomics the Home Hospital has proved that its methods of treating combined poverty and tuberculosis cost less than the plan of caring for the sick in hospitals or sanatoria, plus the relief necessary to maintain the remaining members of the family either in their homes or in institutions. Preventorium care for children costs about 80 cents per day for each child. Care at such sanitaria as Ray Brook and Otisville costs $1.28 to $1.36 a day. At the Home Hospital the per diem per capita cost of supervision and administration was reduced to 18.3 cents, and the average cost per day per person for all expenses is about 66 cents. VOCATIONAL TRAINING FOR TUBERCULOUvS CHILDREN. An institution which cares for children handicapped in their efforts at self-support by noticeable deformity or irremediable defects usually makes some effort at teaching trades. Little has as yet been done in this line, however, for the children equally, but less obvi- ously, handicapped by physical weakness and susceptibility to infection. Dr. Allan Warner, school medical officer at Leicester, England, suggests the establishment of an open-air agricultural college and labor exchange in connection with residential open-air schools. In- struction would include courses in stock raising, chemistry of soils, rotation of crops, tending of orchards, and the like. Forestry, land- scape gardening, and dairy farming suggest themselves at once as suitable out-door occupations which offer prospects of a good liveli- hood. It may be necessary to face squarely the proposition that certain children will never be able to endure the confinement of office or mercantile employment without constant danger of relapse and to plan their education along other lines than the ordinary academic work of the grades. The best instructions should be secured with a view to placing the whole undertaking on a vocational basis. Such an institution as an open-air agricultural college should within a few years become largely self-supporting by raising fine stock and food products, to say nothing of its social value. 192 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Whether or not training of this kind is immediately available, no child of working age should be permitted to leave a residential open-air school to seek employment without having received definite advice as to suitable occupations for one in his condition. If there is a vocational guidance bureau of any sort in the community, he should be urged to avail himself of its guidance. All children should be carefully watched during the first years of their working life to guard against the danger of relapse. They should return to the dispensaries of the school for frequent reexami- nations until their health gives evidence of ability to withstand the strain of continued work. English schools have developed what they call " voluntary after- care committees," which keep in touch with such working children, try to secure them suitable employment, see that their home life is kept up to standard, urge them to return for examination, and make a written report to the school yearly or oftener on their condition. Qualifications of Teacher for Institutional School. — In no other form of open-air school work does more depend upon the personality of the teacher than in the institutional school. The pupils are iso- lated from normal family life and find themselves in an environment totall}^ different from anything in their previous experience. They are frequently undergoing much physical suffering. Some of them have only unpleasant recollections of school, because of irregular at- tendance, difficulty in learning, possible ridicule of schoolmates, and physical discomfort. Many of them have never attended school at all. Their first attitude toward things educational is apt to be un- friendly. To win their confidence and awaken their interest requires patience and tact of a high order. The teacher must, furthermore, hold all her plans of work subject to change at physician's orders; she must learn to expect frequent shifts in membership and adjust herself cheerfully to unexpected emergencies; above all she must have a wholesome sense of humor, abounding physical health, and an optimism that refuses to be shaken. Her training should be adequate along academic lines and should include speical preparation in manual work, hygiene, and nature study. If possible, the teacher should live at the institution. She will have a clearer understanding of the real condition of her charges if she mingles with them out of school hours, and there will be more imity of action with nurses and physicians. Essentials for the Hospital or Sanitarium School. — Wherever the work of the hospital sanitarium school has been successfully carried out in this country or abroad, certain facts have characterized the management. VACATION SCHOOLS. 193 1. There has alwa3'^s been a sufficient number of children to justify the employment of a teacher at a stated salary for specified hours of work. 2. The teacher has held a certificate from the local or State board of examiners and has Avorked under some kind of supervision by a higher educational authority. 3. In most cases it has been considered highly desirable, if not essential, that the teacher be able to give instruction in elementary manual training, and that she be capable of leading in nature study. 4. Since all ages and grades are apt to be represented at the sani- tarium school, the teacher has been expected to qualify to instruct any grade between the kindergarten and the high school. 5. Some school equipment has been provided — in most cases desks or chairs, blackboards, books, etc. 6. There has been some fixed place for hearing the recitations, removed from disturbance by other patients. Various types of open- air structures^ built or remodeled for this purpose, are illustrated in this chapter. 7. An attempt has been made to work out a curriculum whicli approximates that of the local school systems represented by the patients. VACATION SCHOOLS. The vacation period has for many years been a problem of peculiar interest, especially to social workers and to teachers. It has increased in importance with the development of industrial centers and the gathering of people into large cities. The " street and alley time" of boys and girls becomes increasingly important on the physical and moral side, as well as on the intellectual. With the end of the school year school buildings and grounds have closed and the children have been turned loose to the uncertain vicissitudes of the streets. Especial attention has been called to this problem through the rapidly multiplying juvenile courts, whose records show increased activity in the months when school is closed. Among the most effective agencies that have been developed to help meet this need are the vacation schools and country outing work. The education committee of the London County Council in 1912 made a report on vacation schools and organized play. The report states : The first vacation experiment appears to have been made in Switzerland in 1878 by a clergyman named Bion, who took a number of children to the Appen- zeller Highlands during the holidays. In 1883 this experiment was followed by the organization of health-vacation colonies at Amsterdam. In 1888 the first summer colony for primary school children in Russia was founded by Miss Orloff. The enterprise rapidly developed under the auspices of the Muscovite society. The type of colony was modeled on one of those of the 97855°— Bull. 23—17 13 194 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Swiss, and with the introduction in 1890 by the Moscow Educational Council of medical control in the ordinary day schools, the school doctors were asked to advise and assist in the scheme. * * * During the 23 years that the Musco- vite association has been in existence 572 colonies have been founded, and 11,861 children have been sent to them, all of whom have gained in physical, mental, and moral well-being. It is estimated that 44 per cent of the children sent each year have never been out of Moscow before. In 1896 the vacation-scliool movement began in Chicago, 111., and Cambridge, Mass., and in 1898 in New York. The first vacation- school experiment in England was made in the summer of 1902. Through the energy and enterprise of Mrs. Humphrey Ward a vacation school was established at Passmore Edwards Settlement. |^^^L»tL^'\E'^ ^^^K.'- ''■MmtmusrmamsoMmi e%...l3««il^^ ^^m ^^^■i HBI^I l^ll^^gl 4 ■' r*- y- .... ' ''C-' •'■■ '-"■'^"■•■,J r^:/'^'-'':' i'' '~'% A-.- '. ■ .■■ ^% ^' ■-'''^^p^:''- it c" > ^^ ■ " f;. -■? " JaSBBSIlBBf^KB «'■■ ■'■■< ' EJ^%a / . ■* : 'M^ p*?' '^^ ::/:} • ':;-"■ - ■•- '::. - jl &^^^H .. .•" ■Mi ^^^ |3^^^^B -^^' ■ i^'^^^ ^m 1 ■■*,-■ 1 w.- m 'i Fig. 97. — Country outings for city school children. In June, 1905, the education committee decided that the practice of affording facilities for the establishment of vacation schools should be continued and that the education committee should submit pro- posals showing in detail the facilities it desired the council should afford for the establishment of not more than 12 such schools. The vacation schools, both in European countries and in the United States, have become useful both for health promotion and conservation and suggestive as educational agencies. In Chicago and other American cities applications from children for admission are always in excess of the capacity of such schools. Perhaps the time will come when the schools will accept more responsibility for VACATION SCHOOLS. 195 the vacation period and have extensions in the parks and in the country. The coiintry-oiiting movement is closely akin to the vacation school. In nearly all the large cities of the United States and in cities abroad the summer season sees great activity in taking children off the streets and into the country to camps and to country homes. In the main it is a health and recreation movement. However, it has a marked educational value. The games and walks, the oppor- tunities for observation and for becoming acquainted with a new set of surroundings and circumstances, the association with teachers and recreation leaders, make the outing work very beneficial from the educational point of view\ Children come back from the country refreshed and invigorated. Outings are not restricted to debilitated children, but the aim is usually to take those who live in the most congested parts of the cities and from homes where there is a limited number of rooms and restricted income. In all this work it is interesting to note how the education possi- bilities come to the front. Just as the teaching profession is becom- ing more impressed with the necessity of emphasizing health work, so those who started from the health side quickly become impressed with the desirability of affording appropriate educational facilities. It is the ultimate purpose of the open-air school to bring both of these activities to the most effective service of the children. Chapter XII. EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULA OF OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. " More air ! More air ! More air in the sclioolroom ; more air in the lungs ; more air in the curriculum ! " was the concluding state- ment of a brilliant address on open-air schools delivered by Dr. Albert Mathieu at the third international congress on school hygiene held in London in 1907. The fervent reception of this sentiment by the large audience gave convincing evidence that "more air in the curriculum" especially appeals to teachers. The open-air school and the ungraded classes which have been in- troduced into the schools in recent years have given abundant proof that the interest, enthusiasm, and hearty support of teachers are readily enlisted in educational work which makes for better care of the individual child. Advocates of the open-air school movement do not overlook the value and necessity of carefully planned curricula. The indoor public schools have the task of providing educational facilities for all the children. Grading, system, large classes, and mass dealing are necessities of the present situation. The open-air school idea, however, is a plea for more definite knowledge about the needs and possibilities of individual children, and for an elasticity and sensitiveness on the part of the school man- agement that will insure each child more certainly and in a greater degree the care and attention he needs. There are few traditions in this work to hamper a teacher or to impose standards which she feels she must meet or be counted a failure. She has more freedom, more chance for originality in striving for results. Open-air-school work ought not to crystallize into a rigid system or routine, because its programs and activities should always be based on a thorough knowl- edge of individual children's capacities and needs. Length of session. — Theoretically the length of the daily session in the open-air school corresponds to that in the public school ; prac- tically, it is somewhat longer, especially Avhen daily cold-shower baths are given in the morning. The children arrive from 8 o'clock to 8.30, prepare for their bath, dress again, and put on the extra wraps or costumes provided for the open air. By 9 o'clock they 196 EDUCATIONAL OKGANIZATION AISTD CURRICULA. 197 are read}'^ for the schoolroom, where they remain until noon, but the session is broken by frequent exercises between recitations and often by a morning lunch at 10 or 10.30. Sometime during the forenoon a nurse comes to inspect the classes, to take temperatures, and to call certain children before the physician for special ex- amination. Following the noon dinner, an hour is given to rest. The school period closes at 3 or 3.30, but the children have still to remove their school wraps and prepare to go home. During the winter months it is often 15 or 20 minutes after the close of school before the}^ are ready for the street. It is estimated that the actual length of time given to recitation is shortened from an hour and a half to two hours in most open-air schools, but the children really spend a longer time at the school because of the unusual features of the daily program. Only two or three open-air schools in this country are in session six days a week, \\lien this is true, Saturday is usually given over to manual training, gardening, or other forms of hand work, and is often selected as the day for weekly weighing. Many persons feel that all open-air schools should be continued throughout the entire week, since children almost always lose in weight after two days at liome. On the other hand, there might be difficulty in securing the consent of parents to the admission of children if they felt that the children would be away from home also on Saturday. There seems to be no question but that it would be advisable to continue open-air schools through the summer vacation, except for such children as come from good homes and are assured of excellent care through the summer months. The work can be varied, with greater emphasis placed on the outdoor activities, and both physi- cally and mentally the pupil will be better off than if he spent July and August at home or on the street. This is particularly true when the location of the school makes it possible to do considerable garden work and to have access to woods and meadows. Size of class. — The regulations of the English board of education require that no more than 20 children shall be assigned to 1 teacher in an open-air school. The custom in this country has been to hold the number between 25 and 30, with 25 preferred. In towns where only one open-air school is conducted, or in cities where fresh- air classes are few and far between, it may happen that every one of the eight grades is represented among the 25 pupils. Under such circumstances flexibility of grading becomes a necessity, and the nonessentials are quickly eliminated from the curriculum. It will usually be true that such a group of children can be classified into three main divisions for purposes of study and recitation, rather than attempting to follow the ordinary grade distinctions. Promo- tion then becomes a very informal affair, based on mastery of a 198 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. subject rather than on time spent in a grade, and the bugbear of final examinations generally disappears. It must be remembered, however, that the children who enter an open-air school are there only temporarilj?^, and that on discharge they must return to the ordinary school to continue their studies in competition with children who have received the full training of the grammar grades. Parents sometimes object to letting a bright and ambitious child enter the open-air school for fear that he will Fig. 98. — Breathing exercises at the Szombathely, Hungary, Open-air School. lose valuable training and be at a disadvantage on his return to the public school. It is true that the length of time spent on each recitation is con- siderably shortened and that some subjects, such as drawing and music, may be dropped from the curriculum, but -the high-school records of the pupils who have graduated from the Elizabeth Mc- Cormick Open-air Schools, after some years of attendance under the modified school program, show that they more than hold their own in competition with schoolmates who have had the formal training of the grammar schools. This is also the testimony from foreign schools. Parents need not fear loss of rank for their children. Rather they will find such an increase in ability to concentrate and in the power of sustained attention that an advanced study becomes easier instead of more diflficult. A 10-minute recitation, with the child's mind really EDUCATIOiSrAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULA. 199 concentrated on the subject at hand, is worth more than 30 minutes of desultory attention. Number of gradea to teacher. — The number of grades which a teacher can handle successfully will depend upon her abilitj'^ and previous experience, and upon the number of children whom she is to manage. Some very successful schools have been conducted after the same fashion as the old-time country school, with the full eight grades under one teacher. The system of grouping referred to above will provide a much more satisfactory arrangement, however, and it is advisable, when possible, to plan for at least 50 children with Fig. 99. — Goats and chickens are important members of the school family at the Bowring House Country School, Roby, Liverpool, England. 2 teachers in each open-air center, so that 1 teacher will not need to plan her work for more than four grades. One feature which adds greatly to the difficulty of the work is the frequency with which children are transferred before the end of a school session. In a constantly shifting group in an ungraded school the teacher must plan her work skillfully if she is to do full justice to everyone. The tendency now is to retain open-air school pupils longer than was at first the custom, since it has been proved that temporary gains may often be lost by too hasty transfer to a closed schoolroom. The records of children who have been more than one year in an open-air class often show a decided improvement in the second year over the work of the first. Daily Program. — No standard daily program can be worked out which will be of service to all teachers alike, since each must plan 200 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. her day's work according to her own special group of children and hold it ready for change when new pupils are admitted. The Boston School Committee, however, has made certain suggestions to the teachers of its open-air classes, which are of general significance and which are reproduced in full on page 258 in the Appendix. It is pointed out that the proper alternation of the periods of work with the periods of rest is the principle first to be considered in planning the daily program for an open-air school. Arithmetic should be taught at periods following rest. The period suggested is between 9 and 10 o'clock in the morning. Mental arith- metic should not follow a lesson in history, writing, drawing, or sewing. Writing or drawing should be taught by means of large muscular movements, rather than through the sense of sight. Short lessons are better than long. Physical exercises should be frequently given, but the possibility of fatigue should not be overlooked, and the physician should pass on the amount of exercise to be allowed each child. The time allow- ance for each subject should be so varied by the teacher that the pupils may have frequent periods of rest and relaxation. Subjects and exercises may be combined in such a way that the educational value is increased, rather than diminished, by the shorter period. A typical daily program for one of the Boston fresh-air classes is given below. In studying this program it must be remembered that the classes are for physically debilitated children and not for tuber- culous children. Thirty-six pupils are assigned to each class; no rest period is given ; and the children go home for the noon luncheon. The daily program combines the requirements of the school com- mittee, with the special requirements suggested above for open-air classes. Typical daily program. [From the Boston annual school report, 1913.] 0.00 to 9.10 9.10 to 9.20 9.20 to 10.00. 10.00 to 10.10 10.10 to 10..30 10.:iO to 10..")0 10..-)0 to 11.1.5 11.1.5 to 11.30 11.30 to 11.40 11.40 to 12.00 Subject. Opening e.xercise Personal hygiene Medical inspection Hygiene and physiology teaching Arithmetic (as outlined above) Music Limcheon Recess Elementary science, manual training, or household science. Spoken English Reading and literature I'hvsical training AVritten English 12.00 to 1.30 ; Home 1.30 to 1.40 Rest— relaxation— story-telling 1.30 1 o 1..50 Sight arithmel ic 1..50 to 2.00 ' Physical training 2.00 to 2.20 1 Drawing 2..30 to 3.30 1 Free play— recess '.'.30 to 3.00 Geography 3.00 to 3. 10 1 Physical training ' 3.10 to 3..30 Oral arithmetic ' Grades. All. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. I-II. IV-V. All. Do. I-III. IV, etc. Do. Do. ' Alternate days with manual training. EDUCATIONAL OEGANIZATIOISr AND CURRICULA. 201 The program in Utica, N. Y., shows the possibility of grouping when a large number of grades are included in the open-air school. Apparently the two divisions of the first grade might also have been combined. PROGKAM, UTICA, N. Y. 9.00 to 9.20 Morning exercises. 9.20 to 9.40 D-E, reading ; C, study reading ; B, study reading ; A, study geograpliy. 9.40 to 9.50 Pliysical exercises. 9.50 to 10.10 A, geography ; B, copy work ; C, written number work ; D, busy work ; E, biisy worlv. Fig. 100. — Children on a school journey halting for the noonday lunch, France. 10.10 to 10.30 B, reading ; A, written worlc ; C. busy work ; D, written number worlv ; E, board worlv. 10.30 to 10.40 Recess. 10.40 to 11.00 Reading, C-E ; A, B, and C, written spelling; D, busy worlc. 11.00 to 11.20 Oral spelling, A, P., and C; busy work, D-E. 11.20 to 11.30 Play time. 31.30 to 11.45 Arithmetic, C-D ; written arithmetic, A-B ; busy work, E. 11.45 to 12.00 Music. 12.00 to 12.30 Dinner. 12.30 to 1.30 Rest. 1.30 to 1.35 Chairs put away. 1.35 to 2.00 Language. 2.00 to 2.20 A-B, history reading; copy work, C; board work number, D; busy work, E. 2.20 to 2.30 Dismissal. 11.45 Arithmetic, I, II, III. 12.30 Dinner ; handwork. 1.30 Rest, I, II, III; penmanship, IV, V. 2.00 Arithmetic, IV, V. 8.00 Geographj^ IV, V. 3.20 Lunch. 3.30 Go home. 202 OPEW-AIR SCHOOLS. The St. Louis daily program indicates a possible arrangement when six grades are included in the school : DAILY PROGRAM OPEN-AIR SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS.^ 8.00 Arrive at school. 8.30 Baths. 8.45 Lunch. 9V15 School (reading, I, II, III, IV, V Grades). 10.15 Language, I, II, III, IV, V. 11.00 Recreation ; dancing. 11.25 Rest, IV, V; penmanship, I, II, III. Qualifications of teacher. — The teacher of an open-air class should be well trained in the ordinary grammar school subjects and should have special preparation in manual training and nature study. She must be adaptable, alert, genuinely interested in the health of her pupils, and alive to the possibilities of her position. The open-air school should not be considered a place of refuge for nervously exhausted women, or for arrested cases of tuberculosis, unless a physician's certificate has been obtained, showing that the teacher is fully capable of handling the heavy work of an ungraded class. Women with throat trouble or with Bright's disease should not undertake the work. Teachers of experience in open-air work agree in saying that they are more free from fatigue and backache at the close of the day than they have ever been in closed school work, since the tension of discipline is greatly reduced and the nervous strain of constantly forcing tired children to school tasks is done away with. WHAT A TEACHER SHOULD OBSERVE FROM THE HEALTH SIDE. 1. The adjustment of windows and screens. 2. That no child is unduly exposed to drafts. 3. That children are properly clad. (a) See that heavy sweaters, Eskimo suits, coats, and heavy underwear are not worn in mild weather. (&) See that children are sufficiently clad when weather suddenly turns cold. (c) Know if children have wet feet. 4. Which children have had glasses prescribed and whether they wear them. 5. Which children fail to hear readily, and especially failure of hearing on part of children who usually hear well. 6. The development of acute colds and nasal discharge. 7. Development of signs of nervousness and irritable disposition. 8. Development of listlessness and inability to concentrate. 9. Failure of interest in school work. 1 Two years' work by the St. Louis Society for the Relief and rrevention of Tubercu- losis, 1910-11. EDUCATIONAL OEGANIZATION AND CURRICULA. 203 10. Increased interest in school work, and know whether it is due to elevation of temperature or general improvement of physical condition. .11. If child's hands are cold, and he watchful for evidence of chilling. Children often suffer without complaint. 12. Evidence of weariness in the morning, and learn if due to late hours at home. Cleanliness. Personal habits of children. Restlessness during rest period on part of children who usually are quiet. Extreme lassitude and inability to waken. 17. Evidence of failing appetite. 18. That on returning from bath tlie hair is thoroughly dry and that the children are not permitted to return to schoolroom too soon after bath. .»>'•: -,.:. - . ■ - - - ■ - - . ^m Fig. 101. — BrcathinE exercises ou a wooden platform adjoining field, Mass. the scliool tent, Spring- Pay of teacher. — Because of the unusual features of the open-air school "work, indicated above, fresh-air classes are frequently listed among the so-called special classes, and the teacher receives additional pay. In New York City, Brooklyn, and other eastern cities this addit^ional pay amounts to $100 a year. Curi'leula. — The curricula of American open-air schools, in con- trast with those of the foreign schools, have adhered more nearly to the indoor school curricula. This has been due largely to their physi- cal nearness to the regular public schools. It is difficult for a teacher in an open-window room to get away from the regulation program. Removal to a roof or to a separate building seems to release her 204 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. mind from the rigidity sometimes unconsciously acquired from the daily sight of four calcimined walls and five rows of immovable desks. If the school can be so situated that a partnership with nature is possible, it is the best guarantee against monotony in the cur- riculum. A kindergarten teacher in a Sacramento, Cal., open-air school says : In the open-air kindergarten we find tliat in place of tlie old-time program, the week's thought and the changes in. introducing morning talks come to us unsought rather than by our seeking. We seem to be in the very midst of nature's calls, for birds, butterflies, bees, caterpillars, and spiders appear on our window ledge, or pass through the room. Songs or stories are always suggested by the children from their environment. Under such circumstances it is possible to allow the children more freedom of self-expression, and to cultivate their ability for doing and making. The English reports emphasize the ease with which the elementary studies can be worked out along motor and sensory lines, and the foreign schools have carried this development much further than has yet been done in America, except perhaps at a few private open- air schools. This is partly due to the organization of the elementary schools in England, which gives much freedom to the headmaster of each school in planning the course of study. Teachers of open-air schools in England have been practically released from all restric- tions as to curricula, and have been given a free rein in working out their own theories, provided only that the work is approved by the official inspector of the board of education. Curriculum o^ Shooters Hill opeurair school. — Thus at the Shoot- er's Hill School near London, the headmaster has made manual work, nature study, and gardening the basis of his whole curriculum. The boys fenced in the garden, built the tool house and hutches for pets, boarded up an exposed end of the schoolroom, made the wooden slats for foot rests, constructed paths and a drainage system for the school garden, and even fitted up a small ornamental pond and sun dial. Arithmetic, drawing, elementary chemistry, and botany were cor- related with the actual manual work. The girls helped with the computations and with the lighter work, and had sewing in addition. A most interesting feature of the course of study is the method of teaching geography. The school overlooks the river Thames and its shipping. The steamship companies whose boats dock at the London wharfs send to the school descriptions of the boats, their routes, and their cargoes. Soon the children learn to recognize the funnels, and it is a great event when an East Indian liner comes to dock. Geography becomes a living thing, with the whole world thus brought to the schoolroom door. In the same way history EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULA. 205 lessons start with visits to the many places of historic interest within easy reach of the school. The complete course of study, which is full of suggestion for American teachers, is given below. Syllabus of Work, Shooters Hill Open-Air School. recitations. Study and, where possible, learn — Class I — Home Thoughts from Abroad (R. Browning). My Heart lieaps Up (Wordsworth). T>ines Written in Early Spring (Wordsworth). Fig. 102. — A school garden on a city roof, Horace Mann School, New York City. To the Cuckoo (Wordsworth). Reverie of Poor Susan (Wordsworth). To a Butterfly (Wordsworth). The World is Too Much with Us (Wordsworth). A Wish (S. Rogers) ; Expostulation and Repl.y (Wordsworth). Class II — The Royal George (Cowper) ; The Daisies (Sharman). The Rainbow Fairies (Hadley) ; Morte d'Arthur (Tennyson). Selections from Hiawatha (Longfellow). The Village Blacksmith (Longfellow). Class III—- Baby Seed Song (Nesbitt) ; The Brown Thrush (Larson). Daffydowndilly (Thompson) ; The Rabbits (Thompson). 206 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. How the Leaves Came Down (Mary Howitt). Clouds (Sharman) ; selections from Hiawatha (Longfellow). Class IV — Song from Pippa Passes (Browning). The Tree in Winter (Shakespeare) ; Little by Little. Under the Greenwood Tree (Shakespeare). What a Bird Thought; Noontide (Anon.). Baby Seed Song (Nesbitt) ; The Babes in the Wood (Anon.). KEADING. Class I — Hereward the W' ake ; Children of the New Forest ; Treasure Island ; Kent, Past and Present. Cla^s II— Tales of the Court of King Arthur ; David Copperfield ; Highroads of History^ Class III— Stories of Robin Hood ; Seaside and Wayside Readers ; Coral Island ; Highroads of History. Class IV— Chambers' Effective Readers ; The Golden Dawn Readers. Oeneral — Nature Tales and Myths ; Simple Greek Myths. COMPOSITION AND DICTATION. 1. Coi-rection of common mistakes in speech. 2. Oral composition, including the telling and acting of simple stories. 3. Written composition chiefly on subjects dealing with the nature and history lessons. ARITHMETIC. Class I — 1. Measurement of length (foot rule, tape measure, chain, and hoop), area (square, rectangle, triangle, and circle), volume (cube, rectangu- lar prism), and weight. 2. Easy decimals and a general knowledge of the metric system, with special reference to the children's height and weight. 3. Simple proportion. 4. Exercises in profit and loss, and percentages based on the cultivation and sale of school-garden produce, and on other familiar trans- actions. 5. Angular measurements to aid in determining heights of trees, diameter of pond, etc. Use of protractors and simple theodolites. 6. Exercises in reading thermometer, barometer, rain gauge, and anemom- eter. Class II— 1. Revision of multiplication tables, and simple fractions. 2. Revision of and more difficult examples in the compound rules. 3. Long division ; factors to be used where possible. 4. Measurement of length, weight, and volume; plans and scales. Tlie objects considered to be chiefly those found in the neighborliood or met with in the children's daily life. 5. Simple exercises in fractions, with practical examples. 6. Exercises in reading thermometer and barometer. EDUCATIOXAL ORGAXIZATION AXD CUEEICULA. 207 Class III— 1. Completion of multiplication table. 2. Four compound rules involving small sums of money ; these to be ex- plained by means of coins. 3. Simple ideas of the commonest weights and measures, i. e., those that are used in ordinary shopping. 4. Simple fractions, such as *, i, i, i, i, s ; practical methods of obtaining them. 5. The clock face and how to read it ; simple problems thereon. 6. Simple information respecting " degrees," to assist the children in read- ing the thermometer. Class IT— 1. Composition of such numbers as 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, IS, 20. 2. Multiplication tables, i. e., 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 times as far as 6. 3. The four simple rules, the numbers to be involved not to be greater than 100. Easy problems illustrated by free drawing. 4. Simple measurements dealing with inches, feet, and yards ; practical work to be taken. 5. An elementary knowledge of money — bronze and silver coins. Some idea as to what articles can be purchased for ^d.. Id., 6d., etc. 6. Simple fractions H, i, i) taught by means of paper folding, clay modeling, etc. The clock face should also be introduced here. N. B. — More difficult exercises may be used in the case of the more advanced children. GEOGRAPHY. General — Special stress is to be laid on the fact that the soil, climate, environment, and other natural features of a locality are the factors which usually de- termine and limit the occupations of the people occupying that locality. Raised maps are to be made to illustrate the geography lessons. The chief local geographical features should be taught to ^11 classes. Class I— The eight chief lines of ocean-going steamers (Allan, Orient, P. & O., British India Steam Navigation Co., Union Castle, New Zealand Shipping Co., etc.) which are connected with the Albert and Victoria Docks ; the cargoes which they take from and bring to London ; general facts concerning the countries in which they have ports of call ; distances covered and time taken by steamers ; models of their respective funnels and flags. Class IT— 1. Chief physical features and industries of England and Wales. 2. The imaginary purchase of British goods used in connection with the buildings, apparatus, meals, etc., at the open-air schools, and the prob- able methods by means of which they were brought to the school site. Class III— 1. Geography of Kent, Essex, and the Thames, with special reference to their industries. 2. Interesting details concerning Greenwich, Woolwich, Plumstead, Charl- ton, Erith, Eltham, Chislehurst, Epping Forest, Shooter's Hill, and Bostal Hill. Class IV— 1. Story of Father Thames. 2. Type of district that would be chosen by a hunter, a shepherd, a miner, a farmer, and a fisherman ; reasons for their choice. 208 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. 3. Methods of obtaining food (eggs, fruit, corn, meat, etc.) and shelter (trees, caves, huts, etc.). 4. Physical features of the neighborhood. The improvement in the social and industrial life of the English people as illustrated by the history of Kent. The following points are to be dealt with : 1. The first inhabitants of Kent. 2. Roman associations ; roads, camps, and antiquities. Julius Cfesar. n B^Si^^U ^^ ^ vk:.- mM 1 H ll HI ^M ^,^4^el*»^-'■••■ ^ HjH ■ # B iw ^M BSb| TOriii '*i""^i 1 ■Kilif.i-o'^ ■ -'jm -^^3 1 Fig. 103. — Computing height of trees at Uffculme Open-air School, Birmingham, England. 3. Saxon conquest of Kent. Introduction of Christianity— Coming of the Danes, and the beginning of the landlord system. Earl Godwin and Harold. 4. Norman invasion and Middle Ages, Domesday Book; Norman architec- ture; Lesnes Abbey; Thomas a Becket ; Canterbury Pilgrims; King John's Palace at Eltham ; Wat Tyler's Rebellion; Welhall and Sir Thomas Moore ; Woolwich Dockyard. 5. Modern times; historical objects and men of Woolwich, e. g.. Rotunda, Severndroog Castle, Gen. Gordon. Where convenient, and especially in the younger classes, brief plays and tableaux should be introduced to illustrate various historical events. The models to be made by the various classes are: British barrow, British hut, Roman camp, Saxon village, Norman castle, a part of Lesnes Abbey, St. Augustine's Cross, and an archery butt; ancient domestic and war im- plements should also be attempted. EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATTOISr AXD CURRICULA. 209 NAXrKE STUDY. The nature work should deal with the animal and vegetable life found at or near the open-air school, and with the local climate and soils. The various " subjects " should not be isolated, but special stress should be laid upon the interdependence of plant and animal life, these again being influenced by the soil and climatic conditions. A selection may therefore be made from the following, according to the powers of the children and the pre- vailing season, etc. : 1. Earth kiwirlcdf/r. — Lessons on various rocks, e. g., clay, sand, gravel, flint, chalk, and granite ; the types of scenery produced by these rocks. 2. Weather ohserrations — (1) Wind, rain, dew, hail, snow, and fog. (2) Information concerning the barometer, thermometer, rain gauge, anemometer, and sundial. (3) Clouds and cloud sketching. (4) Elementary information concerning sun, moon, and stars. 3. Plant and animal life — (1) Awakening in hedgerow and pond — seeds, buds, primrose, colts- foot, birds' nests, frog, dragon fly, etc. The local trees. (2) Summe7-'s glory. — Buttercup, daisy, grasses, rushes, rose, bee, wasp, butterfly, moth, ant, etc. (3) The season of rest. — Evergreens, hibernation, etc. Some of the nature lessons will be taken in connection with the gardening, for which there is a separate syllabus. GARDENING. 1. Soils. — Heavy and light soils and their preparation for crops. 2. Manures. — Natural and artificial. 3. Seeds. — Preparation of seed bed and methods of sowing. 4. Transplantinff. — When and how to transplant seedlings. J). IIoic to prolong the flowering stage of a plant. 6. Fertilization of flowers and setting of seed; culture of various fruits and vegetables. 7. Garden operations. — Watering, digging, double and bastard trenching; hoeing, its uses in clearing weeds and conserving water. 8. An allotment. — Its arrangement and care. 9. In the choree of plants care is taken to include those most useful in nature lessons. 10. Exercises in profit and loss, percentages, etc., based on garden produce. Digging and preparation of clay for pottery. 11. Clay modeling. MUSIC. Upper division — 1. Breathing exercises. 2. Voice training. Exercises to oo, ah, oh, ay, ee. 3. Ear-training. Simple phrases consisting of four notes, time and tune combined. 4. Sight reading — (a) Tonic sol-fa — time and tune combined. (b) Staff — easy passages in keys C, F, G in 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4. 97855°— Bull. 23—17 14 210 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. 5. The modulator — the first flat and sharp keys. 6. Songs — (ft) "Who is Sylvia?" (&) "I know a Bank." (c) " Oh Mistress Mine." (d) "On Wings of Song." (e) "The Ash Grove." (/) " Spring Song." ,{g) "Ye Banks and Braes." Lower Division — 1. Breathing exercises. 2. Voice training — voice exercises to oo, oh, ah, ay, ee. 3. Ear training. Simple phrases consisting of three notes. 4. Sight reading — (a) Tonic sol-fa time and tune combined. (&) StafC — easy passages in Key C in 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4. 5. Songs — (a) "Who is Sylvia?" (6) R. L. Stevenson's Songs for little children. (c) "Ye Banks and Braes." (d) "The Ash Grove." (e) " Spring Song." HANDWOEK. Boys mul Girls — Modeling in plasticine. Historical and geographical models. Gardening, including clay modeling (see separate syllabus). Simple repousse vi^ork in connection v^ith light woodwork. Weaving in cane, bast, or string (younger children). Graduated exercises in paper, cardboard, and wood connected with sten- ciling, etc. Girls only — Needlework (see separate syllabus). Knitting. Boys only — Simple exercises in fretwork and wood carving (class 8). Ordinary woodwork, such as the making of es.sy models (younger boys) or wind screen, tool shed (elder boys). Metal work (zinc, tin, brass). Rustic woodwork (elder boys). DRAWING. 1. Rough sketches to illustrate various lessons. 2. Water color, pencil, crayon, and chalk work, chiefly to illustrate the nature lessons. 3. Simple design (elder children). 4. Imagination drawing correlated with literature nnd history. NEEDLEWORK. Classes I and II — 1. Patching — calico, print, and flannel. 2. Darning — stocking web, socks, and dresses. 3. Stitches used in plain needlework. EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND CUEEICULA. 211 4. Patterns of useful garments (blouses, dresses, underclothing, pinafores. overalls) taught by means of paper folding. Measuring material required and finding its cost. 5. Knitting — fancy stitches, skullcaps, etc. G. Crocheting with cotton, wool, and macrame string. 7. Art needlework. Classes III and IV — 1. Various stitches. 2. Making clothes for dolls ; patterns for these garments to be taught by means of paper folding, and then cut out in material. ORGANIZED GAMES. Boys — 1. Singing games (younger boys). 2. Cricket, football, hockey, and rounders, according to the season of the year. Girls— 1. Singing games. 2. Basket ball. 3. Skipping. PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 1. Marching from Plum Lane School to the open-air school, and vice versa. 2. Breathing exercises (see separate syllabus). 3. Special exercises for cold weather. Bermei'side Open-Aii' School^ Halifax, England. — The following program from the Bermerside Open-Air School, conducted by the city of Halifax for physically debilitated children, is typical of the arrangement of a day at the English schools : TIME TABLE AND SYLLABUS. 8.00 to 9.00. Breakfast. 9.00 to 9.20. Prayers, hymn. Scripture lesson. 9.20 to 9.30. Registration, personal inspection. 9.30 to 10.00. Nature lesson. 10.00 to 10.30. Play, lunch. 10.30 to 10.45. Singing. 10.45 to 12.00. Rlanual work. 12.00 to 12.30. Preparation for dinner, washing, 12.30 to 1.30. Dinner. 1.30 to 3.30. Sleep. 3.30 to 4.00. Play, setting tea table. 4.00 to 5.00. Tea. 5.00 to 5.45. Reading, telling stories. 5.45 to 6.15. Games, impromptu plays, etc. 6.15 to 6.45. Prayers, supper, home. setting table. English programs show a later hour of dismissal than is customary in the American schools. Most English schools have, following the rest period in the afternoon, a short school session, then tea, and outdoor work or play until 5.30 or 6 o'clock. The longer summer 212 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. evenings and the ease of transportation make this possible where it would not be feasible in the United States. Country Schools for City Children, England. — Several English cities have established what they call " country schools for city chil- dren," to which anemic and debilitated children are sent for summer vacations, lasting for a month or two, and Avhere they receive a cer- tain amount of instruction. One of the most beautiful of these schools is the Bowring House Council School at Roby, near Liverpool. Here the curriculum is based entirel}^ on nature study. The reading books used are appro- priate to country life, and the poems studied relate to nature and its teachings. Stories are chosen with corresponding games and songs. The letters sent home weekly are descriptive of surround- ings and new interest. One special feature of the school curriculum is the opportunity for self-expression, as shown in illustrated diaries and calendars which decorate the walls of the schoolroom, as well as drawings which result from the study of natural surroundings. This weekly diary, the mounted specimens, and the productions in clay and wood, are valuable results of enlightened observation dur- ing country rambles. A special feature is a course of lessons on the growth of trees, given weekly. Children learn to recognize the char- acteristics of various trees, by actual observation, and a friendly spirit of rivalry exists in the search for specimens of flora and fauna. The boys learn to distinguish the birds by their various notes, and nests are found and carefully examined. Many opportunities thus arise for emphasizing the value of bird life. Butterflies, insects, frogs, and toads are studied. The children notice the blossoming of the shrubs and fruit trees, and the effect of a night's frost on those that are not sheltered. They make a note of the moon and its shape, night by night, for entry in their diary card. The care of live stock, including chickens, ducks, goat, rabbits, dog, cat, canary, and two donkeys, proves a very popular occupation. School gardens provide many of the vegetables used at the table. Visits are made to places of special interest in the neighborhood, as a quarry, briclv works, a pottery plant, an old church, and a near-by farm. The necessary household duties occupy the jfirst part of the morn- ing, each child having a special task to perform. Some are bed makers, others dust the rooms or peel potatoes, while some are en- gaged in washing up, and others in boot cleaning. All the little ones are kept very busy with the cleaning of spoons and the like. The girls also are taught to darn the stockings and mend the clothes and make the working aprons. The boys take part in the household work and darning, but practical woodwork interests them more. EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULA. 213 Under direction they have made the houses and runs for the hve stock. Thrift is encouraged by banking the chikh-en's money on arrival, and by receiving frequent deposits. " Shopping days " are allowed twice a week, when money can be obtained from the bank, but careful account has to be kept of the expenditures. In these and many other waj^s the community life of the school is related to the studies which are pursued. An English roof school. — That the possibility of introducing novel ideas and methods into the curriculum does not depend wholly upon a country location for the school is shown b}^ the following account of a school on an' English roof. The school equipment consists of a block of blank paper, pencil, water colors or pastel material for handwork, and the usual school textbooks. The teachers in charge keep diaries which list short les- sons providing as much individual work as possible to the children, and in which are entered the amount of work done, and any other points worthy of notice. First of all, in the morning the children walk about the roof, which commands an expanse of 40 miles from east to west. Such a wide prospect has a stimulating effect on children used to the restricted view of London streets. Facing the sunny hills to the east, they sing an opening hymn. Then, grouped in the sunshine, some count the railings, others tell how many more are on one side than on the other, and they check each other's results. They find out by actual measurements how many feet run are in the fence, how" much iron in the bars, how much to paint so many feet, how many bricks in the chimney stacks, how long is the playground, how high, how many square feet are under cover, how much concrete to cover the floor, and so on. The older pupils find the cubical contents of pipes, the capacity of cisterns, the adequacy of gutters, and the calculation of height by the length of shadows. All are kept busy, with a foreman in charge of each group of six. For the geography lesson they trace out the direction of the great roads with their borrowed telescopes, follow the river, get the posi- tion of the rising* ground, and with their hands full of plasticine make a model of the landscape as they see it. From these models they make real maps, and so learn the relation of the map to the landscape. Older children may draw the prominent features of the prospect on one side of a glass slip and transfer this to paper, care- fully naming all the outstanding features of the landscape, whether they be hilltop, factory shaft, or the distant wood. The children learn about the clouds as they discover them in the sk;^^ and draw them with pale washes of color or murky sepia. The kite that they have just flown over the railings, and the toy wind- mills that they have each made, tell them of the winds, the shifting 214 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. direction as the kite travels round, and the force as their tiny mills whirr in a flutter. They learn about light and shadow, keep a weather chart, and, most interesting of all, by noting and marking the moving shadows of stationary uprights they discover something of a world that is turning and moving. For drawing, they go to large rough drawing boards, hung on the railings by rope loops, well papered to give a smooth surface. In the classroom it is hard to do any but tiny drawings, but out here they make life-size copies. The younger children love to draw on the playground floor, and they are allowed to do this with colored chalks. By the end of the open-air period the playground is a perfect mosaic of sketches. History and English can always be acted, and the freedom of the open-air classes gives chances for working out little plays by the children. American open-air school curricula. — Persons who have visited open-air schools both abroad and in this country feel that in many instances American teachers are simply doing indoor work out of doors, without much effort at new methods or means of expression as far as the teaching is concerned. However, more careful study of the work reveals in almost every instance a conscious groping for the same kind of freedom of curriculum which characterizes open- air schools in more favorable localities. School gardens. — The educational value of the school garden has not been overlooked, even in schools where access to the soil is diffi- cult, and, everywhere that the site has permitted, the garden has been made a special feature of the school. In Rochester a large space has been set aside for gardening. Aside from the preliminary preparation of the ground, all the work is done by the children under the direction of a woman gardener. The school is in session throughout the year. In the summer of 1914 they raised vegetables enough, with the exception of potatoes, to supply the table through the summer and fall. Tomatoes, turnips, carrots, peas, chard, string beans, and sweet corn flourished. In South Manchester, Conn., where the school is in session during 10 months only, the children were encouraged to come on certain da5'^s during the summer for the garden lesson. A minister living near the school volunteered his services as instructor, and hired help to divide the land into plats, each 8 by 10 feet, and to apply the fer- tilizer. Each child was allowed one of these plats for his own ground, and what he raised he carried home. The same seeds were planted by all the children — radishes, lettuce, beets, onions, butter beans, and sweet corn. There were three community plats where the produce was raised for the use of the school. As a result of this work many of the children planted gardens at home. EDUCATIOIS^AL ORGANIZATION AND CUEEICULA. 215 The location of the Elizabeth McCormick Open-Air Schools, 1 and 2, on adjoining roofs of the Hull House in Chicago seemed to prohibit any work with gardens, but a near-by roof was found some- what sheltered on three sides from prevailing winds, on which for the last three summers a very successful flower and vegetable garden lias been maintained. Large boxes were carried to the roof and filled with soil. The vegetables were started under cold frames late in April and early in May. By June there were abundant flowers, and during the summer a small crop of vegetables was produced. Perhaps the achievement which gave the children the greatest pride was a harvest of 150 ears of sweet corn. School journeys. — The school journey, as practiced in France, Switzerland, and other countries, is described elsewhere in this bulletin.^ English work was started in 1896 by the Bellenden Road School, Peckham. The plan was to take some 30 or 50 boys by train to a convenient and inexpensive hotel, and use that as a center for daily expeditions. The idea spread slowly, but the board of educa- tion now recognizes for purposes of the attendance grant, "time occupied by visits during the school hours to places of educational value or interest, or by field work, or by rambles." (Code, art. 44B.) The London County Council allows teachers and classes to use its tramways at reduced rates, and where they can not be used the council pays part of the traveling expenses. A handbook on educa- tional visits has been issued wiiich lists places of interest, hours when they are open, subjects of educational interest, and special facilities. School journeys may last for a week or longer. The council makes a grant of not more than $30 a week, or $60 for a longer period, to pay for supplies, teacher, provide equipment, and defray the travel- ing expenses of the teacher. The teachers interested in such expeditions have formed a School Journey Association, which publishes the School Journey Record. From the Torriano Avenue Guide, the following aims and objects are quoted : (1) To bring teachers and scholars into closer touch with one another. (2) To foster habits of good-fellowship, self-reliance, and unselfishness. (3) To study nature on a larger scale than is possible in the classroom. (4) To investigate the causes which produce scenery. (5) To secure rock, plant, and animal specimens near London. (6) To acquire the habit of learning from the world at large, as well as from books. (7) To extend our knowledge of mankind, past and present. (8) To make a special study of a port (Harwich). (9) To observe various forms of labor, " especially the naval," and so obtain a better idea as to what we are fitted for. (10) To gain health and vigor from a week's life at the seashore. (11) To learn how to spend a holiday intelligently and happily. i See p. 155. 216 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. With the development of the work, a large number of hotels, farms, cottages, and country camps have been listed which can be used as centers for expeditions. The cost of the journeys varies considerably. Some schools keep the pro rata cost down to $1.50 a week. The ex- peditions are planned for normally well children, but there is no reason why they could not be undertaken in moderation for the physically debilitated. In Italy, where inclement weather does not so often need to be considered, whole classes may be seen carrying light-weight portable desks and knapsacks, and journeying from place to place under the guidance of an experienced teacher. Wherever the locality invites them, they can unstrap their desks, chairs, and conduct an informal recitation. Very little work of this sort has been done as yet in the United States, but there is no reason why it should not be more widely undertaken. Playground classes. — Another form of open-air education in- creasingly in use in England is the so-called playground class. This simply means that certain classes go to the playground for recita- tion. Detroit, Mich., where most of the schools have large, shady yards, removed from the business streets, tried a similar plan several years ago with considerable success. It is only practicable where the yard is attractive and removed from noise and dust. Contrary to the expectation of the teacher, wherever such classes have been conducted it has been found that the attention of the children has been excellent, and that discipline has caused no difficulty. Physical exercises. — The place of physical culture in the curricu- lum of an open-air school has been much discussed. Some physicians have gone so far as to forbid any form of violent exercise for the children in an open-air school class. Most, however, have recognized the value of properly supervised exercise adapted to the need of the individual child. The Swedish remedial exercises are frequently used and highly recommended by teachers in the foreign schools. Breath- ing exercises are sometimes given with the children stripped to the waist, so that the instructor can observe the chest formation and the action of the lungs. The teachers at the Ethical Culture School in New York City believe that play constitutes " perhaps the largest single factor in the development of the open-air school children." Only once a day, in this school, does one lesson follow another without the intervention of recess or lunch and rest period, and then there is a 5-minutes' in- termission devoted to vigorous play. If a child has become nervous or confused in one lesson, he has time to regain his poise and start afresh in the following period. Besides, intellectual food, just as EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIOlSr AND CURRICULA. 217 physical food, needs time for digestion, and during this time stuffing is harmfuL Education means groxcth. — If the function of all well-directed education is to foster growth, there can be no question that the open- air school affords that opportunity in large measure. Most children who apply for admission at American open-air schools come with previous school records of poor attendance, low-grade scholarship, and depleted energy. The transformation which takes place in their attitude toward school and toward life is universally recognized. To free a child from such handicaps before they have seriously affected his career is the inspiring task set before the teacher of the open-air school. Toward its accomplishment every facility of edu- cational organization and curriculum should be directed. Chapter XIII. RESULTS OF OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. In the United States it is an accepted theory that every child should have at least that amount of formal education which is meas- ured by the completion of the work of the grammar school. In recent years attention and interest have centered increasingly on the more than 50 per cent of all the children who do not achieve this minimum standard. Our attention would have been called to this subject earlier if these pupils had accumulated in the schools. Children leave school both because they succeed and because they fail, and the public has accommodatingly absorbed the failures as well as the successes. Health inspection of school children and the general advance in social work have been factors largely responsible for the new atti- tude on this subject. The iDublic now wants to know to what degree adverse phj'sical, economic, and environmental conditions are respon- sible for the failure of children to get at least through the grammar school. On page 161 of his book on Medical Inspection of Schools Dr. Ayres gives a table which is perhaps one of the most definite statements, though by no means final, yet made as to the effect of physical handicaps on school progress. The table, based on a study of 3,304 children, in 1908, gives the years required by defective and nondefective children to complete the eight grades of the public schools of New York City. Years required to complete eight grades. Children with — Years. No defects 8. Defective vision 8. Defective teeth 8. 5 Defective breathing — 8. 6 Hypertrophied tonsils 8. 7 Adenoids 9. 1 Enlarged glands 9- 2 Dr. Ayres further says : If these figures are substantially significant for all New York City school children, their education:! 1 and economic import is great. According to the data, the child with seriously defective teeth requires half a year more than a 218 RESULTS OP OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. 219 nondefective child to complete the eight grades. About one-half of the children have seriously defective teeth. The handicap imposed by defective breathing means six-tenths of a year. About one child in seven has defective breath- ing. The child with hypertrophied tonsils takes about seven-tenths of a year more than he should. About one child in every four has hypertrophied tonsils. The extra time required by the child with adenoids is about one and one-tenth years. About one child in eight has adenoids. The pupil Avith enlarged glands requires one and two-tenths years extra. Nearly half of the children have enlarged glands. Dr. Ayres points out that these figures are confined to one city and to a comparatively small group of children, and warns against any large generalization. However, the figures are significant as an indication. Health inspection in public schools has everywhere shown that a large percentage of school children have physical defects of one kind or another. The open-air school has definitely undertaken to deal with school children from the health side; consequently, in reports of nearly all the open-air schools where results are given they are largely in terms of ph^^sical improvement. On the other hand, the usual public- school records are mainly concerned with intellectual attainments and school attendance. There is widespread interest in the results of open-air school work. Perhaps the questions most frequently asked are about the effect of open-air schools on the grade standing of the children. This is especially true of teachers and school authorities. Long emphasis on the importance of passing examinations and making grades, and the fact that the teachers themselves are ranked according to their success in getting children through the course in a given time, ac- count for the interest on this point. The child needs both health and education. It profits him little to achieve the school work if he loses his health. The problem is to use the eight years which are required by the compulsory-education law from each child in such a wa}^ that it will give him the maximum of both physical fitness and training for service. In the preparation of this bulletin an effort was made to secure as accurate data as possible on both physical and intellectual results in open-air school work. The questionnaire sent out by the United States Bureau of Education ^ did not cover the matter of school standing, but it did call for points concerning the physical, social, and economic conditions of children. The school standing and progress of the children in Chicago open-air schools were studied independently, however, and the findings will be made a part of this chapter. In order that the reader may have some of the points on the social and economic conditions of the children directly before his 1 See Chap. IIL 220 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. mind while considering results, a slight repetition may be warranted. The questionnaire was answered for 598 open-air school children in Chicago and for 620 children in open-air schools from other cities. The average number of members in the families of all the open-air children in the study was 6.15, and the average number of rooms to the family 4 plus. The income in more than 85 per cent of the families was about one-half the amount set in the stand- ards established by different authorities mentioned in the chapter on social and economic conditions. The children of the open-air schools for practically all of the cities for which returns were made are selected on the basis of physical needs. In the following table the symptoms which are largely determinative in the selection of children are grouped under the general head of "Principal diagnostic findings," and cover tuberculosis, anemia, malnutrition, chronic heart troubles, and bron- chitis. Other defects, such as diseased tonsils, adenoids, and decayed teeth, are given in another division, together with data on defects corrected. Each general division is indicated by heavy lines. The table gives typical conditions and results. It does not, in most cases, include all the open-air school children of the city reporting. RESULTS OF OPEX-AIR SCHOOLS. 221 j^ ■^■3 CO o 10 10 ^ ^^ CO 10 00 ;o anoco^^t^t^ o t^C^O-^OC^O C^r C'< O (N O CC Ph o O O CO »o c^o coo O TT "^ -^ CO ^H t^ ■* 00 0000 ■ c<» to to 0> 00 » OS 05 O O CO »-* to O -"T O 00 CO rt O M CO -- ■<»<■<>< "5 tH r-t^Oc^O-^o t^co o ^ CM ■"Ti.-ICS to to 1-1 00 <35 ^^ < to 05 to "O 01 CO v. r^ t^ _( t» ^ rH 1-H GO ^H »-l ■<»» T-l O ■Tjf i-*00 a c3 3=^ 00 to to CO O -^ 10 CQi-H o 00 ^ »o 'O tc I H to TT OS to OOOOOtO^-^O OSCO 1-100 N rt i-( i» CO—I to TJ1 o *OiO ■» (N i-l t^ 0> O "o 00 o 00 1~ 00 iraoi OSO 06 "5 ^ w >^ • >-* S5§ ";S o o o S g ® ® 5 o =«2c ■5 £ t- 'a 'h <^ p3 "* cc C o w j: « S C a a o^ a ■CO > O ' s c ^^ ; c3 cJ-cS ^ a c c c ^ 03 C3 C3 03 . ,.2 a a a I C^ -' Qi O 0:1 ( a a be tie a a c c-e a a £ 2 o52S222 t>22 © © 00 a a a a 'E'> ■ o g go £ t- £ £ S a 2 — P rj ^^^aS a a c ^ 0) oca) MM i:i! — — 05 22i;o> 222 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. tc . .92 ao m . >> o-O f\$, Mg rt . rH ' .-( oo ■i^ D "5 cc o h4 , o lONoo cq ■A t! ^ CO . C3 © ^ rHO P5 J. ,• lO CO ■ Tl< 'J' 00 > 8 ^ ^ o S3 '— < i-HOO ^ S PhT) -1 "o5 CO ^t cs o^ lO 00 i (M Of- 1^ ;o • .-H 00 . I> 03 1 ^^ CM r^ cc lo o lo t^ ^ CO " . O t_, ;z;o3 ^.^ O C3 a^ 1 © m' IM c'o "-1 a ft CO . 00 cq CM lO CO •B m t^ . S'S o o=l h3> >2 o fl ^^ Cd o- .i.-- O O ■ u- 5 100 CM 1 o+^ CM 00 C 2 S 03 li- lOlO^ >oco ' Cft^CM"0 . 1 CM tH ^ 00 _o cs" ! 3 o C ' O. Mt^ 1 c t _c f-<' m w : ; C ' ' a : ; 5 ; : 3 ; ; Eh' : 5 ^ ! ! 'i S i ;■• 3 ■ ■ K j ; o c»^ c ' H 11 2 ' ■ _c 3 w o o 2 :a I "S '5 & B a « c c B-g © t s 1 111^2 i 1 232 o" 5 QOC J^. 11 3^ O a a a 3 o "3 3 o "3 ^ a ft dJ a 8 d 3 g b.1 ft a o a 03 b C3 ® ^ a d bj (D 3 -1 S M c -^ O > zi •z S ^ <; ^ i5 <; fe :< H ^ b* < < •a •A 'A Chicago ?.m 2,342 488 6.16 683 389 1.79 29.1 285 1,784 371 $12,530.20 S43.96 $7.02 375 274 101 Cincinnati 48 24S 50 5. 20 7 1 .15 2.8 35 194 36 1,389.00 36.83 7.16 43 34 9 Cleveland 87 11 587 9$ 123 15 6.70 7 00 75 61 .90 60 12.7 8 •> 53 3.53 68 1,868.50 35.26 5.29 84 14 6V 9 2/ 5 Minneapolis 4fi 277 54 6.00 74 51 1.60 26.7 41 247 48 1,740.40 42.45 7.04 45 14 31 Montclair 14 113 14 8.1(1 6 4 .40 5.3 9 65 9 289. 50 32.17 4.45 13 6 V Newark 45 263 45 5.70 22 18 .50 7.8 35 201 35 1,891.25 54.04 9.41 44 31 13 New York 76 2n 491 101 80 24 6.50 5.10 14 12 / 11 .20 .60 2.8 11.9 72 15 527 78 76 18 3,819.10 1,455.00 53.04 97.00 7.24 18.65 76 20 75 20 1 Oakland Pittsburgh 18 23 107 154 18 25 6.30 6.70 21 22 8 12 1.20 .90 19.6 14.0 16 21 100 142 16 23 552.00 723.00 34.50 34. 45 6.52 5.09 18 23 13 18 5 Pro\ddence 5 26 39 157 191 26 45 6.00 5. 30 21 70 12 38 .80 1.90 13 4 26 36 8 32 18 St. Louis 36.6 25 135 30 i,i8i.65 47.27 8.75 4 Schenectady 25 25 163 128 30 25 6.50 5.10 1 17 1 15 .04 .70 .6 13.3 20 15 127 84 23 15 1,714. .50 746.00 85. 73 49.73 13.50 8.88 25 25 13 19 12 Springfield 6 9TS55'— BuM. 23—17- -16 241 242 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Social, economic, and hygienic conditions of 886 families of 1,062 open-air school pupils in 15 American cities — Continued. Rooms.. Bedrooms. Rent. P 1 o a o g a 03 •.:^ o T3 o ■3 Ti o ft ■6 1 0) 03 -3 ft ^3 03 1 i o Cities. n J2 ft g o 03 ft 3 1 C3 o a ft 03 ft o 1 1 p. 'S a a ft o "o a § "o S3 a ft o u a ft 1 o a a Fl 3 ft u '? fl & "o a 8 ® a ft o 3 fl 3 CO i o o 03 ft 03 ;-< _03 •2 O i o o 03 1 o fl 03 U >;. 3 1 g 3 g a i 3 g a IH S 1h 3 t-l 3 Im 3 03 1^ U 3 a ,Q fl ^ a h fl X! ,fl c3 fl X! fl Id 3 "o 0) a 3 03 a 3 > a 3 03 o 03 o ? S5 e X H < ^ &H '^, E^ < ^1 '^ H ^ < ■< Chicago 860 ?, 9^f^ 466 1,663 13 ?qo 1,806 378 803 2 2 60 60 307 1 455 $3,587.00 $11.68 !t2. 46 Cincinnati 47 86 14 46 242 582 98 277 49 122 15 54 155 369 45 245 1.6 1.5 2.2 1.1 47 82 13 45 24.^ 562 91 274 49 116 14 53 99 236 24 2.5 2.4 3 8 65.00 63.00 57.00 ,51.25 43 67 ■ 137 301 510. 00 835.00 11.86 12.47 3.72 Cleveland 2.74 Louis\'ille Minneapolis 124!2. 2 39 207 525. 60 13.46 2.54 Montolair 14 45 76 113 263 491 14 45 80 69 213 280 1.6 1.2 1.8 14 45 6 113 263 40 14 45 6 44 2. 6 119 2.2 15 2. 7 63.80 56.63 79.30 10 42 68 44 198 252 125. 50 533. 25 1,044.00 12.55 12.70 15.36 2.85 Newark . . . . . . 2 69 New York 4.14 Oakland 19 17 98 107 23 17 129 48 .8 2 9, 17 17 88 107 21 17 59 1 - 5 .52.00 75 00 5 17 28 48 75.00 204.00 15.00 12.00 2.68 Pittsburgh 36 9 9 4 25 Providence 23 6 34 2F, 154 34 182 163 25 6 40 30 120 26 113 162 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.0 23 7 27 25 154 42 132 163 25 7 31 30 69 18 53 73 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.2 57.50 57.70 21 114 217.00 10.33 1.90 Rochester St. Louis 63.00 93 71 70 226.85 194.50 9.86 16.21 3.20 Schenectady 44.851 12 2.78 25 128 25 145 .9 25 128 25 82 1.6 56.60 19 103 279.00 14.68 2.71 APPENDIX B. ESTIMATED EXPENSE OF EQUIPPING AND MAINTAINING AN OPEN- WINDOW ROOM WITH FULL REGIME OF MEDICAL AND NURSING SERVICE, FEEDING, AND REST. (TWENTY-FIVE CHILDREN— SCHOOL YEAR 10 MONTHS.) FIRST YEAR. 25 coats, at $4.00 $100. 00 1 teacher's coat 10.00 25 felt boots, at $1.35 33. 75 Boots for teacher 1. 35 25 cots, at $3 75.00 25 sleeping blankets, at $3.85 96.25 25 weighting aprons, at 25 cents 6. 25 25 cot covers, at 20 cents 5. 00 25 pairs wool gloves, at 50 cents 12.50 Gloves for teacher . 50 Scales and measuring rod . 30. 00 China and silver 20.00 Kitchenware 30. 00 Supplies 20. 00 Thermometers and drugs 20. 00 Laundry 12. 00 Car fare 10.00 Miscellaneous 10. 00 8 window ventilators, at $3. Total equipment $340. 60 100. 00 52.00 24.00 FIRST YEAR — Continued. Service: Physician, at $50 per mo $500. 00 aiatron, at $40 per mo 400. 00 Food: Milk (f qt, at 9 cents, per day per child) 337.50 Bread 65. 00 Meat 70. 00 Groceries 115. 00 $900. 00 587. 50 Total expense 1, 994. 10 516. 60 If the following equipment is not furnished by the board of education, the cost will be: Kitchen sink 15. 00 Gas stove 25.00 2 cupboards 80. 00 2 kitchen tables 5.00 2 dining-room tables 25. 00 30 chairs, at $1 30. 00 180. 00 243 244 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. (TWENTY-FIVE CHILDREN— SCHOOL YEAR 10 MONTHS)— Continued. SECOND YEAR. The suits should wear 3 to 4 years. The boots should wear 2 to 3 years. The gloves should wear 2 to 3 years. The cots should wear 5 years or more. Repairs ou suits $12. 50 Repairs on boots, re- soling, at 60 cents- 15.00 Repairs on cots 10. 00 10 pairs gloves, at 50 cents 5. 00 Replenishing china and silver 10.00 Replenishing kitchen- ware 10. 00 Supplies (towels, nap- kins, etc.) 20.00 $42. 50 40.00 Thermometers and drugs 20. 00 Laundry 12. 00 Car fare 10.00 Miscellaneous 10. 00 52.00 Service for 10 months 900.00 Food for 10 months 587.50 Total expense for sec- ond year 1, 622. 00 APPENDIX C. RECIPES FOR OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. The following recipes for the preparation of foods especially adapted to the needs of the open-air school children of Chicago were worked out by the matrons, in cooperation with the physicians, nurses, dietitians, and teachers. They are here inserted for the s^ihlance or help of those teachers who are working with, children of a similar type and under somewhat comparable conditions. Each recipe is designed to serve 30 children. SOUPS. Tomato and Lentil Soup. 1^ lbs. lentils soaked over night. 4 oz. bacon. 4 oz. onions, fried in bacon drippings till nearly done. 1 stalk celery. 2 lbs. potatoes, cubed. 1 lb. carrots. Boil lentils about 3 hours, add vege- tables and cook until done through. Add one can tomatoes. Season with salt, pepper, and small amount of vine- gar, to taste. Navy Bean Soup. 2 lbs. navy beans. Knuckle of veal. 2 small onions. Celery. Wash the beans and soak over night in cold water. In the morning put them on to boil, adding more water if necessary. Put in the knuckle of veal, a few stalks of celery, and 2 small onions. Cook slowly 3 hours, watch- ing carefully, as it burns easily. Sea- son to taste with salt, pepper, and paprika. Serve with slices of toast. Split pea soup may be made the same way. Tomato Soup xcith Rice. 7 oz. rice. 2 cans tomatoes. T teaspoonful baking soda. 1 teaspoon butter. 1 tablespoon salt. 3 qts. boiling milk. Stew and strain the tomatoes. Wash rice and put in double boiler with the boiling water and , boil for half an hour, stirring with a fork. Add the strained tomatoes, baking soda and salt, pepper, butter, and hot milk. Cook all together for 20 min- utes. Split Pea Soup. 3 lbs. split peas. 6 oz. onions. i lb. salt pork or bacon. 1 teaspoon celery salt. I'epper and salt. Soak peas over night in cold water ;ind one-third teaspoonful of baking soda. In the morning drain off water and add about 9 quarts of fresh, cold water. Boil slowly 3 or 4 hours, and r»ut through colander. Fry salt pork with onions to a light brown. Add to r)eas, also seasoning. Serve with toasted squares. 24."i 246 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Vegetable Soup. 2 lbs. beef. 15 cent soup bone. 4 oz. barley. 1* lbs. potatoes. i lb. cabbage. i lb. turnips. i lb. carrots. 4 oz. onions. 6 oz. celery. 1 lb. can tomatoes. 1 can corn. Put soup bone and beef in 2 gals, of cold water. Let come to a boil slowly and skim. Boil 4 hours. Add salt to taste and barley. Chop to- gether the potatoes, cabbage, turnips, carrots, onions, celery, tomatoes, corn, and add to the soup 2 hours before serving. Cut all meat from the bone, run through chopper, and add to the soup. MEATS. Baked Beef Stew. 3i lbs. beef. 1 lb. carrots, f lb. turnips. 2 oz. onions. 1 clove garlic. 4 lbs. potatoes. Seasoning. Put beef, carrots, and turnips through coarse meat chopper ; put over fire in about 5 quarts of boiling water. Simmer for about i hour ; put in seasoning, onions, and garlic. Put in potatoes, bake in moderately hot oven for li hours. One-half hour before serving add thickening. It makes about 6i quarts in all. Beef Loaf tcith Tomato Sauce. Bi lbs. chopped beef. i lb. chopped pork. 1 lb. cracker crumbs or stale bread. If bread is used, soak in cold water until tender ; squeeze out water. Mix thoroughly with meat, seasoning well with salt and pepper. Make into loaf, not too thick, and bake about 1 to li hours, basting often with drippings and hot water. Put in saucepan 1 can tomatoes, 4 oz. onions, finely chopped, and 1 pt. l)oiling water, and season well with pepper. and salt. Cook 30 minutes. Remove loaf from baking pan, add 1 (it. boiling water and stir in tomatoes and onions. Thicken with 6 oz. flour and season well with salt and pepper or paprika. Pour gravy over loaf and serve with mashed potatoes. Corn-Beef Hash. 5 lbs. cooked corn beef. 7 lbs. potatoes. 1 onion. 2 teaspoonsful salt. i teaspoon pepper. 3 cups cream. Corn beef should be put on in cold water and cooked very slowly for 3 hours the day before needed. Boil potatoes in their skins ; peel, chop all together with a meat chopper ; add salt, pepper, put in a baking dish and pour cream over top. Bake for f hour. Creamed Salt Pork. Si lbs. lean salt pork. 1 qt. milk. Roll sliced pork in flour and fry brown ; put in stew kettle and con- tinue to fry until all is done, then pour off some of the drippings and hi-()wn flour with what is left in pan. When flour is brown pour 1 qt. milk into pan gradually, stirring constnntly, and let come to a boil ; pour over i)orlv and put back on fire to simmer for 1^ to 2 hours. APPENDIX C EECIPES FOR OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. 247 Tomato Sauce. 3 cans tomatoes. 2 tablespoons flour. 3 tablespoons butter. Cook the tomatoes for 10 minutes ; rub tliroush a strainer. Beat in sauce- pan until smooth ; add 2 tablespoons of flour and 3 tablespoons of butter. Salt and pepper and cook 10 minutes. This may be served with macaroni, rice, etc., as well as with fish and meats. The flavor may be modified by addition of onions, spices, or herbs. Brown Beef Gravy. 4 lbs. beef. I lb. salt pork. G oz. onions. 4 oz. flour. 1 can peas. I can tomatoes. Grind beef, salt pork, and onions through food chopper. Season with salt, pepper, and bake until brown. Stir in 4 oz. flour, 1 qt. water, peas, and tomatoes. Very good with baked or plain boiled potatoes. FISH. Salmon Loaf. 3 cans salmon. 3 eggs. 2 cups milk. Cracker crumbs. Drain liquor off the salmon. Mince salmon and mix with it the eggs, milk, and cracker crumbs enough to form into a loaf. Bake in a moderate oven until nice and brown. Salmon and Rice. 16 oz. rice. 2 cans salmon. 1 qt. milk. 4 oz. butter. 6 oz. flour. Wash well in running water 16 oz. of rice. Cover well with boiling water to which salt has been added, and cook until flaky and tender. Do not stir rice while cooking, turn fire low. When cooked remove from fire and drain in colander. Remove skin and bone from salmon, put into baking dish, add rice, cover with 1 pt. milk and white sauce and season well with salt and pepper. Put in oven for few minutes until thoroughly heated and serve hot. White Sauce. Add to butter, slightly heated, the flour, beat until creamy ; stir into 3 pts. boiling milk, stirring constantly, so as not to burn or lump, if double boiler is not used. CHEESE. Cottage Cheese. 4 qts. sour milk. Cream. Warm and strain milk through cheesecloth ; add just enough cream to blend, salt and pepper. MISCELLANEOUS STEWS. Kidney-Bean Stew. 2 lbs. beef. 3 lbs. dried kidney beans. 1 can tomatoes. 4 medium-sized onions. 3 lbs. potatoes. Soak beans in cold water over night. In the morning drain ofC water and start to cook at 8 o'clock in enough cold water to cover well. Just as soon as beans get soft, add beef cut in squares, tomatoes, and onions. At 11 o'clock add potatoes diced, thicken with flour, add salt and pepper to taste. 248 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Vegetable Stew on Toast. 2 lbs. Scotch dried peas. IJ lbs. carrots. 1 lb. potatoes. 1 pt. milk. 1 tablespoon butter. Soak peas in plenty of lukewarm water over night. In the morning drain off water and put on to boil in plenty of fresh water. Boil slowly 3 hours. An hour before serving add diced carrots and potatoes ; pint of milk. Just before serving add butter, and season to taste. Serve on toasted bread. A good Friday dish. Lentil Steiv with Bacon Strips. 2 lbs. lentils. 2 lbs. potatoes. 1 lb. bacon or li lbs. frankfurts. 4 oz. drippings. 2 oz. onions. 2 cloves garlic. Salt and pepper. 6 oz. flour. Soak lentils overnight, put on to boil in morning at 8 o'clock, covering well with water. Put bacon through coarse meat cutter, put in baking pan and fry to light brown. Pour olT drippings, add to lentils, also onions and garlic. One hour before serving add potatoes cut into squares. Brown flour in drippings, put with lentils i hour before serving. The garlic gives the stew the flavor of frankfurts, and the children like it just as well. If frankfurts are used instead of bacon, cut in small pieces. Carrot Stew. 6 oz. onions. 3 lbs. carrots. 3 lbs. tomatoes. 8 oz. rice. 1 stalk celery. Saute the onions in two table- si)()ons drippings. Put carrots through coarse knife of food chopper ; add to the onions, then add boiling water enough to make sufficient amount of soup when carrots are done. Add rice and cook slowly till done, IJ hours. Season with salt and pepper. Baked Pork and Beans. 5 lbs. navy beans. 2 lbs. salt pork. 6 oz. molasses. Salt. Paprika. Wash and soak beans overnight. Boil on slow fire 3 hours, keeping well covered with water. Slice salt pork, add molasses, salt, and paprika. Place in oven and bake 1^ hours. Baked Macaroni and Spaghetti. 2* lbs. macaroni or spaghetti, f lb. salt pork. 1 onion. i teaspoon salt. * lb. cheese. 2 cans tomatoes. \ teaspoon celery salt. i teaspoon pepper. i teaspoon paprika. 1 teaspoon sugar. Boil macaroni or spaghetti in salted water about 45 minutes ; rinse in cold water ; add ground salt pork, cheese chipped fine. Boil tomatoes ; add diced onion, salt, celery salt, pepper, paprika, and sugar; boil slowly about i hour. Place macaroni in baking dish, add salt pork, cheese, and to- matoes and bake about one hour. Spaghetti with Tomato Sauce. 3 lbs. spaghetti. 2 cans tomatoes. 4 oz. oriions. 2 cloves garlic. i lb. bacon strip or salt pork. Paprika. Boil spaghetti in plenty of boiling salted water for 20 minutes, rinse in cold water. Put in baking dish. Fry salt pork and onions, also garlic to a APPENDIX C RECIPES FOR OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. 249 light brown. Put tomatoes in stew pan. Boil until cooked througli ; strain and add salt pork, onions, and seasoning. Bake one hour in hot oven. To make another dish, add i lb. of cheese to spaghetti. For a Friday dish, omit bacon or salt pork ; use i lb. butter instead. VEGETABLES. Scalloped Potatoes. 7 lbs. potatoes. Onion. Milk. Boil potatoes with jackets on. Peel and slice in pudding dish. Cover po- tatoes with milk; add grated onion; season and bake in hot oven one hour. A nice addition is f lb. grated cheese sprinkled over top about 15 minutes before taking out of oven. Carrots and Peas. 10 oz. diced carrots. 2 cans peas. 1 qt. milk. 3 oz. flour. Cook carrots f hour, add peas, milk, flour, and salt. Cabbage Salad. 2^ to 3 lbs. cabbage. 1 egg. 1 spoon mustard. i cup salt. 1 tablespoon sugar. 1 tablespoon flour. Butter size of egg. 1 cup vinegar. 2 cup water. Mix mustard, salt, sugar, and flour together until free of lumps; add egg well beaten, vinegar, and water. Put in double boiler to thicken, stirring all the time, adding butter. When used, thin with cream. Put cabbage through grinder, mix with dressing, serve on plates with baked beans. CAKES AND HOT BREADS. Pumpkin Cakes. i cup butter. 1 cup sugar. 2 eggs. 1 cup molasses. 2 cups strained pumpkin. 1 cup sour milk. 1 teaspoon soda. 1 teaspoon cinnamon, cloves. Ginger and lemon extract. 3 cups flour. Beat well ; bake in muffin tins in a slow oven about 45 minutes. Makes' 30 cakes. Ginger Bread. gs. 4 cup butter or good dripping; 1 cup sugar. 1 cup molasses. 1 cup sour milk. 1 teaspoon soda. 2i cups flour. Bake in slow oven i hour. dinger Cake. f cup butter or half lard or drippings and half butler. 1 cup molasses. 1 cup sugar. 1 rounded spoon ginger. 1 rounded spoon cinnamon. 1 cup sour milk. 2 spoons baking soda, dissolved in 2 tablespoons warm water. 3 cups flour, well sifted. 2 eggs, well beaten. Pinch of salt. Have bake tins well greased and bake in slow oven for i hour. Al- ways grease tins with lard, as grease with salt will make cake stick to tins. Cornmcal Gems. 2 cups cornmeal. 2 cups flour. 2 cups sour milk. 1 teaspoon baking soda. 2 eggs. Bake in a moderate oven 2.1 minutes. 250 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Oatmeal Cookies. 5 cups rolled oats. 2 cups sour milk. Soak overnight and add — 1 cup molasses. 1 teaspoon soda. 1 teaspoon salt. 5 eggs. IJ cups flour. Bake in moderate oven. B7~an Muffins. 2 cups bran. . 1 cup white flour. 1 cup sour milk. 5 teaspoon baking soda. 1 po-or 1 small cup molasses. Teaspoon salt. Bake 45 minutes. DESSERTS. Baked Rice. 1 lb. rice. 8 oz. sugar. 2 teaspoon cinnamon. i teaspoon salt. 2| qts. milk. Wash rice well in several waters, put in pudding dish, add sugar, salt, and cinnamon, then milk, cold. Bake in moderate oven 2 hours. The addition of 2 eggs well beaten and 6 oz. of raisins will make a L'icher pudding. Farina. 7 oz. farina. 8 oz. sugar. 2 spoonfuls vanilla. Put milk in double boiler to heat. When hot pour in farina, stirring so it will not lump. Let cook 15 to 20 minutes. Beat up eggs and add to farina. Take from stove, add sugar and vanilla, stirring well. Tapioca Pudding. 2 qts. milk. 6 oz. minute tapioca. 3 eggs. 8 oz. sugar. 1 teaspoon vanilla. Put the milk in double boiler until it comes to the scalding point ; stir in the tapioca, stirring well for 10 minutes ; beat together the eggs, sugar, vanilla, and a litle nutmeg; beat into tapioca until light. This will serve 30 people. Dried Fruits. 2 lbs. dried fruit. 12 oz. sugar. Wash the fruit and soak in cold water 24 hours. Drain thoroughly, cover with boiling water, and simmer until fruit is tender. Add sugar a few minutes before done. Peaches, prunes, apricots, apples, loganberries, or rai- sins may be cooked this way. Ap- ples combine well with any of the above fruits except loganberries. Cocoa Pudding. 3 qts. milk. 3 oz. cocoa. 5 oz. cornstarch. Sugar. Three qts. of milk in double boiler, add sugar to taste ; dissolve three oz. of cocoa in enough boiling water to make it smooth. Add this to the boil- ing milk. Thicken with 5 oz. corn- starch made smooth with milk. Cook 30 minutes. Flavor with vanilla. Serve cold with cream and sugar. APPENDIX D. LIST OF CHICAGO MENUS, MATERIALS USED, AND THEIR COST. Morning lunch — Cocoa, bread, jelly. Noon dinner — Browned beef stew, boiled potatoes, mashed turnips, bread and milk, farina pudding. Material used: Number served: 2 large loaves rye bread. 30 children. 3 loaves whole wheat bread. 2 attendants. 8 oz. butter. I*er capita caloric value, 1,002. 3 oz. cocoa. Per capita estimated cost, 10 J cents. 5 oz. farina. 5 oz. flour. 8 oz. jelly. 5 lbs. beef. 22 qts. milk. 12 oz. onions. 11^ lbs. potatoes. 18 oz. sugar. 5 lbs. turnips. Morning lunch — Cocoa, raisin bread. Noon dinner— Baked lima beans, cabbage salad, apple sauce, bread and milk. Material used: Number served : 4i lbs. lima beans. 30 children. 2 large loaves rye bread. 2 attendants. 2 large loaves raisin bread. Per capita caloric value, 1,031. 8 oz. butter. Per capita estimated cost, 9 cents. 3 oz. cocoa. 5 lbs. fresh apples. 22 qts. milk. 18 oz. sugar. 1 can tomatoes. 41 lbs. cabbage. 251 252 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Morning lunch — ^Milk, bread, jelly. Noon dinner — Browned beef and gravy, baked potatoes, bread, milk, tapioca pudding. Number served : 30 children. 2 attendants. Per capita caloric value, 1,233. Per capita estimated cost, 11^ cents. Material used: 4 large loaves white bread. 2 eggs. 8 oz. flour. 1 lb. jelly. 4J lbs chopped beef. 28 qts milk. 4 oz. onions. 9 lbs potatoes. S oz. sugar. 5 oz. tapioca. Morning lunch — Milk, bread, jelly. Noon dinner — Milk, bread, kidney bean stew, cabbage salad, apricot sauce. Material used: Number served: 2 lbs. kidney beans. 25 children. 8* small loaves white bread. 2 attendants. 2 oz. cornstarch. Per capita caloric value, 1,097. 1 lb. apricots. Per capita estimated cost, 9f cents. 3 oz. flour. 6 oz. jelly. 3 lbs. beef. 20 qts. milk. 8 oz. onions. 4J lbs. potatoes. 8 oz. sugar. 1 can tomatoes. 4i oz. cabbage. Morning lunch — Milk, bread, apple butter. Noon dinner — Milk, bread, spaghetti with tomatoes, apricots. Material used: 6 large loaves white bread. 1 lb. apricots. 1 lb. apple butter. 6 oz. bacon. 22 qts. milk. 3 oz. onions. 2i lbs. spaghetti. 12 oz. sugar. 2 cans tomatoes. Number served : 30 children. 2 attendants. Per capita caloric value, 1,014. Per capita estimated cost, 9i cents. APPENDIX D CHICAGO MENUS AND THEIR COST. 253 Morning lunch — Cocoa, raisin bread. Noon dinner— IMilk, bread, vegetable soup with macaroni, baked rice. Material used: Number served : 4 small loaves raisin bread. 25 children. 3 large loaves white bread. 2 attendants. 1 lb. carrots. Per capita caloric value, 1,070. 5 oz. cocoa. Per capita estimated cost, 9i cents. 8 oz. macaroni. 2 lbs. beef. 4 oz. onions. 8 oz. rice. 14 oz. sugar. 1 can corn. 1 lb. celery. 12 oz. cabbage. 20 qts. milk. Morning lunch^Cocoa, bread, sirup. Noon dinner — Pea and barley soup, bread, butter, milk, stewed peaches. Material used: Number served : 1 lb. barley. 30 children. 3 large loaves rye bread. 2 attendants. 3 small loaves whole wheat. Per capita caloric value, 998. 8 oz. butter. Per capita estimated cost, 9 cents. 4 oz. cocoa. 24 oz. peaches. 4 lbs. soup bone. 20 qts. milk. 8 oz. onions. 1 lb. dried peas. 20 oz. potatoes. 4 oz. rice. 22 oz. sugar. 8 oz. sirup. 1 can tomatoes. Morning lunch — Cocoa, bread, jelly. Noon dinner — Browned beef stew, noodles, bread, butterine, milk, prunes. Number served : 30 children. 2 attendants. I'er capita caloric value, 1,048. Per capita estimated cost, 10 cents. Material used: 2 large loaves rye brend. 2 small loaves whole wheat. 8 oz. butter. 4 oz. cocoa. 24 oz. prunes. 4 oz. flour. 8 oz. jelly. 5 lbs. beef. 20 qts. milk. 20 oz. sugar. 2i lbs. noodles. 254 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Morning lunch — Cocoa, raisin bread. Noon dinner — Boiled eggs, mashed potatoes, bread, milk, baked rice pudding. Material used: Number served : 2 large loaves rye bread. 25 children. 2 large loaves raisin bread. 2 attendants. 4 oz. tocoa. I'er capita caloric value, 1,016. 3 oz. raisins. I'er capita estimated cost, 10 cents. ' 28 eggs. 18 qts. milk. 10^ pounds potatoes. 20 oz. rice. 26 oz. sugar. Slorning lunch — Corn-meal mush, cocoa, bread, jelly. Noon dinner — Beef loaf and gravy, mashed potatoes, bread and milk, sliced bananas. Number served : 2.5 children. 2 attendants. Per capita caloric value, 1,020. Per capita estimated cost, 11 cents. Material used: 3 large loaves rye bread. 3 small loaves vs^hole wheat. 8 oz. butter. 3 oz. cocoa. 14 oz. corn meal. 3 oz. flour. 7 oz. jelly. 3i lbs. beef 20 qts. milk. 5 oz. onions. lOi lbs. potatoes. 1 lb. sugar. 2i lbs. bananas. 1 can tomatoes. Morning lunch — Milk, bread, jelly oat meal. Noon dinner — Milk, bread, beef balls, spaghetti, cottage cheese, chocolate pudding. Material used: 4 small loaves white bread. 4 large loaves graham bread. 2 oz. cocoa. 16 oz. oat meal. 2 oz. cornstarch. 8 oz. jelly. 3 lbs. beef. 22 qts. milk. 2 cans tomatoes. 2 lbs. cottage cheese. Number served : 30 children. 2 attendants I'er capita caloric value, 1,000. Per capita estimated cost, 9 cents. APPENDIX -CHICAGO MENUS AND THEIR COST. 255 Morning lunch — IMilk, bread, jelly. Noon dinner — Milk, bread, browned beef, peas, boiled potatoes, baked apples. Material used: Number sei'ved : 8 small loaves white bread. 25 children. 5 lbs. fresh apples. 2 attendants. 8 oz. jelly. 1 physician. 4i lbs. beef. Per capita caloric value, 1,132. 20 qts. milk. Per capita estimated cost, 11 J cents. 4 oz. onions. 2 cans peas. 10 lbs. potatoes. 8 oz. sugar. Morning lunch — Milk, bread, jell.v. Noon dinner — Milk, bread, creamed salmon, boiled potatoes, cottage cheese, ginger bread, peaches. Matcrin I vscd: Number served : 8 small loaves white bread. 30 children. 2 oz. butter. 2 attendants. li lbs. peaches. Per capita caloric value, 1,000. 2 eggs. Per capita estimated cost, 9 cents. 8 oz. flour. ' 10 oz. jelly. 2 cans salmon. 24 qts. milk. 8 lbs. potatoes. 20 oz. sugar. 3 oz. molasses. 3^ lbs. cottage cheese. Morning lunch — Cocoa, bread, sirup. Noon dinner — Lamb stew and peas, boiled potatoes, bread and milk, farina pudding. Material used: Number served : 2 large loaves rye bread. 30 children. 8 small loaves whole wheat. 2 attendants. 8 4 5 oz. butter, oz. cocoa, oz. farina. Per capita caloric value, 1,045. Per capita estimated cost, 12 cents. 4 oz. flour. 6 lbs. lamb. 20 qts. milk.' 5 oz. onions. 3 11 cans peas, lbs. potatoes. 20 oz. sugar. 8 oz. sirup. 256 OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS. Morning lunch — Cocoa, bi*ead, and jam. Noon dinner — Creamed codfisli, boiled potatoes, bread and milk, dates. Mater i al used: 2 lar ge loaves rye bread. 3 small loaves whole wheat. 8 oz. butter. 4 oz. cocoa. 3 lbs dates. 5 oz. flour. 4 lbs codfish. 20 qts milk. 11 lbs potatoes. 10 oz. sugar. 8 oz. jam. Number served : 30 children. 2 attendants. Per capita caloric value, 1,002. Per capita estimated cost, 10 cents. Morning lunch — Cocoa, bread. Noon dinner — Milk, bread, split-pea soup, loganberries. Material used: 5 large loaves white bread. 5 oz. cocoa. 8 oz. loganberries. 8 oz. salt pork. 4 oz. onions. 3 lbs. split peas. 18 oz. sugar. 18 qts. milk. Number served: 25 children. 2 attendants. Per capita caloric value, 1,045. Per capita estimated cost, 9 cents. Morning hinch— Milk, bread. Noon dinner — Milk, bread, beef loaf with tomatoes, mashed potatoes, corn. Material used: Number served: 5 large loaves white bread. 25 children. 3 cans corn. 2 attendants. 2 eggs. Per capita caloric value, 1,105. 6 oz. flour. Per capita estimated cost, 11^ cents. 4 lbs. beef. 18 Qts. milk. 2 oz. onions. 7 lbs. potatoes. 1 can tomatoes. APPENDIX D CHICAGO MENUS AND THEIR COST. 257 INIorning lunch — Milk, bread, syrup. Noon dinner — Creamed salmon, lyonnaise potatoes, bread, milk, stQwed prunes. Material used: Number served : 5 large loaves white bread. 30 children. 4 oz. butter. 2 attendants. li lbs. prunes. Per capita caloric value, 1,008. 8 oz. flour. I*er capita estimated cost, 10 cents. 24 qts. milk. 4 oz. onions. 9 lbs. potatoes. 8 oz. sugar. 1 lb. sirup. 2 cans salmon. ^lorning lunch — Cocoa, raisin bread. Noon dinner — Cream of tomato soup, bread and milk, cocoa pudding Material used: 5 small loaves rye bread. 2 loaves raisin bread. 8 oz. butter. 6oz. cocoa. 12 oz. cornstarch. 24 qts. milk. 20 oz. sugar. 3 cans tomatoes. Number served : 30 children. 2 attendants. Per capita caloric value, 1,146. P(>r capita estimated cost, 9^ cents. Morning lunch — Cocoa, bread, jelly. Noon dinner — Baked beans, beet salad, bread and milk, apple sauce. Material used: 4i lbs. navy beans. 2 large loaves rye bread. 3 small loaves w^hole bread. 8 oz. butter. 3 oz. cocoa. 5 lbs. fresh apples. 8 oz. jelly. 20 qts. milk. 22 oz. sugar. 1 can tomatoes. 6 lbs. beets. wheat Number served : 30 children. 2 attendants. Per capita caloric value, 1,063. Per capita estimated cost, 9J cents. 97855°— Bull. 23—17- -17 APPENDIX E. SUGGESTIONS FOR OPEN-AIR CLASSES. Boston Public Schools, Superintendent's Office, November 5, 1913. Object. — The primary object of open-air classes is to better the health of the pupils. This should not be interpreted to mean, however, that mental work, school discipline, or school programs, planned for the average normal child, should be set aside completely ; neither is such a course necessary. Tijpe of child. — The physically debilitated child, for whom the open-air class is created, is capable of much mental work if the mental work is judiciously adjusted with the decreased or impaired physical asset of the child. This is not always possible in the regular-grade classroom, even when the conditions of fresh air, sunshine, and curriculum approximate those advocated for open- air classes. Hence the need of special classes for the debilitated children who are not ill to a degree sufficient to make hospital or home treatment necessary, but who are, nevertheless, in such a lowered physical state that the routine classroom program is unprofitable both mentally and physically. Not for tuberculous children. — These pupils are not tuberculous, and every effort should be made to have the parents and teachers understand that open- air classes are not for tuberculous children. Tuberculous children are best cared for in special hospital schools. Admission to classes. — Pupils shall be regularly admitted to open-air classes by the principal of the school, subject to~ the approval of the du-ector of school hygiene (section 391). Principals of schools in districts where open-air classes are authorized, or principals of schools where, in the opinion of the school physician, such classes should be established, should submit to the director of school hygiene a list of pupils for assignment to open-air classes. Organization of classes. — The number of pupils to assign to each open-air class is 36. Classes may be organized with one grade of pupils or with two or three grades of pupils. No pupil shall be assigned to an open-air class without consultation with the parent or guardian. FRKSH-AIK ROOMS. In school buildings having looms constructed for open-air classes, but in \vhich there is not a sufficient number of debilitated children for the formation of such classes, said rooms shall be utilized as fresh-air rooms (Order of School Committee, May .">, 1913). These fresh-air rooms might be used advantageously by special classes (men- tally defectives). 258 APPEXDIX E SUGGESTIONS FOR OPEN-AIR CLASSES. 259 CLASSROOM TEMPEKATUKK. The re^ilations of the school committee provide that no room temperature shall exceetl 67 degrees. The regulations further provide that the windows on one side of each class- room shall be kept open all the time; also that at rejrular periods complete Hushing of each classroom and corridor with fresh air, by means of open win- dows, shall be carried out in each session. DAILY I'ltOOr.Air. Work and rest. — The underlying principle in the daily school program for debilitated children is to alternate the periods of work and periods of rest. This method gives to both the mental and physical development every possible growth. When kept within physiological limits, a good brain means a good physical state, and conversely, a good physical condition means a healthy brain. This balance is more easily upset the nearer one gets to the minimum of reserve power of either system. The great problem, therefore, for a teacher to solve is that of each child's physical and mental capacity. This is es.sentially an individual problem ; it is not dependent solely upon chronological age, nor sex, nor grade, nor upon social condition and environment ; neither is it based upon any supposed factors of heredity. Attention and concentration. — There is, perhaps, no better index of mental overwork tlian that furnished by lack of attention and failure of concentra- tion. A teacher who is able to perceive the presence of either of these factors is possessed of the key to both successful teaching anVelsh national memorial association (King Edward VII). Second annual report on the prevention and abolition of tuberculosis, 1913-14. Cardiff, Memorial offices. 1914. 18 p. illus. Cardiff. Walford, Edward. Report on tubercular children. In his Annual report of the school meflical officer, 1912, p. 23-2.">. Issued by the Cardiff education committee. Carnnri'oii. Carnarvonshire county council. Report on Brynaerau open-air school. In Summary of iinnu;il report of the school medical officers. 1912, ji. 21. illus. Issued by the Carnarvonshire county council education committee, 101.3. INDEX. Antituberculosis crusade, 168-173. Appleton, Wis., children suffering from malnutrition, 171. Arithmetic, Shooters Hill School, England, 206-207. Association for Improving the Condition or the Poor, New York City, and open-air schools, 17-18. Atlanta ( (ContiQued from page 2 oil cover.)' No. 30. University training for public service. No. 31. Montlily record of current educational publications, November, 1916. *No. 32. Some facts concerning manual arts and home-making subjects in 156 cities. J. C. Parle and C. H. Harlan. 5 cts. No. 33. Registration and student records for smaller colleges. B. P. Andrews. No. 34. Service instruction of American corporations. Leonhard F. Fuld. No. 35. Adult iUiteracy.' Wintbrop Talbot. *No. 30, Monthly record of current educational publications, December, 1916. 5 cts. " - No. 37. Cooperative syst^n of educatloru C. W. Park. No. 38. Negro education. Volume 1. Thomas Jesse Jones. No. 39. Negro education. Volume 2. Thomas Jesse Jones. No. 40. Gardening in elementary city schools. C. D. Jarvls. No. 41. Agricultural and rural extension schools in Ireland. A. O. Monahan. No. 42. Minimum school term regulations. J. C. Muerman. •No. 43. Educational directory, 1916-17, 20 cts. ♦No. 44. The district agricultural schools of Georgia. C. H. Lane and D. J. Crosby. 5 cts. No. 4.5. Kindergarten legislation. Louise Schofleld. No. 40. Recent movements in college and university administration. S. P. Capen. No. 47. Report on the work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska, 1914-15. No. 48. Rural school supervision. Katherine M. Cook and A- C. Monahan. No. 49. Medical inspection in Great Britain. E. L. Roberts. No. 50. Statistics of State universities and State colleges, 1916. 1917. *No. 1. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1917. 5 cts. No. 2. English in the high school. J. F. Hosic. No. 3. Pine-needle basketi-y in schools. W. C. A. Hammel. No. 4. Secondary agricultural schools In Russia. W. S. Jesien. No. 5. Report of an inquiry into the administration and suppoxt of the Colorado public-school system. Katherine M. Cook and A. C. Monahan. No. 6. Educative and economic possibilities of school-directed home gardening in Richmond, Ind. J. L. Randall. No. 7. Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1917. No. 8. Current practice in city school administration. W. S. Deffenbaugh. No. 9. Department-store education. Helen R. Norton. No. 10. Development of arithmetic as a school subject. W. L. Monroe. No. 11, Higher technical education in foreign countries. A. T. Smith and W. S. Jesien. No. 12. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1917. No. 18. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1917. No. 14. A graphic survey of book publications, 1890-1916. F. E. Woodward. No. 15. Studies in higher education in Ireland and Wales. George E. MacLean. No. 16. Studies lu higher education in England and Scotland. George E. MacLean. - ' No. 17. Accredited higher institutions. S. P. Capen. No. 18. History of public-School education in Delaware. S. B. Weeks. No. 19. Report of a survey of the University of Nevada. (Continued on page 4 of cover. ) (Continued from page 3 of cover.) No. 20. Work of school children during out-of -school houra, C. D. Janis. No. 21. Monthly record of current educational publications, May, 1917. No. 22. Money value of education. A. Caswell Ellis. No. 23. Three short courses in home making. Carrie A. Lyford. No. 24. Monthly record of current educational publications-^Index, February, 1916, to January, 1917. No. 25. Military training of youth of school age in foreign countries, W. S. Jesien. No. 26. Garden clubs in Englewood, N. J. No. 27, Training of teachers of mathematics. No. 28. Monthly record of current educational publications, June, 1917, No. 29. Practice teaching for high-school teachers. No. 30. School extension statistics, 1915-16. Clarence A, Perry. No. 31. Rural-teacher preparation in county training schools and high schools. H. W. Foght. No. 32. Work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska, 1915-10. No. 33. A comparison of the salaries of rural and urban superintendents of schools. A. C. Monahan and C. H. Dye. No. 34. Institutions in the United States giving instruction in agriculture. A. C. Monahan and C. H. Dye. No. 35. The township and community high-school movement in Illinois. H. A. Hollister.