LB 1576 .B78 Copy 1 suggest;ons INSTRUCTION IN LANGUAGE Elementary Schools DR. EDWARD BROOKS Superintendent of Public Schools CITY OR PHILADELPHIA PHILADELPHIA BuRK & McFetridge Co., Printers, Publishers and Lithographers 306 and 308 Chestnut Street 1895 u3 '5"i6 37« Language Work in the Elementary Schools. INTRODUCTION. Education consists in developing the powers of man and furnishing his mind with knowledge. The act of developing the powers of man has been called Culture^ the act of furnishing his mind with knowledge is called Instruction. The object of Culture is to quicken, strengthen, and enrich the mind ; the object of Instruction is to fur- nish the mind with knowledge. Culture aims to give a person mental power and skill ; Instruction aims to give him information or learning. Each of these processes, of course, implies the other ; for in giving culture we make use of knowledge, and in imparting instruction there is usually some growth of the mental powers. The two processes are, however, not identical ; and the laws and methods of each are different. Culture and Instruction are largely the complements of each other; they are the two hemispheres of the science of education which, when united, give it symmetry and completeness. The first of these two elements received special attention among the early Greek teachers and educators. Plato, the father of the science of education, regarded the object of teaching as the harmonious development of the faculties of the individual; and nearly all thoughtful writers upon the subject of education have held the same view. The tendency of teachers, however, has been to neglect the culture element of the problem and emphasize the imparting of knowledge to the mind, making the standard of an educated person to be the possession of a capacious memory furnished with a multitude of facts. The idea of education among the people has tended in the same direction, the best educated person being regarded as one Avho knows the most. Both of these ends — culture and knowledge — should be kept prominently in view in the work of the teacher. The value of culture, so liable to be overlooked, should be especially emphasized in the work of instruction. The teacher should bear in mind that to cultivate and develop the powers of the pupil is of far greater value than to furnish his mind with knowledge. The imparting of knowledge is a much simpler matter than the develop- ment of intellectual activity and correct mental habits. Knowledge is a tangible product ; it is so many facts in the text-book or the memory, and can be readily measured by an ordinary examination. Culture is an invisible growth of mental activity and power that reveals itself to a different judgment and requires a difterent measure. Its test is not the amount of facts treasured in the memorj^, but the ability to use the faculties of the mind in the acquisition and application of knowledge. The result of culture is efficiency. A well-trained mind is one that can make proper use of its faculties and its knowledge. In a correct scheme of education, both power and knowledge should become objective ; they should go out into the achievement of something for the individual and for society. True education should not end in the mere passive possession of power and learning, but should qualify its possessor to be an active and effective force in the world. Giving formal expression to this ele- ment, which is really implied in culture, we may regard the ends of education as three-fold — culture, knowledge, aod efficiency. It is suggested, therefore, that the funda- mental educational maxim of every teacher should be — culture^ knowledge, and efficiency. These ends of education are secured by correct meth- ods of teaching. Teaching implies the use of materials with which to train the mind to correct methods of activity and to furnish it with useful information. This material is what is known as knowledge, and includes the different branches of science and art. These branches of knowledge have certain relations to one another which should be considered in the work of instruction. To neglect these relations results in a serious loss of time and mental development. One of the principal defects in elementary education is the disconnected and patch-work way in which instruction has been given. Knowledge often lies in the mind of the child a mass of disorganized and undigested facts, producing confusion and a loss of mental power. By properly co-ordinating the different branches in instruction, knowledge becomes a living organism in the mind of a child. Each fact exists in the mind in relation to its kindred fact, the outcome of which is that breadth of view and clearness of vision that mark the well-educated person. This principle has been recently emphasized under the head of the " correlation and unifi- cation of studies," one of the most important principles of primary education. The Correlation of Studies. In the application of the principle of the correlation and unification of studies, the question arises, what study shall be made central or fundamental to which the other branches may be related? To this question two opposite if not antagonistic answers have been given by educators. One class of educators hold that the objects of the material world, or the so-called Nature Studies, should be the basis of instruction, and that all other studies should be related to these branches. A prominent member of this school of educators places Geography as the basal study and cor- relates all the other branches around it as a centre. On the other hand, the school of educators known as the Herbartians, maintain that History should be made the fundamental branch of primary education, and that all other studies should be derived from and be related to History. In the application of this principle, they take the story of Robinson Crusoe, which is not history, but being a narra- tive IS typical of history, as the first study with the child in the primary school, and derive all other subjects from and co-ordinate them with Robinson Crusoe. Without entering into a discussion of the merits and demerits of these two systems, and very strong arguments can be given in favor of each, it is sufficient for me to^ay that I prefer not to make either of these the foundation of a sys- tem of primary education. My own thought is that neither Nature Study nor History should be made the central unit in the correlation of studies, but that it will be found more prac- ticable to make Language the fundamental branch in the pri mary school. One reason for this conclusion is that Lan- guage IS necessarily related to every other branch of study VN'hich 18 not the case with either geography or history. One' can teach Nature Studies without teaching History or His tory without teaching Nature Studies ; but we cannot teach either without the use of Language. Language is there- fore the one branch that is necessarily related to every other branch; and it is practical as well as philosophi- cal to select that which is necessarily fundamental and central as the basis of instruction. A second reason for making Language a fundamental branch in primary education is its intimate relation to the mmd. Language is the expression of thought, and in this expression we have the means, and the only means of knowing what is in the mind of the child. Language is thus the mirror of the mind, enabling the teacher to understand the working of the unseen spiritual forces of the human soul. The making of Language the basal or central study has the advantage therefore of turning the attention of the teacher to the mind of the child, a most important consideration in primary education. " Study the child " is a fundamental maxim of modern pedagogy; and the placing of Language as the central branch will lead to child study and a knowledge of the nature of the mind which is to be educated. Language as a central branch is especially adapted to give unity to all the branches of primary education. With Language as a basis we can use nature studies on the one hand and literature, including history, on the other hand, and unite them both in a beautiful and practical co-ordi- nation. Language implies material for expression, and both of these elements entering into the mind as the ma- terial for thought can be fused into a unity of knowledge and flow out in a stream of clear and definite expression. Presented in this way, the relation of knowledge to the mind will be more clearly seen. Every branch of knowledge came from the mind and finds its true place in a system of education through its relation to the mind. As Language is the mirror of the mind, whatever unifies in Language really unifies in the mental life of the child ; so that the real centre in the correlation of studies is the child itself. The child itself is thus to be made the centre of all unification and correlation, the different branches being used to give activity to the various faculties and pro- duce the three ends of education, culture, knowledge, and efficiency. It is thus seen with a renewed clearness of vision that the central unit in education is the Child. Language in Elementary Education. Assuming that Language should be regarded as the fundamental branch in the co-ordination and unification of studies, it is important that the teacher has a clear idea 8 of what is meant by and is implied in Language study. A few words will therefore be devoted to this subject. Language has been popularly defined as " the medium of expression." This definition though true is inadequate to express the full value of Language in a system of edu- cation. The expression of mental products has a reflex action upon these products and also upon the mind itself Ideas become clearer in the effort of expression. It is only as we put our thoughts into words that we are sure that they have been definitely and clearly conceived. Ideas which often lie in the mind in a kind of chaos are reduced to system by means of expression. The poetic genius often puts in definite phrase the ideas that were floating in a nebulous form in many brains, and the doing so shows his mental superiority and his right to immortality. The final test of clearness of thought must be clearness of expression. But Language is not only a medium of expression ; it is an aid to thinking. We think by means of Language as well as give expression to our thoughts. Indeed, there can be but little thinking without words. Plato says "reason and discourse are one;" and Max Miiller ex- presses the same view when he remarks that " Language and thought are inseparable. Words without thoughts are dead sounds; thoughts without words are nothing. To think is to speak low; to speak is to think aloud. The word is the thought incarnate." Language there- fore is an instrument of thought as well as a medium of expression. Again, Language is not merely the instrument of thought and the medium of expression, but it is the medium for the acquisition and communication of knowl- edge. While the senses constitute one source of knowl- edge, a knowledge of material things, the largest and richest source of knowledge is that of Language. The knowledge of the race, all that man has seen or thought or done, is preserved and presented in Language. To be able to read therefore is to hold the keys of the temple of all knowledge. This fact, the value of Language as a source of knowledge, so often overlooked by modern writers on education, should never be forgotten by the teacher. The value of Language as a branch of elementary education will be thus more clearly seen and more fully appreciated. Language is a valuable aid to mental develop- ment in four ways : first, as a means of imparting knowl- edge to the mind of the child ; second, as a stimulus to mental activity and the development of mental products ; third, as a necessary instrument of judgment and reason- ing ; and fourth, as the treasury of the knowledge of mankind, from which by the ability to read the mind may be furnished with the ideas, the thoughts, and the actions of the race. Another advantage of making Language a funda- mental branch in primary education is the ititimate rela- tion of expression to mental action. Language has been oalled the " mirror of the mind ; " in it we can see the working of that invisible and intangible thing which we call the Mind. Every thought of the intellect, every feel- ing of the sensibilities, every act of the will, is embodied in Language. The mental and spiritual life of the race is preserved and revealed in human speech. There is no better text-book on mental science than is presented in Language if it is properly studied, for it contains every possible form of mental activity. One of the most important maxims of modern education is " Study the Child ; " and the best way to study the child is to study its Language which reveals the working of its inner spiritual life. Language it is thus seen is the one branch that natur- ally belongs at the head of all the branches of elementary instruction. It is facile princeps among the common 10 schoo] branches. Its intimate relation to the human mind and the development of its faculties explains why such splendid results in mental development were obtained in the much criticised scholastic system of education with all its errors and short-comings. A more general apprecia- tion of its value is a need in modern education, and more attention to it will result in increased intelligence of the pupils of the public schools. Outline of Language Work. The Language work of the elementary schools em- braces several things that are often disassociated in instruc- tion and yet whose relation should be clearly seen and carefully observed by the teachers. A brief analysis showing these different branches and their relation to one another will be presented : — First, Language is both oral and written ; hence, oral and written exercises are to be united in the course of instruction. The lessons in Language should begin with oral language, a conversation about objects, facts, incidents,, etc. This oral language is to be changed into written language, thus making visible to the eye what was before intelligible through the ear. This written language the pupils are to learn to understand, to express in oral words,, and to use in expressing their own ideas. The use of written language, it is seen, will include instruction in Penmanship, Spelling, use of Capitals and Punctuation marks ; all of which can and should be united in instruc- tion. Further, this written language which, properly taught, came from the oral language of the pupil, is to be given oral expression again ; and this introduces what is known as Reading, the oral expression of the thought presented on the printed page. From the very beginnings therefore, instruction in Language includes conversation, penmanship, orthography, capitalization, punctuation and reading, as presented in the following outline : — 11 -, m ^ T r 1. Conversation. 1. Oral Language. | 3. Reading. _ Instruction in . fl. Penmanship. Language. l n \\t -4.4. t 2. Orthography. ° ° 2. Written Language. < o /-> •^^- ..• [ *= ^ I 3. Capitahzation. J (^4. Punctuation. Knowledge the Basis of Language Work. In giving instruction in Language it should be borne in mind that the basis of Language is knowledge. Language is to be regarded as the expression of what a child really knows or thinks. The words that come from the lips should be a reflection of the thought which is in the mind. Words should not be mere hollow forms, like the soap-bubbles of children containing only air, but they should be filled with the contents of significance. The teacher is to be careful that she is not dealing with " mere words," but that the child is putting its own thoughts and feelings into its expression. " First the idea and then the word," should be the teacher's golden motto. 1. Material Things. — As knowledge should thus be the basis of lessons in Language, it is important to know what kind of knowledge is suited for this work. A child's first knowledge, it will be remembered, is of material things, the objects of the material world. These objects are of three difierent classes, — inorganic objects, vegetables, and animals. Each of these three classes of objects is to be used in Language Lessons. These objects have names, hence a child's first words are usually the names of objects. These objects have also parts and qualities, hence the names of the parts and qualities of objects are to be used in primary instruction in Language. Some of these objects can do something (as the cat runs, the bird sings) ; hence the actions of objects are also to be used in language work. By means of these parts and qualities and actions, objects may be described, and thus description enters very largely into language work. 12 In addition to the objects of the material world, there are interesting phenomena, as of light, sound, the weather, etc., which attract the attention of the child. The arching sky, the fleecy clouds, the twinkling stars, the changes of the moon, the properties of water, the falling of bodies, etc., are all to be used to cultivate the percep- tive powers and develop the power of expression. An inquiry into the causes of these phenomena will carry the mind beyond the stage of perception by calling into activity the power of reflection in one of its important forms. Thus the elements of all the physical sciences, — mineralogy, botany, zoology including physiology, natural philosophy, meteorology, astronomy, etc., — may all be used to furnish the knowledge which is to be used to give content to the words used in Language Lessons. All these topics may be embraced under the general term of Nature Study, a most important element in the work of the primary school. One of the reforms of modern education is the emphasis given to these branches of knowledge. To omit the use of natural objects and the phenomena of the material world is to lose an im- portant factor in primary education. Kot only is the knowledge which is thus imparted of value in itself, but it is an indispensable source of discipline to the young mind. It gives a reality and a certainty to mental prod- ucts that were often wanting in the older systems of in- struction. It calls into activity the powers of perception so liable to be neglected in school life, and aflbrds an opportunity for the exercise of the process of generaliza- tion and judgment. The observation of the phenomena of nature calls forth the power of reflection and cultivates that philosophical spirit that delights in the search for the causes and laws of the material world. As flowing forth into Language, the form of expression in nature study is mainly that which is called description. 13 2. Mental Products.— But there is another source of knowledge besides that of the material world. Man him- self is the creator of a world of knowledge as vast and as important as is the world of material things. To this world belong the thoughts, the feelings, and the actions of mankind. Every work of science and philosophy, every form of literature, poetry and art, all the records of his- tory, ancient and modern, in fine, everything that man has thought or imagined or felt or done, which has been recorded on the printed page, belongs to this other world of knowledge. Invisible and intangible, the world of thought is as real as the world of material things, and it should not be overlooked in the work of education. These productions of the human mind may be broadly included under the two heads of Literature and History. These subjects are as real as the objects of the material world, and are quite as important in the work of educa- tion. A thought is as real as a thing, and continues ta exist when the material thing has become extinct. A work of literature is as enduring as the mountains, and has far greater influence in touching the heart and shaping the intellectual growth of a child. The deeds of history are as much an actuality as a tree or a mineral ; and through the examples of noble lives and heroic actions, are specially adapted to shape the character of mankind and mold the civilization of an age. These products of Literature and History should be early employed in the education of children. Children have a natural interest in persons and their actions and feelings as well as in stones, plants, and animals. They have fdeas and feelings of their own to which they desire to give expression. They delight in fairy stories, in fable& and fictions, and in the relation of personal incidents. " Tell me a story " is one of the earliest requests of home- life. Children, it is thus seen, are early interested in what may be called the " humanities " of education. It is 14 thus evident that the actions of persons, their thoughts and feelings, incidents in child life, the social and moral actions of children, their plajs and pastimes, etc., should afford material for language work in the primary grades. Hence stories of children and adults, biographies, fables, fairy stories, poetry, etc., are to be largely used in the language work of the primary school. These subjects of the world of mind are usually pre- sented in the form of narratives; thus narrative will enter into the course of instruction in the use of Literature and History as description does in Nature Study. Comparing those two forms of expression, it will be found that chil- dren are usually more interested in narration than in de- scription. To tell what a little bird did will awaken a much deeper interest with a child than to describe its form, color, or parts. These subjects also, dealing usually with the thoughts and actions of mankind, awaken and stimulate the power of thought in the minds of pupils, and thus cultivate the faculty of reflection. And so while i^ature Study brings into play the processes of observation and description, the thoughts and actions of Literature and History call into exercise the powers of reflection and nar- ration. The emphasis placed upon is^ature Study of late years calls for a few words in favor of this second form of Knowledge. The culture derived from the use of Litera- ture and History is quite as important as that derived from the study of material things. They touch a deeper part of a child's nature, and give a finer and broader culture than the use of objects and material phenomena. They appeal to the sensibilities, to the emotions and desires of the child wherein arise the motives that give shape to the pur- poses and actions of children. They touch the will from which flows the actions that constitute the conduct of mankind. Material things give food to the intellectual side of the mind; literature and history touch the entire 15 nature — intellect, sensibility, and will — and tend to a har- monious development of the entire spiritual nature. Char- acter, which is the highest product of education, is based upon the ethical element, which is entirely wanting in the material sciences. We cannot develop character by the study of minerals and plants ; for this highest and best work of the teacher, we need literature and history where motives have their play and the will goes forth into the execution of purpose. This relation of the two forms of knowledge should be clearly understood by the educator and teacher. While the study of objects is essential in primary education, to limit our instruction to the use of objects would material- ize the work of the primary school. We need idealism as well as realism in education ; there is a place for the humanities even in the work of the primary school. Nature Study should be thus supplemented by the study of human nature ; the material is to be combined with the spiritual ; the facts of the physical world are to be accom- panied with the facts and products that belong to the world of thought and feeling. This principle, which has sometimes been lost sight of by those who would be guides in educational thought and practice, should never be forgotten by the teacher of children. An additional element of value in literary and his- torical subjects is found in the fact that a child can originate something for itself. In the study of plants and animals a child can only observe and describe what is before it. The value of Nature Study is in its accuracy of observa- tion and description. In the sphere of mental products it can begin to create new things for itself It can express its own feelings, its own thoughts and opinions of things, and narrate its own actions. It can relate incidents of family life, narrate the actions of its playmates or schoolmates, originate imaginary incidents, etc., all of which give cul- ture to the creative powers of a child's mind. 16 As the interest of the child is the foundation of suc- cessful teaching, it will be well for the teacher to notice which of these subjects are most interesting to pupils. She may make a comparison between objects, their parts, their qualities, their actions, the phenomena of nature, etc., to see which of these things of the material world interest children most. She may make a similar compari- son of the various elements found in the world of thought and feeling, as incidentsof home-life, personal experiences, fables, fairy stories, biographies, stories illustrating some sentiment or virtue, or which teach some moral lesson. A further comparison, and a very important one, may be made to see which is more interesting to a child, the objects of the material world or the elements of the world of ideas and sentiments as expressed in literature and histor3\ A comparison, also, in respect to the relative interest of narration and description may be made. Such comparisons will not only be of interest to a teacher, but will enable her to reach conclusions which will be a guide to her in her work. It is also suggested that while Nature Study should at first be a real study of objects, qualities, and phenomena, yet it will be well at times to make these objects the basis of literary and historic treatment. Thus imaginary inci- dents may be related of a flower, or a bird, or a cloud ; and poetic gems, based upon and descriptive of some object of nature, may be committed and recited. The world of nature becomes thus idealized and lifted up into the world of literature and invested with a charm that adds an interest to Nature herself that she would not otherwise possess. Some of the finest passages of litera- ture and some of the rarest gems of poetical compositions are illustrative of the literary treatment of natural objects. 3. Form and Number. — Beside the two worlds of Matter and Mind, we have the two great conditions of existence, Space and Time. Space is a necessary condition 17 for the existence of Matter ; Time is a necessary condition for the existence of Mind. Were there no Space, matter could not exist; were there no Time, mind and thought could have no being. These two great conditions of exist- ence belong neither to the world of matter nor to the world of mind, which we have been describing. They each give rise to material for mental activity of vast im- portance in education. From Space comes the idea of Form, which is the basis of the science of Geometry. Out of Time through succession and repetition, we derive the idea of Number which is the basis of the science of Arithmetic. Both of these ideas are to be used in primary instruction for mental development and for expression. The idea of Form is one of the earliest of the human mind. Objects present themselves to us in material forms, and the mind naturally passes from concrete form to the conception of abstract form. The mental product result- ing from perception is a picture of the object, especially a picture of its shape ; and from the perception of the forms of real things around it, the child naturally passes to the conception of ideal or type forms. These geometrical figures afford an opportunity for bringing into play the faculty of comparison as the foundation of judgment and reasoning. Lessons on Form are therefore especially valuable in giving culture to the powers of perception, conception, and comparison. The idea of Number is also early developed and is to be used in primary instruction both for discipline and knowledge. As a disciplinary study it cultivates attention, a spirit of exactness, and logical habits of thought. Lessons in Number may also be used in connection with the Language work, although its range in this respect is much more restricted than the objects of nature or the subjects of literature. The use of Number in training the child to conciseness and accuracy of expression is, how- ever, to be highly appreciated. The simple and logical 18 forms of expression used in arithmetical analysis train the mind to a sense of conciseness and accuracy of expression that manifests itself in dealing with nature-study and literary subjects. As the work in arithmetic is very defi- nitely outlined in a separate pamphlet no detailed sugges- tions are needed here. Let the motto be clearness of conception, familiarity with the elementary combinations, facility in computation, and accuracy in results. 4. Doing Subjects. — Besides the subjects previously referred to as a basis of knowledge, there are certain actions of a child expressing inner states of thought or knowledge which are to be considered in primary instruc- tion. The social relations call for certain courtesies that indicate a spirit of good-will and kindness and also a class of actions based on the ideas of right. Thus arises a need for instruction in manners and morals in the public schools. Then there are aesthetic ideas that express themselves in singing, drawing, etc., that should receive the attention of the teacher in a course of study. Special attention should also be given to those physical activities that are conducive to health, growth, grace and vigor of body, known as gymnastics or physical culture. All these things which pertain to the actions of children are so closely related that they may be embraced under the general head of Doing Subjects, or the School Arts. Under this heading are embraced Manners and Morals, the Arts of Drawing, Singing, etc., and Physical Exercises or Gymnastics. The work of Drawing, which is a special mode of expression, a particular form of language, is to accompany the instruction in all the different branches of knowledge. Drawing in its imitative or representative form is restricted to the objects of the material world ; in its creative form it may also represent the ideas and sentiments of Literature. N'o suggestions need be made in respect to it here, as the course is fully outlined in a separate pamphlet. 19 Morals and Planners, — Under the graded course in Language will be found a few suggestions for the training of pupils in Morals and Manners. These subjects do not belong to Language, but are regarded as so important that we desire to emphasize them by giving them a place in the outline of primary instruction. Both of these subjects should receive the special attention of teachers. The behavior of children bears a close relation to moral con- duct, and politeness in speech and manner is a virtue of great value. Moral training is of fundamental importance, for society needs honor and virtue even more than it needs intelligence. Teachers should never forget that the highest product of education is moral worth, and that the highest ideal of the teacher is not merely instruction but character building. It is suggested also in this connection that teachers take special pains to cultivate the taste, the sense of neat- ness and beauty, of their pupils. The school-room should be kept neat and clean; all the work on the board, of both pupils and teachers, should be carefully and neatly written ; the lines in arithmetical work should be mainly parallel to the edge of the board ; blackboards should be thoroughly cleaned when no work is on them; and all the furniture of the room should be in proper con- dition and be properly placed. It is also suggested that teachers obtain suitable pictures with which to adorn the walls of the school-room. In addition to this the teacher may have some growing plants, an aquarium for gold fish, an occasional bouquet of flowers on her desk, etc., all of which will not only give an air of beauty to the school-room, but by an unconscious influence will also mold the aesthetic taste of the child. Taught thus in the school the children will carry this taste out into their home-life, and do something to give added neat- ness and beauty to their homes, however humble they may be. 20 Manners and Morals should be taught incidentally in Literature and History, and they are usually taught more effectually in this way than by formal lessons on these subjects. More definite outlines in Manners and Morals, Music and Gymnastics, are in preparation and will be issued at a suitable time. 21 LANGUAGE WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES. The relation of the several parts of the work thus enumerated is shown by the following outline, with which it will be well for the teacher of the elementary schools to be familiar : — I. Language (the expression of knowledge). -i r\ ^^ 1 Conversation. 1. Oral Language. >_ '' =' / Reading. 1 Writing. Capitalization. Punctuation. II. Sources of Knowledge (materials for thought and expression). 1. Natural Objects. (Nature Study.) 2. Mental Products. (Literature and History.) 3. Number and Form. (Arithmetic and Geometry.) III. Doing Subjects (or the School Arts). 1. Manners and Morals. 2. Singing, Drawing, etc. 3. Gymnastics. Outline of Material for Language Wore. The two principal sources of material for Language work, as already explained, are those found in the objects of nature and in the thoughts and actions of mankind. The former, as stated, has been called Nature Study, and the latter may be included under the heads of Literature and History. A brief outline of suitable material for Language work will be presented under these two heads : — 22 I. Nature Study. (Natural History and Physics.) . 1. Toys. 2. Common objects. 3. Plant life, including the seed, leaf, flower, etc. 4. Animal life, including lessons on the human body. 5. Minerals; as iron, copper, quartz, gold, silver, etc. 6. Natural Phenomena, — the sky, sun, moon, stars, clouds, weather, etc. II. Human Productions. (Literature and History.) 1. Fables, fairy tales, legends, etc. 2. Stories of child-life (at home and abroad). 3. Stories of adults (noble deeds of men and women). 4. Nature stories (of animals, plants, etc.). 5. Stories from history. 6. Poems (read, committed, and recited). 7. Prose selections (committed and recited). 8. Memory gems of prose and poetry. 9. Recitations and declamations. Pictures. — This work is to be given in the concrete so far as possible, with suitable objects in the school-room. Where the objects cannot be obtained, pictures of the ob- jects afford an excellent substitute for them. Pict- ures may also be used in the literary and historical exer- cises with interest and value. The following outline will indicate the use of pictures in Language work (for oral and written exercises) : — 1. Of animals and plants, to illustrate Nature Study. 2. For description (training observation). 3. For narration (training imagination). 4. Pictures for geograpical illustration. 5. Historical portraits and pictures. All this material is to be properly graded by the Principal and his teachers for the different classes of each 23 school. Each teacher should know exactly what material she is to use in each one of these difterent divisions of the subject. She should know what work she is to do with plants, animals, toys, etc. ; what fables she is to use, what stories to relate, what poems to have committed, what selections to use for recitation and declamation, etc. Each teacher should also know what material the previous teacher or teachers have used that this work can be occa- sionally reviewed, and the work she is giving be properly connected with the previous work both in I^ature Study and in Literature. Care should be taken also that the work in all the different branches be properly related in the different grades, so as to apply as far as possible the principle of the unification of studies. Suggestions for Using the Material. In imparting the instruction outlined, the teacher should always remember that her work should be given in the concrete. There must be real plants, minerals, and, so far as possible, animals in the school-room. When the object cannot be secured, the next best thing is the picture of the object. No dependence must be placed on mere description by the teacher or text-book, for this to the child is often a mere combination of words without ideas. Pupils should be encouraged to obtain the objects for themselves, as they will thus have additional interest in the study of them. So in respect to the physical phe- nomena—children should be led to observe the weather, to notice the changes in temperature, the changes of the moon, the motions of the stars, etc. In this way a foun- dation for real knowledge is laid as well as a taste for scientific investigation that may be of great value to the pupils in future years. In the use of biography, fables, stories, etc., the teacher must be careful that the material be adapted to the child's comprehension. Everything must be based, so far 24 as possible, on the child's own experience. The imagin- ary productions must be suitable to the child's own natural imaginings. The sentiments must be such as are adapted to child-life and the natural impulses of its nature. Let the teacher remember that the work here is far more delicate than in the use of material things which can be seen and handled, and that it requires far more judgment and skill to do the work properly. The work of the primary grades must necessarily be largely objective, appealing to the power of perception. The eyes, the ears, all the senses of children are active. They are the principal sources of knowledge and give im- pulse and direction to mental activity. But there is a place for reflection also in the work of the primary grades. The dawnings of thought begin to appear at an early age. The child begins to originate ideas and opinions; and it would be a mistake not to recognize the power of thought and bring it into activity. Teachers should lead the little ones, therefore, to think and express their thoughts as well as to see and describe objects. The ob- servant teacher will be surprised at the originative power of children, showing that the mind is no mere tabula rasa of intelligence. As the work passes up toward the higher grades, the method of instruction must be gradually modified. While in the lower grades perception must be the main source of knowledge, subsequently a child must begin to acquire knowledge that it cannot gain through the perceptive faculties. Language becomes a source or medium of knowledge to the mind. The facts of geography, most of them, are too remote for personal observation, and they must be presented to the mind by means of verbal descrip- tion. The events of history having already occurred cannot be seen by the pupil, but must be realized as they are described in language. These should first be presented by the teacher in oral language by description, aided, so 25 far as possible, by the illustrations of pictures. The pupil must also be shown how to obtain these facts from the text- book. Care must be taken that the language of the book be fully understood by the pupil, and that it conveys to and develops real knowledge in the mind of the child. Care must also be taken that in stating in the recitation what has been studied, the language used shall convey clear and definite ideas existing in the pupil's mind, rather than be the mere repetition of words. As we pass upward into the higher grades, more attention to reflection is required. Perceptive processes are to be gradually transformed into reflective processes. Sense knowledge is to be converted into and supplemented l>y thought knowledge. The so-called " thought studies '^ become more prominent, and need modified methods of instruction. Pupils are to be taught to think, as well as to perceive and remember; their powers of judgment and reasoning are to be brought into activity. Care is to be taken that the pupils see the reasons for processes, draw correct inferences from premises, and be able to give logical explanations of their work. The highest work of the teacher in the domain of the intellect is to arouse the reflective faculties of the child and develop the power of independent and original thought. It should be remembered that the principle of the unification of studies, so valuable and necessary in primary instruction, must be modified as we reach the higher branches of instruction. For instance, it would not be practicable to unite in the same recitation lessons in Latin, geometry, algebra and English history. Indeed, a slight variation from the principle of the unification should be made in the w^ork of the primary grades. Even during the first year a little independent drill in the elements of numbers and in the elements of drawing and music will be of advantage. The principle of unification, therefore, though the basis of instruction in the primary grades. 26 should be gradually modified as we pass to the more advanced subjects of instruction. The time comes when separate periods are to be set apart for arithmetic, gram- mar, drawing, geography, etc., instead of attempting to combine them all in the same recitation. Careful judg- ment on the part of teachers is required to see just where these changes should be made, and to secure a gradual and intelligent differentiation of subjects of study. There are some subjects which should never be entirely separated^ as geography and history, science and drawing, etc., and the elements of orthography, punctuation, grammar, etc., in instruction in Language. And even in higher courses of study, though distinct branches must be studied separately, it is well to call the student's attention to the relation that exists between the several branches. The highest thought of man is that of philosophy which seeks the unity in diversity, and endeavors to relate all the branches of knowledge by the thread of some fundamental principle. Finally, let teachers always bear in mind that the object of their work is, first, mental development, and second, knowledge, and that this mental development ia secured by the proper use of knowledge. Herein lies the teacher's skill — to so use this knowledge as to bring forth the best results of mental training. To do this is a high art ; and the teacher who can do it with skill and succesa is an artist. Suggestions for Work in Language. This material, as has been previously explained, is to be used as the content of expression. Its purpose is tO' stimulate the mind to activity, develop its faculties and furnish it with knowledge. This knowledge is to flow out into Language, and the instruction is to be given in such a way as to cultivate the power of expression. As Language is both oral and written, both forms are to be used in this 27 work ; and a few suggestions are herewith presented to indicate correct methods of instruction. /. Oral Language : — All work in the culture of lin- guistic expression should be based on oral language. The child begins its lessons in Language at home in learning to talk. Through its natural impulse it chatters the live- long day. To repress this impulse for oral expression when it enters the school is to array oneself against a natural law of mental growth and development. 1. The teacher should remember, therefore, that dur- ing the first three or four years the oral work in Language is of paramount importance. The pupil is to be trained to use its mother tongue with facility and correctness. Its vocabulary is to be enlarged and it is to acquire the habit of ready and accurate expression. The number of oral exercises should, therefore, exceed the number of written exercises. Teachers will find it of great interest to endeavor to ascertain the extent of the vocabularies of their pupils. It was formerly supposed that children of three or four years of age had a vocabulary of from 200 to 300 words ; but recent investigations have shown that the actual vocabulary is much larger, amounting in many cases to 1,200 or 1,500 words* Of course, the number of words a child is familiar with will vary with its associations, children of intelligent parents usually having the use of a much larger number of words than those in ignorant or uncultivated families. The observation of the Language of children will reveal a number of interesting facts concerning their mental life and development. It will be found that words expressing actions are much more numerous in the child's vocabulary than words expressing quality or even name-words, pointing to the fact that children are more interested in actions than in objects. 2. Teachers should be careful to train the children to speak in complete sentences. In the description of objects, 28 or the relation of incidents, several sentences may be com- bined into paragraphs. The attention of pupils may be called to the nature of a complete oral sentence, so that they may understand the sentence when they come to written Language. A knowledge of the oral sentence is to be made the basis of instruction in the written sentence. 3. Lead the children to see and think for themselves, and then express what is in their minds. Let real thought in the mind be the basis of expression. Endeavor to pre- vent mere parrot-like repetition of words without any con- tent of thought in them. Let their words be living words like the language of home, rather than the " dead lan- guage " so often heard in the recitations of the school. 4. Be careful to correct the faulty expressions to which children are liable. Call their attention to the common errors of speech and have them try to avoid them. The language of the home and the street is often antagonistic to correct expression, and it requires the constant and unremitting attention of the teacher to counteract its influ- ence. Remember that language is a habit, and that chil- dren must be drilled until correct habits of expression are formed. 5. See, also, that the pupils' articulation and pronun- ciation are correct, and that they have no faulty habits of intonation. Be careful, also, that the manner of expres- sion is simple and natural. Do not permit that mechanical and artificial method of expression so often heard in the recitation of the school-room. Banish the so-called "school- room tone " from your schools. Try to have pupils speak and read in that simple, natural, and unafltected way which is the charm of cultivated conversation. Above all, let the teacher endeavor to set the example by being a good talker herself. To talk well is a tine art, and is as worthy of culture as the art of sinocino; or drawins;. 6. In every exercise have a definite point in view. Aimless talk on the part of teacher or pupil is of little 29 value. All the exercises in Language should be progres- sive, so that each day may not be an aimless repetition of the previous day's work. There should be a progressive movement in culture, knowledge, and expression, and to secure this requires the teacher to have her work thor- oughly systematized. 7. Description and narratives may often be given by the teacher for the children to reproduce. These may consist at first of only a sentence or two, but with a little practice on the part of the pupil may be extended to a considerable length. In the reproduction, be sure that the pupils are talking from the facts clearly conceived in the mind, and are not merely repeating the words. Descrip- tions and narratives may also be read by the teacher and then be reproduced by the pupils. 8. Pupils may also be required to originate descrip- tions and narratives. This will be an exercise in " oral composition," which is just as valuable as written com- position. In fact, oral composition should precede written ones. Pupils should be trained to " talk compositions " before they attempt to " write compositions." All written exercises in Language should, at first, be based on corres- ponding oral exercises. 9. For the purpose of cultivating a taste for Language and skill in expression, pupils should be encouraged to read good literature. Let the teacher make a wise use of the supplementary readers in her school, not merely for the information they contain but for their influence on the literary culture of her pupils. Make use also, so far as possible, of the Libraries which the Board of Public Edu- cation is establishing in different parts of the city. If possible, have a library of well-selected books in the school, and have the pupils read them. You will thus not only do much to develop the ability to use good language, but also cultivate a taste for good reading which will be of intestimable value to them in after-life. 30 10. Pupils should also be required to commit tine selections of prose and poetry. These will cling to their memory, furnishing the mind with facts and sentiments, and also giving a vocabulary of words and molding the form of expression. Let the minds of the children be filled with " memory gems " of prose «nd poetry. Have the girls commit suitable pieces for recitation and the boys learn passages from the great orators, and have frequent exercises in recitation and declamation. Such exercises will be found most valuable in cultivating literary taste and ability in literary expression. 11. There are a number of common errors to which the pupils of the public schools are liable which need the careful attention of the teacher. Special care should be taken to train the pupils to the correct use of I, me ; is, are ; was, were ; has, have ; see, saw, seen ; do, did, done ; go, went, gone; this, that; these, those; come, came; wrote, written ; knew, known ; took, taken ; lie, lay ; sit, set; may, can; shall, will; nothing, anything, etc. Care should be taken to prevent the incorrect use of the word " got," and also to correct such expressions, " it is me," " it is him," " let Mary and I go," etc. Care should be taken also to teach pupils the correct contrac- tions of " has not," " is not," " should not," " have not," " do not," " does not," " I will," etc. The teacher should make a note of the ungrammatical expressions heard in the school-room or in the school-yard and endeavor to lead her pupils to avoid these expressions. Try also to lead pupils to avoid those common expressions known as *' slang" which, though extensively used, are indicative of a lack of culture and refinement. It hardly need be added that all corrections should be made in a spirit of sympathy and encouragement. Pupils are especially sensitive about their errors of oral language, and need to be corrected with tact and sympathy so as not to destroy the spontaneity of their thought and expression. 31 There should be the same freedom of mental activity in the school-room that there is on the playground or in the home circle, and the teacher who secures it possesses an important element of success. II. Written Language. — Exercises in oral language are to be accompanied by exercises in written language. The two are to go hand in hand in primary education. All exercises in written language should be based upon oral language. The written word is to be regarded as the ex- pression of the oral word, rather than of the object or thing for which the oral word stands. The following suggestions will be found of advantage to teachers : — 1. The child has some knowledge of oral language when it enters school, so that written words can be intro- duced immediately. The child knows how to talk ; the first object is to teach it how to read. The first lessons in written language may be presented in the form of an entire sentence from which the transition may be made to the individual words. These sentences may be written upon the board in script, and charts and primers may also be used. The child should understand that the written characters express to the eye what oral language expresses to the ear. 2. The attention of the child should be early called to the use of capitals and the period and interrogation marks. When sentences become more complex and the comma is required, a simple explanation of its use can be given. The pupil is to be taught the use of these marks by using them and not by scientific explanation of their use. 3. After a few lessons on written words, pupils may be required to copy the written work which the teacher has placed upon the board. This will be an exercise in penmanship, capitalization, and punctuation. Much care is to be exercised that the pen or pencil is properly held, that the pupil has a correct position at the desk, and that the letters are properly formed. Cultivate good habits 32 from the first, and there will be no bad habits to unlearn when the pupil is older. 4. As soon as the pupils can write a number of words, they can begin to use written language to express their ideas and thoughts. At first they may copy the sentences which have been derived from the oral exercises and written on the board as already suggested. Following this, pupils may be required to write simple sentences about an object or picture which has been ptresented to them, and talked about in the class. The oral sentences which they have used or heard in the exercise may be transformed into written expression on their slates or paper. 5. Following this, they may be required to look at an object or picture, tell in oral language what they see, and then express the same in written language. This is an advance on the previous exercise in their expressing their own thoughts in their own language unaided by the teacher. They are thus " writing their talk," which is a fundamental principle of written expression. 6. This exercise can be follow^ed or accompanied by an exercise of expressing directly in written language what they see of an object or in a picture without first expressing it in oral language. It will be interesting for the teacher to note which of these exercises gives the better expression ; and also whether the written language comes directly from the thought or passes through a silent oral language. 7. The teacher may also describe an object orally or read a description of it, and have the pupils reduce the same to writing, following the order so nearly as possible and using such language as may be remembered. The teacher may also read or relate a narrative imaginary or historical, and require the pupil to reproduce it in writing. 8. Pupils may also be required to read a description or a narrative from a book and then reproduce it in writing. This will test their power of thought-getting from the 33 printed page, cultivate the power of mental concentration, and tend to enlarge their practical vocabulary and improve their form of expression. 9. In connection with these exercises it is recom- mended that pupils be required to copy printed composi- tion, both prose and poetry. This will fix new words in the mind, give them the form of sentences, the use of capitals and punctuation marks, and cultivate a style of expression. Many eminent literary men cultivated their literary taste and skill by copying passages from the master pieces of literature. 10. In addition to this, pupils should be required to write out the fables, incidents, fairy stories, biographical in- cidents, etc., which are given in the oral exercises. They should also be required to copy the little poems, memory gems, etc., of their oral exercises which they have com- mitted to memory. This copying from memory will be found to be an excellent exercise in written language. 11. Finally, pupils should be required to write original compositions. These at first should be simple description or narrative, but subsequently the}' may contain reflec- tions upon some suitable topic. Where there is any taste or inclination for it, pupils should be required to attempt versification or poetry, and every eflbrt of this kind should be received with sympathetic encouragement. Some of the finest writers of prose cultivated their taste for liter- ary expression by early attempts to write poetry. 34 OUTLINE OF WORK IN LANGUAGE FOR PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GRADES. The following suggestions will be found of value in presenting the work in Language in the first four years of the elementary schools. These suggestions are based upon the principles presented in the previous discussion, and are adapted to the course of instruction in Language adopted by the Board of Public Education : — First Year. — [First and Second Grades.) I. Objects. (a). Common Objects. — Conversations about ; — 1. Toys. 2. Ani- mals. 3. A few common plants and flowers. 4. Articles in common use, at home and in school. 5. Familiar colors. Oral exercises, requiring the children to describe the place and posi- tion of objects in the school room by the proper use of such terms as, — on, above, under, left hand, right hand, left, right, before, behind, in the middle. (6). Phenomena of^ Nature. — Conversations about the sky, wind, clouds, water, rain, snow, sun, moon, stars; the ground, rocks, metals. II. Pictures. — Prints in black and white, colored pictures, and pictures sketched on the blackboard by the teacher are to be used. Conversations between teacher and children, the purposes being to develop observation and to train to correct oral expres- sion. Small pictures can be used to advantage for individual work and for simple written exercises. Encourage the children to state but one fact in a sentence. III. Literature. (a). Stories. — Oral reproduction of stories, told or read by the teacher. Such stories as fables, fairy tales, stories of child- life and of animals, and stories of great and good men and women, are to be used. (6). Poems. — A number of suitable selections of poetry should be made by the teacher. These are to be talked about, to be learned by the pupils and recited by them. These poems may be taken from the reading books supplied by the Board of Public Education, or from any other source at the teacher's command. 35 IV. Morals and Conduct.— Conyersatiooa, and stories told or read, to inculcate a spirit of kindness to each other, to brothers and sisters, to animals ; obedience to parents and teachers ; respect due to the aged; truthfulness. The life at home— the father and mother, brothers and sisters, and grandparents. Constant training in polite and courteous manners and forms of speech. The Golden Rule to be taught. Conversations about the care and use of the school furniture, the slate, sponge, pencil and books. V. Written Work. — After the pupils learn to write they should practice the copying of short sentences from the blackboard and the reading lessons, with the punctuation marks. The capital in beginning and the period or question mark in closing sentences should be required. Gradually introduce such simple written exercises as are within the power of the pupils. Teach the name of the school, its location, the name of the teacher, of the Principal. As soon as the child can write he should be taught to write his name and residence. VI. Correct Forms of Expression. — Special attention must be given to training the pupils in the correct use of I, me ; is, are ; was, were; has, have; saw, seen; did, done; went, gone; this, that ; these, those ; nothing, anything. Special exercises to pre- vent the use of aint, aint got, it is me, start (for begin), etc. Pupils are to be taught the correct use of the word I in all written work. Second Year. — {Third and Fourth Grades.) I. Objects. (a). Conversations iu which the children take part about ; — 1. Toys. 2. Familiar animals. 3. Common plants and their parts (root, stem, leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds). 4. Articles in common use. 5. Familiar colors. As far as possible, the objects are to be seen and handled by the pupils in these exercises. (6). Observations of Nature. — Conversations about the sky, wind, clouds, water, rain, dew, frost, ice, snow ; sun, moon, stars ; the ground, rocks, metals. (c). Conversations about the human body, its uses and beauty. (d). During the second half of the year— Fourth Grade — take the following : — 1. Conversational lessons on common articles of food and drink — Bread, beef, mutton, milk, butter, cheese, tea, coffee, rice, fruits of different kinds. 36 2. Couversatioiial lessons on the following materials used for clothing, from what natural objects obtained : — Cotton, linen^ woolen, silk. Samples of the raw materials and of the manufact- ured products are to be used in giving these lessons. II. Pictures. — Observation and description of pictures. The teacher should aim to secure as great variety of expression as possible. III. Literature. (a). Stories. — Reproduction of stories told or read by the teacher. Reproduction of stories read silently by the pupils. Such stories as fables, fairy tales and legends, stories of child- life and of animals, stories of great and good men and women, and of special holidays. Reproduction of the reading lesson. (6). Poems. — A number of suitable selections should be made. These selections are to be talked about, learned by the pupils and recited by them. The method of treatment should vary with the sentiment of the poem. IV. Morals and Conduct. — Conversations and stories to be told or read, to inculcate a spirit of kindness to each other, to brothers and sisters, and to animals ; respect for the aged ; truth- fulness, unselfishness, honesty ; the care of public property. The Golden Rule to be taught. Constant training in polite and courteous manners and forms of expression. The care of all articles used in the school-room, and of school furniture. V. Written Work. — Written work should accompany and be based upon the oral exercises. It should consist of simple sen- tences within the power of the pupils. Practice in copying short sentences from the blackboard and the reading book, with all the punctuation marks, including the apostrophe. Attention to the use of capitals and punctuation marks in all written exercises. In the Fourth Grade pupils should be taught to write the names of the week, the names of the months and of the seasons, in their order, and to use them in sentences. Exercises in writing proper names with capitals : — the more common names of persons ; the name of the school, of the city, and of the State ; the names of the central streets of the city, of the principal public buildings, of the rivers on which the city is situated. The use of these names in sentences. The school and its location, name of the teacher and of the Principal. 37 Letter-writing in the Fourth Grade. Simple exercises with a few sentences. VI. Correct Forms of Expressioti. — Special attention must be given to training the pupils in the correct use of I, me; is, are; was, were; has, have; saw, seen ; did, done ; went, gone ; this, that ; these, those ; nothing, anything. Special exercises to prevent the use of aint, aint got, it is me, start (for begin), etc. Third Year. — {Fifth and Sixth Grades.) I. Nature Study.— Obieciive work, oral and written exercises. (a). Plant Life. — Plants and their parts ; development from the seed ; comparison of leaves as to size and shape ; of stems as to form ; of flowers as to color, size and shape. In the Sixth Grade add — parts of plants used for food : seed, stem, leaves, roots, fruit. Examples of each. How plants are prepared for food. (6). Animal Life. — The human body and how to take care of it; food, wholesome and unwholesome; cleanliness — bathing; clothing in hot and cold weather ; care of the teeth, causes of their decay and how to prevent it. The work is to be conversational and constant reference made to the bodies of the pupils. General comparisons of the human body with the bodies of other animals. In the Sixth Grade add : — the lungs and breathing ; compar- ison with other animals as to t)reathing; the importance of sup- plying the lungs with pure air ; ventilation of rooms. (c). Observations of nature as in previous grades : — Rising and setting of the sun ; changes of the moon ; movement of the stars, etc. A few simple experiments in respect to air, water, magnetism, etc. [d). Natural features of the earth's surface. (Geography.) In the Sixth Grade add : — Animal and plant life in the various 2ones ; the races of men ; ways of traveling and means of com- municating with friends at a distance. (Geography.) II. Pictures. — Oral and written exercises. (a). Pictures for general illustration in nature study and geography. (6). Pictures for training perception (description) ; also for training the imaginative faculty (story telling or narration). (c). Historical pictures and portraits. III. Literature. — Endeavor to lead the children to love and read good books. Reading at home should be encouraged. (a). Stories, Descriptions, etc. — These are to be told and read by the teacher, and read silently by the pupils. 38 Reproductions — Orally and occasionally in writing. 1. Fables, fairy tales, legends, etc. 2. Stories of child-life and of life in otlier lands. 3. Stories of noble deeds and of great and good men and women. 4. Stories from History. The American Flag. The special holidays. Patriotic selections committed and recited. (6). Reading Lesson. — The reading lesson should be used as a means of training the children in the meaning and use of words, in correct expression, and in cultivating a taste for good reading. (c). Poems. — A number of suitable selections should be made. These are to be talked about, learned by heart and recited. The method of treatment should vary with the sentiment of the poem. Occasional written exercises in connection with this work. IV. Morals and Conduct. — Select topics from previous grades, including kindness to persons and animals, and add courage, true and false bravery, manliness and womanliness. Inculcate the lessons by story and example. Constant training in polite and courteous manners and forms of expression, V. Written Work. — (a). Exercises in copying paragraphs from the reading lessons to cultivate the power of expression and the correct use of capitals, punctuation marks, etc. (6). Exercises in writing different forms of sentences, state- ments, questions, the use of capitals, the period, the question mark, the comma with a series of words, the apostrophe, common abbreviations, contractions, and quotation marks. Attention to be given to the writing of the names of persons, familiar places, the days of the week, of the months, and seasons. (c). Letter Writing. — The form of a letter (heading, body, closing), and the superscription of the envelope, to receive atten- tion. (d). In the Sixth Grade add exercises in combining two or more statements into one sentence, and in placing the comma (when necessary), but no rules to be given or required. VI. Correct forms of expression (orally and in writing). Give special attention to the correction of common errors of speech. Review the work of the Fourth Grade. Teach also the correct use of come, came ; wrote, written ; knew, known ; took, taken. Exercises to prevent the use of such expressions as aint, aint got, it is me, start (for begin), where are my books' at? where are you going to ? 39 Fourth Year. — {Seventh and Eighth Grades.) I. Nature Study. — Objective work. Oral and written exer- cises. (a). Plant Life. — Review of the work of preceding grades. Trees and shrubs, — their uses to man. Various kinds of wood obtained from trees. Forests. (6). Animal Life.— The human body and how to take care of it. Review work of previous grades. The bony structure— skull, jaw, the spine (as a whole), collar-bone, shoulder blade, ribs, arms and hands, legs and feet. The general uses of the bones. The joints. The muscles. Comparisons with the skeleton of other animals. In the Eighth Grade add the senses. How we see and hear. The proper care of the eyes and ears. The domestic animals, their habits, and uses to man. Their structure as to moving about— Avalking, flying, swimming, wad- ing. In the Eighth Grade add the most general divisions of the animal kingdom — Beasts, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Shell-tish, In- sects. Familiar examples of each class. (c). Plant and animal life of the various Zones in North America and the United States. Metals and Minerals. In the Eighth Grade add similar study in regard to Pennsylvania. {d). Observation of Nature as in preceding grades: — The rising and setting of the sun and the moon ; changes of the moon ; motion of the stars; the North Star and the "Dipper." A few simple experiments in respect to air, sound, water, the siphon, magnetic attraction, the magnetic needle, etc. II. Piotures.— Oral and written exercises. Exercises similar to those of preceding grades. The use of the lantern and slides is recommended. III. Literature. — The teacher is again reminded that the purpose of the work under this head is to lead the children to love and read good books. Reading at home should be encouraged. (a). Stories, Descriptions, etc. — These are to be told and read by the teacher and read silently by the p\ipils. Occasional reproductions, oral and written. 1. Fairy tales, legends, etc. 2. Stories of child-life and of life in other lands. 3. Stories of noble deeds and of great and good men and women. 4. Stories from History. The American Flag. The special holidays. (6) The Reading Lesson. — The attention of the children should be called to simple figures as they occur in poetry and 40 prose, without reference to the names of the figures or to any definitions. (c). Poems. — Selections of suitable poetry, read, explained, committed, and recited. Occasional written exercises in connection with this work. Copying poetry from dictation. IV. Morals and Conduct. — Teach such moral qualities men- tioned in the preceding grades as may seem best. Add forgiveness, self-control, choice of companions, love of country. Inculcate by story and example. Constant training in polite and courteous manners and forms of expression. V. Written Work. — (a). Exercises in copying paragraphs from reading lessons to cultivate the literary taste and ability, and to teach the correct use of capitals, punctuation marks, etc (6). Exercises in writing difl^erent forms of sentences, state- ments, questions ; the use of capitals, the period, the question mark, the comma (with a series of words, and after a direct address), the apostrophe, common abbreviations and contractions, quotation marks. (c). Exercises in combining simple sentences into one as in the Sixth Grade, no rules or definitions. (d). Letter writing as before. Simple invitations and replies. In the Eighth Grade add common forms of receipt. VI. Correct forms of expression (orally and in writing). Special attention must be given to prevent the use of in- correct expressions, and to correct the common errors of speech. Review all the work of the preceding grades. Teach also the cor- rect use of shall, will ; maj', can. Note. — Special attention is called to the use of pictures in the school-room for teaching literature and science. Every school should be supplied with a lantern and lantern slides for illus- trative teaching. Some of our teachers have learned photog- raphy and make their own slides at a comparatively small ex- pense ; and it is suggested that it would be of great value to our schools if a large number of the teachers of the city would qualify themselves for this work. Slides can, however, be obtained at a comparatively low rate, and arrangements can often be made by which they can be exchanged among the teachers. 41 LANGUAGE IN GRAMMAR GRADES. The suggestions for teaching Language, just presented, are especially designed for the lower grades of the ele- mentary schools. The principles of instruction involved are, however, common to all grades, and many of the particular suggestions also apply to the grades of the grammar schools. The course of study in Language for the grammar grades of the city is definitely outlined in the Course of Listruction for those grades; but a few general suggestions will be added to aid the teacher in imparting this instruction. One object of the instruction in Language in the gram- mar grades is to make pupils familiar with the English Language. Every graduate of the grammar schools should be able to understand and explain the nature and structure of literary productions. In order to do this they must be carefully drilled in the technicalities of the sub- ject, including orthography, capitalization, punctuation, the meaning of words, the grammatical relations, etc. This is purely an intellectual attainment, and may exist without either an appreciation of literature or any skill in literary production. Indeed, care has to be taken that it does not weaken or even kill literary appreciation. In addition to this technical knowledge of Language, the pupils should be taught to appreciate the ideas and senti- ments of literature. One of the most important require- ments of a teacher of Language is to cultivate on the part of the pupil a taste for literature. In addition to the acquisition of a knowledge of English and a taste for literature, the pupils should be led to acquire a certain amount of skill in the expres- sion of their own ideas and thoughts. They should be able to think and to present their thoughts in literary form, expressing their knowledge in spoken and written 42 language with accuracy, facility, and felicity. These three objects — a knowledge of English, a taste for Literature, and skill in the use of Language — should be kept prominently in mind in the language work of the grammar grades. In adding a few suggestions for the teaching of Lan- guage in the grammar grades, let it be remembered that instruction in English embraces two things which may be distinguished as the technics of the Language and the reality of Language ; in other words, the/orm and the contents of the Language. The technics of English include spelling, pronunciation, capitalization, punctuation, and grammar, and also the ability to construct clear and correct sen- tences. The contents of expression include the idea, the sentiment, the poetic imager}', the felicity of expression, etc. These two things are entirely different in their nature and require different methods of instruction. They are both essential to the work of the grammar grades, and are so intimately related that they must be taught to- gether in the work of the school. A few suggestions will be made in respect to both of these two classes of topics. Instructiox in the Technics of Language. Under the technics of Language, as above stated, may be included Orthography, Pronunciation, Capitalization, Punctuation and Grammar, all of which require the special attention of the teacher of the grammar grades. 1. Orthography. — Pupils in the grammar grades should be taught to spell the large majority of words in common use. To accomplish this they should be taught to notice the orthography of words, and thus acquire the habit of seeing how words are spelled. Attention to orthography should be given in all the branches. Lists of words frequently misspelled should be prepared and the pupils should be drilled upon them. In the higher grades, at least, the spelling-book will be found a valuable assist- ant in teaching orthography, though it must be used with 43 intelligence and good judgment. While the value of cor- rect spelliiig may have been overestimated among the earlier teachers, there is a tendency among modern edu- cators to undervalue it. Even so eminent an authority as Professor March says : " Stress is laid on it as the sign of a thoroughly educated person out of all proportion to its real value." Correct spelling, however, cannot but be regarded as an indication of a cultivated and scholarly mind. Its true value may be indicated, perhaps, by the saying that while " there is no great credit in being a good speller, there is great discredit in being a poor one." 2. Pro7iunciation. — Teachers will exercise care that their pupils pronounce words correctly. Indeed, correct pronunciation is of quite as much importance as correct spelling, since we make constant use of spoken words, while we use written composition less frequently. A mis- spelled word is an offense to the eye, but a mispronounced word is an offense to the ear ; and the ear is as delicate and refined as the eye. Teachers therefore should be extremely particular in respect to the pronunciation of their pupils. They should observe carefully the mistakes of their pupils in conversation and reading, and train them to correct articulation and accent. Frequent drills on the elemen- tary sounds will be of value in securing correct articula- tion. * Drills in the pronunciation of w^ords frequently mis- pronounced are suggested. It will be well for each pupil to make a list of the words she usually mispronounces and frequently repeat them correctly. Pronunciation is a habit, and it requires great care to change from the incor- rect to the correct pronunciation of a word. Above all the teacher should be particular to pronounce correctly herself as a model for her pupils to imitate. 3. Capitalization. — The pupils of the grammar grades should be taught the correct use of capital letters. This is so simple a matter that it will be readily mastered by 44 the pupils. They should be taught to observe the use of capitals in their reading lessons. Dictation exercises in which the pupils are required to write sentences and para- graphs using the capitals properly will be found a valuable means of teaching the subject. Occasionally written exer- cise with capitals omitted, or improperly used, may be given them to correct. 4. Punctuation. — The pupils of the grammar grades should be taught the ordinar}- use of the punctuation marks. The use of the period, and the interrogation and exclamation marks will be readily acquired. The princi- pal uses of the comma, semicolon, and colon may also be learned in the higher grades. In teaching this subject do not have the pupils commit " rules of punctuation," but teach the correct use of the marks by example and prac- tice. Call attention to the punctuation in the reading books, and give unpunctuated exercises for them to punctu- ate correctly. Exercises also in the use of quotation marks should be given. 5. GraNimar. — The course in grammar is begun in the fifth school year, and continues four years. It embraces the parts of speech, their modifications and relations, the construction and analysis of sentences, and exercises in the correction of false syntax, all of which is set forth in detail in the Graded Course of Instruction. Tlie instruction should be given in the concrete, making language the basis of grammar, and not by committing and reciting the abstract definitions of the text-book. A few sug- gestions for the details of the course are appended to this discussion. In connection with the instruction in theoretical gram- mar, great care should be taken to secure the practical application of these principles in the use of Language. Everj' recitation should be a lesson in the use of good Eng- lish. Attention should be called to the mistakes of pupils, and correct forms constantly insisted upon until the habit 45 of correct speech is formed. Remember, that habit is stronger than knowledge; and that " eternal vigilance" is the price not only of liberty but of good English. Pupils are naturally careless in their expression, and they will never acquire the habit of correct expressions until they are made to feel the importance of habitual carefulness in their oral and written work. Instruction in the Use of Language. "While this technical knowledge of English is of great value and is even necessary, there is a higher and more valuable work which demands the teacher's attention. This higher work includes the cultivation of a literary taste to appreciate and enjoy literature and also the skill to create literary productions. The value of this part of the work is inestimable. No greater benefit can be con- ferred upon a pupil than to cultivate in him a love for the masterpieces of literature, and the ability to express his thoughts and sentiments in correct and attractive literary form. This element of the problem is as difficult as it is im- portant. Almost any teacher familiar with the subject can train pupils in the technical part of English ; but teach- ers who can awaken in the minds of their pupils a real love for literature and literary expressions are rare. Many attempts have recently been made to present a Course of Instruction adapted to secure this end, but no system has yet received the general approval of educators. The study of Latin, in which the pupil is continually using English words in his translation and weighing the value of the words in his dictionary in order to select the most appro- priate one, has been largely depended upon to cultivate literary taste and talent. Many pupils, however, do not desire to take a course in Latin or Greek, and the problem is what course in the study of English can be substituted for the study of the classical languages that will produce 46 the same or even better results. Educators are still wait- ing for a complete solution of this problem. What we need is a course of instruction in English that will give a taste for and skill in the use of English. The success of such a course, it should be remem- bered, depends more upon the teacher than upon the method. A good teacher with no definite method will produce better results than a poor teacher with the best method that can be devised. It depends not so much on instruction as on inspiration ; and what is especially needed is literary inspiration on the part of the teacher which will awaken literary enthusiasm upon the part of the pupil. For this work only a few suggestions can be made, and these will be somewhat an amplification of several suggestions previously made for the primary grades. 1. Reading Good Lilerature. — Literary taste and skill are cultivated by reading good literature. Reading gives words and enlarges the vocabulary, and also gives facility in the use of words to express thought. Those pupils who have read most will generally be found to excel in the use of Language. It is not unusual to find pupils deficient in the technical branches who write excellent compositions; and upon inquiry it will usually be found that they have read much, even if it is only light litera- ture. The best scholars in the school branches are often poor writers, the cause of which is that they have done so little reading. By reading we acquire a vocabulary of words, understand their meaning and their use, become familar with the style of an author, and insensibly form a style of our own. Many distinguished men have cul- tivated their literary taste and formed their style of ex- pression by the constant and thorough reading of a few- books. Lincoln received his language culture largely from reading the Pilgrim's Progress ; and Kossuth's masterly knowledge of English was acquired by the study of 47 Shakespeare and the English Bible. " The modern uni- versity," Carlyle aptly says, " is a collection of books." 2. Copying Productions. — It is a valuable literary exer- cise to copy passages of literature. Copying an author will make a deeper impression upon the mind than even a careful reading of one. Sight strikes deeper than sound ; to execute form stamps it upon the memory like a die on the waxen tablet. Going over a production, word by word and sentence by sentence, writing it out in full, will impress the language and style of an author deeply upon the literary sense. I would, therefore, frequently require pupils to " copy compositions." If a paragraph could be written every day on slate or paper, it would do much for the pupil's literary growth. Many writers, ancient and modern, have practiced copying the productions of the masters of literature. Demosthenes copied the history of Thucydides seven or eight times in order to acquire his clear, concise, and elegant style. 3. Committing Productions. — Literary taste is cultivated by committing literary productions. Committing makes a deeper impression upon the mind than either reading or copying. It tends to fix the words in the memory, and deepen the channels of thought and expression. It gives, as it were, literary molds in which to run one's own thoughts, or forms literary channels in which our thoughts and sentiments will naturally flow out into expression. This has also been the practice of many who have attained excellence in the use of Language. Burke and Pitt culti- vated their wonderful powers of oratory by committing the orations of Demosthenes. Fox committed the book of Job, and drew from it his grandeur and force of expres- sion. Lord Chatham read and re-read the sermons of Dr. Barrow until he knew many of them by heart. The old practice of declaiming pieces and giving reci- tations was of great value in the cultivation of literary taste and skill. These selections presented models of style 48 and stimulated thought and expression. Indeed, the declamations of early years often did more to shape the literary taste and give skill in expression than the entire college course in classics, rhetoric, and literature. The style of literary expression of yolmg men after their gradu- ation from college and the entrance upon a profession, can often be traced back to the culture derived from their declamation exercises in public school or academy. 4. Creating Compositions. — The final outcome of liter- ary culture is the ability to write well. This is the crowning work of literary training and development. Toward this end all the previous training tends, and in this it should culminate. That the task is a difficult one, all will admit. A few pupils seem to have a natural aptitude for literary expression and write well without much instruction, while others seem to be deficient in this respect. In some cases there is no doubt a natural gift for expression, but in many cases it will be seen that the pupils have been subjected to literary influences in early years either by hearing intel- lectual conversation or by reading good books. The majority' of the pupils of our elementary schools do not write well, and need special training to acquire skill in formulating and expressing their ideas. It is believed that with proper training, long enough continued, all ordinary pupils may attain to real excellence in literary expression. To outline a course in teaching composition writing would require a volume, and only a few suggestions can be presented here. Literary expression involves three things: (1) Material for expression, consisting of ideas, facts, thoughts, sentiments, etc.; (2) a vocabulary of words with which to express mental products; and (3) a correct and pleasing style of expression. The material for expression can be obtained by obser- vation, conversation, reading, reflection, and imagination, to all of which the pupil can and should be trained. A vocabulary of words is obtained by hearing spoken 49 language, by general reading, by the study of text-books, by committing passages of literature, by the use of the dictionary, and the study of the classical languages. A good style of expression is obtained by the study and imi- tation of the masters of English composition as already explained. Remember, in composition writing, that children should first be taught to write from what they see or know by personal observation. This is fundamental, and if neglected all other exercises are of comparativel}- little value. Material for composition writing can also be ob- tained from the supplementary readers and the lessons in difterent branches of study. Exercises should be required in the reproduction of stories, narratives, and descriptions told or read to or by the pupils, as previously explained. There should also be exercises in paraphrazing poetry, in letter writing, in preparing and expanding outlines of composition, and in writing upon set themes. 5. The Reading Lesson. — The reading lesson gives afine opportunity for literary culture in both its technical and its general features. The most valuable text-book in the public schools is a good school reader. In using it, the first object should be to train the pupil to " thought-get- ting." In the oral expression of the thought, be sure that the pupils read in a natural, simple, conversational style. Do not permit the unnatural and artificial " word-calling" so often heard in the public schools. Lead the pupils to acquire the habit of expressing the thought from the printed page just as if they were talking to you and their classmates. Use the reading lesson also for special literary train- ing. Call attention to the meaning of words, to the felicity or beauty of expression, to the figurative language, including similes, metaphors, personifications, etc. Explain the historical and mythological allusions that may be found in the extract read. In poetry call attention to the rhyme 50 and the metre, including the accent, the number of poetical feet in a line, the nature of blank verse, etc. All the fundamental principles of rhetoric can in this way be easily taught, and such knowledge will be a valuable preparation to the pupils when in the higher schools they take up the story of Rhetoric as a science. To attain satisfactory results in the teaching of Lan- guage, the whole scheme of work should be mapped out minutely by the head of the school, who isfamiliar alike with the degree of advancement of pupils and the standard of attainment required of them. Without this no proper co-ordination of the work in the different branches and their relation to Language is possible. The Principal or Supervising Principal should see that every teacher under- stands her work, and does it in accordance with the prin- ciples of scientific instruction. The school-room is the place for work, for careful, correct and artistic work; and no teacher is worthy of a place in our schools who is not willing to bend every energy to doing her work in the best possible manner. It needs the same spirit of con- secration to be a good teacher as it does to be a successful preacher. In concluding these general directions for Language work, we urge teachers to take special pains to cultivate a taste for literature on the part of their pupils. This is often a difficult task, but it will repay all the labor required. It cannot be done in a day or a year, for it is an invisible growth of the intellectual and aesthetic nature. Literary taste and skill are both the result of literary growth. A student can master a text-book on geometry or algebra in a few months, but literary culture is the work of a life-time. Literary skill is an organic product ; like the growth of a plant, it comes by the mind feeding, as it were, on the ideas and sentiments and expressions of literary writers, and assimilating these in the mental and spiritual growth. All this training requires time and 51 patience, but if continued day by day the result will crown the work. Reading Good Books. The value of reading good books both for general cul- ture and the culture of Language cannot be overestimated. Literary culture comes through the reading of literature. The best writers obtained their literary taste by reading well-written and interesting books. One of the best things a teacher can do for her pupils is to develop a taste for good reading. The greatest blessings the city could confer upon its citizens would be to put a library of well- selected books into each of the public schools. In my course of lectures to the teachers last winter, I suggested that they would do a most worthy work for their pupils if they could make a collection of books and start a small library in their schools. This recommendation met with a cordial response from Principals and assistants, and a movement was set on foot in several schools which is full of promise for the future. Several Principals and their assistants by personal solicitation and contribution have already laid the foundation of a good working library of well-selected books in their schools. Efforts similar to those by which money was obtained to put pianos into the schools are recommended in the interest of school libraries. This movement already started is worthy of high commen- dation, and it is hoped that it may become general. By securing the interest and co-operation of pupils and parents, little libraries can be formed in every public school in the city. These books should be selected with a view to the tastes and needs of pupils. They should be classified so far as possible in accordance with their age and culture. The course in reading should be directed by the teacher. Teachers can do much to stimulate a taste among their pupils for reading by talking to them about books, asking questions upon what they have read, etc. Remember, that 52 a few well-chosen books, carefully and thoughtfully read, will do more for the culture of literary taste and skill than many books carelessly and hastily skimmed. Some of the most eminent writers and speakers developed their admir- able literary skill by the careful reading of a few choice volumes in their early years. Remember, also, that "if we are to cultivate a taste for good reading among the masses of the people, the work must be begun before the children have formed the habit of reading poor and vicious books." In directing the reading of the pupils of the element- ary schools, endeavor to lead them to cultivate a taste for history. History properly read and understood is more interesting than fiction. Especially try to interest them in the history of our own country, and thus kindle the spirit of patriotism in their hearts. Lead them to become familiar with the inspiring history and marvelous develop- ment of the Republic, to understand the underlying prin- ciples of free government, and to obtain a true concep- tion of the rights, privileges, and duties of American citizens. The youth of America should be proud of the birthright of freedom, and feel it to be their duty to guard its institutions and aid in transmitting them to the future. Every boy and girl should be led to realize that free government is the hope and destiny of the world. 4f.: 4'^ 53 OUTLINE OF WORK IN LANGUAGE FOR THE GRAMMAR GRADES. The work in Language for the first four years is co-ordinated with the work in Nature Study and Literature. The outline here given for the Grammar Grades is arranged to correspond with the Course in Language adopted by the Board of Public Education. It is presented under two general divisions — General Language Work and Work in Grammar. Fifth Year. — (Ninth Grade.) I. Language Work.— OvhI and written exercises in the use of language as the expression of tiioughti 1. Review the work of previous grades. 2. Suitable selections of prose and poeti'y to be committed and recited. 3. The attention of pupils to be called to simple figures of rhetoric as they occur, without reference to tlie names of the figures or to any definitions. 4. Reproduction of stories, descriptions, etc., read to the class by the teacher, or read silently by the pupils. 5. Material for conversations, short written statements, and simple compositions : — The reading lesson (prose and poetry), lessons in geography, history, and elementary science, objects and places with which the pupils are familiar, ways of traveling and means of communicating with friends at a distance, pictures of incidents and of scenery, occupations, etc. 6. Every lesson should be made a lesson in language. 7. Endeavor to have pupils read some good books on history, literature, and science. II. Grammar. — Special attention to be given to the sentence as the basis of work in grammar. 1. Nouns and verbs, adjectives and adverbs, pronouns. To be taught from their use in sentences. 2. The plurals of nouns and pronouns and the corresponding changes required in the verb. The general rule for forming the plural of nouns — by adding s to the singular. The changes in form to be noted and stated by pupils before reference to rule. Other modifications of singular form to be taken up as they occur as 54 matters of spelling chiefly. Also, such regular nouns as are pro- perly comprehended in Fifth Year work. 3. The agreement of the verb with its subject in number only. The subject must be a noun or a pronoun. Other parts of speech used as nouns, and phrases, to be excluded. Teach the general rule, the general rule for subjects connected by and, and the rule for subjects in the singular connected by or or nor. 4. The use of 's in indicating possession in singular and plural nouns; teach the general rule — the apostrophe and s aliuaya to be annexed except when the subject form in the plural ends with «. 5. Adjectives, articles, and adverbs as modifiers, without special attention to changes of form, and without clasnification. 6. Analysis of simple sentences, having single words as modifiers of the subject and predicate; to be confined to distin- guishing, (1) the simple subject and predicate ; (2) the modifiers of the subject and predicate ; (3) the complete subject and predicate. Synthesis of simple sentences. Simple exercises in enlarging sentences by adding modifiers of the subject, or of the predicate, or of both. 7. The proper use of punctuation marks. Special attention given to the period, question mark, quotation marks, exclamation mark, the comma, and to paragraphing. 8. Attention to the correction of errors of speech as they occur, in all exercises. Sixth Year. — {Tenth Grade.) I. Language Work. — Oral and written exercises in tlie use of language as the expression of thought. 1. Review the work of previous grades. 2. Suitable selections of prose and poetry to be committed and recited by the pupils. 3. The attention of pupils to be called to figurative language, as it occurs in reading, without special reference to the names of figures or to any definitions. 4. Reproductions of stories, narratives, descriptions, etc., read to the class or read silently by the pupils. . 5. Oral and written abstracts of lessons in reading (both prose and poetry), geography, history, and elementary science. 6. Compositions on subjects with which pupils are familiar. 7. Exercises in the meaning and use of words in connection with all subjects of study. 8. Every lesson should be made a lesson in language. 9. Letter Writing. — Social and business letters. Care in respect to matter and form. 55 10. Endeavox* to have pupils read some good books on history, literature, and science. 11. G'rammar.— Special attention to be given to the sentence as the basis of work in grammar. 1. Parts of speech and their properties. (a). Proper and common nouns. The simple personal pro- nouns only. The gender, number, person, and case of nouns and pronouns. Gender. — Masculine, feminine, neuter. The gender to be determined by the meaning and use of the word. No lists. Number. — Changes of form noted, stated by pupils, and finally formulated into rules. Person. — Of little value as applied to nouns. Useful as deter- mining the forms of the personal pronouns. Case. — Further exercises in tbe possessive forms of nouns. Thorough drill in nominative and objective cases from subject and object relations. (6). The number, person and tense (present, past and future) of verbs. Verbs of active and passive forms in all the modes (except infinitive) in which the time, present, past, or future, is clearly indicated. Voice and mode and their forms as such not to be named. (e). Comparison of adjectives and adverbs. Comparison by annexing er and est, or using more and most, less and least ; also the three forms of irregular comparison. Omit comparisons in two forms. No classification of adjectives or adverbs is required. [d). Other parts of speech to be known and recognized as prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, merely. 2. Simple sentences with simple prepositional modifiers. Analysis and synthesis. The analysis should include only the designation of the following: — (a). The complete subject and the complete predicate. (-&). The simple subject and the simple predicate. (c). The modifiers (words and phrase) of the simple subject, and of the simple predicate, and statement of what kind— from its use — each modifier is. The structure and the analysis of phrase modifiers should be made the subjects of separate questions, if further evidence of the pupil's understanding of the nature and the function of such modi- fiers be required. 3. Principles of Syntax as indicated in the meaning, use and relations of words specified in the limits. 56 Agreement of verb with subject in numbers and person. Tlie principles stated in the Ninth Grade to be applied to verbs and pronouns in the Tenth Grade. Add singular and plural words con- nected by or^ or nor. No attention need be paid to pronouns stand- ing for words of different jjersons. Attention to the correction of errors of speech as they occur in all exercise. 4. The proper use of punctuation marks as in Ninth Grade. Add the general rule for the use of the semicolon in simplest con- structions. Seventh Year. — {Eleventh Grade.) I. Language Work. — Oral and written exercises in the use of written language as the expression of thought. 1. Review the work of previous grades. 2. Suitable selections of jirose and poetry to be committed and recited by pupils. 3. Attention called to figurative language, including the simile, metaphor, personification, apostrophe, ellipses. These to be named and described by the pupils as they occur in the reading and other lessons. 4. Reproductions of stories, narratives, descriptions, etc., read to the class or read silently or at home by the pupils. /i. Oral and written abstracts of lessons in reading (both prose and poetry), geography, history, and elementary science. 6. Compositions on subjects with which pupils are familiar, telling what they have seen, what they think about something, etc. 7. Exercises in the meaning and use of words, in connection with all subjects of study. 8. Letter Writing. — Social and business letters, with care respect to matter, expression, and form. 9. Every lesson should be made a lesson in language. 10. Endeavor to have pupils read some suitable books history, literature, and science. 11. Grammar.— Special attention to the se?i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 021 772 791 I