iiMnmwniBlwiiwwiiiiiWwir'iiiMiWiiiiiiiiHwriiiwiiMriftafr.^ ERGISES FOR !ODS OF TEACHING IGH SCHOOLS' PARKE fte. LIB 1(2)0 7 Boot. M "^ X Ci>RflRIGHT DEPOSIT. WHY IS THIS BETTER, EVEN THOUGH PRIM AND UNROMANTIC ? EXERCISES FOR "METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS" A PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD IN A SOCIAL SCIENCE BY SAMUEL CHESTER PARKER PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL METHODS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY SAMUEL CHESTER PARKER ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 318.5 yb ^tv# JUL -I 1918 GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 'CLA497971 PREFACE Relation to the textbook ''^Methods of Teachiiig in High Schools y — These exercises are intended to provide material for a problem-solving method of using the author's '' Methods of Teaching in High Schools." Thus it is one example of the recent movement to organize problem-solving methods in the teaching of the social sciences, of which education is one. The exercises should give the students practice in interpreting the discussions in the textbook and in actually applying these to the solution of real problems of teaching. For a description of the standards which the author has endeavored to follow in making the exercises, see page eioo, below, exercise lo. Explanation of arrangement of chapters. — Two types of chapters are contained in this book ; namely, chapters of exercises and chapters containing dii^ections for teaching the course and making special assignments for papers to be prepared by the students. The chapters of exercises are numbered to correspond to the chapters in the author's text- book on '' Methods of Teaching in High Schools." The other chapters are designated by capital letters (for example, Chapter A, Chapter B) and are distributed through the text at the points where they will be most effective and helpful when encountered in the progress of the course. The in- structor should study carefully all of these lettered chapters before beginning to teach the course so as to get a complete perspective view of its plan and organization. Page references. — In the ''Exercises " the letter e (initial of '' Exercises ") has been placed before the numbers of all the pages in order to distinguish them from the pages in the Evi EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING text proper. Most of the references are to the latter, but when the reader encounters such a reference as ''page E56 " he will feel immediately that this refers to page E56 in the " Exercises." Rough map of the course. — A general idea of the assign- ments arranged in the book may be obtained from the following rough map of them : I. Daily discussions of carefully assigned exercises. See page E14. II. Observations by the whole class of excellent illustra- tive lessons. Three of these observations are suggested on pages E34, E63, and E82. Others should also be arranged. III. Two lesson plans by students to be based on steno- graphic reports of lessons contained in the book. See pages EI 1 5 and EI 30. IV. Three long papers distributed at intervals as follows : 1. Evaluation of selected recent high-school textbooks. See page E36. 2. Summary of reading of practical articles in recent periodicals. See page E/i. 3. A concluding summary paper entitled ''I shall Try to Apply the Following Ideas in my Teaching." See page E199. V. A final examination on one hundred and fifty selected pages. See page E232. Class discussions with books open. — In the class discus- sions of exercises noted in paragraph I, above, the students will have both the '* Exercises " and the text proper open before them for frequent cross reference. It will be found that these cross references require the most careful analytical study of both books. In order to save time in connection with these references a narrow bookmark may be inserted deep in the inner margin, at the principal place in each book near which the discussion centers. A narrow ribbon or narrow strip of paper cut from the edge of a flyleaf will serve this purpose. PREFACE Evii Acknowledgments . — The idea of preparing such an exer- cise book was derived from Professor E. L. Thorndike's pioneer work in this field in his '' Principles of Teaching " (1907). Many helpful suggestions have been received from Professors W. S. Gray, R. L. Lyman, and Mr. J. F. Connelly of the College of Education of The University of Chicago. From the teaching and teachers in the High School of The University of Chicago much of the illustrative material used in the exercises has been derived. I am indebted to the dissertation by Miss Romiett Stevens of Columbia Univer- sity, on ''The Question in Instruction," for portions of two stenographic reports of lessons, to Mr. J. M. McConnel of the North-East High School of Detroit for an excellent series of problem-solving lessons in a social science, and to Superin- tendent I. M. Allen of Springfield, Illinois, for a stenographic report of a supervised-study lesson. . I have derived many sug- gestions and considerable material from the work of students in my classes in methods of teaching in high schools. S. C. PARKER CONTENTS The lettered chapters contain directions to instructors and students. The chapters of exercises are numbered to correspond with the chapters in the textbook " Methods of Teaching in High Schools " PAGE Chapter A. Be a Model of Good Teaching E3 Chapter B. Profitable Program for First Class Meeting . E7 Exercises on Chapter I. Introduction — Scope of the Book Eio Chapter C' Assigning and Studying Exercises . . , . E14 Exercises on Chapter II. Broadening Purposes of High- School Instruction E17 Chapter D*. Short Written Tests E23 Chapter eJ Review Discussions ......... E2 6 Exercises on Chapter III Economy in Classroom Manage- ment E28 Chapter F. First Observation Assignment E34 Chapter G. Evaluating High-School Textbooks . . . . E36 Exercises on Chapter IV. The Selection and Arrangement of Subject Matter E40 Chapter H. Maintain Apparent Coherence E52 Chapter I. Adapt to Length of Course E54 Eviii CONTENTS Eix PAGE Exercises on Chapter V. Types of Learning involved in High-School Subjects E55 Exercises on Chapter VI, Acquiring Motor Control . . E56 Exercises on Chapter VII. Associating Symbols and Mean- ings : Learning a Foreign Vocabulary ..... E63 Chapter J. Periodical Reading on Teaching Special Sub- jects E71 Chapter K. Wayside Suggestions to the Instructor . . E73 Exercises on Chapter VIII Practice or Drill E74 Exercises on Chapter IX. Reflective Thinking .... E82 Section I. Problem- Solving E82 Section II. Acquiring Abstract and General Meanings . . E97 Chapter L. Anticipate Lesson Planning E115 Exercises on Chapter X. Forming Habits of Harmless Enjoyment E117 Chapter M. Specialized Individual Observations . . . E141 Exercises oji Chapter XI. Training in Expression . . . E142 Chapter N. Outline of the System : Get the Transition . E156 Exercises oji Chapter XII. Self -Activity and Appercep- tion EI 58 Exercises on Chapter XIII. Influence of Age on Learn- ing E175 Exercises on Chapter XIV. Interests, the Basis of Economy in Learning E177 Chapter O. Be an Artist-Teacher E188 Exercises on Chapter XV. Adapting Class Instruction to Differences in Capacity E190 EX EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING PAGE Chapter P. Condense into a Usable System . . . . E198 Exercises on Chapter XVI. Supervised Study . . . . E203 Exercises on Chapter XVII. The Use of Books . . . . E216 Exercises on Chapter XVIII. Conversational Methods . . E229 Chapter Q. Final Examination on Selected Parts . . . E232 Exercises on Chapter XIX. Laboratory Methods . . . E235 Exercises on Chapter XX. The Art of Questioning . . . E241 Exercises on Chapter XXI. Practice Teaching and Lesson Planning E243 Exercises on Chapter XXII. Measuring the Results of Teaching E245 Chapter R. The Last Word : Public Service and the Gospel of Recreation E251 INDEX E259 EXERCISES FOR "METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS" EXERCISES FOR '' METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS" CHAPTER Ai BE A MODEL OF GOOD TEACHING {To be read by instntctor and stndeiits) A method course should be a model of good teaching. — A course in methods of teaching should exempUfy in itself the best methods of teaching, thus serving as a model to the prospective teachers in the course and illustrating the fundamental principles of teaching which it presents. This exercise book is intended to aid instructors who are using the author's " Methods of Teaching in High Schools " as a textbook to conduct their courses most effectively accord- ing to these ideas. The principles of teaching which it aims to exemplify are the following : 1. Practically worth while. — The course should seem worth while to members of the class. Since this is a voca- tional course, it should s&qy^ practically worth while ; that is, it should appear to each student to have definite practical value for him. 2. Interesting. — The course should interest the students. The practical appeal suggested in the preceding paragraph ^ This book contains two types of chapters: those designated by letters contain directions to instructors and students ; those designated by Roman numerals contain exercises paralleling the chapters with corresponding numbers in the author's "Methods of Teaching in High Schools," E3 E4 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING provides one of the surest bases for interest. However, a course may be practical and still be uninteresting drudgery. Hence other bases of interest should be provided. Among these are the following : {a) Abundance of real examples. For most students abstractness is deadening ; reality gives life to the course. ip) Appeals to curiosity and mental activity through exercises which are phrased as problems. {c) Enjoyment of the humor in class situations. Three laughs during a class hour may relieve wonderfully the overwhelming serious tension or ennui that often comes from a prolonged systematic discussion. A moment of relax- ation after ten minutes of concentrated attention is helpful to continued attention. 3. Individual differences. — The course should provide for individual differences in the interests and capacities of members of the class. This principle is especially impor- tant in a general-method course for prospective high-school teachers, since their practical interests vary so much with the subjects they expect to teach. Any large class of college juniors and seniors in a method course will be sure to contain some students who are interested in only one of the following groups of subjects : {a) literature and languages ; {b) history and other social sciences ; {c) mathematics and sciences ; id) fine and industrial arts. As a consequence, a discussion of methods of teaching foreign languages may be of practical interest to only part of the class, while a discussion of lab- oratory methods or training in expression may interest other parts. Prospective high-school teachers, however, should realize that in their first teaching positions they may have to teach subjects in which they have had no special interest in college. Even with this corrective, the instructor in the method course will secure better results if he differentiates his assignments with reference to the present specialized interests of his students. BE A MODEL OF GOOD TEACHING E5 Differences in the capacities of his students should lead the instructor to minimize abstract assignments for members of the class who have little capacity for abstractions ; to reduce the amount of work expected of slow students ; and to suggest extra assignments for ambitious capable members of the class who desire further knowledge along certain lines. 4. Self -activity. — The course should provide abundant opportunity for self-activity by the students in at least two forms, as follows : {a) There should be reflective interp7'etation by the sttcdents of the ideas in order to understand them. ib) There should be thoughtful application of these ideas to teachhig situations by the stude^its. This practice should form practical habits which the student can carry over and utilize in actual teaching situations ; that is, the practice should not be simply in elucidating theory but in applying theory as he should apply it when actually engaged as a teacher. 5 . Profitable recitations. — Recitations should provide occasions for the students to interpret, criticize, supplement, and apply the textbook. These recitations should commonly be conducted with books open. The recitation is not the place to test the student's preparation, except incidentally. Short written tests should be used to test preparation. Oral memory recitations are futile and a waste of time. 6. Economy of time. — Economy of the student's time should be obtained by presenting to him valuable educational experiences as expeditiously as possible. Wherever possible, avoid having the student waste a lot of time searching for an experience. To this end, observations of high-school teaching should be conveniently and carefully arranged, col- lections of the best high-school textbooks in all lines should be made easily accessible, and exercises, as a rule, should contain data for problems to be solved instead of asking pupils to search for the data. e6 exercises for METHODS OF TEACHING 7. Condensed into usable system. — Finally, the main points should be strongly impressed upon the student and the entire course organized and condensed into a workable system of ideas about teaching. Upon completing the course each student should feel that he has mastered these funda- mental ideas of method and possesses clear-cut plans for achieving artistic success as a teacher. A number of varied directions and assignments are included by the author to attain this end. The most effective of these is the term paper described below, on page E199, in which the student is required to summarize the ideas that he does expect actually to use when teaching. Explanation of Page Designations An E has been inserted before the pages of the Exer- cises to facilitate distinguishing them from the pages of the '' Methods of Teaching in High Schools." When the instructor says ''page e6 " or the student reads ''page e6," the latter will know immediately that this refers to the Exercises, whereas " page 6 " refers to the textbook proper. CHAPTER B PROFITABLE PROGRAM FOR FIRST CLASS MEETING {To be read by instructor and students) The first meeting of the class in Methods of Teaching should be used in some profitable manner as described on pages 32-33 of Parker's textbook. Four possibilities are suggested, as follows : 1. Information about students.-^ The instructor may take steps to acquaint himself with the students by distributing mimeographed copies of the information blank printed below on page eq. 2. Outline of course. — The instructor should outline the plans for conducting the course, explaining the use of text- book, exercises, informal lecturing, library work, observation, written tests, etc. In this connection it is well to develop an outline of the topics of the course on the blackboard. For the topics in this outline see the model on page E156 of the exercise book. Some such anticipatory discussions of material to be read are always helpful to students. Include examples m outlme. — The outline should be relieved of abstractness by giving striking examples under each heading ; for example, under broadening purposes dis- cuss democratization for tw^o minutes ; under economy in management give some examples of large savings in busi- ness or classroom management ; under the special types of learning indicate which high-school subjects are emphasized in each type ; under individual differences show that the E7 e8 exercises for METHODS OF TEACHING brightest pupil often has half of his time to loaf, etc. These examples may be taken from later discussions in the text- book or they may be original examples from the instructor's experience. 3. Anticipatory assignment. — Assign exercises 11-13 on Chapter I and the first two exercises on Chapter II with textbook pages 1-13 and pages 502-505. The student's reading of this material should be anticipated by some dis cussion. The outline described above anticipates part of it. The discussion of science versus opinion may be anticipated by telling the students to note carefully in the quotation from Thorn iike on page 504 (which is assigned in exer- cises 11-13) that scientific investigations may be described as follows : (i) Impartial (4) Subject to verification by any (2) Objective competent observer (3) Mathematically precise (5) Made by specialized experts These points should be kept on the blackboard before the class, and the students should be told to consider them in answering exercises 11-13. In general, the practice of having preparatory class dis- cussions of material in the text before the latter is read might be continued to advantage throughout the course in assigning those portions of the book which are abstract or difficult to understand. In many places, however, the text is so easily understood that such preliminary discussions are unnecessary. 4. Initiatory discussion. — Finally, if any portion of the hour remains, it may be spent to advantage upon a discus- sion of some of the earlier exercises on Chapter I. These exercises require no outside preparation but serve to initiate in the students the reflective attitude toward teaching which they should maintain in the course. PROGRAM FOR FIRST CLASS MEETING eQ Information about Students in the Course The information secured on the following blank will enable the instructor to study the individual interests, needs, and preparation of the students in the course on '' Methods of Teaching in High Schools." I. Name 2. Hometown 3. Number of college credits 4. Expect to graduate 191.. 5. Preparing to teach in high school the following subjects (name three) 6. Courses taken in department of education, names or numbers of courses and names of instructors 7. Courses taken in psycholog}^ with names of instructors 8. Courses taken in the theory of teaching individual subjects as Enghsh, mathematics, etc 9. Experience in observing teaching., ID. Experience in practice teaching... 1 1 . Experience in regular te'aching (number of years, grades or subjects, place) 12. Are you very timid about participating in class discussion? EXERCISES ON CHAPTER P INTRODUCTION — SCOPE OF THE BOOK Initiation by Unprepared Exercises The first six exercises below raise certain issues which may be taken up for class discussion without preparation and independent of the textbook, and will help to initiate the class in discussing the field of methods of teaching. If the instructor desires to use them on the first day, before the students have obtained their books, they may be written on the blackboard or mimeographed. 1. Factors in teacher s success, — What other factors than knowledge of subject matter will play a part in determining your success as a high-school teacher } 2. Factors emphasized by different persons. — Of all these factors (including subject matter) which would each of the following persons be most likely to emphasize : (i) The president of the board of education or the superin- tendent in a small school system who might employ you ? (2) The ordinary academic co][QgQprofessor who advises you ? (3) Th^ professor of education! 3. Yotir own evaluation. — Which of these factors do you consider the most important ? Why 1 4. Bearing of this course. — Which of these factors do you expect this course or this textbook to improve in you t 5. Preference for subjects. — If you were equally well prepared in the subject matter of the following subjects 1 The chapters designated by Roman numerals contain exercises paralleling the chapters with corresponding numbers in the author's "Methods of Teaching in High Schools," INTRODUCTION — SCOPE OF THE BOOK eii and equally interested in them all, which would you prefer to teach ? Why ? (Note that your preparation and your interest in the subject are not to be factors in determining your preference. There must be other reasons.) English composition Greek history English literature American history Latin, two years Chemistry Mathematics, two years General science Civics Home economics 6. Ease of success. — Which of the above subjects can be taught sticcessfully with greatest ease ? Why ? "Opinion" in Education versus a '* Science " OF Education The following exercises will assist in getting the class in a ^^ scientific'' frame of mi7id for class discussions and start some consideration of standards for determining the reliability of opinions expressed about teaching. 7. Rank of authorities. — (a) From your previous studies in education name one American writer on education to whom you would g\wQ first rank. (b) What is the basis of your choice .? (c) Name one writer of much lower rank. 8. Relative validity of opinions. — Compare the probable validity of the opinions of the writers mentioned in answer- ing exercise /. Whose opinions are most reliable } Why ? 9. Value of knowing source of opinions. — (a) In view of the above discussion, in quoting an opinion about education would it be worth while to know whose opinion it is ? Why ? (b) In case of important issues in teaching would you expect college students to remember whose opinions they are learning? (c) Would you expect them to remember in case of impor- tant discussions in politics } in evolution t in history } EI 2 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Characteristics of '' Scientific " Study Read pages ^02-^0^. — After reading the paragraph at the middle of page 3 of th© textbook, read from the middle of page 502 to the middle of page 505. In the long quota- tion from Thorndike found there, note that he says that the judgments or conclusions of science may be described as follows : (i) Impartial (4) Subject to verification by any (2) Objective competent observer (3) Mathematically precise (5) Made by specialized experts Note especially what he means by '' objective " and " mathematically precise." The following exercises will help to clarify the idea of science versus opinion in education. 10. Changing opinions to science. — After reading the assignment noted in the preceding paragraph note below a series of quotations about teaching. {a) Keeping in mind Thorndike 's discussion of '' objec- tivity " and ''mathematical precision," state in which one of these quotations it would be easiest to remove the statement from the realm, of inere opinion to the realm of verified scientific coftclusions. (h) How would you proceed to do so .? (c) In which case would it be most difficult to carry out exercise 10 (a) ? Why ? {d) In which case would it not be easy, but still quite possible ? Describe how you would proceed. QUOTED STATEMENTS TO BE USED IN ANSWERING EXERCISE 10 (i) " Our school courses are not adapted to the average child. The average child cannot keep up with the work as planned, and the slow has even a smaller chance of doing so." (2) " Our schools as they now exist are better fitted for the girls than for the boys." INTRODUCTION — SCOPE OF THE BOOK EI3 (3) "In common with all sciences, training in physics has a moral value. There is ... a development of conscience to be got from the careful statement of exact laws." (4) " English is almost the only opportunity available in the secondary school for acquainting pupils with the fundamental laws of art, which are also the laws of moral living." (5) " The average age of American pupils on entering the sec- ondary school, fourteen, is too high for the best results in foreign- language study . . . the age of ten would be better." (6) " It is not the school work as such which is injurious to the health of the ordinary adolescent, but he suffers most from the multitude of his outside interests." (7) " The younger pupils in high school adjust themselves more readily to its regime and do the work more successfully than the older pupils." 11. Scientific fnethod in various subjects. — Compare the ease of making objective, mathematically precise, scientific studies in education with the ease of making similar studies in some one of the following subjects. Choose a subject in which you have had some experience, and explain. Chemistry Biology Physics Economics Geology Psychology 12. Parkers text; science or opinion? — In view of the above discussion and the fact that the use of precise, objective measurement in education is in its infancy (see p. 502), would you expect opinion or science to predomi- nate in Parker's textbook } Explain. 13. Why is education a snap? — In view of the above discussion, why are courses in education often considered a '' snap " by college students .? CHAPTER C ASSIGNING AND STUDYING EXERCISES How TO Assign Exercises Purpose of exercises. — The exercises are intended to provide for reflective study of the textbook by the students and to provide for recitations which interpret, supplement, criticize, and apply the discussions in the textbook. As a rule, each exercise grows out of some specific topic, para- graph, or sentence in the text, and this relation should be kept in mind in the teaching. Assign a few specific exercises and require students to discuss them. — In assigning exercises to be studied it is well to observe the following rules : {a) Assign specific exercises for a given recitation, each instructor choosing carefully those with which he thinks he can get the best discussions. ib) Limit the mtmber to approximately ten for each recitation. {c) Be sure to require the students to discuss the exer- cises assigned for each recitation. If exercises are assigned indefinitely or in too great numbers, or if the instructor does the discussing, most students will cease to prepare carefully, and the class period will degenerate into a slipshod discussion by students or a lecture by the instructor. Some unprepared exercises. — In addition to the assigned exercises upon which careful preparation is expected, unas- signed exercises may be taken up in class after the assigned exercises have been discussed. E14 ASSIGNING AND STUDYING EXERCISES E15 How TO Study for Class Discussions First reading. Read rapidly, not slowly. — In reading an assignment in the textbook for the first time, read rapidly. This rapid reading can be faciUtated by looking for the main point or points in each paragraph. The discovery of these points is all that is necessary at first reading. Reliable experimental studies have shown that slow, plod- ding reading is commonly much less effective than rapid analysis of a paragraph to lift otU its maiji ideas. U^tderline prijicipal phrases and words. — As the main ideas are discovered, underline the principal phrases or words. This helps in two ways; namely, (i) it aids in concentratiofi of attention at the time and (2) it provides for an easy, rapid, effective review, later. As a rule, do not underline whole sentences ; for the reader's purpose a part of a sentence is usually more effective than the whole. Exercises. Study the exercises and make memoranda of answers. — After reading the assignment in this rapid selective manner, study the exercises assigned, making a memorandum of the main point in each answer on the margin of the exercise book. Often it will be necessary to restudy certain parts of the assignment in the textbook in order to work put the answers to the exercises. Second reading. Note headlines a?td underlined parts. — Finally, read the assignment again rapidly, noting especially the paragraph headlines and underlined parts. If there are some parts which you do not understand readily, you may either pause to dig out the meaning or make a note to ask the instructor about them. Conditions. A rrange favorable physical conditions. — Be sure to arrange favorable physical conditions for study wher- ever possible, thus avoiding the distractions that arise from poor light, unnecessary noises, other interesting matters in sight ^r hearing, etc. (see Frontispiece, above). Ei6 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Read discussion of study, in -the textbook.— Yox a fuller discussion of some of the above suggestions read pages 403- 411 of Parker's textbook, in which the factors in effective studying are discussed at length. Some suggestions for studying for zvritten tests will be given later in this exercise book. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER II BROADENING PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION Democratization of High Schools 1. What teachers ai'e fo7\ — (a) Do you approve or dis- approve of the quotation entitled "What we are For/' found on pages 12-13 ? Why ? (&) Do you expect to put it thoroughly into practice or to modify it when you teach ? Why ? (c) What difficulties might you encounter in carrying it out ? 2. Survival of the fittest, leadership, etc. — (a) Explain the strong points in each of the following quotations. ip) Point out the weak points in each. By the democratic Mr. McAndrews., instigator of ^^ What we are For.^^ — " Believe me 'the survival of the fittest,' 'the education of leaders/ ' the aristocracy of learning/ and ' the maintenance of standards ' are the most fatuous doctrines for the debilitation of teachers that selfish and pedantic educators ever promulgated. To hear a high-school teacher excuse her failure by asserting that we must always have hewers of wood and drawers of water and that high school is no place for them, makes me blush for our democracy." By the de?nocratic Thomas Jefferson, formidator of Ameiicaii principles of democracy. — In "Notes on the State of Virginia/' after describing free elementary schools which were to be provided, Jefferson said : '' These schools [are] to be under a visitor, who is annually to choose the boy of best genius in the school, of those whose parents are too poor to give them further education, and to send him forward to one of the grammar schools, of which twenty are proposed to be erected in different parts of the country for teaching Greek, Latin, geography and the higher branches of numerical arithmetic. Of the boys thus sent in any one year,, trial E17 EI 8 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING is to be made at the grammar schools one or two years, and the best genius of the whole selected, and continued six years, and the residue dismissed. By this means twenty of the best geniuses will be raked from the rubbish annually^ and be instructed, at the public expense, so far as the grammar schools go." (Printed in E. E. Brown's "Making of Our Middle Schools," p. 207. Italics not in the original.) 3. Trai7ti7ig leaders. — (a) Name seven positions from the presidency of the United States to shop foreman or floorwalker in which qualifications for leadership are needed even in a democracy. (&) Describe some of the qualifications necessary for siLccessful leadership in two of these positions. (c) At what age in school should general training for leadership begin t (d) Should any special training for special positions of leadership be provided during the high-school age.? Explain. Vocational versus Liberal Training 4. Vocational origins of schools. — (a) For what vocations did each of the following provide training.? (i) The early Latin Grammar Schools (2) The early New England Academies (3) The original plan for the Boston English High School (&) How did these schools change with progress of time in relation to vocational training } 5. Direct training. — What is the significance and force of the word '' directly," in the sixth line from the bottom of page 10 .? 6. Greek idea of ''^ liberaV education, — (a) One of the great Greek philosophers said that the purpose of a ''liberal" education is to train for the beautiful enjoyment of leisure time. If you are familiar with Greek industrial history, explain the development of this conception. BROADENING PURPOSES OF INSTRUCTION EI9 (b) Show its influence upon the attitudes of present-day classical teachers toward vocational training. 7. Liberal education redefined. — (a) In the quotation from Cubberley on pages 13 to 15 underline the statement which seemed most tmique to you and mark it ?/. (h) Which of his ideas is most helpfnl in general? Why? 8. Practical judgment. — Illustrate what is meant by the words '' the awakening and refining of the practical judg- ment of the girl," found on page 15 ; for example, what are some of the situations in which she has to use practical judgment ? Ultimate Aims of Teaching 9. Phases of efficie^icy. — Describe the difference in the relative importance of each of the following aims in the education of boys and of girls', ''economic efficiency," '' domicstic efliciency," *' civic efficiertcy." 10. Average civic efficiency. — In order to secure a well- governed city, would it be sufficient if each citizen voted regularly, intelligently, and with good will ? Explain. 11. Efficiency versus morality. — (a) Which of the follow- ing statements, (i) or (2), do you prefer? Why? (i) A certain royal family of Europe were socially very efficient in organizing and controlling the economic, political, educational, charitable, and religious life of their country, but they were immoral because they were actuated by selfish and unhumanitarian motives. (2) This royal family were socially inefficient because they were actuated by selfish and unhumanitarian motives. (6) What bearing does your preference have on a state- ment of the aims of teaching ? 12. Harmless enjoyment. — Discuss some of the following items in relation to training for the enjoyment of leisure : (i) Puritanism (2) Developments from rural to urban life (3) Trade unions E20 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (4) English industrial efficiency, gambling, and drunkenness (5) German singing Proximate Aims of Teaching 13. Miscellaneous applications of proximate aims. — > In the teaching of each item in the following list indicate which proximate aim is most prominent, by labeling as follows : with Inf. if information is most prominent ; with H . if habits ; with Id. if ideals ; with Int. if interests. (i) Pulleys (21) Plain sewing (2) Washington at Valley (22) Putting down problems, Forge for example, in long (3) Chlorine division (4) Direct and indirect dis- 3 course 33 I999 (5) Kneading bread 99 (6) Coal and iron deposits instead of in United States (7) Battle of pass of Ther- 33|999[3 QQ mopylae vy (8) Bacteria (23) Spanish American War (9) Periclean Age in Athens (24) Use of ''shall" and "will" (10) Grasshoppers (25) Napoleon (11) American Constitution (26) Ivanhoe (12) Corn (27) Garbage disposal (13) Spartan life (28) King Arthur (14) Glaciation (29) Transportation (15) Logarithms (30) ^sop's Fables in French (16) Tennis (31) Pronunciation of ich in (17) Work in physics German or son neveii (18) Effect on signs of re- in French moving parenthesis (32) Color schemes in interior (19) Giving known axiom or decoration proposition as basis (33) Erosion of each new step in (34) Current events a geometry proof (35) Swimming (20) City elections BROADENING PURPOSES OF INSTRUCTION E2r 14. Habits: special a7id general. — (a) Describe some of the very special habits acquired in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, or trigonometry, in the sense in which special is used on page 20. (Several examples could be made from the use of parentheses in algebra.) ih) On the other hand, describe some more general habits formed in these studies, such as the habit of constructing geometry figures carefully. Another example is given in the list in exercise 13. 15. Habits: dissimilarities in ge?teral habits ; a difficnlt btit suggestive exercise. — If you have studied psychology try to determine how similar the several habits of accuracy described on page 20 really are from the standpoint of zvhat a perso7i really does when he is accurate in any one of the cases given ; for example, compare in detail the act of ''being accurate in measuring and sawing a board to 18 inches long" with the act of ''being accurate in de- scribing an automobile accident exactly as it occurred." 16. Ideals : tecJmiqne of teaching. — A teacher said she taught Greek history to inculcate ideals, not to give infor- mation. How might she teach the battle of the pass of Thermopylae, or some other familiar incident, in order to be successful in securing the results described on pages 21-22 .? 17. Abiding interests. — Do you consider the following outburst from an idealistic college student to be too Utopian } Explain. " If early in high-school a pupil's interests are awakened, aroused enough, in science, in English, or history or manual arts, you will get him, I firmly believe, to determine to continue his study even after he leaves high-school. Instead of a bum, a loafer, or a flunky to some paste-diamond studded politician, you will have a clean minded, alert, vividly interested young fellow bent upon further satisfying his curiosity in science research, in journalism or in studying the art of designing a really beautiful chair or table, for instance." E22 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 18. Information; remembering edncation. — Students in courses in education often object to learning anything defi- nitely and permanently. They seem to be looking merely for '' inspiration." (a) Have you acquired from Parker's textbook as yet any ideas which you think it would be worth while for you to remember until you begin teaching .? If so, what are some of them .? (&) If you have not, glance rapidly through the book and see if you can find two ideas that you think it would be worth while to remember until you begin teaching, and make a memorandum of them here. (c) On the other hand, indicate certain facts or informa- tion in the book which you need not remember for a long time, but which are useful in developing a '' point of view " or in giving '' inspiration " or " ideals " or '' interests." {d) How long should these be remembered ? 19. Health. — Write out an exercise (question or problem) about ''health" which will compensate for Parker's neglect to include an exercise on this important proximate aim (see ''The Last Word," Chapter R, below). CHAPTER D SHORT WRITTEN TESTS {^To be given frequently) Purpose. Provide stimtdus, diagnosis, and training. — The course in methods of teaching should mclwdiQ frequent short written tests. These tests will provide {a) a stimulus to study, {b) a means of diagnosis of the student's needs and progress, and \c) a valuable form of training. As a rule college students themselves favor frequent short written tests, as shown by the evidence given on page 495 of Parker's textbook. The advantages and technique of such testing are described at length on pages 493-502 of the text. This discussion should be read rapidly by the students and studied carefully by the instructor. Technique. Assign caref idly ; avoid surprise tests. — One written test for every four or five class meetings, and vary- ing from fifteen to thirty minutes in length, is sufficient to stimulate careful study by the students and to secure a valid measure of their diligence, ability, and progress. In order to avoid imdue nervous strain, the test should not be a ''surprise," but its time and scope should be carefully announced some days in advance, so as to enable students to plan their studying and reviewing for it. Give ample time to express main ideas. — Moreover, to relieve nervous tension during the period of writing, students should understand that they will have as much time as most of them need to express their main ideas. This involves a slight modification of the rigor recommended on pages 49^- 497. By careful preparation of his questions, and attention E23 E24 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING to the progress that the class is making while writing, the instructor can determine how much time to allow during each test. A preliminary warning of '' three minutes more " given before the expiration of the time helps many students to finish writing the ideas they have in mind. Formulate definite questions ; require paragraphing of points. — In order to facilitate grading, the questions should be so worded as to call for very definite answers. Students should be required to separate and paragraph their points. This practice trains the student as well as facilitates grading. Incltide questions on reviezv and advance reading. — It is well to include in each written test one question on text matter that has already been covered in the class discussions and one on advance reading; otherwise, some very bright, busy students will try to bluff their way through without doing the advance reading, depending entirely on studying during recitation periods. Assignment of first test. — The first written test may come very well after the class has finished the discussion of Chapter II, on Broadening Purposes. Include as advance reading part of Chapter III, to page 41, which contains some general theory and some practical applications. How TO Study for Written Tests Purpose. Review to tmderstand, organise, and remem- ber. — The following suggestions supplement those given above, on page ei 5, concerning studying for class discussions. After the rapid reflective study of an assignment recom- mended there, the student should review it in order {a) to get a better tmders landing of the main ideas by studying carefully the supporting details ; {b) to organize the material for his own thinking or to master the organization presented in the text ; and (c) to store up or remember some of the material for use in later parts of the course and some ideas for later use when teaching. SHORT WRITTEN TESTS E25 Technique. Make indented outline of abbreviated asser- tions. — The first step in such careful reviewing is writing an outHne or brief of the main ideas. These outUnes should express full ideas to the person who makes them, both at the time and when used later for further review. Hence they consist of assertions and not merely topics, but the lan- guage may be greatly abbreviated. For example, the whole discussion of Luther's attitude given on page 7 of the text could be represented in a note as follows : Luther, about 1500, would train promising lads to supply preachers, scribes, etc. Other examples of outlines are found on pages 29, 199- 200, and at the bottom of 209 of the text. On page 209 notice how much is told by the effective use of brackets in the outline. The indenting of subordinate ideas and the placing of each idea on a separate line are also helpful. For a further discussion of the value of outlining, see pages 407, 410, 280-281. Be self active in outlining. — Selective activity on your part will increase the effectiveness of your outlining. To simply copy the author's headlines or topical sentences is not as helpful as selecting and phrasing the points yourself. Review text and outlines at psychological intervals. — In order to secure the largest permanent retention of material from the fewest reviews or repetitions, it is desirable to allow favorable intervals of time to elapse between reviews of the same material instead of relying on a few continuous repeti- tions. Good advice concerning such distribution of repetitions is given in the long quotation on page 163 of the text. Rapid active reading in reviewing. — It is probably well in reviewing to read rapidly and actively, as recommended above, on page ei 5, in the case of studying new material. If time intervenes between the reviews, it is easier to make the reviewing be of the active, attentive type. CHAPTER E REVIEW DISCUSSIONS Purpose. Review ; especially at transitions. — Review discussions by the class or summaries by the instructor should be frequent. They are especially helpful at transition points in the course, after one large topic has been com- pleted and before another is taken up. They should be accompanied by an outline on the blackboard of the main points up to date. A sample. Picture of blackboard outline. — The out- line on the blackboard for the first review discussion would resemble that shown in the picture on page E27. What have we do7ie that is worth while ? — The talk or discussion which would accompany this outline might pro- ceed somewhat as follows : In view of the theoretical nature of our discussion so far, it is well to ask, What have we accomplished in our discussion that is worth while ? Developing prof essional attiticdes. — The answer is that we have been developing certain professional attitudes toward the problems of teaching. These attitudes may be described as follows : Science and opinion. — In trying to determine the best methods of teaching, we should give preference to the impartial objective, precise conclusions of scientific studies instead of mere opinion. If we have to rely on opinion, prefer that of especially qualified judges, such as John Locke, Dewey, and Thorndike. Broader aims. — The broader aims of teaching should also determine our choice of methods. In the modern high E26 REVIEW DISCUSSIONS E27 school democratic purposes are prominent and each pupil is given both liberal and vocational training. In analyzing the values of any material or method we should consider SAMPLE BLACKBOARD OUTLINE THROUGH CHAPTER II Reproduced exactly as developed in class the way in which it contributes health, information, habits, interests, or ideals as the basis of social efficiency, good will, and habits of harmless enjoyment. These ideas of teaching serve to develop a liberal-minded^ scientific^ democratic attitude toward our work. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER III ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Business Management versus Democratic Ideals 1. Ideal versus routine. — What is the difference between an ''ideal school" and a '' well-routinized school"? 2. School conditions versus business co7iditions. — Can scientific business management in classrooms be carried out as effectively as in manufacturing plants or commercial houses ? Explain. 3. Intelligent spontaneity. — What is the significance of the phrase ''intelligently spontaneous," found in the first paragraph on page 29 ? 4. Hozv long to routinize. — Under proper conditions, how long should it take for the several routine factors out- lined on page 27 to become automatic ? First-Day Teaching 5. Review or introductio7t. — In beginning first-day in- struction, as suggested on page 33, which method would be most effective in each of the following subjects, — " review " or " introduction " ? Why ? Algebra Physiology English composition Botany Latin Cooking English history 6. German: alternative beginnings. — Discuss the good and bad points of the following examples of what a teacher of first-year German might take up on the first day : E28 ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT E29 (i) The declension of the indefinite article. (2) The sounds of the German letters (a) with word examples, (p) purely alphabetically. (3) The telling of a very simple folk tale which pupils know in English. (4) A few very simple sentences with common words. (5) Why people ought to know German. (6) The easiest way to learn German. 7. Colorful introdiLctions. — Give an interesting example from some other subject to parallel the use of the Darwin example in the following paragraph by a college student : "Above all things this introductory talk must not be a technical one ; it must be in terms of the learner ; it must be interspersed with colorful details which will catch pupils' interest. Casual refer- ence to books should be made (at same time write title and author on the board), with a short and interesting detail or two about the author's life, e.g. ' Darwin was a frail, puny boy. He was a star truant — instead of going to school on a bright Spring morning, he would sprawl under some tree near a brook and watch with all diligence the bugs, frogs and fish in the water. When he was a young man he made a journey around the world.' " Miscellaneous Routine Matters 8. Seating; back and front. — Which of the following pro- cedures is better in classes of twenty or more pupils .? Why ? (i) To assign pupils permanent seats for the term. (2) To assign seats at the beginning of the term and inter- change those pupils in the front and rear parts of the room periodically ; for example, every two weeks. 9. Roll call; time consumed. — (a) How many minutes does it take to call the roll in one recitation with a class of twenty students .? {b) What bearing does your answer have on the desirability of assigned seats .? E30 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 10. Mathematics equipment. — (a) Check the parts of the equipment described below which you would expect to use in teaching mathematics, and explain your choice. (&) Would you expect students to like the pictured equip- ment ? Explain. EQUIPMENT ''A good equipment is necessary if the best results in a course in mathematics are to be obtained. The following is a complete list of materials for classroom use and for the pupil. pupil's equipment for mathematics I. Pupil's Equipment I No. 6 notebook, containing unruled paper, squared paper, and theorem paper 50 Squared paper is used in all graphical work. Theorem paper may be used until the pupil has learned the conventional form of writing the proofs of theorems. I protractor (good make) 25 ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT E31 I compass 15 1 ruler (with perforations) 05 The perforations in the ruler must fit the rings of the note- book. Protractor and compass also should be attached to the rings (see picture on page E30). 2. Teacher's Desk Equipment Pupils frequently lose or forget books and instruments. A teacher's desk equipment makes it possible to supply such pupils with instruments for a class period, i doz. compasses, 2 doz. pencils, i- doz. protractors, and 2 doz. rulers will be sufficient for this purpose. 3. Classroom Equipment 6 large pointers 60 6 blackboard rulers 00 These should be about 3 in. wide, 3 ft. long and have handles. A class in shopwork can easily make such rulers. 12 blackboard compasses 3.50 3 blackboard protractors 1.50 2 45° large wooden triangles 0.00 2 30° large wooden triangles 0.00 I box colored crayons (assorted) 60 A squared blackboard A very good squared board is formed by lines drawn on the blackboard, letting a side of a square be a little longer than an inch. A bookshelf with several of the leading texts and histories of secondary mathematics." — Breslich, " Teacher's Guide for First- Year Mathematics " 11. Science notebooks. — How v^ould you manage the collection and distribution of science notebooks with three sections, twenty pupils in a section ? 12. Complaijits of history notebooks. — How would you respond to a complaint in the high-school daily paper that your history notebooks required an unreasonable amount of work } E32 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 13. Lesson procedure. — Should the order of class work be routinized ; for example, in a foreign-language class should some such invariable order as the following prevail ? (i) Assignment of new lesson (3) Form writing (2) Vocabulary test (4) Translation 14. Close of period. — Confusion and consequent waste often occur at the end of a period of instruction because the teacher has not anticipated the end. Describe a device that the teacher might adopt to avoid this confusion. Discipline and Control : Order 15. Jesuit reserve. — Does the position of the Jesuit writer quoted on pages 45-47 in regard to an attitude of ''extreme reserve" appear well taken in the light of your own school experience.? Explain. 16. Class versus playground attitudes. — Should the attitude of a teacher towards pupils in the classroom differ from his attitude towards them on the playground ? Explain. 17. "'Mr:' and ''Miss'' versus ''John" and "Mary.'' — (a) Should pupils be addressed as Mr. or Miss So-and-so or by their given names in high-school classes .? Why ? (&) What principle in the text applies .? 18. Objective attitudes. — (a) On page 47 what does Parker mean by a '' purely objective, impersonal attitude " ? (&) What are the " objects " which he considers 1 (c) What conditions to-day make it difficult for the teacher to keep this attitude t (d) Discuss the various ways by which the " objective attitude " might be cultivated. 19. Tact. — Suggest tactful ways of handling these situations : (i) In a school where Latin I is compulsory a student says to the teacher, " My papa says Latin is unimportant anyway. I am going to do just enough work to get through." ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT E33 (2) In an English class, outside reading of a certain kind and amount is assigned for a certain day. On that day two thirds of the class do not have it. (Is it possible that the teacher needs to reprove himself in this case ?) 20. Opening remai-k. — The opening remark by a teacher in a case of disorder is very important. (a) In case you found two boys tossing a tennis ball in the hall, which of the following '' openers " would you prefer to use } Why .? * (i) "' The tennis courts are just north of the building." (2) " Don't you know that playing ball in the halls is forbidden?" (6) What opening remark would you make in the follow- ing cases ? (i) You enter your classroom and find two boys wrestling on the floor. (2) Some unknown boy throws chalk during a geometry period, although this form of disorder seldom occurs in your class and has not occurred for some time. Supplementary Bibliography CoLViN, S. S. Introduction to High-School Teaching. (The Macmillan Company.) Chapters IV-VI contain excellent discus- sions of school discipline, with practical examples. Chapter VII discusses economy in classroom management. Very helpful. CHAPTER F FIRST OBSERVATION ASSIGNMENT Purpose. Chosen to illustrate principles in Chapters II, III, and IV. — By the time Chapter III is completed, the class has a sufficient number of ideas concerning teaching to make a profitable observation. It is highly desirable tQ have this be an observation dj/ the whole class of a high- school lesson especially chosen to illustrate principles already discussed and to provide material which may be used to illustrate part of the discussions in Chapter IV. Hence we want a lesson that will provide good material for con- sidering the following : (i) Broadening purposes of high-school teaching (2) Routine in management (3) Progressive adaptation of subject matter General science. — For this purpose probably the best lesson to observe is a combined discussion and laboratory lesson in first-year general science. If such a lesson is available for observation, the class should be told to read the account of general-science courses on pages 85-89 in anticipation of the observation. If a general-science lesson is not available, probably a similar lesson in some other first-year science would provide the best examples for observation. Technique. Write a report according to directions on pages ^1^-^16. — Members of the class should be asked to write a report on the observation according to the direc- tions given at the bottom of page 515 of the textbook and based on paragraphs I, II, and III on page 516. E34 FIRST OBSERVATION ASSIGNMENT E35 Try to see excellent teaching. — The instructor should endeavor to secure an excellently taught lesson for observa- tion, not a mediocre or poor one. Obviously such an excel- lent example is more instructive for the observers, who should be required to analyze its excellent features. Bad examples do observers little goocl, and destructive criticism and analysis cultivates a bad spirit between the department of education and the school of observation. It is impor- tant to maintain a spirit of friendly cooperation with the principal of the observation school and to consult in ad- vance with the teacher to be observed, so that the latter may know what phases of method the instructor desires to have illustrated. Stimzilate free nondogmatic evaluation ; eiicourage ob- served teacher. — In order to encourage free expression of opinion on the part of the observers, it is not advisable to permit the observed teacher to be present at the discussion of the observation. In this discussion both the students and instructor should avoid extreme dogmatism in render- ing their judgments, since there is still wide range for very rational difference of opinion in judging many phases of teaching. The main points brought out in the discussion might be reported to the observed teacher, if he is inter- ested in knowing them. These points should certainly emphasize the excellences of the lesson, although possible further developments of the teacher's technique should also be suggested if these suggestions would seem to be welcome and the instructor is very tactful. CHAPTER G EVALUATING HIGfl-SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS {Learn to know the best in your subject) Purpose. Predominance of textbook teaching necessitates acquaintance. — In view of the fact that most high-school teaching is textbook teaching, one of the most practical exer- cises for a prospective high-school teacher is to familiarize himself with the best high-school textbooks in his subject. For example, a prospective teacher of English should be familiar with the best high-school rhetorics, best manuals of oral composition, best volumes of selected readings, and many books of fiction, popular science, etc. suitable for high-school readers. Assemble Textbooks Technique. Locate or assemble best recent texts. — While the instructor and institution are primarily responsible for providing access to up-to-date textbook collections, any assistance which the students themselves may render will be good training for them. Hence some type of cooperative committees may be devised by the instructor to assist in making suitable textbooks available for examination. Sources of ijtformation. — The following sources are most important in securing information about books which should be secured for examination : [a) publishing houses, especially the large textbook companies ; ib) reviews and advertisements of textbooks in educational periodicals ; {c) well-trained, dis- criminating teachers in high schools and, occasionally, in colleges. E36 HIGH-SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS E37 Dont overzvhelm students with mediocre hooks. — In pre- paring the collection of textbooks to be examined do not include books of questionable value. Endeavor to include only textbooks of high quality so that each student secures large profit from the few hours spent on the assignment. The collection should be reserved in the library and a mimeographed list of the books distributed to the students. Especially notable books. — Some textbooks are so greatly superior to others that a teacher who fails to know the best in his subjects is losing one of the greatest opportunities to improve his teaching. Each of the books mentioned below, for example, is an excellent piece of textbook-making and should be examined by every teacher of the subject concerned. Mathematics. — E. R. Breslich, ''First-Year Mathematics" and '' Second- Year Mathematics " (The University of Chicago Press, 191 5 and 19 16). See page 83 of Parker's text for a description of the content of these books. They are based on years of experimentation in teaching mathematics, by the author, who is head of department of mathematics in The University of Chicago High School. Ge7ieral science. — Caldwell, O. W., and Eikenberry, W. L., '' Elements of General Science " (Ginn and Com- pany, 19 14). The excellence of this book is due to wide experience of the first author as professor of the teaching of science and of the second author as a high-school teacher of several sciences (see page 88 of Parker's text for outline). History. — In this subject excellent work has been done under the unusually skilled editorship of Professor J. H. Robinson of Columbia University. The following texts are especially excellent examples of the series : Robinson, J. H., ''History of Western Europe" (Ginn and Company, 1903). This is the first of Robinson's texts (see page 75 of Parker's text for a quotation from the Preface). E38 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Robinson, J. H., ''Medieval and Modern Times" (Ginn and Company, 1916). This is the fourth and latest of the author's texts. Muzzey, D. S., ''An American History " (Ginn and Com- pany, 191 1). Cheyney, E. P., "A Short History of England" (Ginn and Company, 1904). English composition. — Many excellent textbooks have appeared recently in this subject. They are notable because they are written primarily from the standpoint of the high- school pupil instead of the college professor of rhetoric. Three of these are listed on page E155 and should certainly be known by, every prospective teacher of English. Authors specialize in technique of making textbooks. — One general reason for the excellence of these books is that their authors or editors are men who have made a very special study of the technique of making good text- books. Other textbooks could be mentioned which would also take very high rank, but enough have been named to illustrate the general point of special excellence in textbook- making and the desirability of knowing the best. Evaluate Selected Textbooks (Special assignment based on Chapter IV) Purpose. Apply principles determi7ii7ig selection and ar- rangement of subject matter. — In connection with the next chapter (IV), " The Selection and Arrangement of Subject Matter," the class should be given practice in evaluating high- school textbooks in terms of the principles described there. Amoimt of assignment depends on facilities . — The amount or extent of the assigned work with the books will depend on the number of books available and their accessibility. If a carefully selected collection of the best recent textbooks is available on reserve shelves in the university library, students HIGH-SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS E39 may do much excellent evaluating of them in a brief time. If books have to be secured from scattered sources, so much time is consumed in gathering them that students cannot be expected to work with so many. Assignment. Examine prefaces and text matter. — Ex- amine the prefaces and text matter of several (?) textbooks in one or two subjects which you expect to teach in high school, except foreign languages. Write comparative paper based 07i prefaces and text. — Write a brief paper setting forth the extent to which these books embody the principles concerning the selection and arrangement of subject matter discussed ijt Chapter IV of Parker s textbook. Include in your paper the following : {a) Short exact quotations from the prefaces setting forth their use of these principles. ip) Your own general comparative evaluation of the books. Base this evaluation not only on an examination of the prefaces but also on an examination of the text matter itself to determine if the principles set forth in the prefaces are actually and successfully carried out in writing the textbooks. Detailed description of 07ie excellent textbook. — Select one of the best of the high-school textbooks in your subject and write a thorough account of its peculiar excellences, giving specific evidence from the content of the book to illustrate or justify your discussions. The principles set forth in Parker's chapter should form at least a partial basis of your description and evaluation. Other features which he does not consider may also be described. A preparatory conversational discussion of what these additional features may be can be carried on in class to advantage. Form of the paper. — In writing your paper be explicit and definite, and use brief, concise expressions and short paragraphs. When dtie. — The papers should be handed in by the time the discussion of Chapter VII is completed. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER IV THE SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF SUBJECT MATTER Purpose. Develop sympathy with modernizing of subject matter. — The purpose of this chapter is to develop further the prospective teacher's point of view about high-school teaching by increasing his understanding of and sympathy with the rapid modemizijig of high-school subject matter which is in progress in the schools. Knowledge of nineteenth-century social developm,ent aids the study. — For the first part of the discussion a knowledge of nineteenth-century social history is especially helpful in making more real the general social point of view expressed in the quotation from Dewey, on pages 54-55. Knowledge of the industrial revolution growing out of the develop- ment of the factory system and resulting in the interna- tionalization of industry, including food supply, is especially important. In the political phase of recent social history the students need to appreciate the development of an intense interest in certain local social problems, particularly in the large cities. Changes in national political issues are also important factors, especially in connection with the issue of '' states' rights " versus national control. Individual differences. Students answer exercises in their special subjects. — A number of the exercises cannot be answered by all members of the class, but in a mixed class of college juniors and seniors there are sure to be some whose specialized courses will enable the instructor to secure answers to all of the exercises from some members of the E40 SUBJECT MATTER E41 class. This chapter, then, illustrates the necessity of con- sidering the individual dijferences in preparation and inter- ests among the students in conducting discussions. Specific exercises sJioidd be assigned to dijf event members of the class for prepared answers according to -their special interests as revealed on the information blanks described above, on page E9. Most exercises 07i English and foreign langtiages post- poned. — Owing to the fact that there is a very thorough discussion of the teaching of foreign languages and of English composition and literature in later chapters in the book, the exercises in this chapter are chosen primarily from other subjects. I. Adaptation of Subject Matter to Social Needs Answer if easy. — See if you can answer the first five exercises easily without reading the note on page E42, below, which gives economic data. After your first attempt read the note and revise your answers if it seems necessary. These exercises concern the interrelation of educational, industrial, and other social factors. 1. Indtis trial education in Massachusetts. — Why has Massachusetts led other American states in the develop- ment of a system of industrial education } 2. Religious conditions in New England. — (a) What religious denomination or belief do you think of as peculiarly characteristic of New England > (h) Why is it that Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut are probably the three most strongly Catholic states in the United States at the present time .? 3. Higher education in Illinois. — Why can the State University of Illinois easily secure from the state legislature great appropriations for courses in agriculture and mining engineering 1 E42 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 4. Chicago district. — (a) Why will the Chicago district become the greatest industrial and economic center in the world ? (&) How will it probably rank as a center of education, medical study, religious organization, art, music, amusement (including moving-picture distribution) ? 5. Economic interpretation of history. — (a) What is the ''economic interpretation" of history? (See Seligman's book with this title.) (&) How are your answers to exercises i, 2, 3, and 4 re- lated to this interpretation ? (If you had difficulty in answer- ing exercises i to 5, reconsider them now in the light of the data given below.) ECONOMIC DATA FOR EXERCISES 1-5 Coal and iron deposits. — Under " United States " the Britan- nica states that Colorado probably is the richest coal region in the country, having, with Utah, deposits of about 500 billion tons of true bituminous coal. At the headwaters of the Ohio we find West Virginia (231 billions), Pennsylvania (112 billions), part of Kentucky (104 billions), and Ohio {Z^ billions), making another region of about 500 billion tons. Illinois (240 billions) and Indiana (44 billions) make another large field, with almost 300 billion tons. Other deposits rank much smaller. " Almost 95 per cent of the iron ore of the country is believed to lie in the Lake Superior region." Transportation of iron ore. — During the open navigation season on the Great Lakes great fleets of ore vessels carry the Lake Superior iron ore to Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Gary, and other lake ports. Agriculture. — In a recent year the agricultural products of Illinois exceeded in value those of any other state. In 1 9 1 6 the average value of all plowed lands in Illinois was $115 per acre. In Iowa it was $135 per acre, but in no other state did it exceed $100. With improvements included, the average value per acre of all farm lands in Illinois was $119 and in Iowa $106. In only two other states did it exceed $100 per acre. SUBJECT MATTER E43 Ma7iufacturi7ig. — According to the International Encyclopaedia, in 1909 Massachusetts was the foremost state in the manufacture of textiles, including cotton goods, woolen, worsted and felt goods, woolen hats, cordage, twine, jute and linen goods, etc. Of boots and shoes made in the United States, Massachusetts manufac- tured 41.5 per cent. Machinery for textile and shoe factories is manufactured on a large scale. As early as 1870 the Massachusetts legislature passed a law adding drawing to elementary-school subjects in response to a petition from the leading manufacturers of the state, asking that some steps be taken to remove the lack of skilled designers, foremen, etc. Center of population. — In 19 10 the center of population of the United States was in Bloomington, Indiana. 6. Economic infliLences on educatio7i. — Show how eco- nomic considerations, including agricultural, industrial, and commercial factors, are affecting the curriculum at the pres- ent time in some high schools with which you are familiar. 7. Social progress and changes in civics. — Two popular civics textbooks (Andrews's ''American Constitution" and Fiske's ''Civil Government") which were extensively used until quite recently emphasize the following topics : taxation and government, the township, the county, the city, the state, written constitutions, the federal union. On the other hand, recent recommendations for civics courses stress the following topics : health, protection of life and property, recreation, education, civic beauty, wealth, communication, transportation, migration, charities, correction. Suggest the historical change that has taken place in American social life which is at the basis of this change in subject matter of civics. 8. History courses and national ideals. — (a) In Prussia the theory of the divine right of kings, which was shat- tered in England in 1688, was still the basis of government in 191 3. Guess what the directions to history teachers in the public schools would say concerning teaching the E44 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING children about the relation between (i) the prosperity of Germany and (2) the efficiency of the divinely inspired Hohenzollern kings. (Compare Chapter R, below.) (&) Contrast with this Prussian situation (i) our American government and (2) the teaching concerning it in American- history courses in the public schools. 9. History : influejice of school traditions. — (a) Until recently what periods of general or world history were most emphasized in high schools } (b) What was the probable origin of this practice ? 10. Science : its hidustrialization ; botany^ chemistry. — (a) Students of botany or, agriculture may give illustrations from the activities of the National Department of Agricul- ture of the practical application of the evolutionary type of botanical knowledge mentioned on page 57. (6) Some of these students may examine Bergen and Caldwell's '' Practical Botany " (or other recent texts) and report examples of the way in which botany is made '' practical " in these textbooks. (c) In 1 860 Spencer emphasized the practical applications of chemistry in bleaching, dyeing, the working of the ores of iron, copper, and other metals, in sugar-refining, gas-making, soap-boiling, manufacture of gunpowder, glass, porcelain, etc. Compare ''The Chemistry of Common Things," by R. B, Brownlee and others (Allyn and Bacon, 19 14), with some older textbook as to the amount of emphasis placed on these practical applications of chemistry. 11. Geometry: its elimination. — (a) Underline the most striking sentences in the series of quotations concerning geometry on pages 58-59 and mark them Ex. 11. (6) Does suitable ready-made, well-organized material exist to take the place of geometry in high schools ? Explain. (Compare the bottom of page 59.) (c) What kind of case for or against the teaching of geometry would you make in view of this real situation t SUBJECT MATTER E45 Adaptation of Subject Matter to Local and Individual Needs 12. Education and local social degeneration. — Do you think that the maintenance of well-organized agrictdtnral high-school courses throughout New England from 1800 to 1900 would have prevented the dire social changes described on pages 62-63 ? Explain. 13. Shoidd all be local? — Does the argument on pages 60-65 imply that all the subject matter of a small high school should be selected in terms of the peculiar needs of the local community ? Explain. 14. Service in small high schools. — Many of the high schools of the country have only one, two, or three teachers. Many beginning teachers have to start in these schools. id) Hozv many stdyects would you probably have to teach in such a school } (b) What are the possibilities of your having to teach subjects in which you have not specialised in college .'' (c) How w,a7iy recitations would you have to teach per day t id) In view of your answers to (a), (&), and (c), how much adaptation of subject matter to the local needs of a new situation will yozc^ be able to make during your first year of teaching .? (e) Certain students may be asked to read the Snedden article (No. 4, p. 93) and report what light it throws on the questions raised in this exercise. II. Relative Values of Subject Matter 15. Relative importance of life's activities. — In analyzing the subject matter of life in connection with his discussion of relative values, Spencer distinguished the five classes of activities concerned with the following : care of children, leisure, health, civic affairs, making a living. 'Without read- ing Spencer's essay, arrange these '' in the order of their E46 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING importance " and justify your arrangement. (If you happen to know Spencer's order, let some other student answer this exercise.) 16. History as descriptive sociology. — In discussing rela- tive values in the teaching of history, Spencer said, *' The only history that is of practical value is w^hat may be called Descriptive Sociology." (a) What would be the content or principal topics in such a history course } (6) To what extent does the preface from Robinson's history quoted on page 75 carry out the idea of teaching history as descriptive sociology } (c) In what ''field of human endeavor" was each of the men mentioned in Robinson's preface a great leader 1 17. Dates. — Several eminent teachers of history sub- mitted the list of most important dates in American history given below. Endeavor to explain the importance of each date and its relative rank in importance as given in the following table : i.ANK Date I . . 1776 2 . . 1492 3 • • 1607 4 • • 1789 5 • • 1620 6 . . 1803 7 • . 1 861 (April 14) 8 . . 1787 9 • • 1863 (Jan. I) . , 1820 Rank Date II . . . 1812 12 1765 13 1783 14. 1865 (April 14) 15 1850 16 1854 17 1775 18 1781 19 1823 20 1846 18. Grammar. — The principle of relative values has been used to effect a very radical elimination of topics in the teaching of English grammar. In the following list mark with A three topics of great practical value, with B three topics of doubtful practical value, with C three topics that SUBJECT MATTER E47 should be eliminated because of lack of practical value for seventh-grade and eighth-grade pupils : (i) Objective complement (2) Inflections of pronouns (3) Comparison of adjectives (4) Classification of adverbs (5) Verbs as to kind, number, tense, and voice (6) Mood (except possibly the subjunctive of " to be ") (7) The nominative absolute (8) The gerund (9) The uses of the relative pronouns (10) Proper nouns as contrasted with common nouns (11) Double negatives (12) Adverbs as distinguished from adjectives (13) The noun clause (14) The possessive of nouns (15) Exclamatory sentence (16) The sentence as a unit Sex hygiene: relative values. — Occasionally the author has students hand in exercises which raise problems along the lines of the discussion in the textbook. The following very good exercise was handed in by a young married woman who had had experience in teaching in both elementary and high schools. In some classes it could be discussed with advantage ; in others, omitted. (a) With the idea of the relative value of topics within a subject in mind, what place would you give to the following topics in a course in physiology or some related course .'' (i) Origin of life. (2) Anatomy, function, and hygiene of the genital (sex) organs. (3) Venereal diseases. {a) Methods of contraction. {b) Effects upon the individual, (c) Effects upon the offspring. {d) Eugenics. (4) Care and feeding of children (for girls). (3) Is there a real and pressing need for the treatment of such topics in the schools .? If so, does the need vary historically between different communities or between different individuals within the same com- munity, or is it a universal need which always has been present but consistently ignored t E48 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 19. Geography ; earth and fftan. — Think of geography as concerned with the relation between the earth and man, id) Which is most important in this conception, the earth, man, or the relation ? (6) Which has been most emphasized in the teaching of the ''earth sciences" (physiography and geography) in high schools ? III. Intensive Treatment of a Few Topics 20. Geography ; a counterpane. — (a) In reading the quo- tation from Ritter on page J 2 what mental picture do you get from his use of the term '' counterpane " ? ih) Is it an adequate figure of speech to describe the ordinary textbooks in geography ? Why ? 21. Geography ; cities. — In planning to avoid the ency- clopedic method of studying cities, id) name three types of cities that might be studied intensively. (6) Name one good clear-cut Amefican example and one good^ foreign example of each type. 22. History prefaces. — Report from your examination of the prefaces of history textbooks quotations paralleling that of Robinson quoted on page 75 and dealing with the inten- sive treatment of a few topics. Cheyney's '' History of Eng- land " and Muzzey's ''American History" may be examined for this purpose. 23. Histoiy ; types a7id economy. — How would it be pos- sible to carry out the intensive study of Petrarch suggested on page J J and still provide for the principles of economy of time described in Chapter HI .? IV. Organization of Subject Matter in Terms OF THE Learner 24. Practical a^id theoretical interests. — id) Which type of student were you in high school, (i) one whose interest was most aroused by the ^o-Q2X[.Qdi practical subjects or (2) one SUBJECT MATTER E49 who was easily interested in studying history, hterature, languages, mathematics, or science ''just for fun"? Give objective evidence for your answer. (6) What proportion of high-school students belong to each type ? (c) What bearing do the class answers to (a) and (&) have upon the idea of making high-school instruction appeal to practical interests ? 25. History;- interest vers2is significance. — (a) What phases of history are most interesting to adolescent boys and girls (discoveries, explorations, wars, industries, religion, government, recreation, morals, superstitions, education, art, science, etc.) ? (6) What phases are most significaftt in studying history as ''descriptive sociology"? (c) If there is a conflict between your answers to (a) and (6), how would you reconcile it ? 26. Mixed mathematics. — Underline the three most striking ideas in the description on pages 83-85 of the course of study in mathematics. 27. Vitalizing geometry. — If you were to teach geometry in a city high school where the prescribed textbook consisted of logically arranged propositions and proofs, (a) What could you do to give the material some practical value ? (&) With whom would you consnlt in making these changes ? (c) What would be your chief difficulties in making any changes ? id) How would you proceed in having a more modern course of study and a reconstructed textbook adopted ? 28. General-science cotcrses ; evaluation. — (a) Examine the topics listed in the general-science courses on pages 87-89. Taking the two courses together, mark the topics as follows : With In. B the five topics which you think would be most interesti7tg to boys. E50 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING With In. G the five of greatest interest to girls. With Pr. B the five of greatest practical value to boys who attend only one year of high school. With Pr. G the five of greatest practical value to girls who attend only one year. (&) On the basis of this grading, which course seems to be the better .? (c) What points are there in the outline of the other course which might be in its favor } 29. General science; a ^^ hodgepodge.'' — The greatest objection made to general-science courses by conservative specialized science teachers is that each course is a mere ''hodgepodge." How would you answer this objection.? Supplementary Bibliography The following publications appeared after the publication of the textbook and are supplementary to those noted in Chapter IV, page 93, of the text. 1. Breslich, E. R. First-Year Mathematics and Second-Year Mathe?natics. (The University of Chicago Press, 19 15.) These textbooks carry out the plan described on pages 83-85 of the text and are excellent examples of mathematics textbooks adapted to the needs and interests of the general type of high-school pupils. 2. The Teaching of Community Civics. Bulletin No. 23 {whole number^ 6^0), United States Bureau of Education, 19 15. An ex- cellent outline and discussion of an up-to-date course in civics. 3. Fourteenth and Sixteenth Yearbooks of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, entitled Mi/iimum Essentials in Elementary-School Subjects. (School and Home Publishing Company, Urbana, Illinois, 19 15 and 19 17.) Contains material on relative values of topics in mathematics, grammar, history, geography, and other subjects. 4. Hill, H. C. Teaching History by Type Studies. History Teachers Magazine, April, 1913, Vol. IV, pp. 98-103. SUBJECT MATTER E51 5. Leavitt, F. L., and Brown, Edith. Elementary Social Science. A new type of elementary material in economics and civics. (The Macmillan Company, 19 17.) 6. Osgood, E. L., and Richman, Julia. Experimental Course in Industrial History. History Teachers Magaz'me^ 19 16, Vol. VII, pp. 98-102. 7. United States Bureau of Education. Lessons in Community and National Life. Bulletins beginning October, 19 17. Elementary lessons with questions. The national government making text pam- phlets to achieve national reforms through education. A significant innovation. Write to the Bureau. CHAPTER H MAINTAIN APPARENT COHERENCE Purpose. Keep connectedness of disciLssion clear to class, — While piloting the class through discussions, the in- structor must take care to maintaift a well-planned con- nectedness in the discussions and to keep this connectedness clear to the class. Thus he must not only secure coherence in the progress of the discussions but also apparent coher- ence. The quality of coherence in a course is described on pages 90-91 in the textbook in connection with the dis- cussion of the logical quality of reconstructed high-school courses in mathematics and science. To this logical idea of coherence should be added the rhetorical idea of keep- ing the continuous connected character of the discussion apparent to the audience. Devices used in the text and exercise book for apparejit coherence. — The author has endeavored to secure appar- ent coherence in the textbook itself by the use of reviews and carefully planned t^^ansitional pa^'agraphs and sen- tences. In the exercise book the exercises are arranged, as a rule, not in a haphazard or miscellaneous manner, but in an order that will develop a discussion parallel to the discussion in the text. The insertion of topical headings among the exercises is intended to facilitate further the maintenance of apparent coherence in the discussions. Value. Develops a tisefnl system which facilitates re- membering and applying. — If the instructor strives for apparent coherence, as here recommended, the students will gradually develop a ^system of ideas about methods of teaching. Such a system will not only enable them better E52 MAINTAIN APPARENT COHERENCE E53 to tmderstand the problems of teaching but it will also facilitate remembering worth-while information and the applicatioji of the ideas later, when engaged in teaching. Technique. Use transitional reviews, progressive outlin- ing, summaries, and introductions. — The type of transi- tional review described above, on page E26, is one step in u-Ow, M^ (j]N^y\j7U5VV VJ ^^^:ki^Mk^ SAMPLE ASSIGNMENT ON BLACKBOARD Each day, while the class is assembling, the' instructor should write memoranda of outstanding assignments on the blackboard, using always the same corner of the latter, so that students will form the habit of noting them page 125 persist when one is taught a foreign language by the indirect method ? Explain either in terms of the theory of association or in terms of your own experience in study- ing a foreign language for several years. (b) What devices can a teacher use after the first half- year of indirect instruction to eliminate the intermediate link ; that is, to train pupils to use their acquired vocabulary so as to read without translating } ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS E65 (c) It has been said that the emphasis oy). oral reading in elementary schools tends to make slozv readers of children, to interfere seriously with their acquisition of habits of rapid silent reading. Try to explain this contention by means of a diagram showing pron7mciatio7i as an intermediate link. (d) Some students may be able to give other examples of the persistence of intermediate links ; for example, trans- posing to a '' favorite " key or a '' universal " key in playing a musical instrument. 3. Direction of arrows. — In the diagram on page 127 why do the arrows point away from the picture of the book instead of toward it t 4. Thinking in foreign language based on seiHes of events. — Explain somewhat more fully than is done at the top of page 128 or middle of page 131 the advantages' claimed for teaching a series of verbs by the direct method as compared with teaching the names of a series of objects. In other words, show how the use of action or narrative material provides a better basis for thinking in a foreign language than does the mere use of objects. Use the last four sen- tences on page 130 or the ten numbered sentences at the top of page 133 to illustrate your explanation. Direct Methods for Inexperienced Teachers 5. AmateiLr tise of direct method. — If a teacher of a foreign language who speaks it only haltingly haci some good supervised practice-teaching in the first three months of a good ready-made direct system, should she choose to use a direct or an indirect method } Explain. 6. Ready-made m-aterial. — Give other examples (some of which may have been discussed earlier in the course) of the faihire of educational reforms to make progress owing to the lack of good ready-made material for inexperienced teachers. e66 exercises for METHODS OF TEACHING GouiN Series 7. Qualities of a good first series. — (a) Criticize the series given below in the Ught of the directions which follow it. The first series in a well-known system for teaching English to foreigners contains, among others, the following sentences : "Title — GETTING UP IN THE MORNING Ve^bs awake I awake from sleep, open I^ open my eyes, look I look for my watch, must get up I must get up. throw back I throw back the bedclothes, put on I put on my pants, put on I put on my stockings and shoes, wash I wash myself. " The directions for teaching any series read in part as follows : " Then, as far as possible, bring the articles of which you speak into the classroom. Play your part with these implements. Exe- cute, wherever you can before the whole class, each successive step described in the lesson. In this way, if you act the part well and speak plainly, never hurrying and never impatient, the class that is wholly foreign in tongue will soon comprehend your mean- ing and begin to talk and understand the English tongue." (&) Evaluate the series at the bottom of page 130 and the top of page 132 from the point of view of the above directions. 8. Possibility of dramatizing meanings. — (a) In viewing a moving-picture performance does an observer necessarily convert the pictures into words in his mind 1 (b) What bearing does your answer have on the validity of the theory of association upon which the Gouin method is based .? (c) In connection with the matter of gestures, what is one of the greatest dangers of misuse of the Gouin material by an inexperienced or careless teacher .? ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS E67 (d) Perform the gestures which you would use in drama- tizing the meanings of the following sentences : I stretch out my arm. I take hold of the knob. I turn the knob. The door opens. I look for the first page. I find the first page. It is hot. It is cold. 9. Use of synonyms and opposite s. — Often a synonym or opposite of a new word is known or can be taught more easily than the new word ; for example, in English, '' refuse" can probably be taught by dramatization more easily than ''accept." ''Right" and "left" can be more easily taught together than separately. A teacher of French says, " 'Taisez- vous ' signifie en fran^ais ' cessez de causer.' " Give examples from English, French, or German illus- trating how you would teach words or phrases by use of synonyms or opposites without recourse to translation. 10. Pasting verszis copying. — Would you have pupils paste the printed series in their notebooks or copy them and return the originals 1 Why .? 11. Correct grammatical usage. — (a) Show how the series on pages 130 and 132 might be used to give training in grammatical usage of different forms of verbs (person, num- ber, tense), as suggested by Handschin on page 136. (h) If the discussion of grammatical usage on page 137 is correct, is there any valid reason for teaching tabulated declensions and conjunctions at all} Explain. 12. Temperame7it. — What part does temperam,ent play in the success of a teacher who uses the Gouin method ; for example, what one word best designates the most effective temperament } e68 exercises FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 13. Spontaneous material. — It might be argued that a teacher should develop his conversational material in the foreign language spontaneously from the daily experience of the class. What are the objections to this practice ? 14i Material for French lessons. — {a) Students of French may give the principal ideas of method contained in the preface of Gourio's textbook, quoted below. (&) Indicate to what extent it agrees or disagrees with Parker's discussion or gives additional ideas of method. " Le professeur de langue vivante peut augmenter considerable- ment Tefficacite de son premier enseignement en se servant de la langue enseignee pour diriger sa classe. Aussi cet ouvrage offre-t-il tout d'abord a I'etude les vocables qui expriment la vie de la classe. Et ces vocables il les ordonne de maniere a permettre un enseigne- ment direct qui soit rapide et sur. II se soumet par consequent a I'obligation qu'impose la methode directe de doser legerement les legons, de graduer avec le plus grand soin les difficulte's, de passer du concret a I'abstrait et du particulier au gene'ral, bref d'etablir dans I'enseignement un enchainement tel que la signification des mots e'tudies puisse servir peu a peu a decouvrir celle des autres. Est-il besoin d'ajouter que cette ordonnance rigoureuse, si elle est indispensable dans la maniere directe, ne peut que convenir au professeur indirect, c'est-a-dire a celui qui pref ere introduire le mot frangais a I'aide du mot maternel ? Celui-ci, en effet, doit se tenir en garde contre la facilite' que lui offre I'instrument de la traduc- tion d'entrer au hasard dans la langue etrangere et d'y decouper de trop larges tranches de vocabulaire et de grammaire. Cet ouvrage ne vise pas a enseigner un vocabulaire etendu. Ce qui importe d'abord c'est I'enseignement des formes, de montures de langage oii Ton sertit les mots du dictionnaire a mesure des besoins. Peu de mots, incessamment rappeles dans les formes grammaticales essentielles ou le verbe et les pronoms qui gravitent autour du verbe sollicitent le principal effort de I'eleve, tel est le programme qui me semble s'imposer au de'but. Et c'est seulement au moyen d'exemples vecus, greffes pour ainsi dire sur les realites de la classe, abondants, constamment entendus et repe'te's qu'on ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS E69 peut enseigner d'une maniere efficace cette grammaire fonda- mentale. La pedagogic qui se contente de la faire apercevoir a travers des regies seches et des exemples rares est aujourd'hui condamnee." (See No. 6 in the bibliography below.) 15. Vitalizing ijidirect method.— Sho"^ how some of the devices of the direct method might be used to vitalize or supplement the indirect method. Additional Bibliography 1 . Roberts, Peter. Eiiglish for Coming Americans. (Associa- tion Press, 124 E. 28th St., New York.) Y.M.C.A. material for teaching English to foreigners. The teachers' manual (50 cents) is one of the best Gouin manuals in English. The oral series, readers, charts, and drill cards are helpful and suggestive. 2. Gouin series. Gouin lessons in French, German, and Span- ish may be secured from the Series Publishing Company, Oxford, Ohio. ^ 3. Oliver, T. E. Suggestions and References for Modern Language Teachers. School of Education Bidletin (University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois), Revised Edition, 19 17 (price, 25 cents). Excellent descriptive list of materials to be used in teaching modern languages. 4. The Modern Language fonr7ial. Concerning this publication Oliver writes as follows in reference No. 3, above: ^^The Modern Language fou?'nal, dealing specifically v/ith pedagogical aspects, has just begun publication and deserves the support of all progres- sive teachers. The subscription price of $1.50 per year includes also membership in the newly-formed 'Association of Modem For- eign Language Teachers of the Central West and South,' which holds annual meetings in April. Address the Secretary, Professor C. H. Handschin, Oxford, Ohio. A similar society in the east is ' The Federation of Modern Language Teachers,' which cooperates with the western association in the above journal. This journal is destined to become invaluable to the modern language teacher. 1916-1917 will be Volume I. There are to be eight numbers a year." E/o EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Direct-method texts in German and French. — In order to secure a start in using a direct method, beginning teachers of German or French will probably have to rely on textbooks which are avail- able. In choosing a text they should notice to what extent it possesses the following features: (i) early introduces the con- versational phrases to be used in class intercourse; (2^ provides Gouin-series material for teaching the names of ordinary objects in the classroom and ordinary activities ; (3) provides pictures for teaching the names of other objects ; (4) introduces systematically and grdidudiWy frequent practice in profiunciation -^ (5) provides for systematic, repetitional vocabulary building, so that words once learned are repeated and used until learned permanently \ (6) pro- vides systematic training in correct grammatical usage or practice, with few grammatical rules ; (7) contains attractive easy narrative reading material as the basis of beginning fluent reading ; (8) pro- vides ready-made questiofts in the foreign language on the reading matter, to which pupils may prepare the answers in the foreign language during the study period ; (9) uses historical or geographi- cal narrative material relating to Germany or France; (10) uses various devices to secure interest, such as jingle rimes and songs in the foreign language. As a start in evaluating textbooks from the above standpoints, students may secure the following books and note in which features each is weak or strong : 5. GoHDES, W. H., and Buschek, H. A. Deutsches Sprach- und Lesebuch. (Henry Holt and Company, 19 12.) Gronow, Anna T. fung Deutschland. (Ginn and Company, 19 12.) Manfred, M. E. Ein praktischer Anfang. (D. C. Heath & Company, 19 14.) Prokosch, E. Deutscher Lehrgang, erstes fahr. (Henry Holt and Company.) Schmidt, Lydia M., and Glokke, Else. Das erste fahr Deutsch. (D. C. Heath & Company, 19 17.) 6. Angus, F. R. Fundamentals of French. (Henry Holt and Com- pany, 19 1 6.) Chapuzet, M. L., and Daniels, W. M. Mes premiers pas en frangais. (D. C. Heath & Company.) GouRio, E. La Classe en fran^ais, premier livre. (Librairie Ferran Jeune, Mar- seille, 19 13.) Meras, A. A., and B. Le Premier livre. (American Book Company3 19 15.) CHAPTER J PERIODICAL READING ON TEACHING SPECIAL ' SUBJECTS Purpose. Provides for individual differences in interests, — In view of the fact that Chapters VI-XI deal with special types of learning which appear in varying degrees in the teach- ing of special subjects, it is well to parallel the reading of this part of the text with outside assignments which will provide for the individual differences in interests of members of the class. One of the best ways to do this is to assign a prescribed amount of reading of articles in recent peri- odicals dealing with the teaching of special subjects. Read discussion of periodical readijig. — The discussion of the value of periodical reading given on page xxi of the textbook (page xxiii in the first edition) should be read by the students. In addition to the periodicals mentioned there the following publications will be found helpful: Classical Journal. (The University of Chicago Press) Classical Weekly. (C. Knapp, Barnard College, New York City) General Science Quarterly. (W. G. Whitman, Salem, Mass.) Journal of Home Economics. (121 1 Cathedral St., Baltimore, Md.) Modern Language Journal (see above, p. E69, for description). Proceedings of the National Education Association, especially the articles in the special departments. Assignment. — i. Choose some subject or topic such as English, a foreign language, mathematics, composition, oral composition, literature, current literature, civics, debating, home economics, botany, drawing, etc. E71 E72 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 2. Find in periodicals or reports of associations published during the past five years (that is, since 19 — ) ten articles of five or more pages each, dealing with the teaching of the special subject or topic chosen. If an article is very long, for example, fifteen pages, you may count it as two articles. 3. Give complete bibliographical data for each article : name of author, title, periodical, volume, and inclusive pages (for example. Vol. XV, pp. 275-281) and year. 4. Write a fifty- word description and summary of each article. 5. Hand in on - — — (date). 6. One-half theme pages furnish convenient writing material for this purpose. By having these at hand when reading, and by writing legibly, you may save making a second copy. Use full theme sheets if you prefer. Use a separate sheet or half-sheet for each article. Write on the reverse side if the material will not all go on one side. 7. Remember that the instructor is interested in your summaries and profits from reading them. He has not time to read regularly all the specialized journals which members of the class examine. Hence your summaries help him to keep in touch with this material and to locate some of the best articles which he may find time to read. He will make note of these and return your bibliography. CHAPTER K WAYSIDE SUGGESTIONS TO THE INSTRUCTOR Beware of overemphasis on early chapters. — The in- structor should remember that later parts of the book must not be neglected as a result of spending too much time on the earlier parts. Far along, for example, come Chap- ters XVII and XXII on the use of books and on tests and examinations, which are important for all teachers. Apply carefully to the planning of the course the first large-type paragraph on page 69 of the text. Vary procedure for interest. — While the ordinary prac- tice is to discuss the exercises after the corresponding chap- ter has been read, it creates interest to h^gvsx some chapters by a discussion of the exercises before the chapter is read. This also creates a problem-solving mental attitude which is helpful. Develop the students through their self -activity. — Re- mernber that the development of the ability of the students to evaluate and apply principles of teaching comes from their own activity in thinking and expression. Incidental lectur- ing by the instructor should merely supplement the students' efforts. Give the slow a chance. — Save the easier exercises for the slower students to answer. By this practice they will be encouraged and developed through their successful responses. =73 EXERCISES ON CHAPTER VIII PRACTICE OR DRILL 1 Automatizing Motor and Mental Associations Read twenty-five pages in about fifty minutes. — This twenty-five page chapter can be read rapidly, as a person would read a magazine article, in from forty to seventy- five minutes. This statement is based on the data given on page EI 93, below, showing that in ordinary reading high- school students read from lOO to 375 words per minute. Parker's pages usually contain about 400 words. Hence college students, except the slowest readers, should be able to read a page in from two to three minutes, and a chapter of twenty-five pages in from forty to seventy-five minutes. Get the big ideas first; then detailed evidence. — There are certain outstanding ideas in this chapter which are easy to grasp. Get them on the first reading. There is a lot of scientific evidence for these ideas which it is difficult to master. Examine this _ carefully on the second reading, as it illustrates very well the methods of mathematically precise investigations of processes of learning. Use the technical terms of the chapter. — The following terms are used in the chapter to express the principal ideas about practice : (i) Correct start. (2) Correct practice ; accuracy versus speed. (3) Zeal, interest, concentration of attention. (4) Satisfaction and dissatisfaction ; encouragement and dis- couragement. ^ Omit this chapter in a short course. ;e74 PRACTICE OR DRILL E75 (5) Avoiding waste of time on accessory or nonessential processes. (6) Correct-recall method. (7) Whole and part methods. (8) Distributed repetitions versus consecutive repetitions. The use of these terms in discussing the exercises in class will facilitate mutual understanding. The first exercise gives practice in identifying some of these main ideas in an everyday discussion of practice ; namely, practice on the piano. General Principles 1. Piano practice ; parallel of scientific and p7'actical precepts. — (a) Study the long quotation from Hofmann on pages 164-166 concerning piano practice. Indicate 071 the margin of the text for each part of the quotation the cor- respo7iding general 7'ule for practice discussed in the preced- ing parts of the chapter and sni7iniarized above. Use the terms or numbers given above. (&) State in general whether Hofmann agrees or disagrees with these rules. Disregard Hofmann's headlines. Dig into his paragraphs. 2. Pia7w practice ; practical disagreei7tents. — (a) Com- pare the recommendations given below by a musical college with those of Hofmann. Which would you consider more valid, these or Hofmann's .? Why .? (&) How would trained scientific experimenters proceed to determine the truth in this controversy } (Review exer- cise 10 on page E12, above.) MUSICAL COLLEGE RULES '* In regard to piano practice, divide the piece into sections, and practice and learn the piece by parts. In this way, you are not so apt to become confused or to forget your piece, when playing in public. Be able to play each little section or part, absolutely independent of each other part," E76 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 3. Correct start verszis drill. — Show how the initial careful study of a poem or a piano selection, or some other unit, might involve quite a different procedure from that involved in later memorizing of it by correct recall, by wholes, or by distributed repetitions. 4. Self -correction verstts oiUside correction. — When a pupil makes an error in pronouncing a foreign word or singing a tone, should he be told merely to ''try again," or should the teacher give him specific help for his next attempt? Why? 5. Teacher correction versus class con'ection. — What are the advantages of the following device ? In a certain direct-method French class, when a pupil has made a grammatical error in giving a word or sentence, the teacher, as a rule, gives in French the command, '^ Class, correct." There- upon the class in concert gives the correct form. 6. Encouragement vers2is discouragemerit. — id) The teacher of French mentioned in exercise 5 is quite lavish in bestowing the remark ''tres bien " (very good) upon pupils who have just finished reciting. Would you consider this a mannerism or a helpful device ? (&) Which should predominate during practice or drill periods, encouraging or discouraging remarks ? Why ? 7. PlateaiLS. — Is there any reliable practical method by which a teacher can determine whether his pupils have reached one of the ''plateaus," or " critical stages," described on pages 1 49-1 51 of the text? Explain. 8. Paitses whefi inemo7izi7tg. — What explanation in terms of this chapter can you offer for the following facts ? In experiments involving the memorizing of long paragj'aphs^ it was found that the first and last sentences were learned more readily than the other parts. Thereupon, a pause was inserted at the end of the sentence in the middle of each paragraph, and it was found that this increased the readiness with which material on either side of the inserted pauses was learned. PRACTICE OR DRILL e;/ 9. Length of profitable practice periods ; a difficult tech- nical exercise. — (a) How many different associations does a person practice in the substitution test described at the bottom of page i6i ? (Imagine a new symbol for each letter ; for example, let D stand f or (^ ; A stand for b, and X stand for c, with other new symbols for the remaining letters. In translating the word ''cab" into the new alpha- bet a person would write xDA, thus using for this word three associations.) (&) How many associations does a person practice who is practicing a complex piece on the piano 1 (c) In which instance would profitable practice periods be longer, in case of the sicbstitiUion practice or the piano practice 1 Explain in terms of this chapter. 10. Useful paragraph for sttident. — For your own prac- tice or drill purposes as a student, what is the most practical and useful paragraph in this chapter .? Why ? Special Practical Applications 11. Elementary-school drill versus high-school drill. — Compare the fifth-grade procedure described below with the old-fashioned oral drill in which a teacher said, '' Multiply I by i," hesitated a moment, and then called some pupil by name. (a) Which method is more economical } How much } (b) Which secures more zeal and concentration of atten- tion .? Why.? (c) Do you think similar economy, zeal, and attention could be secured in high-school drills ? Why .? Fifth-grade card drill. — A fifth-grade teacher had a pack of drill cards with fractions on them like this: [J] \%\. She stood be- fore the class and said, '' Multiply by one half," and wrote " \ " on the board. She appointed one boy to time the drill; then said, " Ready, go ! " and flashed the first card. The first child gave the product ; the second card was flashed, the next child in order gave E/S EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING the product. Rapidly the cards were flashed, the children answer- ing in regular turn around the room. In case one child gave a wrong answer, the next child answered for the same card. Every child had 3 turns. The total number of problems finished was about 50 to 60. The process took 2^ minutes. The teacher wrote the record on the board, '' 2 min. 30 sec," under the record of the preceding day and opposite the record '' 2 min. 25 sec." for another class with the same pack of cards. 12. Try some drill cards. — Would you take the trouble to develop fully such a drill scheme as that described below when actually engaged in teaching.? Why.? Make 10 drill cards on slips of fairly stiff paper, about one-half theme-sheet size, using such material as the following: 10 French sounds, 10 German sounds, 10 German prepositions governing different cases, i o Latin words, i o algebra problems in removing parentheses, such as |6(3x-f- 8)"| 15(4^ — 2)1 , or i o algebra problems in special products, as | (2.-r — 3)'-^"] \[a — \) {a ■\- b)\ ^ etc. Print or write large enough for the cards to be read by a person five feet away. Try flashing them on a friend or an imaginary class. 13. Pronunciation drills. — (a) What are the advantages of having the vowel triangle used in phonetic training painted on the blackboard as shown in the picture on page E79 .? (&) At what part of the language period should pronunci- ation drills come.? How many minutes should they consume.? (c) Compare the advantages of concert responses and individual responses, as the teacher points at the symbols on the blackboard. id) What are the advantages of the following device .? A teacher of French has just taught a new sentence by the direct method. He has the class repeat the sentence in concert, slowly and carefully. He raps on the table for each syllable. The sentence is repeated several times, the speed of the well-defined rhythmic raps being increased until the sentence is spoken as rapidly as the class speaks English. PRACTICE OR DRILL E79 14. Foreign-vocabulary practice. — (a) In studying a foreign language by the translation method, the meaning of a new word may be ascertained to-day, but the same word not be met again for days or weeks. What bearing does the second half of the long paragraph at the top gdj>^':.?^s^,^ ^'5^'^*^,-'i^*>.^5'>T^^^-'v;v,«' J%^ > PHONETIC TRIANGLE PAINTED ON THE BLACKBOARD FOR USE IN FRENCH CLASSES The four dark symbols beginning with Y and proceeding diagonally down to the center are painted yellow. The other dark ones are painted red. Courtesy of A. G. Bovee of The University of Chicago High School of page 163 have on this practice? What remedy would you suggest ? (&) In beginning to read a foreign language, what are the advantages of having pupils read considerable easy material at the beginning ? (c) It is sometimes argued that the practice of having a student look up new foreign words in a dictionary is justi- fied by the fact that the ejfort which he has to make to get e8o exercises for METHODS OF TEACHING the meaning will make him remember it better. Evaluate •this argument in terms of the discussion in this chapter. 15. Algebra drills. Correct start described later. — In the teaching of motor skill and foreign vocabularies the "correct start" which should precede drill was described in Chapters VI and VII. In teaching algebra the "cor- rect start " consists in giving a clear understanding of new abstract ideas. The nature of the "correct start" in this case will be described later in the second part of Chapter IX. It seems desirable, however, to emphasize the drill aspect of algebra at this point, but the student should keep in mind that drill on any algebraical process should always be preceded by a clear understanding of the process by the students. (a) What paragraphs in Chapter III of Parker's text are illustrated by the following statement 1 " In order that the pupil may use successfully algebraic methods in the solution of verbally stated problems, he must have absolute mastery of the tool operations he is going to use in that solution. A pupil should remove parentheses, factor, solve simple equations, use special products, exponents, radicals, etc., just as he uses the multiplication table, writes, spells, or gets meaning from written language — in a word, automatically. It is not economic or expedient to force pupils to raise to 'thinking' or ' reasoning ' levels the formal manipulation of these purely tool operations. The Committee on Standards is, therefore, insist- ing on thoroughness in the formal operations, in the interest of ' economy of time ' in first-year algebra ; in other words, in order that a larger amount of time may be spent in the use of the formal operations in solving "" origijiaV problems.'^ (Quoted from No. I on page e8i.) (&) If you were teaching algebra how would you proceed to determine /r^<;/j-^/^ whether your pupils had "automa- tized " sufficiently the processes mentioned in the above quotation .? (See articles by Rugg listed below.) PRACTICE OR DRILL e8i 16. Summary. — Of the eight ideas outlined at the begin- ning of these exercises, which three are so important that they should prevail in all drills ? State them as rules (complete sentences) instead of mere topics. Additional Bibliography 1. RuGG, H. O., and Clark, J. R. Standardized Tests and the Improvement of Teaching in First- Year Algebra. School Review^ February and March, 1917, Vol. XXV, pp. 113-132, 196-213. Final report of long investigation to determine standards of efficiency in algebraical processes. 2. RuGG, H. O. Practice Exercises in Algeh'a. (Address H. O. Rugg, School of Education, The University of Chicago.) Differentiated drill exercises to attain standard achievement in several algebraical processes. See also School Review, October, 19 1 7, Vol. XXV, pp. 546-554. 3. Roberts, Peter. Conversation Cards for Teaching English to Coming Ainericafis. A part of the direct system described above in No. i, p. E69. 4. Young, W. H. Perception Cards to Accompany Pearson^s Essentials of Latin. (American Book Company.) This set of drill cards contains 500 vocabulary cards. A Latin teacher may sup- plement these by making additional cards for other phases of the work. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER IX REFLECTIVE THINKING SECTION I. PROBLEM-SOLVING Arrange an observation. — The instructor should arrange to have an observation of a problem-solving lesson to take place after the discussion of pages 169-200 or 169-205. Care should be exercised to secure a good lesson, one which involves intensive work by a class iip07t a rather large pj'oblem. The best examples are usually found in the social sciences ; for example, a seventh-grade history class working on the problem, '' Compare the probable conditions of settle- ment in the Northwest Territory with those in Kentucky " (the latter conditions being known to the pupils, the former unknown) ; or, a little later, '' What steps would probably be taken to develop transportation between the Atlantic coast and the Northwest Territory after the settlement of the latter ? " to be discussed before the textbook account is read. Other examples, in classes in modern history or in civics, would be, '' What are the possibilities and weaknesses of socialism.?" or ''Which is more democratic, the government of England or that of the United States.? " (See an elaborate example on page E93, below.) Dijferentiated reports on observation. — Groups of mem- bers of the education class might be assigned different aspects of the observed recitation to report on, as follows : Group I. Report on aspects I and II, pages 185-193, as illustrated in the lesson. Group II. Report on aspects III and IV, pages 193-199. Group III. Report on aspects discussed in pages 200-205 • E82 PROBLEM-SOLVING E83 Groicp IV. Report the main and subordinate problems taken up in the lesson, arranged and numbered (I, i, 2, 3 ; II, I, 2, 3, etc.) and expressed as far as possible in the words which the observed teacher used in formulating his questions. Each report from Groups I, II, and III should contain specific evidence giving examples from the observed lesson to justify the points made in the report. Preparation for first recitations. Stndy pages i6g-i8^ first. — A general idea of the topic ''problem-solving" may be secured from a study of the first fifteen pages of this chapter. These should be read rapidly and then studied carefully before reading the rest of the chapter. Scope of exercises I— 12. — The first twelve exercises are based on the pages noted above and are intended to illus- trate the following points : (i) Problem-solving in various school subjects (2) Problem-solving in life (3) Problem-solving in the work of a great scientist (4) General nature of problem-solving Problem-Solving in School Subjects 1. In educatio7t. — How does this exercise book illustrate the discussion on page 171 .? Compare the title-page above. 2. Conclusiveness of answers. — In answering these exer- cises it is often diffictdt to determine the correct answer. Even educational experts vuoidd disagree. The same is true in solving problems in other social sciences, such as civics and sociology. (a) How do the problems and answers in such cases differ from the problems and answers in algebra, physics, or Latin } (b) Which type of problem and answer (noted in (a)) prevails most in everyday life } (c) What are the advantages of each type of problem- solving (noted in (a)) from the standpoint of te aching ^.r e84 exercises for METHODS OF TEACHING 3. SoiLVce problems in history. — Below are given a num- ber of questions upon certain historical sources. (a) Mark with /those of the source questions which seem to involve merely getting of information from the sources, and with R those which seem to involve a higher degree of reflective thinking. (&) In terms of the distinction in (a), in zvhat order do the source questions seem to be arranged .? What are the advantages of this order? (c) In what situations in everyday life would a person be likely to have to do the same type of problem-solving as is required in these source problems .? SOURCE MATERIAL FOR EXERCISE 3 The following set of questions from Duncalf and Krey, '' Paral- lel Source Problems in Mediaeval History," is given to guide students in the study of six original sources bearing upon the coronation of Charles the Great by the pope at Rome. " Questions for Study " (i) What reasons did Charles have for going to Italy ? '' (2) How did Charles adjust the troubles at Rome .'' '' (3) Did Charles actually try the pope in the council that he assembled ? " (4) What reasons can you find for the oath of purification taken by the pope ? " (5) How did Charles deal with the enemies of Pope Leo ? " (6) Do the actions of Charles indicate that he had greater authority in the city of Rome than the pope ? '^ (7) What reasons can you find for Charles's sending such important missi to accompany Pope Leo back to Rome ? '^ (8) What was the pope's attitude toward Charles, and how did it affect the coronation ? " (9) Work out the details of the coronation ceremony. " (10) By what right was Charles made emperor? "(11) What evidence can you find which would indicate that Charles owed his title to the papacy? PROBLEiM-SOLVING E85 ^'(12) From this evidence in the accounts, what do you think was Charles's attitude toward the Christian religion and the papacy ? . "(13) How can you explain Einhard's statement that Charles was not eager to be crowned emperor ? "(14) What difference in point of view and what wrong in- formation do you find in the account of the Mo?ik of St. Gall ? ''(15) Criticize the account from the Vita Leonis III by comparison with the other accounts. '' Other topics might consist of criticisms of the accounts given in standard secondary works by a comparison with the sources. The use of Bryce's " Holy Roman Empire " in this way would be an extremely profitable exercise." 4. Problems before or after reading. — (a) Should such questions as those given on pages 172-173 for a course in economics be taken up for class discussion before or after an ordinary textbook discussion of the same topics is read by the class 1 Why } (b) What would be some advantages of taking them up before } (c) W^ould the fact that the pupils could 7iot discover the connect answers invalidate the idea of discussing the questions before reading? id) How long v^ould you, as a teacher, have the class discuss the questions if they were taken up before the textbook treatment .? Problem-Solving in Life 5. biformatioii, reflective skill , ajid desires. — Choose some one of the practical problems on pages 177-178 ; for example, the first in paragraph i or the first in paragraph 2. Show how your answer would be influenced by ( i ) your tech- nical information (or lack of it), (2) your skill in thinking, and (3) your habitual and instinctive desires and interests. e86 exercises FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 6. Practical dilemma. — Describe the reflective thinking which you are doing (or have done) in some practical dilemma, such as how to spend a vacation, or how to secure a position ; that is, give a word picture of yoitr mental proc- esses. Write out your answer (not more than two theme pages) and hand it in. Keep your example in mind in later discussions of problem-solving. Hamlet's famous soliloquy is an example from literature. Scientific Problem-Solving 7. Kepler s thinking. — (a) Underline and mark with a G the most striking general statements in the quotation about Kepler on pages 180-182. Why striking.? (&) Underline and mark with P the qualities of Kepler which were peculiar to him. (c) When you have the experience described in the stanza on page 181, what feeling accompanies it; for example, what exclamation do you tend to make .? General Characteristics of Problem-Solving 8. Trial and error versus reaso7iing. — (a) What simi- larity is there between the "' trial and error " method of acquiring motor skill described on pages 102-106 and the statement that ''all who discover truths must have reasoned upon many errors to obtain each truth," given on page 1 80 .? (6) What difference ? 9. Origin of reflective thinking. — (a) In the phrase '' some difficulty that troubles him," at the bottom of page 183, does Dewey mean real practical difficulty and trouble .? ip) What words might be substituted for '' difficulty " and " troubles " .? (c) Relate your answer to exercise 24 in Chapter IV^ page E48. PROBLEM-SOLVING E87 10. Pedagogical text. — ia) As a text for a pedagogical discussion of reflective thinking, choose from the Dewey quotation on pages 183-184 the sentence that is most terse and at the same time full of meaning. ( U^iderline and label "" text:') (b) Evaluate the rhetorical placing of this sentence. 11. Training to think. — What does the expression ''training pupils to think" mean.? Answer in terms of pages 183-185. 12. Correct start. — From the standpoint of forming correct mental habits in problem-solving, what would the ''correct start" consist of in teaching geometry? Special Aspects of Problem-Solving Study pages 185-200. — Pages 185-200 should be read rapidly as a unit and then studied carefully to understand the four main aspects of problem-solving outlined at the top of page 185. /. Defining the Problem 13. Mechanical aids. — (a) Show how italicizing certain words in exercise 7, above, helps the reader to get the problems in mind. (&) Underline words in exercise 8 so as to make the problem easier to grasp. 14. Pnpil off the point. — (a) In the following history- teaching situation what would yon have said to the wander- ing pupil } Why ? (6) What part of the text discussion does your answer illustrate .? A seventh-grade history class was discussing the problem of developing transportation between the Atlantic coast states and the Northwest Territory. Early in the hour a pupil suggested that ships would carry produce down the Ohio and Mississippi to e88 exercises FOR METHODS OF TEACHING New Orleans, through the Gulf and tip the Atlajitic coast. After some discussion most of the class decided that this was imprac- ticable. Toward the end of the period the pupils were working- on the suggestion of building a canal from the Great Lakes east- ward, and were searching on their maps for possible routes. In the midst of the discussion a child began to argue anew the question of shipping by way of New Orleans. //. Fertility of Suggestion 15. Meaning of a phrase. — What is the force of the phrase '' other things being equal," which occurs in the twelfth line from the bottom of page 187 ; that is, what are the ** other things" which must be equal? 16. Extreme types. — In the matter of making sugges- tions we find two extreme types of students : one is glib and always wants to talk, and the other is overinhibited and afraid to utter his suggestions. How would you deal with each type in problem-solving discussions ? 17. Solving originals in geometry. — In the following account of a pupil's thinking in solving a geometry exercise, label each step as follows : with A if it is primarily analysis ; with G if it is primarily forming a gitess or hypothesis ; and with R if it is primarily the recall or use of a previously proved proposition or an axiom. The figure and two statements beside it are given below : E 4;^^^:::5-- ^ To prove Z i + Z 2 + ^ 3 / ^"""^"--^^^ = 2 rt. Z s. j^ X 3^ ^ EBD is parallel to AC. The pupil proceeds as follows : (i) Looks at Z 2 primarily, swinging his attention, as it were, around it. (2) Does the same with Z i. (3) Does the same with Z 3. (4) Thinks '' Maybe Z 2 = Z 4 -f Z 5." (5) Thinks " Maybe Z 2 = Z i + Z 4." PROBLEM-SOLVING E89 (6) Thinks ^^Z4 + Z2 + Z5 = 2rt. Z s." (7) Thinks " Looks like Z i = Z 4, and Z 3 = Z5 ; I wonder if they are." (8) Continues to look at and think of possible combinations, Z I = Z 4 and Z.^ = ^ 5> ^^d gradually gets this sort of picture hazily: it^^^^cil (9) Thinks " If I could prove that (Z i = Z 4 and Z 3 = Z 5) I'd have it, because Z4 + Z2H-Z5 = 2rt. Z s." (10) Centers attention on Z i and Z 4 in the figure. (11) Thinks '^ That looks like a Z." (12) Takes a pencil and prolongs AB thus: y (13) Thinks " Jimminy, Z i and Z 4 are alter- ^^'X nate interior Z s, and ^^ is a transversal." / (14) Writes out his proof, beginning with the idea in number 13. 18. Geometers sagacity. — Near the bottom of page 191 is a sentence beginning, "' To think, without assistance, of." Explain why the fact expressed in this sentence is probably true. Secure help from the last sentence in the quotation at the top of page 190. 19. Excusing frotn geometry. — (a) If a student could n't prove the geometry exercise described on page 192, after having all of the suggestions on 192-193, should he study geometry } Why } (b) Are there any such pupils in high schools ? Explain. ///. Critical Evaluation of Suggestions 20. Wit versiLS science. — (a) Contrast the scintillating wit and the scientist from the standpoint of the critical evaluation of suggestions. (&) Is the contrast necessarily the same as the one ex- pressed in the next to last sentence on page 193 .? Explain. 21. In sickness. — Sometimes in the case of sickness, even good thinkers behave as described in the second part of the second sentence at the top of page 186, What part EQO EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING of the quotation from Dewey at the bottom of page 184 explains this fact? {Underline and label it Ex. 21) 22. Newspapei^ ncmors. — Give an example from current newspapers of the necessity of suspended conclusion and the critical evaluation of evidence. 23. Quibbling, — Students in class often impede problem- solving by the persistent reiteration of apparent objections which are mere verbal quibbles. In one such case a teacher disposed of the student's interference by saying, '' Let 's not be foolish." What remark would you make in such cases ? 24. Sources of verification. — (a) Which of the following sources of verification are most commonly nsed in problem- solving in school work ? Explain. (&) Which should be emphasised in high-school subjects t (1) Parents' opinion (6) Comparison of several (2) Encyclopaedia or dictionary special treatises (3) A single special treatise (7) Students' own inferences published by an expert and evidence (4) Teacher's opinion (8) A single textbook (5) Newspaper statements (9) An answer book 25. Gallon s rank. — (a) Do you think Galton would rank high as a scientist, judging merely from his idea of using data from twins as a basis for testing hypotheses about heredity and environment as described on page 197 } (b) Have you ever heard of a method as simple or con- clusive as Galton's for scientific testing of these hypotheses t (c) Was Newton's idea of using the moon's behavior for verifying universal gravitation, as described on pages 196- 197, more or less brilliant than Galton's idea.? Why.? IV. Organizing the Material of Thinking 26. In debating. — Show the part played in debating by the process described in the paragraph at the bottom of page 198. PROBLEM-SOLVING E91 27. Graphic organizatio7i. — (a) Show how the following graphic representation of temperature data would aid pupils in solving the problem, '' What is the influence of Lake Michigan on the climate of the surrounding territory ? " 2 3 V ) 3 r 3 3 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 80 10 \ \ ^^> V / / 1 \ \ / n \ \ \ \ \ GRA3 HAV ID \ \ ^ / \^ \ 1 1 \ \ \ \ / / / / / / \^ \. / 1 1 1 \ St.L Mad )xns -10 ■30 \ \ \ s / / / / \ \ / 1 \ \ / \ / TEMPERATURES DURING A COLD WAVE The diagram represents the variation in temperatures between three cities on the dates January 2 to January 15, 1912, Grand Haven is on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, in the latitude of Madison, Wis., but its temperature is like that of St. Louis ip) Compare the curves on page 145 and those on page 373. Which set better illustrates the discussion on page 199 ? Why ? Opportunities for Training in Reflective Thinking 28. Quality versus qtiantity in geometry. — If the sen- tence beginning in the second line on page 201 were applied in an extremely radical fashion to the study of geometry, how many of the five books in plane geometry would the E92 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING ordinary student complete in one year's work ? (Compare the quotation beginning at the bottom of page 203.) 29. Does silent participation give exercise f — {a) Explain more fully than is done at the top of page 202 how slow students may be "in the running" and profit accordingly. (&) If they didn't forge ahead, wouldn't they become discouraged and simply look on ? 30. Through imitation. — Considering the teacher as a model in problem-solving, which of the phases summarized on pages 199-200 could be most readily imitated by students 1 Explain. 31. Sample lessons i^i social science. — After reading the following plans for conducting a high-school class while solving a large problem, write one or two theme pages to hand in, on the following topics or questions : (a) Show specifically how the lessons give training in scie7itific thinking in the sense in which this term is used on page E12, above, and on page 504 of the text. (&) Show specifically how the lessons clear up in your mind some of the points in Parker's suggestions for guiding problem-solving by pupils. (c) Does the sequential appearance of the four main proc- esses (I, II, III, IV) in the arrangement of the plan indicate that each of the processes is faiished completely before another begins, or dpes it indicate that one after another predominates at certain stages of the work ? Explain. {d) Answer (c) for the thinking done by a single pupil while puzzling over the problem. (e) How many years of experience in teaching would you need before you could organize independently such lessons } (/) What values inhere in such lessons that are not found in the use of ready-made exercises such as Parker's ? (^) How many years of experience would you need before you could teach successfully with ready-made exercises ? (fi) Summarize your conclusion from (e), (/), and (p^). PROBLEM- SOLVING SOLVING A PROBLEM IN SOCIAL SCIENCE Lessons conducted and described By J. M. McCoNNEL North East High School, Detroit, Michigan Class : 20 high-school seniors First day : i o minutes, defining the problem. Second day : 20 minutes, suggested hypotheses. Third day : 40 minutes E93 -c ^u J • ^ ! evaluating and organizing material. Fourth day : 40 mmutes J o & o The four principal phases of the teaching are L Clearly defining the problem IL Stimulating suggestions by the pupils IIL Evaluating suggestions IV. Organizing the materials of the thinking I. Clearly defining the problem (a) In the teacher^ s own mind : The teacher must have more than a general notion of what he wishes the class to study. He should in his own thinking have worked out carefully the object and purposes of the study, and have a concise statement of each. '(/') In the piipiVs mind (about ten minutes the first day) : (i) Give the pupils a concise statement of the problem ; they must adopt the same wording. (2) Work out carefully the implications of the wo?'di7ig. (3) Develop the importance of such a study. P?vblem : To find the relation, if any, between little or 7to edu- cation and delifiqueiicy. Its implications may be noted as follows : {a) " If any " — not an attempt to prove that there is a rela- tion, but an open-minded attempt to get at the truth ; prejudice and preconceived opinions of the relation must be discarded. (J?) " Little or no education " — a better term than illiteracy ; a person having only fourth-grade education is not unlettered. (o\xt favorite books; papers to be read in class (see references 5 and 8, pp. E139-E140). EI 24 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 18. Making a 7^eading list. — In making a list of books to be read by students out of class, which of the devices listed below would you use ? Give special reason for each one chosen. (i) Look up list of college-entrance requirements. (2) Consult ia) a professor of English, {b) a high-school teacher of English, (c) a teacher of science, id) a teacher of history, {e) an editor of a local paper, (/) a public librarian, (^) parents, (Ji) a book dealer. (3) Ascertain list of books in home libraries. (4) List your own leisure reading as an adolescent and adult. (5) Turn pupils loose for a week in a library and require report of what they found and liked. (6) Ask students to list the books which they have read during the past year. 19. Recent authors. — (a) What place would you assign to the works of each of the following authors in the reading by high-school pupils 1 Name the works which you would assign or reject, with reasons. (6) What suggestions do you receive in answering (a) from the note on the voluntary reading of high-school students given below on pages E138-E139.? Mark Twain Jack London O. Henry Booth Tarkington Theodore Roosevelt Conan Doyle Robert Chambers Gilbert Parker Stephen Leacock Stanley Weyman Ring Lardner Winston Churchill David Graham Phillips Rex Beach Joseph Conrad Rudyard Kipling J. M. Barrie John Fox, Jr. W. T. Grenfell John Galsworthy Stewart Edward White The Duchess 20. Current poetry. — Buy or secure access to several numbers of the Literary Digest. Use them as follows : HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT EI25 (a) Select two poems which you think high-school pupils would enjoy. Give reasons for your selection. (6) How would you read these for your own enjoyment — silently or aloud ? slowly or rapidly ? for narrative ? for pictures ? for words ? more than once ? VA/HA.T GOLF* DOES TO A A\A>N Courtesy of New York Tribune ILLUSTRATION OF ENJOYMENT OF HUMOR See exercise 9, (c), p. E122 (c) Look up the price of the Literary Digest if bought in quantities and devise a scheme for procuring copies for use in class. id) Describe how you would use the section on current poetry. {e) In what other subjects might the magazine be used to great advantage t (/) What sections other than the one on poetry might you use in the English class ? Why t EI 26 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 21. Periodical reading. — (a) In the facts on voluntary reading of periodicals by high-school pupils, on page E137, below, what accounts for the predominance of the Youth's Companion ? (&) Does it follow from this predominance that the Youth's Companion is the best periodical to emphasize in high school in forming habits of reading periodicals? Explain. (c) For the purpose mentioned in (&), what two periodicals in the list on page E137 would you emphasize? THE START Why, when a man is happy and gay — HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT EI27 (d) State what should be done with each of the following to form habits of enjoying reading in high-school pupils : Local daily paper The Parisienne High-grade metropolitan daily The Outlook or Sunday paper National Geographic Magazine Saturday Evening Post Popular Mechanics Ladies' Home Journal ' Outing Hearst's Magazine Good Housekeeping Snappy Stories THE FINISH Must he go play golf, and spoil his day ? See exercise 9, (d), p. E122 EI 28 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 22. Ainowtt of reading.- — (a) How many hoiLrs a week of recreational reading should a high-school student do ? (&) Hozv many words will he read in this time ? Use data given below, on page E193. • (c) At this rate how long would it take him to read some standard book, such as "Treasure Island," or some other volume that you have at hand for examination ? 23. Reading experience. — State what differences you would make in reading assignments for the following : (i) Child of a professor or editor ; has read all children's books, much adult fiction, travel, etc. (2) Studious grind of poor family ; thinks she has no time for anything except textbooks and housework. (3) Nonstudious, nonreading boy ; wants to be outdoors all the time or, if indoors, dancing or playing cards and pool. 2^. . Fiction : individual differences i7i methods of reading. — State what allowance you would make for the following differences in methods of reading fiction for enjoyment. (i) Some pupils and educated adults skip descriptions. (2) Some do not enjoy reading if they know the story in advance. (3) Some read the beginning, then the ending, then the rest. (4) Some read choice parts time and again. 25. Loveliness and logic. — The poems below were in- cluded by the Boston TranscHpt among the thirty best poems published in 19 16-19 17. Read each slowly, out loud, at least once. Then answer the questions printed on page E130. BARTER By Sara Teasdale Life has loveliness to sell. All beautiful and splendid things. Blue waves whitened on a cliff, Soaring fire that sways and sings, ' And children's faces looking up Holding wonder like a cup. HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT EI29 Life has loveliness to sell, Music like a curve of gold, Scent of pine-trees in the rain, Eyes that love you, arms that hold, And for your spirit's still delight, Holy thoughts that star the night. Spend all you have for loveliness, Buy it and never count the cost ; For one white singing hour of peace Count many a year of strife -well lost. And for a breath of ecstasy Give all you have been, or could be. Love Songs (The Macmillan Company) TO A LOGICIAN By Dana Burnet Cold man, in whom no animating ray Warms the chill substance of the sculptor's clay ; Grim Reasoner, with problems in your eyes, Professor, Sage — however do they call you ? Far-seeing Blindman, fame shall yet befall you ; Carve you in stone — that winter of the wise ! — And set you up in some pale portico To frown on heaven above, on earth below. I shall make songs and give them to the breeze, And die amid a thousand ecstasies ! I shall be dust, and feel the joyous sting Of that sweet arrow from the bow of Time Which men call Spring. And out of my dead mouth a rose shall come like rime ! But you, in your eternal state of snows. Shall thrill no more to life's resurgent flood, . Nor cast death's laughter into April's rose ! You shall be marble, who were never blood. Harper's Magazine EI30 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (a) What sentences on page 262 do the poems illustrate ? (b) What antithesis do they suggest between this chapter and the preceding one ? (c) What new title for the first poem would you suggest ? (d) Are the sentiments of the first one ^suited only to sentimental women and long-haired artists ? Explain. 26. Technique with classics. — In teaching literary classics which of the following would you emphasize 1 Why } (i) Life of the author and history of his literary relationships. (2) Technique of workmanship. (3) The spontaneous responses of the students. (4) The purpose of the author in writing the selection. (5) The phases of the selection which you enjoy most yourself. (6) Punctuation, spelling, parsing, analysis. (7) Explanation of allusions and unusual words. (8) If a play : (a) The fundamental story (or plot). (^) Stage directions. {c) Expressive reading of the whole play by the teacher. id) Elocutionary reading of parts by pupils. {e) Historical setting. 27. History of literatitre. — To which of the following is the history of literature most closely related: (i) forming habits of harmless enjoyment or (2) the study of history as descriptive sociology.? Explain. (Cf. p. E139, § 6.) 28. Write a plan of the lesson on ^' Marmion^ — Write a plan of the lesson on '' Marmion " on pages E131-E136. Include (i) the five main points in the subject matter and (2) the principal questions asked. Hand it iii. See directions for lesson plans on pages 484-486. 29. Evaluate the '' Marmion " lesson. — (a) Does the '' Marmion " lesson avoid the criticisms implied in the satire on pages 260-262 of the text } Explain. (&) Point out two commendable features in the lesson, (c) Which items in exercise 26 does it emphasize 1 HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT EI31 PART OF A LESSON ON SCOTT'S ^'MARMION"! This lesson was actually conducted as set forth in the dialogue, which was transcribed by a stenographer who was present for that purpose. In order to get the full effect of the lesson, including many crudities in the pupils' answers, read it out loud. The first part of the lesson (not quoted here) was devoted to the telling of the story by the pupils and to its historical setting. In the latter connection the discussion turned to " knighthood " and proceeded as follows : (i) Teacher. What we7x the ideals of the knights of that period 1 Pupil. They must be brave, fight well, ride well, and be faithful. (2) T. Anything else 1 ^ P. They must always be loyal to their king, and help anyone in trouble. (3) T. These were the chief points. Have you read any stories of any other knights besides " Marmion " ? 1ST P. '' Sir Launfal," " Ivanhoe." 2D P. All the stories of the Round Table. 3D P. '' Parsifal." (4) T. Does that belong to this period ? P. A little earlier. (5) T. Still, you have read about knights and their ideals ; any other stories ? P. " Sir Nigel." (6) T. Who is the most interesting knight you have read aboutl P. Ivanhoe. (7) T. You liked that best ? How many do ? (Hands.) (8) T. A good story of a very interesting knight. Do you think Marmion was a true knight ? (Hands.) P. I think he was as far as fighting and braveness were concerned, but when he put Clare in prison, — I don't think that showed a good spirit. 1 From Romiett Stevens's " The Question in Instruction," pp. 90-95. EI 32 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (9) T. Why did he put Clare in prison 1 P. I mean Constance — he wanted to marry Clare, and he put Constance in prison to get her out of the way. (10) T. Did he put her in there expecting she would be killed 1 P. No. (11) T. Your opinion^ Arthur "i Arthur. He was worse when he forged the letters. (12) T. You think that was the greatest wrong that he did 'I How many agreed Pupils. Yes. * (13) T. He simply felt that Constance would be taken care of in that monastery. Do you consider him the hero of the poem ? P. I do, yes ; because it is mostly about him. (14) T. Well, you say he is a man guilty of treason, and he certainly didn't protect the weak, — not a hero in that respect. Dorothy. I think the hero in a book ought to be a very good man, and I think the man Scott has in mind to be the hero is Ralph De Wilton. (15) T. Your opinion^ B?'uce ? Bruce. I think Ralph De Wilton is the hero in a way, — I think Marmion is a sort of hero, — toward the end Marmion is, and Ralph De Wilton in the beginning. (16) T. Which one triumphs in the end 2 P. I think Marmion — I mean Ralph De Wilton. (17) T. Your opinion, Carl? Carl. I think Marmion ; he was n't a hero through the book, but I think if he could have revived after he had been hurt, he would have been a good' man; he was sorry when he heard about Constance. (18) T. Ed? Ed. I think he is, it is a sort of an English knight ; I don't judge a man by whether he is good or not, — the chief man in the book. P. It tells more about Marmion than Ralph De Wilton, but I don't think he is the hero. (19) T. You consider Ralph De Wilton the hero? ■ P. Yes. HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT EI33 (20) T. Vou think it was the times rather than the man himself 'i Pupils. Yes. (21) T. That is perfectly true ; I must confess I think the story is a little weak in that point, — it is called '^ 3farmioji'' but the one who triumphs really is Ralph De Wilton. P. The most part of it is about Marmion. . (22) T. Yes. P. So I think you could consider the book well named. (23) T. That is perfectly t?'ue, but there is that other criticism that Marmion himself is not the one who triumphs ; it is the over- throw, really, of Martnion, who represents the evil, and Ralph De Wilto?i, the good} SomeoJie spoke of the worst thing he did, which was ti'eason ; does anyone think that in that time forgery ivas rather out of harmony 1 P. I don't think he would have done it in anything else ; I think he thought — that he knew — Clare liked Ralph better than she did him, and she wanted to get him out of the way. (24) T. The author was very cojisistent in putting his whole story in the Middle Ages, and that one point offo7ge?y was rather a commercial point. What do you consider the 7'eal weakiiess in Marmion^ s character 2 1ST P. He wanted to be so great himself; he wanted every- thing ; and Constance did n't have any lands and Clare did, so he wanted to marry her, and he forged the letters. 2D P. His weakness was in how he loved people. (25) T. What do you mean exactly 1 P. At first he loved Constance, and Clare came along, and he liked her because she had lands. (26) T. He really always loved Constance, did 11' t he? P. His pride and self-conceit,^ — and in the second place he thinks he is greater than Ralph De Wilton, so Clare should like him better ; he says : " I am this wonderful knight — -." (27) T. His conceit, his ambition, is really the thing that proves his downfall. I asked you to select any stanzas that you considered 1 What could the teacher have meant by this statement? ^ Probably reverting to the main question of weaknesses in No. 24, above. EI 34 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING particularly good on account of the color. Did you find one ? The canto and the stanza ? Dorothy ? Dorothy. Canto I, stanza I. (28) T. Eead it out loud. Dorothy. " Along tixC bridge Lord Marmion rode, Proudly his red-roan charger trode," (Reads 20 lines.) (29) T. That is a very good description of Marmion there^ but has it much color ? Dorothy. I think it has. (30) T. What part? Dorothy. His appearance, his face — (31) T. Was bright? Dorothy. No it was dark. (32) T. Is that color? I think that is a capital description, but I don't think there is tmich color i7i it. Dorothy. I didn't find any stanza I thought was any better. {zi) T. Margaret? Margaret. I took Canto IV and stanza XXVIII. (34) T. fust read that part of it that has a good deal of color in it. Margaret. It is all through the stanza : " Nor mark'd they less, where in the air A thousand streamers flaunted fair ; Various in shape, device and hue. Green, sanguine, purple, red and blue. " (Reads about 20 lines.) (35) T. A good deal of motion in that. Margaret. And the color of all the different flags. (36) T. There was a capital description right after the one you read, Dorothy, — the trappings of the horses — P. Yes, I think it was light blue. (37) T. Any stanza you found with a great deal of action; where would you look to find a stanza with a great deal of action ? P. At the end of the book. (38) T. What was that? P. Flodden Field. HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT EI35 (39) T. Anyone find a good stanza there 1 Margaret .? Margaret. There was a good deal of action • where Marmion — (40) T. There was a good deal — P. Where he dashes over the drawbridge. (41) T. Yes; any in the battle 'i Carlto?i? Turn to the class and read it aloud. Carlton. " At length the freshening western blast Aside the shroud of battle cast ; " (Reads 16 lines.) (42) T. That is very good ; and the 7iext stanza, i7i the fight itself ; how many noticed that ? (Hands.) (43) T. What passages in ''^ Marmion''^ are quoted frequently, A?ma ? Anna. I think where Marmion says good-by to Douglas, and where Douglas is angry because Marmion tells him that he has lied. (44) T. Why do you suppose that is so frequently selected to be put into readers ? P. I think it has so much feeling and so much swing — (45) T. It has feeling and swi7ig — P. Yes. (46) T. Any other reason .? How inafiy can just see those two men, Douglas and Marmio ft, pitted agai?ist each other 'i Any other? P. " O woman ! in our hours of ease Uncertain, coy, and hard to please, And variable as the shade By the light quivering aspen made ; When pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering angel thou ! " (47) T. Do you believe that ? P. No. (48) T. I don^t either ; it may have been true at that time. P. There is another, where Constance says : " And come he slow, or come he fast. It is but Death that comes at last." EI 36 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (49) T. Anothe?'? Margaret. " And dar'st thou then To beard the Hon in his den, The Douglas in his hall?" (50) T. How 7nany have read " The Lady of the Lake^'' ? (Hands.) (51) T. Which do you like better, " Mar?nio?i " or " The Lady of the Lake''? Ed. '^ The Lady of the Lake," I read about two years ago in Miss A.'s class, and I can remember it, but this I couldn't remember in a couple of weeks. " (52) T. Dorothy? Dorothy. I think I would know right away that I was reading Scott; the two books; he repeats himself the way Macaulay does ; their heroes are something the same. (53) T. // is Scott all the way through. What do you think are the strong poifits in " Marmion " ? P. I don't know. (54) T. JLow ma7iy feel that the descriptions are capital? (Hands.) (55) T. L wafit everyone by Mo?iday to have purchased a copy of '' Silas Marnier," etc., etc. For to-morrow prepare the grammar on page g^, etc., etc. Voluntary Reading by 800 High-School Pupils The following information was secured in the Decatur, Illinois, High School in response to a questionnaire sub- mitted by the superintendent, J. O. Engleman, and is published in his report for 1914-1915. While there are certain defects in this method of securing information, the outcome is useful for suggestions in regard to reading. MAGAZINE READING Replying to the question, ^^ What magazines do you regularly read?" loi answer "None." The other 700 students ought to find magazine reading suited to their varied tastes, for they read a HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT EI37 total of 178 different publications ! It may surprise many readers to know that there is such a formidable list to be found. Below may be seen a list of 2^ of the most popular magazines read by our students, judged by the number of regular readers of each : The Youth's Companion ..... read by The Ladies' Home Journal .... " Saturday Evening Post " Popular Mechanics " Woman's Home Companion ... " Pictorial Review " Collier's . " Cosmopolitan '' American Boy " The Outlook Life McCall's . • . American Magazine '' Ladies' World Literary Digest " Delineator '". Woman's World " Scientific American . . . . " Everybody's " Puck Harper's '' Good Housekeeping . . . . . . " McClure's '' Current Opinion '' World's Work 182 students I 56 students 93 students 78 students 72 students 72 students 71 students 65 students 59 students 59 students 47 students 46 students 44 students 44 students 43 students 38 students 36 students 31 students 30 students 29 students 28 students 28 students 28 students 27 students 26 students At the other end of the scale are 65 magazines with but one reader each, and 2 1 others with only two readers each. This list of 86 includes many of the magazines most widely read by adults, and especially by scholarly adults. There are prominent educators who believe that the high school can well afford to use magazines freely as a basis for the work in English, even if it means giving less attention to the classics so long prescribed and taught. But whether we would adopt that course or not, it seems that a worth-while work can be done by EI38 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING placing in the hands of the English teachers a list of the toi students who have not yet learned 'to read magazines, and by recommending that they introduce them to the various types of reading matter found in the best of the magazines accessible. For a certain number of lessons to be given acquainting students with the character of different magazines — some being scientific, some religious, some political or sociological, some literary in the best sense, some devoted to art, some to current events, some valuable for their book reviews, some for matters of fashion, etc. — is to enable students to leave the high school, finally, with a reading habit and a discriminating taste that ought to persist. BOOKS VOLUNTARILY READ The students who have not read a single book (not required by the teacher) during the semester number 269. One hundred and fourteen failed to answer the question calling for the number of books read. It is fair to assume that few, if any, of these had read any books. Thus it would appear that j8j students, or almost half of the number replymg, have done no reading of books save that required by their teachers. But the other 400 students had read a list of books amazing in its variety. Four hundred and eighteen different titles appear in the list. Of this number the book most widely read during the semester is '' Eyes of the World," read by 1 7 students. Others most popular are : Girl of the Limberlost wi Polyanna Shepherd of the Hills Freckles The Virginian Inside the Cup . St. Elmo Crisis Lavender and Old Lace Winning of Barbara Worth . . . . Little Women Ben Hur, Bible, Graustark, Rosary, Their Yesterdays, each with 6. Alger books. Call of the Wild, Laddie, Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, and Tom Sawyer, each with 5. ith 1 5 readers " 15 readers " 14 readers " 12 readers " II readers " 10 readers " 9 readers " 8 readers " 8 readers " 8 readers " 7 readers HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT. EI39 Three hundred and thirty-two, or nearly 80 per cent of the books in the list, had but one reader each. Inasmuch as this is purely voluntary reading, it is of interest to note in what divers and diverse directions the student's fancy takes him when left to gravitate as it pleases.. Perhaps the more significant thing is the list of titles not to be found in the list. Dickens, with his long array of novels, has but 4 voluntary readers ; Hawthorne, 2 ; Scott, 2 ; Kipling, i ; Bulwer Lytton, I ; Cooper, 2 ; Victor Hugo, 2 ; Barrie, i ; Milton, i • Tennyson, i ; Kingsley, i ; and Shakespeare (mirabile dictu !), i ; Stevenson, none ; George Eliot, none. Additional Bibliography English Journal. — If yoii would be a progressive teacher of English, read the English fonrnal regidarly. Reading. — i. Abbott, Allan. To Beginners in English Teach- ing. Eiiglish Journal^ September, 19 12, Vol. I, pp. 419-424. Progressive article by one who has achieved much in improved methods of teaching English to high-school, pupils. 2. AsHMUN, Margaret. Libraiy Reading in High School. School Review, Vol. XVIII, pp. 270-273. Discusses kinds of books boys and girls like to read at different ages. 3. AsHMUN, Margaret. Teaching Reading in High School. School Review, Vol. XVIII, pp. 196-199. Suggests how to teach. 4. BoLENius, EiMMA MiLLER. Teaching Literature in the Gra^nviar Grades and High School. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 1 5.) Practical directions by a high-school teacher concerning reading and teaching about poetry, the drama, short story, novel, essay, and oration. 5. Henchman, W. S. Reading Clubs instead of Literature Classes. English Journal, February, 19 17, Vol. VI, pp. 88-95. 6. Long, W. J. American Literature. (Ginn and Company, 19 13.) Treats history of literature in relation to national develop- ment. 7. MiKELS, Rosa M. R. Short Stories for High Schools. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1915.) Interesting selections from standard authors. A handy volume of good reading for anyone. EI40 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 8. Opdycke, J. B. Literature k la Carte. School Review, February, 19 17, Vol. XXV, pp. 101-112. Clever article in favor of giving pupils more choice in selection of reading. 9. Opdycke, J. B. Editing to Kill. School Review, April, 19 1 5, Vol. XXIII, pp. 225-235. Very readable criticism of having pupils read annotated editions of classics. 10. Thomas, S. T. The Teachiiig of English in the Seco?idary School. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 1 7.) Many practical sug- gestions for teaching poetry, fiction, drama, essay, and for organ- izing outside reading. Reading lists. — 11. Herzberg, M. J. The World of Books. (The Pivot Press, Newark, New Jersey, second edition, 1 5 cents.) A guide to reading for young people in which may be found many kinds both grave and gay. Classified according to types of reading and semesters. Very useful. Clubs. — 12. Snell, C. a. Mathematics Clubs in High School. Mathematics Teacher, 19 15-19 16, Vol. VIII, pp. 72-78. Entertainments: social centers. — 13. Perry, Clarence A. Community- Center Activities. (Russell Sage Foundation, New York City, 19 16.) A handbook telling what to do and how to do it in entertainments, contests, social gatherings, clubs, voluntary classes, etc. By the leader in community-center work in America. Just for fun. — 14. Taylor, Bert Leston (B.L.T.). A Line- o'-Verse or Two. (The Reilly & Britton Co., Chicago, 19 11.) Mr. Taylor probably contributes more daily pleasure to more readers than any other American writer. His daily column in the Chicago Tribune, entitled " A Line-o'-Type or Two," is read eagerly by persons of all ranks throughout the Middle West and even in more distant places. It contains original poems in Eng- lish (and sometimes in Latin) by the editor, serious and humorous comments on current events, and witticisms by contributors who are lucky enough to '' make the line." Mr. Taylor plays golf for recreation and takes long canoe trips in the northern woods during his vacations. His writings reflect his recreational interests and his contact with the great problems of life through service with one of the " world's greatest newspapers." CHAPTER M SPECIALIZED INDIVIDUAL OBSERVATIONS Purpose. Provide for varied interests. — If time and opportunity permit, provide for individual differences in the specialized interests of members of the class by arrang- ing for individual observations as described below. Assignment. Make five observations. — Choose some phase of teaching discussed in Parker's text which is es- pecially important in your subject. Make five observations of lessons in which this phase of teaching is prominent. Suggested phases for observation. — The following phases with parallel chapters or pages in the text are suggested : (i) Foreign languages. Pronunciation, pages 1 14-1 19 ; vocabu- lary and grammatical usage, Chapter VII. (2) Social sciences. The use of problem-solving methods in history, civics, and economics, pages 169-205. (3) Mathematics. Making its abstract ideas more real, pages 205-226. (4) Literature. The technique of securing responses of enjoy- ment, pages 242-267. (5) Expression. Chapter XL (6) Laboratory methods. Chapter XIX. Form of report. — {a) Write a concise report of your observations to cover not more than five theme pages. {b) Preface the report with a list of the observations, giving name of subject, school, grade, and teacher. {c) Write a unified discussion of the phase of teaching observed and its technique as illustrated in your observations. Give evidence and examples from the latter but do not describe them one after the other or in detail. E141 EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XI TRAINING IN EXPRESSION What use can I make of this chapter? — This chapter may be of practical value not only to teachers of English composition and drawing but also to teachers in other sub- jects who are interested in '' cooperative " training in ex- pression. It may also prove helpful to those readers who are trying to master the art of expression for themselves. Therefore the following assignment is suggested. Assignment. — Write a paper of not more than two theme pages in answer to the following question, "' What use can I make of this chapter not only in teaching but also in my own efforts at expression now or later .? " Hand the paper in when the discussion reaches exercise 22. Read pages 269-290. — Read pages 269-290 rapidly at first reading. Then prepare through exercise 7 for the first discussion. Importance of Expression 1. Compared zvith other subjects. — (a) Give objective evi- dence in terms of the amount of time devoted to various subjects in the high school to indicate the relative importance of training in the following : foreign languages, mathematics, expression in English. (&) What is your opinion concerning the relative impor- tance of these three subjects in the lives of most high- school students .? How does your rating compare with the rating secured from data given in answer to (a) } E142 TRAINING IN EXPRESSION EI43 2. Practical versus imaginative expression. — (a) Which type of expression does Parker discuss, practical or imagi- native ? Give evidence from his chapter. (&) Can you suggest better terms than ''practical" and " imaginative " to express the antithesis ; for example, would '' practical " and '' literary " be better ? Why ? (c) Is Parker justified in neglecting in his discussion (completely, or almost completely?) one of the above types of writing ? Explain. Vital Content 3. Sources of vohCntary topics. — {a) In the list of vol- untary topics given on pages 273-274 label each one as follows : G if primarily a topic of serious general public interest. V if primarily vocational for the individual pupil concerned. S if primarily from stiide7it activities or leisu7'e activities. Count up your labels for each group and state the results. (&) What would you conclude from your results concern- ing the types of topics upon which students would do the most effective writing } Why } 4. Topics for arguments . — (a) Which of the following topics are best for debates in senior high-school classes in argumentation } Why } ip) Which 2X0. poorest} Why? (i) Honesty is the best policy. (2) Adoption of an honor system in examinations. (3) Abolition of capital punishment for murder. (4) Relative merits of certain kinds of automobiles. (5) Desirability of intervention by the United States in Mexico. (6) A short school day with home study versus a longer school day with no home study. (7) Prohibition of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquor as a national law. EI 44 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Broad Point of View 5. Explain narrowness. — The following remarks were made by experienced teachers of English composition. Give the probable reasons in terms of the teacher's point of view, training, or special interests, for each remark. (i) One teacher said, " The trouble with vocational writing is that it lacks vitality." (2) Another said, " I would never have a student write a brief. It spoils his writing." 6. /;/ various subjects. — (a) Does the teacher of expres- sion need a broader point of view than a teacher of history } Why } (b) Does he need a broader point of view than a teacher of mathematics .? Why ? 7. Technical themes. — In case a pupil desires to choose a technical topic from a subject concerning which the teacher is uninformed, which of the following practices would you prefer} Give reasons from Parker's chapter and your own experiences. (i) Refuse to approve the topic. (2) Submit the theme to the teacher of the related subject for evaluation of the content. (3) Permit the student to present only such simple technical matters as could be understood by an ordinary audience. (4) Require the student to undertake the presentation of his technical material in such a manner as to interest and enlighten an ordinary audience. 8. Content from movies. — id) What forms of desirable content for expression might pupils secure from moving pictures t (b) Would you eficotirage or disconrage the use by stu- dents of such material } Give reasons of your own as well as from Parker's chapter. TRAINING IN EXPRESSION EI45 9. Simplicity and sincerity. — {a) From the standpoint of encouraging simplicity and sincerity, and avoiding the handing in of copied themes, which of the following ex- hibits for imitation would be best ? Why ? (i) Examples from Stevenson, Washington Irving, Hawthorne, Macaulay, etc. (2) A few very superior student themes. (3) Numerous short student compositions in their original form, varying from fairly good to excellent. (b) How would you provide the samples for imitation ? 10. Models for imitation. — (a) Would the desirability of a correct model for imitation rule against method (3) in exercise 9 t (b) Which does a pupil need most as a model for good writing: (i) samples of the process of good writing or (2) finished prodiLcts of good writing } (Compare the dis- cussion of process and product of reflective thinking de- scribed on pages 180-182.) (c) How could samples of the process be provided ? The Audience 11. Creatijig audience situations, (a) Specialisation. — Discuss the value from the audience standpoint of special- ization upon a topic by a student, with several short reports distributed at intervals. (b) Projects. — Show how such a project as that described at the bottom of page 276 is influential in creating an audience situation. (c) Advertisi7tg. — Discuss the value (from the audience standpoint) of having high-school pupils issue a number of the high-school paper as a '' booster " advertising number for the local community. On page E147 is a sample page from a publication prepared by the pupils of Savanna, 111. {d) Literacy chib. — Would you use the device described in the following paragraph from Miller's " Practical English EI 46 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Composition " ? It follows a discussion of Macaulay's expe- rience in writing his '' Lays of Ancient Rome." " When Macaulay wrote, when anybody writes, he writes for an audience. In the approval of an audience lie the reason and reward of composition. No man except a blockhead or an angel ever wrote except for an audience. In beginning a course in com- position, the first thing to do is, therefore, to provide an audience. We shall accomplish this by organizing ourselves as a literary club." Clear Ideas by the Student 12. Composition as U^airmig in thinking. — {a) Consider- ing composition as providing training in thinking, show how most of the processes in effective thinking, summarized on pages 199-200, enter mto effective practical composition. (6) If possible, rephrase some of these points into the parallel rhetorical directiojis used in description, exposition, and argumentation. 13. Scientific method i?i debating. — Recall the five char- acteristics of scientific method listed above on page E12. (a) Show how numbers 2, 3, and 5 would e^iter into a debate of the question. Should capital punishment be abolished } (b) Why would number i 7iot enter ? (c) To what extent would number 4 enter 1 (d) If in the debate pupils contented themselves with presenting such argumxcnts as, ''I would rather be hung than spend my life in jail," or ''It is more cruel to hang a man than to put him in jail for life," or ''The Bible states ' Thou shalt not kill,' " would you consider that they were securing good or poor training in thinking.? Why? (e) If the situation described in (d) occurred in the de- bate, what assignment would you make for the next meeting of the class } (/) What phase of Parker's chapter other than clear thinking does this exercise illustrate .? Savanna Education The Light that never fails that gave a dull dim glow and was in de- mand in ye olden times, was the tallow- dip. Years later the candle proved its superiority for light producing. Then the advent of the kerosene lamp into the realm of lighting seemed the culmination of illuminating attempts. ^ But, now to- day on the market we have the Hght of lights, as bright a Hght as any Hght will be. ^ It is the Hght we sell. The light that never fails. Peoples Gas and Electric Co. Drawing by Gertrude Bahwell Copy by Isabelle Ulmer SAMPLE PAGE FROM STUDENT PAPER See exercise 11, (c), p. E145 E147 EI48 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 14. Procedure in practical and imaginative writing. — (a) Describe the part played by spontaneity^ outlining or briefings ^^ rough drafts,'' and revision or ^'tinkering'' in each of the following : (i) practical descriptive, narrative, expository, and argumenta- tive writing ; (2) imaginative and poetical writing. (If possible cite examples, such as the writing of Gray's " Elegy " and Bryant's " Thanatopsis.") (&) What differences and similarities appear between (i) and (2) ? SAMPLE OF A FIRST ROUGH-DRAFT OUTLINE 15. Rough drafts. — In actual authorship preliminary outlines and rough drafts are often made in very sketchy, rough form ; for example, in writing these exercises Parker's first plan for possible exercises on the correction of themes is shown on this page. In view of this fact, what account should teachers take of the process of "rough drafting" in student's composition ; for example, (a) Should he encourage students to sketch their thoughts in hasty abbreviated form on paper with insertions, replace- ments, etc. roughly indicated .? Why } (b) Should he encourage pupils to show these to him for examination or should he require them to be nicely rewritten before he takes any account of them ? Why .? TRAINING IN EXPRESSION EI49 (c) Since many students with good capacity for authorship detest formal briefing, would you accept from them such rough outlines as are described in (a) in lieu of carefully written briefs ? Why ? Getting Point of View of the Audience 16. Sclf-conscion-S7iess. — In oral expression does it i7i- crease or decrease a student's self-consciousness to suggest to him that he keep in mind the point of view of his audience ? Explain. 17. Suitable vocabulary : slang. — (d) In a civics class which is discussing socialism would you permit a pupil to say, ''The public wouldn't stand for it" or ''They could n't get by with it " .? Why } (b) Would you take Professor Baker to task for using the expression " makes good " in the quotation at the top of page 278 of the text.? (c) How does the expression " makes good " differ from the expression " not stand for " from the standpoint of good use ? (d) If you permitted the use of some slang by students, where would you draw the line in terms of an individual student's language habits ; that is, when would you require him to substitute good English for slang ? Making Corrections 18. I?i oral expression : correctio7t during or after and how? — In a short formal talk a pupil says, "They hadn't ought to have burned Joan of Arc." Which of the follow- ing Jive forms of correction is best } Why .? (i) The teacher stops the pupil and {a) has him correct himself, or ip) says, " George, say, ' They should not have burned Joan of Arc,' " or EI so EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (2) After the p2^pil has finished his talk the teacher says, (^)" George, what should you say instead of 'hadn't ought to ' ? " or ip) " Class, what mistakes did George make ? " or (r) " George, say, ' They should not have burned Joan of Arc.' " 19. Ujicorrected themes. — Review the suggestion for un- corrected themes in paragraph 3 on page 37 of the text. Do you think such practice would be at all effective in improving the writing of students } (Compare unsupervised and uncorrected practice in piano playing, vocal training, typewriting, running, swimming, baseball, tennis, etc. and reference i on page E197, below, entitled ''English for the Hopeless Pupils.") 20. Assigning themes. — (a) Which of the following assignments is better } Why } (i) Hand in a story of adventure day after to-morrow ; about 500 words. (2) A week from to-day hand in a short story. Make it a story of adventure if you can. Be on the lookout for incidents which you might use. Where might you secure suggestions of incidents ? Don't make it too long; about two to four theme pages. (&) If the second method were adopted, what remarks might the teacher make in reference to the assignment at intervening class meetings .? 21. Contribntion recitations. — (a) What chance of success would the scheme of contribution recitations (described on page 288) have in the hands of an inexperienced, relatively untrained teacher } (b) In the hands of an experienced teacher ? (Compare the discussions at the bottom of page 129 of the text and in exercise 6, p. E65, above.) 22. What nse can I make of this chapter? — Read your paper on the assignment made in the exercise book at the beginning of this chapter. TRAINING IN EXPRESSION E151 23. Millers directions to pupils. — Show how the follow- ing quotation from Miller's '' Practical English Composition " parallels and supplements Parker's discussion by labeling each point in it as follows : with P if it parallels Parker's points ; with S if it supplements by adding new points. " Composition consists usually of three processes : " I. Gathering material, or getting something to say. "XL Putting this material together, which involves: (i) ar- ranging it ; (2) oral discussion or oral composition ; (3) writing; (4) revision. " III. Publication, which includes the presentation of the fin- ished product to an audience and the reaction of that audience. " In other words, the student of composition must not make the mistake of thinking that composition is merely writing. There are seven steps in composition : (i) gathering material ; (2) arrang- ing materia] ; (3) oral composition ; (4) writing ; (5) revision ; (6) publication ; (7) the reaction (that is, approval or disap- proval). Writing is therefore only one of the seven processes that compose composition. In relation to the composition as a whole it stands in importance about as a postage stamp stands in size to the envelope which it carries." 24. Lezvis and Hosics preface. — Show how the following quotation from the preface of Lewis and Hosic's '' Practical English for High Schools " parallels and supplements Parker's discussion in Chapter XI and other chapters by labeling each point in it as follows : with P^ p, if it parallels Parker's points, indicating after p the parallel page in Parker's text ; with ^ if it supplements by adding new points. " The authors have observed the following principles : " I. That a textbook should be primarily a laboratory guide and not a treatise or an encyclopedia. " 2. That the most important thing for a pupil to learn is not theory but a method of work. EI 52 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING "3. That practice in expression has little value unless it grows out of a real situation and involves genuine personal experience and creative imagination. " 4. That both good speech and good writing are matters of habit and, therefore, are to be attained by the repetition of activi- ties which enlist the interest of the pupil and call out his energies. "5. That much of the material in the books now in use in the schools is overmature, ambitious, and unrelated to the thoughts and lives of young people. " 6. That, on the other hand, greater stress should be laid upon certain subject matter hitherto almost completely neglected ; for example, social letters, business letters, newspapers, and magazines. "7. That the best teaching requires a real social situation in the classroom, and that earnest cooperative effort, concentrating the attention of pupils and teachers on a common problem, is more likely to produce correct habits than memory drills or the exaction of perfunctory tasks." 25. Lyman s editorial. — Underline in the following edi- torial four important ideas not contained in Parker's chapter, and label each ^^ exercise 24 !' "WHAT LIES BACK OF CO-OPERATION IN ENGLISH "By R. L. Lyman ''''Language arts versus thought and feeling. — L. H. Jones, super- intendent of the Indianapolis schools, in the International Congress of Education held in Chicago in 1893, said : " Language, writing, and drawing considered in themselves are purely arts ; their end is skill, . . . language . . . has no ennobling ideas in itself. Only when these branches are used in the expres- sion of ideas whose origin is in some other field of thought do they become charged in themselves with thought, or feeling, or motive so as to become individual factors in spiritual development." ^^Subordination of grammar. — Here we have the essence of the movement which, starting twenty-five years ago, resulted in the subordination of formal English grammar to the place of incidental study which it occupies to-day. TRAINING IN EXPRESSION E153 "^^ Teach mother-tongue in all subjects. — Moreover, the statement of Superintendent Jones may be said to be the basic doctrine of the movement, in its incipiency in 19 15, which takes the ground that formal classes in English, especially in English composition, are occupying altogether too large a place in the program of the elementary, and especially in the program of secondary, schools. This new idea urges less time for formal English classes, and insists upon more and better instruction in the mother-tongue in depart- ments other than English. The leaders desire that English com- position be taught in all classes, in all school activities at all times, by every teacher, both by his example and by careful supervision of his pupils' oral and written work. Through these means, all teachers are to help establish good language habits. The move- ment for correlation with ' other subjects,' as yet in its early stages, is most significant. ''''Language lesso?ts neglect subject-matter of thought. — To put this in another light, language lessons were introduced about i860 to 1870, as a substitute for the unspeakable grind of grammar. To-day these language lessons have themselves to face somewhat the same criticisms that formal grammar faced twenty-five years earlier. Just as the study of grammar, with elaborate formulas of parsing, analysis, diagramming and the like, became an end in itself and lost whatever educational import it may ever have had, so to-day language lessons have become stereotyped, ends in them- selves, whose educational value is extremely doubtful. Most Eng- lish compositions written for prescribed classes in composition, of whatever grade, from elementary school to university, are exercises performed mechanically to meet requirement, generally disliked by the pupils. They are titterly devoid of the viewpoifit of authorship. The pupil's attention is directed not upon the subject-matter of his thought, but upon the formal elements of his composition, structure, style, and diction. This is not the way to teach pupils to write and speak. '''Distinguish drill and authorship. — Formal English composi- tion courses are drill exercises in the mechanical elements of writ- ing or speaking. As such they must always hold a place in the curriculum. Drill is absolutely necessary to secure mechanical and elementary rhetorical accuracy. The place for such language EI 54 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING lessons should be confined to classes in the English department frankly given over to formal drill ; but the great bulk of English composition ought to be taught in connectio7i with other subjects. The geography lesson, the theme in history, the topical recitation in civil government — these, and numberless similar occasions fur- nish the best practice ground for establishing language habits. As Mr. Jones said in 1893, 'In some other field of thought, language lessons become charged with feeling or motive.' In these other fields we have the viewpoint of authorship — an overwhelming interest in the subject-matter, an earnest desire to be ' the servant of an idea'; this the pupil of eight or eighteen or twenty-eight must have. He must write or speak with his mind centered upon the message he wishes to proclaim. ^"^ Drill ofi method constrains; authorship frees and vitalizes. — Language lessons are not a content study ; they are drill exercises in the mechanics of grammatical and rhetorical accuracy ; they are not fertile fields for practice in writing or speaking. No drill exer- cise in which the attention of the performer is centered primarily upon method is ever free from constraint. Vital practice in the use of the mother-tongue approximates its greatest value when the student, having roughly thought out his scheme of procedure, breaks free from conscious attention to the mechanical details of his. composition, and, wrapped in the relation to each other of the ideas he wishes to present, advances freely and fluently toward his goal. Then, after the first rough draft of his composition is com- pleted, he is in a position to apply himself with intense interest to the question of reorganization, to the matter of sentence structure, to the proper selection of words. All these duties are motivated by the desire to give to his message the most effective vehicle of expression. '''^ Authorship attitude essential in life and in school. — This atti- tude of authorship is just as essential for effective school exercises in composition as it is for the magazine writer, the editor, the lawyer. Language habits, both oral and written, exclusive, of course, of matters of mere mechanical accuracy, may be cultivated by the school, but not primarily in classes devoted solely to formal composition. Such is the educational doctrine that lies back of the movement for co-operation in teaching English." — School Review, January, 19 16, Vol. XXIV, pp. 75-77. TRAINING IN EXPRESSION EI55 Additional Bibliography Recent textbooks. — i. Briggs, T. H., and McKinney, I. A First Book of Composition for High Schools. (Ginn and Company, 1913-) 2. Lewis, W. D., and Hosic, J. F. Practical Ejiglish for High Schools. (American Book Company, 19 16.) A manual of assign- ments for practice in composition by high-school pupils, with necessary related theory. 3. Miller, E. L. Practical Composition. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1915.) A series of four small handy volumes. Simple assignments for high-school pupils by a high-school principal. Projects for composition. — 4. Parker, Edith P. A Sixth Grade English Unit. Elementary School fournal^ October, 19 14, Vol. XV, pp. 82-90. A thorough, practical account of the use of the topic " Ships and Ship-building " as the center of a large amount of training in expression. 5. Lally, Eleanor M. A Type Study in English Composition. Elementary School fotirnal, May, 19 16, Vol. XVI, pp. 469-474. Describes use of " Life-Saving " as a project topic. How to train in expression. Notable manuals by high-school teachers of English. — 6. Bolenius, Emma Miller. The Teach- ing of Oral English. (J. B. Lippincott Company, 19 14.) Very practical accounts of what to do and how to do it. Easy, interest- ing reading with strong suggestion of actual life in the classroom. 7. Leonard, S. A. English Composition as a Social Problem. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 17.) Application of the social point of view to methods of teaching composition. 8. Thomas, C. S. The Teaching of English in Secondary Schools. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 17.) Many practical suggestions in the chapters on composition. Suggestions. — 9. Lyman, R. L. Oral English in the High School. Quarterly fournal of Public Speakifig, October, 19 15, Vol. I, pp. 241-259. Effective practical methods described. Every speech to involve some definite investigation. English. Journal. — If you would be a progressive teacher of expression read the English Journal regularly. CHAPTER N OUTLINE OF THE SYSTEM : GET THE TRANSITION In order to maintain apparent coherence and system the class at this point should realize how far they have pro- gressed and the transition that is made at the beginning of the next chapter. Both of these matters are suggested by the following outline, which carries the reader through the rest of the book, omitting the chapters on practice teaching and observation. The transition is indicated by the topics in black type. Upon completing the course the student should be able to reproduce the outline and express each topic in the form of one or more principles of teaching. This system of principles should serve him permanently as a guide in his teaching. MAIN TOPICS I. Science versus opinion II. Broadening purposes III. Economy in classroom management IV. Selection and arrangement of subject matter (i) Social needs (2) Relative values (3) Intensive treatment (4) Psychological arrangement V. Learning processes (i) Special types of learning {a) Motor jj^^„ {b) Association J (.) Reflective | Problem-solving ^ ^ (^Abstractions (d) Enjoyment ^{e) Expression EI 56 OUTLINE OF THE SYSTEM EI57 (2) General aspects of learning ' (a) Self-activity (d) Apperception (c) Age influences (d) Interest for economy (e) Differences in capacity (/) Supervised study VI. Sources of subject matter (i) Books (2) Conversations (3) Laboratory /I I. Questioning and testing EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XII SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION Transition to general aspects of learning. — As suggested in the outline on page E156, above, this chapter makes the transition to the discussion of certain general aspects of learning as contrasted with the special types of learning dis- cussed in the preceding chapters. The first of these general aspects to be emphasized is the fact that a student is educated by his own responses or activity ; in other words, by his self -activity. In the second part of the chapter the principle of apperception is emphasized. Self-activity 1. Pnpils studying together. — Should pupils prepare their lessons together .? Why .? (Consider such matters as specific self-activity desired, personal dominance, personal stimulus, the way expression clarifies one's thinking, social interests appealed to, etc.) 2. Parental assistance. — Evaluate ordinary parental as- sistance of pupils from the standpoint of the principle of self -activity. 3. Types of mental respojise. — (a) In the portion of a high- school history lesson printed below, which of the following types of mental response by the pupils 2X^ prominent} (i) Enjoyment (6) Abstraction (2) Memory (7) Motor skill (3) Reflective thinking (8) Associating symbols and (4) Analysis meanings (5) Comparison (9) Expression EI 58 SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION E159 (b) Make a memorandum on the margin of the place where each type enters, using the first syllables, as En. for enjoyment, etc. Read the lesson out loud in order to get the full effect of the remarks by teacher and pupils. PORTION OF A LESSON ON MINOS Class : Second- Year High-School Greek History {Stenographic report of the actual class dialogue^ (i) Teacher. The notes on Gnossus we didnH quite complete. There is one topic left — protection. If you will turn to your 7iotes^ I ivill read to you. Keep close track of it and put down the impor- tant facts. For the benefit of the visitors, I will say that this is from " The Sea Kings of Crete,'' by faines Baikie, which is a populariza- tion of the i'es2ilts of the excavations in . Crete. (Reads passage about protection.) (2) T. fi^st indicate that in your notes. (Class writes.) (3) T. Ivan, will you read what you have? Pupil. The entrance passage to the stone gangway was but very poor defense — was small and insignificant and could scarcely have withheld an attack. (4) (T. reads the same passage again.) Now you may add a^iything that you want to to your notes. (5) T. How would you compare the palace of Tiryns with the palace of Gnossus along this line ? P. Well, it didn't have much protection, while the palace of Tiryns was protected by great thick stone walls. (6) T. Yes, very thick stone walls. There must have bee7i some reason for this differejice. Can you account for the difference in any way ? P. I think maybe the king and queen thought to protect their city by boats. (7) T. Yes, by a fleet. What would that indicate about the power of Minos 1 P. That it lay in the navy. Ei6o EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (8) T. In the navy. What do you think about the other kings in the interior of Tiryns ? P. I think they had just an army, (9) T. Just an army. Would there be more danger of attack in those cases., do you think ? P. Yes, I think there would. (10) T. Explain why there would be more danger in the case of Gnossus. P. Because the ships could lie in the harbor and wait for pirates or other fleets, and at Tiryns they could n't do that. (11) T. Yes., not quite., though. Do you think the attack would come from the sea in Tiryns and Mycence ? P. I don't think that there would be any but sea fighting in Crete. They would have to come from the sea. (12) T. You think there were no enemies practical on land 2 What would that indicate about the power of Minos over Crete ? P. He was a very just and good king and all his people were contented. (13) T. What do you suppose the power of Minos was in Gnossus ? P. Well, I think he was king of his own city state, and I think he wanted to work to gain control of the other city states. (14) T. £)o you stippose he brought them into sufficient subjection so that he didnH 7ieed to fear them and the only attack he needed to fear was from the sea., whei'eas the opposite was the case on land 2 Turn to the red book. Thucydides was a great historian and wrote about 400 B. C. At the beginni^ig of his history he tells what he knows about it. He says after he gets through with it there is very little of it that he is sure about ; most of it is legendary. Even at that early date historians had begun to be skeptical about legends. Turn to page 4; will you read., beginnifzg at the top of section 4 ? (Reads passage describing the sea power of Minos and the state of piracy that existed in his time.) (15) T. That is a very interesting passage. It says a good deal about Minos and quite a bit about the danger that might come to Gnossus. What would it indicate along that line 1 What would be the source of dangers to Gnossus — the pirates ? P. Just the pirates. SELF- ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION ei6i (i6) T. Would other cities along the yEgean have the same danger^ do you thijik ? P. Yes. (17) T. What was the service of Minos to these y^gean cities ? P. Protection. Protected them from the pirates with his navy. (18) T. V/hy did he do it? He must have beeii a missio7iary. P. Well, he wanted the cities round about sort of looking up to him, sort of tributary. (19) T. But they did pay tribute. Hei'e we find this brutal man that was called half man, half beast, protecting the cities of the yEgean from pirates. It does n^t seem in accord with what we 7'ead of him yesterday. P. He didn't want the other cities plundered because then they would n't pay tribute. (20) T. What was the tribute that they had to pay ? the tribute Athens had to pay ? P. People, seven girls and seven boys. (21) T. That brijigs out the brutal part of Miiios. He exacted a very human tribute, something as the Phxniciaiis , as you remem- ber, sacrificed childre7i to one of their gods. So Mi?ios demands a tribute to the god of commerce. Have you noticed how commerce does demand as its victims human victims 1 That is the bad side of com- merce. See it in our country every day. Think of the number of itien killed every day by railroad trains. That is the brute side of Minos ; the other side comes out here. Can you explain it. Miss Blank ? I donH know whether you get the point. Why did he protect the cities ? What is the 7nain reason of Minos 1 Anyone 1 P. I just think that he wanted to exterminate the pirates to protect his own city and incidentally protect the others. (22) T. fust incidentally protected the others. He gets no credit, then, for protecting the others. That may be true. It was a great service to them, though, and so they looked upon it as a service to them a?id would in a way glorify Minos. We will return to that at the e7id of the hour, possibly. Ei62 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Pupil Activity versus Teacher Activity Many supervisors and observers of teaching judge a reci- tation by the relative amount of teacher activity and pupil activity (self-active responses by pupils). 4. Objective standard. — (a) What objective standard could you use to determine the relative amount of teacher activity and pupil activity in a lesson ? (6) What limitations or inadequacies would there be in the use of this standard ? . 5. Evaluate history lesson. — {a) Evaluate the portion of the "Minos" lesson quoted above from the standpoint of the relative amount of teacher activity and pupil activity. (&) Does your objective standard devised in exercise 4 give the same result as a more informal inspection of the lesson ? 6. Evahcate participle lesson. — Evaluate the lesson on participles quoted above, on pages E104-EI14, in the man- ner directed in exercise 5. 7. Self -evaluation. — (a) If you were teaching, how could you determine whether your instruction was of the type described in the quotation below ? (&) What practical device could you adopt to remedy your faults, if you found any ? " After reading the Stenographic Lesson Reports published in the Teachers College Record, September, 19 10, the principal of a city school wrote me that he was prompted to a tour of inspection in his school to see if his teachers were doing the large amount of work that seemed to characterize teacher activity in the Reports. By a random estimate he placed the percentage of teacher activity at 85 per cent, 95 per cent, and in a few instances 100 per cent (where he found teachers lecturing). His investigation brought him promptly to the conclusion that the reason why our pupils gain so little in intellectual power is because our teachers do the intellectual work." — Romiett Stevens, ''The Question in Instruction " SELF- ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION E163 8. Criticize literattLve lesson. — (a) In the light of the preceding exercises criticize the following excerpt from an actual lesson on " The Lady of the Lake." (6) Criticize it from the standpoint of Lyman's editorial given above on pages E152-E154. PORTION OF A LESSON ON "THE LADY OF THE LAKE"i {Stenographic report of the actual class dialogue^ (i) Teacher. How much is description used in the story ^ Mr. T.? Is there very much ? Mr. T. Quite a little. (2) T. For what did it seem to be put in ? Pupil. I think one place the Canto starts very quietly, and then the clan, gathered in the fiercest preparation, terrible oaths, shows contrasts. (3) T. Is it put in the?i, Just as a scene ^ or for some distinct purpose ? P. Distinct purpose. (4) T. A7id in this case it was ? P. Contrast. (5) T. What other descriptions ? a P. Nature. (6) T. Very much space takefi up with descriptions of nature ? P. Yes. (7) T. Have you a pixtty fair idea of the cotmtry ? P. Yes. (8) T. Better from the poem than f'om pictures^ I think. JVhy, Miss P., is as ?nuch space given to the description aiid country 1 Miss P. I think it would be necessary, especially when warfare is going on. (9) T. Kind of thing that happejis, depend on country ? 1ST P. Entirely. 2D P. Scott was a lover of nature. (10) T. For itself? P. Yes. 1 Reported in Romiett Stevens's " The Question in Instruction," p. 41. Ei64 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (it) T. Do you think the descriptions show a familiarity with the country ? P. Yes. (12) T. What makes you think so ? P. The names are correct. (13) T. That is true. P. He has the location of very small matters that others who are not familiar would not have. (14) T. Something more ? v P. He seems to know how far it is from one place to another. (15) T. Geography. Something morel Superstition used much in this story ? P. Yes. (16) T. Where and how, Miss W.? Miss W. A great deal of prophecy ; whether they should go out to battle was decided by superstitious means. 9. Teacher dominance. — (a) In a problem-solving lesson is it necessary that the children solve every phase of the problem in order to have a worth-while amount of pupil self -activity } Explain. (&) In terms of the summary of problem-solving activity on pages 199-200 how mitch shotild the teacher dominate such a lesson 1 (c) Would the amount of teacher dominance be the same or more or less in a lesson for ejijoyment ? Explain. (d) In a drill or practice lesson.? (Compare exercise 18 in the chapter on Expression, p. E149.) (e) Summarize the relative amounts of teacher -dominance in drill, enjoyment, and problem-solving lessons. Apperception 10. Varied interpretations. — Describe and explain in terms of varied past experiences the different interpreta- tions suggested below for the proverb, " A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush." SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION E165 (1) The interpretation by the author of the proverb. (2) The interpretation by a first-year high-school girl who learned it, '' A bird in the bush is worth two in the hand," and thought this was what was meant, (3) The interpretation by a modem scientific agriculturalist or a horticulturalist. (4) The following interpretation by George Ade : " The most helpful advice for young people is condensed into morals, maxims and proverbs. A bird i?i the hand is woiih two i7i the bush. Great stuff ! If you had a bird in the hand you would n't know what to do with it. Besides, with two in the bush you 're liable, with any kind of luck, to have a lot more birds after a while." Empty Words versus Correct Responses 11. Verbal definitions. — Definitions furnish many exam- ples of the learning of words without meanings. Examine the latter part of the lesson On participles given above on pages E104-EI14, and show (a) whether it provides for self-activity in the making of the definition or not ; (6) whether it avoids meaningless verbalism or not, 12. Ill-adapted material. — Indicate which of the fol- lowing are ill-adapted to high-school pupils. Explain. (i) Assigning a paper on the character of Lady Macbeth to second-year high-school pupils. (2) Explanatory note in a literary classic: ^^ Prodigious — grown portentous." (3) " Name all the things that you can think of in ' Marmion ' that are characteristic of the Middle Ages " — for third-year high- school pupils. (4) '' Yet this enigmatic speech, with its under-senses and its ironies, is after all appropriate to the half-lights, the elemental problems of the theme which is set forth," — for fourth-year high-school pupils. (5) "Do you think Marmion was a true knight ? " — for third- year high-school pupils. EI 66 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 13. Parker s violation. — (a) How does Parker's use of examples from golf in this exercise book violate the princi- ple of apperception ? (6) How does he avoid this violation in exercise 9, page E 1 2 1 , above ? 14. Geography : order of topics. — From the standpoint of the principle of apperception, which is the better arrange- ment in teaching geography to first-year high-school classes, the following order or its reverse ? Why ? (i) Astronomical and mathematical geography. (2) Surface features, land and water, elevation, erosion, the atmosphere, etc. (3) Fauna, flora, etc. (4) Social geography, food supply, manufacture, trade, trans- portation, etc. 15. Geography data. — Why are the following data ill- adapted to give students an idea of the growth of Minneapolis ? "In 187 1 only two car-loads of wheat were received in Minne- apolis. In 1887 the Great Western road alone brought 33,000,000 bushels of wheat to the elevators at Minneapolis. In 1896, 250,000 barrels of flour were ground in a single week." 16. History and cn^^rent events. — (a) From the stand- point of apperception, what is the advantage of connecting historical discussions with current events ; for example, par- alleling the French Revolution with the Russian Revolution in 191 7; examining present examples of the states-rights attitude when discussing the Civil War ? (&) History students may test their grasp of history and of current events by citing other parallel examples. 17. Mathematical biography. — While reading the life of Pascal reprinted below from a high-school text in first-year mathematics, label each statement as follows : With A if adapted to the understanding of first-year students. With / if ill-adapted or i?tcomprehensible to such students. SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION E167 " Blaise Pascal, a natural but somewhat erratic genius, was born at Clermont, France, on June 19, 1623, and died at Paris, August 19, 1662. He had displayed exceptional ability by the age of eight, and, despite the discouragements of his father and his teacher, became greatly interested in geometry at twelve years of age. Deprived of books on geometry, he discovered for him- self many of the properties of figures. Seeing the boy's determi- nation to study geometry, his father gave him a copy of Euclid's Elements, which he mastered in a few weeks. " At the age of fourteen Pascal was admitted to the weekly scien- tific meetings of the French geometricians ; at sixteen he wrote an essay of marked originality on conic sections, and at eighteen he constructed an important calculating machine. Thereafter he studied for a time experimental science, then religion, then returned again to mathematics. He formulated a new theorem of conies, still known as " Pascal's theorem," and invented and employed his arithmetical triangle for figurate numbers from which the coeffi- cients of the expansion of a binomial are obtained. He laid down the foundations of the theory of probability, did much work on the cycloid, and exerted himself on the theory of indivisibles. He is said to have worn himself out completely through excessive hard work, so that he died of old age at the age of thirty-nine. See an account of his life and work in some history of mathematics." 18. Lewis and Hosics preface. — Which paragraphs in the quotation from Lewis and Hosic's '' Practical English," given above on pages E151-E152, illustrate the principle of apperception } How } 19. Cheyneys preface. — (a) Show how the quotation given below from the preface of Cheyney's " Short History of England" illustrates the principle of apperception. (&) What name do we commonly give to the tendency of authors which Cheyney suggests in his first statement that he specifically avoids 1 " Finally, I have omitted altogether statements and allusions the significance of which could not be explained in the book ; and have tried, on the other hand, to give a clear and adequate explanation a ON O oj u 1-1 y .5 that in the teaching L valuable J f forbid ^ not allow I of I shall ^ permit encourage each pupil 1 [ o^ [require ko spend ^ 10 labours each semester pre- the brighter pupils J 1 20 J 1 .1 f privilege^ , • I three-mmute , , , \ c n /^n«^ 5 three-minute reportCs); thej^^^^ Jof actually [ I ten-minute J ^ r dependent 1 presenting the report orally being ^ [.upon my l^not dependent J f I day ^ approval of a well-organized brief submitted-! j- before (^ 2 days J the report is due. Pupils who are exceedingly weak in rbe excused "1 native talent for oral expression will-; krom l^not be excused j E226 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING presenting their reports orally. The following are examples p of topics for such reports :^ ,, 24. Library exercises. — What specific library training is provided by each item in the following practice exercise issued by the librarian of The University of Chicago High School : LIBRARY LESSON 2 Practice Work Name of pupil Name of English teacher 1. Name two books in the University High School Library by any one of the following authors. Use the card catalogue in finding these books. Rudyard Kipling Henry van Dyke 2. Find the following numbers on the shelves and give their author and title : 589-95 C75 821 T31 308 F83 3. Name one book on each of the following subjects : Travel Biography Music Chemistry History 4. Suggest a subject for a three-minute talk in English. Desig- nate whether you found the material on the subject in books, magazines, or in both. THE USE OF BOOKS £22/ LIBRARY LESSON 3 Practice Work Name of pupil Name of English teacher 1. Define the following words : Ambiguous Obsolete 2. In how many dictionaries can you find the word ^' dictograph " ? 3. Suggest a subject for a debate. Where did you find material on the subject ? 4. Find an article on one of the following subjects. Give name of the subject chosen and name of encyclopedia in which you found the subject. tt • • r ^1 • University 01 Chicago Renaissance Child Labor Life of Sir Walter Scott 5. Suggest a subject for a theme in English in connection with the courses you are taking in any of the following subjects : Mathematics General Science German French Latin Shop Drawing Library Gymnasium 25. Library-shidy-room management. — Do you think the following rules for governing a library study-room in high school are too severe ? Explain. (i) Do not admit late pupils without an excuse from the office or the teacher who detained them. (2) Do not excuse pupils from the room without giving them a transfer. E228 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (3) Pupils are not to speak to each other without the permission of the teacher in charge. (4) Pupils are to enter the library quietly, take their seats, and go to work. (5) Insist M-^on profitable use of library time. (6) Reserve books are not to be taken from the library until 3 P-M. Additional Bibliography 1. Hopkins, Florence M. Reference Guides that Should Be Known and How to Use Them. (Willard Co., Detroit, 19 16, 187 pp., $1.50.) A manual for the bibliographical instruction of the layman. " Includes chapters on all the necessary subjects from the make-up of a printed book to the methods of obtaining public documents. Exercises are given for each variety of source taken up. Some idea of the range of this manual may be gained from a sketch of the topics of the contents : parts of a book ; con- cordances ; atlases ; dictionaries ; encyclopedias ; library classifica- tion ; indexes to magazine articles ; year-books, and so on. Heartily recommended to every high-school and college librarian concerned with the teaching of classes in library methods " (School Review book note). 2. Magazine study. The following periodicals issue directions to guide teachers in using the periodicals in their classes. Some- times the directions appear in the current issue and sometimes they are sent separately. Literary Digest Current Events Independent Popular Science Monthly Outlook Country Gentleman Review of Reviews Write the publishers for information concerning subscription arrangements for classes. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XVIII CONVERSATIONAL METHODS An easy but practical chapter. — This is one of the easiest chapters in the book. From the standpoint of in- tellectual difficulty there is very little to it as compared with the other chapters. The practical issues raised, how- ever, are of sufficient importance to justify spending an hour in discussing it. For this purpose a few easy practical exercises are provided and a special assignment to give some further training in lesson-planning. Special assignment. Outline a conversational lesson. — Select some topic which might be taught by a conversational lesson in high school. Suggestions for topics may be secured from high-school lessons observed, textbooks, college courses dealing with high-school subjects, and from the lessons on ''work" and ''participles" on pages E102 and E104. Write an original outline of a conversational lesson on the topic under the three headings given below : (I) Pertinent information which the high-school pupils might be expected to possess. (II) Principal points of information that the teacher ^^ovXA. contribute. (III) Exact wording of the five principal questions which the teacher would ask. Length and form of paper. — The paper should not be more than two theme pages in length. Arrange it under headings (I), (II), and (III) described above, with about five items under each heading. Number the items. Hand it in on (date). E229 E230 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 1. In yottr own teaching. — Are conversational methods likely to play a large part in your own teaching ? Explain. 2. Conversational versus textbook methods. — {a) Judging by the quotation from Harris on page 438, which type of teaching requires more self-confidence on the part of the teacher, conversational methods or textbook methods ? (&) Do you agree with this inference ? Why ? (c) Which calls for greater skill, good conversational teaching or good textbook teaching of the type described in the third sentence on page 425 ? Why? 3. Information by teacher. — (a) In the lesson on the British Isles quoted on pages 439-440, tmderline the state- ments in which the teacher gives the pupils information directly. (b) How many items of information does he give ? 4. Encouraging voluntary discussions. — How could a teacher stimulate and encourage pupils to ask questions suit- able for discussion without getting the reputation of being an '' easy teacher," as described at the bottom of page 445 ? 5. Teacher in ignorance. — When a discussion arises in which the teacher himself is ignorant of the truth, as de- scribed at the bottom of page 446, what should he do ? 6. Waste in Socratic lesson. — From the standpoint of training in correct grammatical usage, why is the Socratic lesson quoted on pages 443-445 a particularly vicious waste of time ? 7. Art in participle lesson. — From the standpoint of this chapter, why does the lesson on participles printed above, on pages EI 04 -EI 14, rank as fine art in teaching? Give two or three reasons. 8. Conversational assignment. — Imagine yourself a teacher of this course on methods of teaching. Prepare two or three questions which you would ask in introduchig this chapter by a conversational assignment as described at the bottom of page 447. Write out and hand in. CONVERSATIONAL METHODS E231 9. Possibilities mid dangers. — In your own plans for teaching, which type of suggestions in this chapter would prove more useful to you, those which suggest dangers to be avoided or those which suggest new possibilities to be realized ? Explain . 10. Late textbooks. — What suggestions do you derive from this chapter concerning the utilization of class periods when supplies of textbooks are late in arriving, as often happens in small towns ? CHAPTER Q FINAL EXAMINATION ON SELECTED PARTS Purpose and weight. Based on coherent system and l^o pages. — The culmination of reducing the course to a usable system and fixing in each student's mind the parts he should remember and apply is a final examination on carefully selected material. This material should consist of two parts : (i) the systematic outline of the course sketched on pages E156-E157, above, and (2) such pages of the text as contain ideas or practical suggestions which the student should actually use when teaching. The selection of these pages pro- vides for the throwing overboard of those parts of the text which are largely argumentative or explanatory in character and which have served their purpose after they have de- veloped certain general ideas or attitudes in the students. Announce in time for distributed reviews. — The scope of the final examination should be announced a week or ten days before the end of the course, to give the students time for several reviews at intervals of a day or more. Severity and weight. — The final examination on the selected parts should be sufficiently severe to stimulate the students to careful review, but in determining the average grade for the course it should not count more than two weekly tests. Weekly tests to the end. — In order to stimulate serious study of all of the material up to the end of the book, the weekly tests should continue through the last week of reci- tations, or the last chapters should be included in complete form in the scope of the final examination. E232 EXAMINATION ON SELECTED PARTS E233 Assignment for the final examination. — The final exam- ination will be based on (i) the system of ideas represented in the outline on pages E156-E157 above and on (2) the pages of the text assigned below. Both of these should be studied so carefully that students will remember them defi- nitely for at least six months and easily relearn them at any time in the future. Provisions for differences in interests are made in the alternative assignment near the end of the list below. Topics and Pages for Final Examination I. Science versus opinion. Quotation, pp. 502-505 II. Broadening purposes of high-school teaching. What teachers are for, p. 12 ; liberal education, pp. 13- 15 ; formula of aims, pp. 16-23 III. Economy in classroom management, pp. 31-48 IV. Selection and arrangement of subject matter, Chap- ter IV. Review the headlines sufficiently to learn the four main ideas thoroughly; omit details V. Learning processes A. Types of learning, pp. 96-97 1 . Acquiring motor skill. Omit entirely 2. Associating symbols and meanings. See alter- native assignmejits , belozv Drill; on real processes, pp. 158-160 3. Reflective thinking {a) Dewey's description, pp. 183-184 (b) Summary of guiding problem-solving; be able to explain and illustrate each point briefly, pp. 199-200 {c) Summary of learning abstractions, p. 225 (p. 226 in some editions) 4. Habits of harmless enjoyment. See alterna- tive assignments, below 5. Training in expression, pp. 280-290 E234 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING B. General aspects of learning 1. Self -activity, p. 297 (top paragraph) 2. Apperception, pp. 303-312 3. Age influences. Omit entirely 4. Interests ; instincts used, pp. 348-360 5 . Differences in capacity, three factors in special seat work, pp. 385-387 6. Supervised study, technique of, pp. 402-416 VI. Sources of subject matter 1 . Books ; texts and supplementary reading, pp. 42 1- 428 (top) 2. Conversational methods, legitimate uses, pp. 447- 448 3. Laboratory methods. See alternative assignments, below VII. Questioning and testing Technique of questioning, pp. 467-474 ; routine testing, pp. 493-502 In the exercise book. — Study all of the chapter entitled "The Last Word," pp. E251-E257. Alte7'native assigmnents. — In addition to the pages assigned above, choose one of the following assignments : {a) Learning a foreign vocabulary, pp. 122-140 (b) Enjoyment of reading, pp. 242-244, 250-266 {c) Laboratory methods, pp. 449-463 Factors to be tested. — Some of the questions in the final examination may be so phrased as to test not only the student's knowledge of the facts and principles included in the above assignments but also his ability to use these as is done in the exercises. For the latter purpose the questions should provide data from real teaching situations, and set problems calling for judgment in applying specific principles studied in the review. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XIX LABORATORY METHODS Adapt discussion to interests and technical training. — Difficulty arises in teaching this chapter owing to the fact that often only a few of the students in the method course expect to teach science or are well prepared in science. From his knowledge of the registration in his class, the instructor should carefully determine just how much empha- sis to give this chapter and which exercises to assign. 1. History of laboratory work. — (a) Judging from the quotation at the bottom of page 450, would you expect the technique of laboratory teaching to be as well developed as the technique of teaching Latin or algebra 1 Explain. (&) Make a similar comparison between laboratory teaching and forming habits of enjoying literature. (c) Make a similar comparison between laboratory teach- ing and the use of problem-solving methods in the social sciences. 2. Aims of laboratory work. — (a) Which statement of^ the aims or purposes of laboratory work do you prefer, the one given by Parker on pages 449-450 or the one quoted in paragraph i at the bottom of page 452 .? Why } (b) What is the force of the word '' some " in para- graph 4 on page 454 .-^ (Compare the last sentence in paragraph 7.) 3. Qualitative versus quantitative physics. — (a) Does the quotation on pages 455-456 seem to oppose all meas- urement work in elementary physics or only certain kinds } Explain. E235 E236 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (b) Review the quotation on page 71 and give two or three other examples of physical phenomena in which the study of the qualitative facts by experimentation could easily and profitably be emphasized. (For suggestions examine the topics on page 87.) 4. Skill versus thought. — (a) Which type of drawing is more helpful in studying botany and zoology: (i) pictorial, representative, photo-like drawing or (2) analytic-diagrammatic drawing ? Explain. (&) Which type of drawing requires greater artistic skill .? Explain. (c) Which requires greater scientific thinking } Explain. {d) Is this exercise a fair illustration of the discussion on page 458 .? Explain. 5. Laboratory aspect of work of scientists. — How do the Kepler example (pp. 180-182) and the Newton example (pp. 196-197) help you to understand the paragraph con- cerning the following of recipes at the bottom of page 459 ? 6. Practical man versus scientist. — (a) In what different ways would the following persons tend to regard the educa- tional value of laboratory work } Why } (i) The so-called practical-minded schoolman who believes in industrial training. (2) Professor Michelson, granted the Nobel prize for eminence in scientific research (quoted on page 7 1 of the text). (6) Which one is more likely to be correct 1 Why 1 (c) If you desire to know how easily even such a well- informed man as Francis Bacon may misunderstand scientific method, read pages 11 8-1 19 of S. C. Parker's ''History of Modern Elementary Education." 7. Students' interests and scientific method. — Which view of laboratory work suggested in exercise 6 (a) would coin- cide best with the utilization of the interests of high-school pupils } (Review exercise 24, p. E48, and exercises 3 and 4, p. EI 78, above, on practical versus theoretical interests.) LABORATORY METHODS E237 8. Discovery of scientific laws. — Show the relation between the discussions indicated below. Make a memorandum after each item, showing its essential point, also a memo- randum of the general relation which you discover between the items. (i) Page 460, second paragraph, first sentence. (2) Page 454, paragraph 7. (3) Exercise 18, p. E89, above, entitled "Geometer's sagacity." 9. Apperception ; abstractions. — State how the quotation beginning on page 460 illustrates the following : (i) The principle of apperception. (Review pp. 300-312, headlines.) (2) The principles of teaching abstract ideas (p. E97). 10. Verification. This is a hard one. Try it. — We have had the idea of verification before us for discussion in three connections : First, in the quotation about scientific method on page 504, the opening sentence and also the second sentence from the bottom. Second, m problem-solving ^ pages 196-198. Third, in laboratory methods, page 454, paragraph 7 ("prove the law"), and page 461, last line. (a) What differences in the use of the term (or in the ideas of verification) appear to you in these three discussions } (b) Would any one of the types of verification described enter into the pupils' solution of the laboratory problems suggested at the top of page 462 .? Explain. 11. Sample assignment. — Wherein does the teacher's art consist in the following example t The laboratory exercise for a physics class has this title : " When one cubic foot of the gas produced by your home company is burned, how much heat is produced by the combustion ? " Before taking up the exercise the teacher reads a clipping from a newspaper which begins as follows : E238 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING HEATING POWER OF CHICAGO'S GAS " Consumers of gas in Chicago have been informed by Alder- man Merriam that the Peoples Gas Light and Coke Company is preparing to 'wash out' some of the extra heating efficiency from the commercial product which it sends through its meters to cook the dinners of this big community and otherwise add to the comfort of the citizens. The local public should take an interest in this announcement for more reasons than one." 12. Evaluate a laboratory lesson. — Read rapidly the fol- lowing laboratory lesson prepared by T. R. Wilkins of The University of Chicago High School. Point out tzvo good qualities of the lesson, preferably in terms of Parker's chapter or the class discussion. "A STUDY OF MUSICAL SCALES " You have found in Experiment 41 that there is a definite relation between the length of a stretched string and the note produced. In stringed instruments like the violin, banjo, mandolin, h A Figure 86 guitar, etc. the different notes of the scale are produced by pressing the finger at certain definite points on the string, thus permitting different lengths of the string to vibrate. Just how much must the string be shortened to get the ordinary major scale ? " Procedure " A. Place enough tension on the wire of apparatus (figure 86) to get a definite tone. Then by shifting the bridge, determine the lengths of the wire which give the tones of the ordinary scale, — do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do. LABORATORY METHODS E239 "j5. Change the tension of the wire slightly and determine another set of positions, " C. Change the bridge to get a new do and find a new set of positions. '' Calculations. With the data in A^ use the law which you found in Experiment 41 to calculate the relative frequencies of the notes of the scale. '' Record of Data do re mi fa sol la si do Length Relative lengths Relative frequencies " I. From the relative frequencies of your three trials, how are the relative frequencies of the scale affected by change of pitch of do obtained.? " {a) by change of tension 1 " ip) by change of length ? "2. The notes do^ mi, j-^/ when sounded together are called the major chord. Careful measurements give these notes the relative frequencies 4, 5, and 6. How do these compare with your results ? "3. The whole scale which you have determined is called the major scale. It is made up of three major chords. Can you find them from your data ? " 4. With the help of question 2, make a table of vibration frequencies for an octave starting with C = 256. " 5. Make a similar table for an octave starting with G. " The Tempered Scale '' If all music were written in the scale of C, the major scale would suffice. If G is taken as do, as in 5, it will be found that six of the above notes in each octave can be used in this new key, but that two additional ones are required, and to build up scales E240 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING in all keys would necessitate about fifty notes in each octave. To avoid this difficulty, Bach (1685-175 o) invented the 'tempered scale' in which the octave is divided into twelve equal intervals. (The interval between two notes is defined as the ratio of their vibration numbers.) Thus on the piano the ' interval ' between each two of the twelve notes placed in the octave is not far from If. It is exactly the twelfth root of 2. "6. Five black keys are placed with eight white keys to give the required intervals. What was the ratio : between B and C, and E and F on the major scale? Why then was it not necessary to place black keys between these ? "7. By consulting the text, find the values for C in the 3 pitches Scientific, International, and Concert. '' The sections of the text dealing with this work are pp. ^;^ 1-333. These are to be read by next class day." Additional Bibliography Popular science. — The Popular Science Monthly issues sugges- tions for science lessons based on articles in the magazine. These link up laboratory work with everyday affairs very effectively. Address the publishers of the magazine, asking to be placed on their mailing list for lessons. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XX THE ART OF QUESTIONING Another easy chapter. — Like the chapter on conversa- tional methods, there are few intellectual difficulties in this chapter. There are five or six simple points which the following exercises may emphasize. 1. Related discussions. — How does the discussion on pages 467-468 make application of each of the following ? (a) Part of Chapter IV, on subject matter ? (6) The principles of apperception discussed on pages 300-312.? (c) Chapter XV, on differences in capacity } (d) Chapter XI, on expression .? 2. Marking answers in recitations. — (a) Would the prac- tice of entering a grade for each pupil when he has finished reciting be considered helpful or pernicious in view of the discussion on pages 466-467 } Explain. (6) Evaluate the practice described in (a) in view of the black-type headline on page 468. 3. Order in drill qiLestio7is. — Would the paragraph be- ginning line 9, page 469, apply to rapid-drill questioning 1 Explain. (Compare the technique described in exercise 11, pp. E77-E78, for the use of drill cards.) 4. Pursuing and assisting individuals. — Would the paragraph at the middle of page 470 lose all its force if there were no periods of supervised study ? Explain. 5. Pace in participle lesson. — id) Is the lesson on par- ticiples reported on pages E104-EI14 primarily one in reflective thinking or drill } Explain. E241 E242 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING (b) How many minutes did it last ? (c) How many questions did the teacher ask ? (d) Do you conclude that the pace was correct or not ? Explain. 6. Violations in sample lesson. — What specific cautions in this chapter concerning good questioning are violated in the following : (a) In the lesson on '* The Lady of the Lake," quoted above, on pages E163-E164 ? (&) In the lesson on Minos, pages E159-E161 ? EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XXI PRACTICE TEACHING AND LESSON-PLANNING For guidance in practice teaching. — Most of this chapter is intended for practical guidance in actually organizing prac- tice teaching, rather than for class discussions. Moreover, the part which deals with lesson plans has been utilized in connection with earlier assignments. (See above, pp. EI15, EI 30.) Consequently only a few exercises are provided for discussion. In answering the exercises each student should think of himself as the practice teacher. 1. Knowledge of stcbject matter. — (a) If you had to begin to teach six high-school classes different material (for exam- ple, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, beginning Latin, Caesar, and English composition) to-morrow, how far ahead of them in the textbooks would you be able to keep in your preparation 1 (b) Would it be possible to carry out many of the ideals of teaching presented in Parker's book ? Explain. (c) If you had to undertake superior practice teaching of the recitation type described on pages 424-425, with one class, how many hours would it take you to prepare yourself in the subject matter for each day } (d) Would the type of preparation and training secured in (c) be of any benefit in the situation described in (a) .? Why ? 2. Practice in routine phases. — (a) What are some of the easy routine phases of classroom procedure to which a practice teacher might be early and easily introduced } (b) What would be the psychological advantage to the practice teacher in such an introduction ? E243 E244 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 3. Which judgment aspects ? — In initiating a practice teacher, after having provided for adequate knowledge of subject matter and training in certain routine matters, what would be one of the first judgment factors to be emphasized in his teaching? (See pp. 2^ and 476 of the text for meaning of judgment factors.) 4. Ten mintUes of teaching. — id) Would it be feasible in your subject to permit a practice teacher to teach only- ten or fifteen minutes in a period } Explain. (6) What would be the advantages of initiating a practice teacher by this method } 5. Planning lessons; Herbartian steps. — (a) In the lesson on participles (pp. E104-EI14, above) indicate ap- proximately where each of the Herbartian formal steps seems to begin. (&) Do the steps seem to serve a useful purpose in this lesson } Explain. (c) To what extent do the steps appear in the '' work " lesson on pages E102-103, above.? {d) Do any of the steps appear in the '' Marmion " lesson on pages ei 31-136, above.? (e) Which step is emphasized in exercise 22, on pages E172-E173, above, about the goldfinch.? (/) Give a summary conclusion concerning the use of the Herbartian formal steps in organizing lessons. 6. Plans ; separation of subject matter and method. — Is the separation of subject matter and method in planning lessons (see p. 482) desirable — (a) For a conscientious, experienced, skilled teacher? Why? (&) For an inexperienced lazy teacher ? Why ? (c) For yourself as a teacher ? Why ? 7. Reports on teachers. — Would the report outlined on page 490 be of any practical value to you as a regular beginning high-school teacher ? Explain. EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XXII MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING Large practical value. — The topic of this chapter is of large practical importance to all teachers. The discussion falls under three main headings ; namely : I. Value of tests and examinations. II. Technique of giving routine tests or quizzes. III. Scientific measurement of results. I. Value of Tests and Examinations 1. Tests imp7'ove i'ecitatio7is . — How may frequent written tests improve recitations 1 (Several answers may be inferred from pages 493-494.) 2. Tests as stimuhis. — Do you consider written tests a vicious, unnatural form of stimulus, unlike the stimuli of social life 1 Explain. 3. Tests as training. — Explain the following statement: Written tests in some subjects provide one of the best forms of training for business correspondence. 4. Written tests; varied testimony. — (a) Which testi- mony concerning the value of frequent written tests would you accept as most valid, that of college students and alumni reported in the investigation summarized at the bottom of page 495 or the opinions of teachers who oppose the practice } Explain. (&) Would your conclusions from {a) apply with equal weight to high-school teaching 1 Explain. 5. Memory tests as diagnosis of ability. — (a) Does care- ful observation of your fellow students bear out this statement : E245 E246 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING " Students who rank high in their ability to understand lessons in history and science, and to do independent study in these lines, also rank high in memory tests on material which they study carefully." (&) Would you conclude that tests of what is remembered by students from their preparation would be sufficient for purposes of stimulus and diagnosis ? Explain. II. Technique of Routine Tests and Quizzes 6. Surprise tests. — (a) Which one of the following ideas, (i) or (2), carries greatest weight with you.? Explain. (i) Owing to the nervous strain entailed, surprise tests should be avoided, and tests should be given regularly on certain days ; for example, every Monday. (2) In order to stimulate students to prepare their lessons every day, the practice of giving a test any day should prevail. (&) Is your answer influenced by your own temperament } Explain. (c) What bearing does the chapter on supervised study have on your answer.? (See p. 416, middle paragraph.) 7. Too long for the brightest. — Which of the following factors carries greatest weight with you in determining the amount of time given to students to finish a test 1 Explain. ^ (i) The desirability of securing a rigorous, comparative, scientific measure of the relative abilities of pupils, as suggested on pages 496-497 of the text. (2) The desirability of establishing a more complacent mental condition during tests, as suggested on page E23 of the exercise book. 8. Final examinations ; nattire and weight. — (a) Sum- marize the suggestions for tests and final examinations recommended in the exercise book by Parker for this course. (See above, pp. E23, E198, E199, E232.) 1 The author had nervous exhaustion in the interval between the publi- cation of pages 496-497 and page E23. MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING E247 (b) Evaluate his scheme. (c) Would you apply it in your own teaching in high school ? Why ? (d) In the light of this scheme, what objection is there to excusing auj/ pupils from final examinations ? 9. Grading questions separately. — Show how the grading of each question separately in discussion papers (as recom- mended on pages 500-501) contributes to mental economy for the teacher as well as ino7'e rigorous grading. 10. Evaluate questions on Parker s chapter. — Discuss the advisability of using each of the following questions in a written test on Parker's chapter on Measuring Results. (Consider (a) fairness, (&) whether too minute or too general, (c) encouraging cramming of mere words instead of ideas, {d) possibility of bluffing, (e) requiring use of judg- ment by pupil, (/) testing pupils' ability to apply the ideas, and other features.) SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 10 (i) Discuss methods of grading papers. (2) Describe the method of grading papers by relative position. (3) Show how written tests improve recitations. (4) What does Parker say concerning difficulties in measuring habits of enjoyment ? (5) What are the characteristics of scientific judgments or methods according to Thomdike ? (6) Complete the following sentence : "The progress in a science of education is shown by the following facts concerning the meet- ings of school superintendents in 19 12 and fifteen years earlier." 11. Evaluate questions on composition. — (a) What phases of the student's study and progress (as given by Parker on page 498) are tested by each of the following questions on English composition } (b) Evaluate each question in the light of Parker's dis- cussion. E248 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 11 (i) Define unity, coherence, and emphasis. (2) Explain how you would give a paragraph proper emphasis. (3) Complete the following sentence : '' There are three distinct devices used by good writers to weld together their sentences, after they have been properly arranged. These are " (4) (a) Write a paragraph on the following topics : " The referee's decisions in yesterday's game were impartial, though at times erroneous." '' The appearance of the automobile has been greatly improved in the latest model." (b) Which of the following plans of ordering your material did you use : time order, space order, climax ? (c) Point out any of the following devices you may have used to give your paragraph coherence, naming and classifying each device : repetition of word or phrase, conjunction, relative pronoun or adjective, demonstrative. 12. Evaluate qtiestions on literature. — In the following list of questions label with M the four that would have most value in testing a class in literature and with L the two which would have least value. Explain your choice in the light of Parker's chapter. SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 12 (i) Give the main outline of the plot of " Ivanhoe," and briefly describe the important characters. (2) What can you say of the style of Milton's " Comus " ? (3) Of all the dramas, stories, and poems studied this term, which do you like best, and why t (4) Make a drawing, no matter how crude, of the picture Tennyson's " Break, Break, Break " presents to your imagination. (5) If we were to dramatize " The Lady of the Lake," what part would you prefer to play, and why ? (6) Suppose you are a magazine editor. Someone has sent you the manuscript of *' Silas Marner." You decide to publish this story serially in your paper. Mention several points at which you would have your installments end. MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING E249 (7) Define and explain the following terms : target ; claymore ; ducats; Rialto; '' upon the hip " ; "speak me fair to death." (8) Suppose we are going to put on the play '' Macbeth." We must design a costume for Lady Macbeth which not only fits into the period historically but which at the same time will suggest or typify the character of the woman. What shall we have her wear ? (9) Write a character sketch of King Duncan. (10) You have been asked to commit five lines of verse to memory. Give the lines and tell why you chose those particular ones. 13. Final exaniinatio7i questions in this course. — Do you approve of the scheme described below for the final exami- nation questions in this course } Explain. For a rigorous examination one instructor divides the questions into three sets and allows the students a limited time on each set. (i) The first set asks for detailed information from the text; for example, " Describe the spirit of discipline in the Jesuit schools." (2) The second set asks for fundamental principles of teaching; for example, " Describe and explain the fundamental principles to be observed in teaching new abstract ideas." (3) The third set pro- vides practical problems with data as in exercises 1 1 and 1 2 above. III. Scientific Measurement of Results 14. Thorndike and Aye rs. — What points are there in common between the quotations from Thorndike on pages 502-503 and Ayers on pages 504-505 } Underline the statements that contain common ideas and label Ex, 14. 15. Science and opinion in Parker s text. — (a) Indicate roughly the topics and total number of pages in Parker's text which would be classed as scientific according to the definition on page 504. (6) What per cent of the book remains as opinion t (c) What portions of the scientific part are dotk conclu- sive and practical} Indicate pages and topics. {d) What portions of the scientific part are merely sug- gestive^ but not conclusive or practical } E250 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING 16. Summary ; an educational creed. — Read Parker's educational creed described at the bottom of page viii of the preface and outlined below, then answer the following: (a) Can any one of the main ideas be dispensed with in a well-balanced system of education ? Explain. (&) Can you add any fundamental idea concerning teach- ing which is not provided for under one of these headings ? (c) Why are the authors and references given below ? Fundamental Educational Ideas Emphasized by I. All instruction should be radically adapted to contemporary social needs, scientifically ascertained. Spencer ^ Dewey ^ 2, Methods of teaching should be based on sound principles of modern scientific psychology. Dewey ^ Thorndike * Judd^ 3. Principles of scientific business management should be applied to all teaching. Bobbitt 6 Bagley 7 References. — 1 Education. ^ School and Society. ^ How We Think. * Educational Psychology. ^ Psychology of High-School Subjects. ^ " Supervision of City Schools," Twelfth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. '^ Classroom Management. Additional Bibliography RuGG, H. O., and Clark, J. R. Standardized Tests and the Improvement of Teaching in First- Year Algebra. School Review^ February and March, 19 17, Vol. XXV, pp. 1 13-132, 196-213. Final report of a long investigation to determine standards of efficiency in algebraical processes. CHAPTER R THE LAST WORD Public Service and the Gospel of Recreation Purpose. — The purpose of this chapter is to show teachers the way to greatest social service through special- ization in teaching, maintenance of many-sided interests in life, and practice of the gospel of recreation. Service. Teachers are important public-service agents. — The social service of a teacher is one of the most direct and far-reaching form.s of public service. Service in public schools ranks in importance with the work of the statesman and the soldier. The large possibilities of teaching in deter- mining the character of a people is strikingly illustrated in the Hohenzollern schools of Prussia. With single-minded purpose the able Prussian despots, Frederick the Great and his father and descendants, set out to make Prussia for the Hohenzollerns a powerful state. They established public schools everywhere, that they might have agencies to train the people to believe in their rulers and support them. They required the teaching of religion and national history so as to glorify the divinely inspired (?) Hohenzollern family. The great European war demonstrated their suc- cess in developing a unified people with thorough confi- dence in its despotic leaders and ready to follow them to any end. There are similar possibilities of large influence through education in any state. In America the recognition of the importance of public education is attested by the enormous sums voted by public authorities for schools and teachers. E251 E252 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Hence, he who teaches well subjects that are clearly adapted to contemporary social needs may , rest assured that his services are of large, direct, social value to the state. Specialization. Specialised expert service the most effi- cient and helpful. — Developments in modern science and in business practice have demonstrated clearly that the most efficient service comes through specialization. Hence a teacher to be of greatest service should specialize upon a sufficiently narrow field to become a7i expert in it. To the extent that he falls short of expertness he fails to achieve the greatest service. To become an expert in the teaching of any one high-school subject necessitates years of study of its special problems and practice in solving them. In view of this fact it is not desirable or necessary to spend time or energy on other forms of social service. The efficient public-service teacher may easily satisfy his social-service conscience through his specialized teaching services. Perso7ial achievement grows from, specialized service. — Such specialized efficiency contributes not only the greatest social service but also contributes to the greatest individual achievement. One of the most tangible forms of such achievement is published textbook material. The practical accomplishment of most great educational reforms has de- pended upon the publication of good textbooks. Such text- books are being written more and more frequently by high-school teachers. Any expert teacher may easily pre- pare small amounts of material for publication, and eventu- ally larger volumes. Expertness and publications easily secure public recognition and promotion to higher positions. Expert teaching service necessitates broad acquaintance with life. — In order that the specialized teacher of any one subject may adapt his instruction to the varied needs of the heterogeneous group of boys and girls that now attend high schools, it is necessary that he have wide acquaintance with ordinary life so that he may find many THE LAST WORD E253 points of contact in his subject. The modern high school in all departments is closely related to daily life, and in each subject the same close relationship should prevail. Become a spectator of life iii many situations. — In order to achieve this broad acquaintance with life the teacher should be an observer of people in many different situations. There may be direct observations of life in cities, towns, and rural districts, in shops, stores, and offices, in the homes of business men, mechanics, and stenographers, of people at work and play in all walks of life except the vicious and immoral ; or there may be i^idi- rect observations in stories, the movies, the spoken drama, and the accounts of affairs in newspapers and periodicals. The term ''spectator" is used to suggest that the teacher is 7iot a responsible agent or serions student in these situations, but merely an interested observer. The responsibilities of merely teaching are sufficient for most persons. Additional responsibilities will probably detract from their efficiency as teachers and thus detract from their service to the public or the state. Fitness. Keep yourself fit for service. — In order to give the greatest service the teacher should keep himself physi- cally and mentally fit for service. An excellent lesson in this regard may be gained from the training and discipline of an army. Here, in modern training camps, a very defi- nite physical arid moral discipline is practiced which keeps each soldier thoroughly fit for the public service he is to perform. Ideally, a similar system of keeping teachers fit should be organized. Unfortunately the opposite practice usually prevails, and public-school authorities often make their teachers unfit through the many and heavy duties imposed upon them. This condition makes it especially important, however, that each individual understand his physical and recreational needs and learn to live so as to keep himself fit for the best service. E254 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Physical fitness through diet, exercise, and sleep, — Every teacher should have learned from his studies in physiology and hygiene to understand the needs of his body for nourish- ment and recuperation. In simple terms, he may think of his food as providing materials for building up his body and the fuel for the energy which he uses in his work. He may think of exercise as securing thorough increased circulation of the blood and increased respiration. These carry the upbuilding substances and fuel to the various parts of the body where they are needed, and carry away the waste products of activity. He may think of sleep as a period during which the charges in his storage batteries of energy are renewed and during which the very happy and useful process of forgetting may go on — since complete forgetting of many of our experiences is one of the greatest aids to mental health. For excellent nontechnical advice concerning health, all teachers should read '' How to Live," by I. Fisher and E. L. Fiske, published by Funk and Wagnalls under the auspices of a national organization for improving health. Preserve proper emotional tone. — Since the emotional tone of the teacher has such a profound influence upon his pupils' responses, it becomes one of the largest factors in one's fitness for service. The continuous physical rege7i- eration and forgetting described above contribute enor- mously to the maintenance of proper emotional tone and are sufficient for this purpose in the case of certain sturdy, phlegmatic teachers with callous consciences and meager emotions. Most teachers, however, have tender consciences and need a definite recreational program in order to assist in the process of forgetting their responsibilities. Recreation. Practice the gospel of recreation. — The need for distraction from one's responsible interests was empha- sized by William James, in 1899, in his '' Talks to Teachers," in a famous chapter called The Gospel of Relaxation. In it he said : THE LAST WORD E255 " The need of feeling responsible all the livelong day has been preached long enough in our New England. Long enough exclusively, at any rate, — and long enough to the female sex. What our girl-students and woman-teachers most need nowadays is not the exacerbation, but rather the toning-down of their moral tensions. Even now I fear that some one of my fair hearers may be making an undying resolve to become strenuously relaxed, cost what it will, for the remainder of her life. It is needless to say that this is not the way to do it. The way to do it, para- doxical as it may seem, is genuinely not to care whether you are doing it or not. Then, possibly, by the grace of God, you may all at once find that you are doing it, and, having learned what the trick feels like, you may (again by the ^grace of God) be enabled to go on." It is not necessary, however, to trust to the " grace of God " or the feeling of '' don't care " in order to secure distraction from one's responsible interests. A much surer, safer, and effective practice is to develop positive recreational interests. Develop many-sided recreational interests. — If a teacher works effectively eight hours a day at his public-service teach- ing and in preparation for it, he has done sufficient for his country, and several of the remaining hours should be spent in irresponsible, interesting, enjoyable activities which will replace in his mind his responsible lines of thought and allow these to subside until they are needed when teaching begins again. The varied spectator activities described above, especially pleasing stories and the drama, and the observa- tion of interesting, attractive persons at play furnish some of the most effective and pleasing temporary memories and trains of images to occupy one's mind. '' Contemplative play " (a term coined by Thorndike) contains a happy suggestion of the desirable frame of mind which results. Play outdoor games for exercise and for complacent con- templation. — The best form of recreational interest, how- ever, for many persons is some form of outdoor game or E256 EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING sport, one which provides abundant fresh air with sufficient exercise to stimulate the circulation, produces a pleasing physical fatigue conducive to sleep, and leaves pleasing memories for '' playing the game over again " in one's mind, with pleasant anticipations of the next game. The general improvement in mental tone which results from outdoor games is attractively presented by James in the following quotation : " Consider, for example, the effects of a well-toned motor- apparatus^ nervous and muscular, on our general personal self- consciousness, the sense of elasticity and efficiency that results. They tell us that in Norway the life of the women has lately been entirely revolutionized by the new order of muscular feelings with which the use of the ski., or long snow-shoes, as a sport for both sexes, has made the women acquainted. Fifteen years ago the Norwegian women were even more than the women of other lands votaries of the old-fashioned ideal of femininity, ' the domes- tic angel,' the ' gentle and refining influence ' sort of thing. Now these sedentary fireside tabby-cats of Norway have been trained, they say, by the snow-shoes into lithe and audacious creatures, for whom no night is too dark or height too giddy, and who are not only saying good-bye to the traditional feminine pallor and deli- cacy of constitution, but actually taking the lead in every educa- tional and social reform. I cannot but think that the tennis [and golfing] and tramping and skating habits which are so rapidly extending among our dear sisters and daughters in this country are going also to lead to a sounder and heartier moral tone, which will send its tonic breath through all our American life." Time. Don't say yoti have tit time. — Finally, do not say you lack the time for recreation, for many of the greatest of men have followed definite recreational programs to keep themselves fit for service. A most notable recent example is the way in which President Wilson spent part of his day during the war. In the morning, before office hours, he motored with his wife to the links and played golf for about THE LAST WORD E257 two hours. In the evening he commonly spent the hours in pleasant pastimes with family or friends, in reading fasci- nating fiction, particularly detective stories, or in attending the theater. Is your time so much more valuable than that of President Wilson that you cannot afford a few hours a day to keep yourself fit for years of efficient service ? Warning. — Remember now thy healthy in the days of thy youths lest the evil days come as the years roll by, and thotL shall say thoti hast no pleasure in them,. INDEX The following references pertain only to the material in the " Exercises." For the index to the textbook proper, see page 523 of the latter. Abstractions, E97-E114 Advertising, E145, E147 Age, E175 Aims, E17-E22 Algebra, e8o, E98, E191 Allen, I. M., E210 Apperception, E158, E164-E174 Argumentation, E143 Art, E120-E123 Artistic teaching, E188 Assigning exercises, E14 Assignments, E180, E209 Association, E63-E70, E74-E81 Athletics, EI18 Attention, E179 Audience, E145, E149 Batavia scheme, E196 Blackboard outline, E27, E53 Books, E216-E228 Botany, E44 Business management, E28 Cards for drill, E77 Cartoons, E186 Chemistry, E44 Cheyney, E. P., E167 Civics, E43 Classics, EI 30 Clubs, EI 18 Coherence, E52 Collecting, E182 Composition, E142-E155 Condensing course, E198 Conversational method, E229-E231 Cooperation in English, E152 Correcting, E149 Curiosity, E182 Dancing, E118 Dates, E46 Definitions, E99, E165 Democratic ideals, E17, E28 Dewey, J., E87 Direct methods, E63-E70 Discipline, E32 Dominance by teacher, E164 Drama, EI19 Drill, E74-E81 Ears, moving, E56 Economy of time, E5, E28-E33 Efficiency, E19 Emotional tone, E174 Emulation, E182 Engleman, J. O., E136 EngHsh, E38, E120-E139, E142-E155 Enjoyment, E19, EI17-E139 Equipment, E30 Examination, final, E232-E234 Examinations, E245-E250 Exercises, eioo Expression, E142-E155 Fiction, E124, E128, E138 Final examination, E232-E234 First-day teaching, E28 Follow-up letter, E201 •Foreign language, E63-E70, E79, E175, E184 French, E57, e68, E76. See Foreign language and Phonetics •Galton, F., E90 General ideas, E97-E114 General science, E37, E49, E50, eioi Geography, E166 Geometry, E44, E49, E88-E89, E91 German, E28. See also Foreign lan- guage. Phonetics "Goldfinch, The," E172 Golf, EI 22 Gouin series, e66— E69 Grading, E195 E259 E26o EXERCISES FOR METHODS OF TEACHING Graphing, E91, E191 Grammar, E46, E99, E103 Habits, E2I Health, E22, E253-E257 Herbartian steps, E244 History, E37, E42-E44, E46, E48,E49, E84, E87, E1.59, EI 66, E219-E221 Hohenzollerns, E251 Home study, E158, E203 Hosic, J. F., EI 51, E2o6 Humor, E4, E183 Ideals, E2I Individual differences, E4, E40, E99, EI 28, E190-E197, E224 Information, E22 Information blank, E9 Instincts, E176, E177-E187 Interest, E3, E21, E48, E73, E123, E177-E187 " I Shall Try " paper, E199 James, WiUiam, E254 Jefferson, Thomas, E17 Jesuits, E32 Kepler, e86 " Lady of the Lake," lessons on, ei 63 Laboratory, E221, E235-E240 Lally, Eleanor, E103 "Last Word, The," E251 Leadership, E17 Lesson planning, EI15, E243-E244 Lessons, reports of, on vocal train- ing, E59-E62 ; in problem-solving in a social science, E93-E96 ; on "work," E101-E103; on parti- ciples, E103-EI 14; on "Marmion," E130-E136; on Minos, E159- E161 ; on " Lady of the Lake," E163; in supervised study, E210- E214; on socialism, E219-E221; on library, E226-E228; on mu- sical scales, E238-E240 Lewis, W. D., E151, E206 Liberal education, E18 Library, E226-E228 Literary Digest, EI17, E125 Literature, E120-E139, E163 Logic, EI 28 Lyman, R. L., E152 Magazines, E137 " Marmion," lesson on, E130-E136 Mathematics, E30, E37, E49, e8o, EI 66. See also Algebra, Geometry McAndrews, W., E17 McConnel, J. M., E93 Measuring results, E245-E250 Miller, E. L., E151 Minos, lessons on, E159 Morality, E19 Motor control, E56-E62 Music, EI 18 Napoleon, E168-E171 Normal distribution, E195 Notebooks, E31 Observation, E34-E35, E63, E82, E141 Opinion versus science, EII-E13. See also Scientific method Oral reports, E222-E226 Organizing material, E90 Outlining, E25 Outline of course, ei 56 Participles, lessons on, E103-EI14 Periodicals, E71, E126, E137, •E225, E228, E240 Personality, E181 Phonetics, E58, E78 Physical fitness, E253 Physics, Eioi, E235 Piano, E75 Pictures, E169, E184 Planning lessons, EI15, E243-E244 Poetry, E122, E125 Practice, E74-E81 Practice teaching, E243-E244 Preparation, E169-E173 Problem-solving, E82-E96 Pronunciation, E57, E58, E78 Public speaking, e6o Pupil activity, E162 Purposes, EI 7-E22 Questioning, E241-E242 Reading, E123-E139, E216; rates of, E192-E195 Ready-made material, E65, E92 Reasoning, E82-EI14, E176' Reavis, E206 INDEX E26l Recitations, ei8o. See also Books, Textbooks Recreation, EI17, E254 Reflective thinking, E82-EI14 Relative values, E45-E48 Reports, oral, E222-E226 Reviews, E26 Roll call, E29 Rough drafts, E148 Sample lessons. See Lessons Seating, E29 Self-activity, E5, E73, E158-E164 Science, E44, E49, E50. See also Botany, Chemistry, Physics, Lab- oratory Science versus opinion, E11-E13 Scientific method, ei 1-E13, E59, E74, E92, E146, E190, E236 Series, Gouin, e66 Service, E251 Sex hygiene, E47 Shepard, O., E172 Singing, E58-E60 Social needs, E41 Social sciences, E83, E92-E96 Socialism, E219-E221 Specialization, E252 Spencer, H., E45 Statistics, E190 Stenographic reports of lessons. See Lessons Study, EI 5, EI 58, E203-E215 Subject matter, E40-E51, E180 Success, teacher's, eio Suggestion, e88 Supervised study, E203-E215 Supplementary reading, E221 System, e6 Tact, E32 Taj Mahal, E173 Taylor, B. L., E120-E121 Tests, E23-E25, E245-E250 Textbooks, E36-E39, E217-E221 Transition in course, E156 Types of learning, E55 Verification, E90, E237 Vocal training, E58-E62 Vocational interests, E178 Vocational training, E18 Wilkins, T. R., E238 Women's clubs, E222 '* Work," lesson on, eioi iiff^'