^0^ .0^ .^^ .-y'r -^^^^ ''^&0/ ^"^ ^^^i'^*' O. * » , ' .O*^ •vP ■a? *«> .4v^ % .^' .0 >' O. * fl . o ' .0 -r. - .,•; o. -"a N^ '^^, % .^^^ 'X- ^^ ,xx^ A ^_^ *'..•* .G^ ▼^ ^ > » • • '. • o '>. -^' */^^ A^^' ^X. »■* o_ ,0v vO- V'^' ■J^'j- < <^^ " " " * <^^ C .0 .0;^% ^c ■T' V^ * t*^' ^^ ^e^^c^ ^-^ -^t -^^ .^' ^°-V^, 5^ *-/J^-. ^°o <^. ^'T'.*^ ^^. ,/' ^i\VAI{1> J. ROGCRS rriisT Assistant Commissioner ICUITATIOS l>i:rA UTMENT State «r Nkw Vouk Z J' oO EDUCATIONAL REVIEW SEPTEMBER, igos EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR ^ 1903- 1905 It is a difficult task to cut out a cross-section of a year in one of the great fields of human endeavor, and even where aided by the most powerful microscopes of inference and imag-ination, label this part progress and that failure. So difficult is it that, altho an added year of grace is permitted me by the non-presentation of a similar paper at last year's meet- ing, had I fully realized it someone else would have addressed you to-day. Evolution is a slow process ; evolution in educa- tion one of its slowest forms. The field is so overlapped, its processes so involved and dependent, that all hope of traversing it crying eureka at many objective points is futile. The germ of the greatest educational movement of the century might lie within our vision undetected. I want, therefore, to preface this paper clearly with the statement that it is made up of facts and ha^apenings of the last two years, chosen for their apparent importance but presented in a fragmentary man- ner. Many of the questions treated demand for proper analy- sis a discussion which would transcend the limits of the entire paper, but which must obviously be presented in suggestive outline. Many others are barely mentioned or omitted alto- gether. To the many friends both at home and abroad who have assisted in the presentation of the Report by their valu- able suggestions, I wish to express my obligations ; and par- ticularly to Professor Sadler of England, Professor Lagerstedt ' Paper read before the National Council of Education at Aslniry Park^ July 3, 1905. I lO EdMcational Review [September of Sweden. Inspector-General Gilles of France, and Director- General van Overbergh of Belgium, thru whose valuable and exjjert advice it has been possible to pick only those facts and tendencies in their respective countries which are of the greatest importance and lie clearly within the scope of this Report. THE MOSELY COMMISSION One of the most important events which has taken place in recent educatitjnal history is the visit of the Mosely Commis- sion of England to this country in Octol>er, November, and December, 1903. The two reports which were the result of this visit, one made by the Education Commission and the other by the Industrial Commission, have created intense interest both in England and in this country, and are regarded here as an eminently fair and just criticism of the state of public education in the United States. Mr. Alfred Mosely, a Mem- ber of Parliament and a man prominent in the commercial and" financial world of England, brought to this country twenty- seven educational experts to inspect and report upon various features of the educational and social life of the United States. Mr. Mosely frankly states that his inspiration for this un- wonted enterprise was his admiration for the brilliant exploits of American engineers in the development of the diamond mines of South Africa some fifteen or twenty years ago. " The success of these engineers," he says, '' turned my atten- tion to the United States, and some years ago I paid my first visit there for the purpose of seeing what sort of country it was that was responsible for sending so many level-headed men to the Cape. ... So far as I was able to ascertain the form of education given in the United States was responsible for much of its success, and I returned home determined if possible to get together a party of experts to visit the country and test the soundness of my conclusion^." The immediate opportunity, vhich was an additional incen- tive for Mr. Mosely to carry out his project, was the passage of the Education Act in England in T902, and the possibilities which arose under it for the development of education along practical lines. He traced a similarity between education as Gift Author (Person) 1905] Educational prog7'ess of the year 1 1 1 controlled by the various States of our Union and the control vested in the counties of England under the new statute. There was thus added as a further motive the possibility of finding- many things in our educational system which would prove of value to England. The subjects of investigation placed before the Mosely Com- mission were: (i) The development of individuality in the primary school; (2) the social and intellectual effects of a wide distribution of secondary education; (3) the effect of specific instruction given in (a) business methods, (b) applied sciences, (4) the present state of opinion as to the value of professional and technical instruction of university rank, de- signed with special reference to the tasks of business life. The Commission visited New York, Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New Haven, Boston, and Chicago, and at the latter place broke up as a body, and the individual members proceeded to every part of the country in search of information applying to their special fields. The report of the Education Committee was published in 1904 and covers four hundred closely printed octavo pages. It is prefaced by a statement by Mr. Mosely, and contains a joint report signed by all the members of the Commission and a special report by each member of the Commission. In this report is expressed the belief that general education is of value both to the community at large and to the commercial, indus- trial, and agricultural service of the state; that in competing with American commerce Europeans will be called upon to face trained men gifted with both enterprise and knowledge; that the British public must be impressed with the absoiu_ ..-.^■r^ of immediate preparation to meet such competition ; that won- derful spirit animates both teachers and pupils in our schools, and that the absence of class prejudice and of religious difficulty serves to facilitate the work of the schools ; that there is a very close connection between theory and practice, especially in the scientific field ; that the important part which manual training is assuming in our public schools is of high value as an educa- tional discipline; that in no country has there been such mar- velous liberality displayed towards education both from public 1 1 2 Educatwnal Review [September and private sources; and that the entire work of education in elementary, secondary, and higher fields is organized and co- ordinated in such a way as to secure most harmonious working and avoid duplication. Much frank criticism, in most cases well deserved, is mingled with the freely expressed admiration. Our teaching of foreign languages seemed to the Commission particularly slipshod and to partake of antiquated methods. Some disappointment was expressed that manual and industrial training does not seem to have played any great part in our commercial or industrial development. The answer to this criticism is under two heads : first, very few of our industrial schools and our manual training departments are over ten years old. which is altogether too short a period to exert any marked influence on industrial methods ; second, the theory of public education in the United States is based upon the belief that our prominence in indus- trial and commercial work is due not so much to any form of special training in the arts and crafts as to the liberal training Avhich is given to e\'ery child in our public schools. It is a safe rule of conduct that if a child is fitted during his eight •elementary years for anyfhiiig, he will be bound as a wage- earner to l>e fit for somcfliiiig. It is im]:>ossible in this address to more than hint at some few of the points brought out in the papers of the report, or to state any of the conclusions. Every one of the twenty-seven papers is worth careful attention and study on the part of our educational public, and without in any sense seeming to dis- criminate at all. the reports submitted by Mr. Henry E. Arm- .. ^-:,. Mr. Artlnu- W. Black. Prof. T. L. Papillr^n. and John Rhys are specially valuable in their keen observation, just criti- cism, and valuable inference. Mr. Arthur W. Black sums up in three concise sentences as follows : " The great facts remaining with me as a result of my educational investigations -in America are, first, that public opinion is much more strongly in favor of education than in this country. Second, that the scholars in America take a keener interest in their studies than is gen- erally apparent here. Third, that the teaching given in the 1905] Educational progress of the year 113 elementary schools produces a mental alertness and readiness of mind to a greater extent than is secured in this country." The reports are a pleasure to Americans because the tone is complimentary and because they concede in the premise the commercial and industrial supremacy of this country and seek to find in our educational system the reasons therefor. The reports are of value to Americans because they frankly present and criticise our shortcomings^ and while the balance on the ledger is largely in our favor, a careful study of the debit side is of the utmost benefit to our educational public. It would be extremely fortunate if in other fields than educa- tion There wad some Mosely the power gi'e us To see oursels as others see us. SCHOOL LEGISLATION During the legislative period of 1904 there were over one hundred and twenty-five enactments in the various States affect- ing education, but nearly all of them were of such local or in- cidental character as not to call for special mention. Three important acts, however, in the winter of 1904, affected par- ticularly State educational systems, and two in the winter of 1905 brought about most important reforms in city adminis- tration. The three relating to States were the new school codes of New Jersey and Ohio, and the so-called unification act of the State of New York. In the two former the changes made by the revised codes were so voluminous as to forbid anything like extended discussion here, tho in Ohio there were many radical changes, mostly in the direction of principles advocated by this Association. The dual system of school administration, which had been the development of a century's growth in the State of New York, was abolished by the legislature of 1904. The University of the State of New York, established in 1783 and governed by a board of Regents, had supervisory powers over the colleges, universities, professional and technical schools of the State, and certain legally defined powers over the high schools and acade- mies. The Department of Public Instruction, organized in 114 Hdiicatio7ial Review [September 1812, placed under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of State in 1 82 1 and reorganized in 1854. had control of all schools supported by public tax. including both elementary and second- ary schools. By the law of 1904 the powers of both these great departments were merged in the Education Department; a new office with the title of Commissioner of Education created, and the Board of Regents reorganized. This law is purely a change in administrati\e details and does not affect in any degree the procedure governing either of the old depart- ments. The law has been in operation now one year and its benefits thru increased efficiency in service, economy in expendi- tures, and uniformity of policy are universally conceded. In April, 1905, as a result of long-continued agitation on the part of the Teachers Association, Public Education Asso- ciation, and other organizations of the city of Philadelphia, the legislature of the State of Pennsylvania enacted a law in refer- ence to cities of the first class. The bill is drawn on lines which are now believed to be sound in the administration of educational policies of cities, and contains many of the princi- ples or provisions which are incorporated in the school laws of New York City. Cleveland, and St. Louis. The main pro- visions of the law are as follows : (i) A five-mill tax for both the immediate and prospective needs of the schools, which will insure a sum under which the development of the city system will be rapid and effective. (2) The minimizing of the powers of the sectional boards and the consequent lessening of the influence of the local ward heeler and the politician. The retention of these ward divisions was a concession to obtain the passage of the bill, and they will undoubtedly be abolished in the near future. (3) The appointment of the members of the board of educa- tion at large by the judges of the Court of Common Pleas. While this is logically unsound in that it combines judicial and administrati\-e functions, it is probably a better plan at the pres- ent time in Philadelphia than the plan of election by |X)pular vote. (4) Reduction of the size of the board from 42 to 21. a step r'905] Educational progress of the year 115 in the right direction, but a still smaller board would do better service. Many minor provisions such as the definite fixing of respon- sibility, the centralizing of powers and duties, the appointment of responsible heads of executive departments, etc., are incor- porated. The most serious omissions are the failure to provide a strict merit system for the appointment and promotion of teachers, and some indefiniteness in regard to the powers and duties which surround the office of superintendent. Most of these errors or omissions can be remedied by the first board of education, provided a progressive and broad-minded board is appointed. The general effect of the bill — while it may not meet the enthusiastic praise bestowed by one critic that it places the school system of Philadelphia fifty years in advance — is to give the city of Philadelphia a rational and defensible school system in line with modern educational policies, and a basis for a thoro and effective reorganization. In April. 1905, the legislature of Massachusetts passed an act reorganizing the School Committee of Boston which will un- doubtedly have a radical effect on the administration of school affairs in that city. The act is very short and substitutes for the present School Committee of 25 a committee of five, and be- stows upon the latter all the powers, privileges, duties, and obli- gations devolving upon the present committee. The success of this law will depend entirely upon the personnel of the board. If five strong representative citizens are appointed to its mem- bership, the school affairs of the city under the by-laws which they will adopt will be immensely improved. If a weak board subject to outside influences is appointed, their latter condition will be worse than their first. The powers of inspectors, super- intendents, and supervisors are not mentioned in the act, but are left to the by-laws to be fixed by the new board of education. There is undoubtedly a great opportunity awaiting the new board, and probably in no city in the country is there greater likelihood of a board being appointed which will be able to meet it. ■ The laws of both Philadelphia and Boston have certain re- semblances. Both are very brief; both reduce materially the ^ J 6 Educational Review [September number of tlie board; both leave to the board the making of rules and by-laws to govern its own procedure; and both leave the board free to define the powers and duties of all it? ap- pointees. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING It is impossible to present by ordinary standards and statis- tics any measure of ethical or moral growth. It has no dis- tinct schedule in any curriculum, but it should form the basis of every curriculum. Character building is the real aim of the schools and the ultimate defense for the expenditure of millions upon their maintenance. The moral sense of this country is felt to be in an unsatisfactory condition. This has been borne in upon our consciousness with slowly increasing and insistent force, made headway against unwilling attitudes of mind, and IS now acknowledged as a serious menace to our social fabric. It manifests itself almost daily in new and surprising forms. The code of honor in bu.'-.iness, were it not so full of menace to the peace of the public, would be a diverting study in tan- gential ethics. Practices are encouraged and methods tolerated which, not so many years ago, would have set their users outside the pale of business approval. The conscience of men seems divided into two parts, — a positive and a negative — the former controlling their social relations after office hours, and the latter in convenient use during business hours. The methods of high finance differ not one whit from the buccaneers of the Spanish main, except as the swing of the broadsword differs from the push of the electric button. The misuse of fiduciary funds, il- legal combinations for trade and transit, and clever evasions of the spirit of the laws form the bulk of the new'S in our daily papers. But why multiply examples when the tendency is marked in every walk of life, and nowhere more distinctly than in the youth and children of the present age. There is in their minds a flippant disregard for constituted authority; a lack of respect for age and superior wisdom ; a v. tak appreciation of the de- mands of duty ; a tendency to follow pleasure and interest rather than obligation and order. Such is the recognized condition 1 905 J Educational p7'0gress of the year 117 which demands the earnest thought and action of our leaders of opinion. The greatest sign of rehef for the general situation is that the people are awake to the conditions and are agitating its remedy. Out of this are bound to come a healthier life and an intoleration of false standards. The question for school- men is how to assist by the proper training of the next gen- eration of men of affairs. And I am going to say, at the risk perhaps of being misunderstood, that in my opinion much of the responsibility for the present attitude of mind of children, as indicated above, is due to the theory that a child must be " in- terested " in every phase of his school work or it is not good for him. Beginning with the kindergarten and continuing into the elementary grades, we have run a little wild in the last decade or more in making things easy for the child. We have coaxed and coddled and bribed w^ith sweetmeats till the child has a totally wrong impression of his relativity to his environ- ment. I yidd to no one in acknowledging the great work done by the kindergarten, particularly in the crow^ded portions of our great cities, and in approving its purpose, but this does not mean approval of all its methods. They should not be extended too far into the child's life, and the elementary schools should be- gin to differentiate af once between work and play. A child has a weak, imperfect, illogical mind or he would not be a child. To appeal to his reason and his interest is to premise your work on negative quantities. Prescribe what your reason and the ex- perience of the race have proven good for him, and see that he does his tasks thru love if possible, thru compulsion if necessary. If a subject be thoroly disciplinary and wholly distasteful, and a child does it. it is good for the child. And above all, let us see to it that we instill into the child by leading him to conquer dif- ficulties, and to subordinate his desires to his obligations and his duty, a moral fiber w^hich w-ill carry him straight thru fire and water to his goal in life; and let us not be responsible for turn- ing into the world creatures of flexible backbone who will pur- sue their sinuous way along the lines of pleasure, interest, and least resistance. This is too large a subject to be pursued further in this paper, but its proper solution will contribute much to the strength of our training in morals. It is only one Ii8 Educatioyial Review [September of the factors in the problem, but one which can be ehminated by the action of school authorities. Against the material tendencies of the times, and the non- observance of moral obligation, many agencies are at work. As said before, the chief hope is the fact that the people are awake to the conditions. A recognized evil is more easily fought than one which works unseen and unappreciated. The work of the Religious Education Association has been rational and progress- ive, and its chief value is that it has been proved to be an agency thru which the exemplary but scattered efforts of a .score of societies and bodies are given a unity and an organization which is accomplishing great results. The work of the Society should have the earnest support of every schoolman, for it means con- certed effort and strategic disposition of force. The introduc- tion of educational methods in the Sunday schools has l)een remarkable in its effects. As one writer states, " More has been done since February, 1903, to put the Sunday school on an educational basis than during the score of years immediately preceding." The promotion of intelligent Bible study has been the sole object of one Society: and the fact is being recognized among our colleges that a man to be educated nmst have as thoro knowledge of the Hebrew laws, literature, and customs, as of the Greek and Roman. It is not so much of a disgrace for a college student to be caught reading the Bible as it was in my day. The output of literature on this subject during the year is noteworthy, and an examination of its titles found in the bibliography of education published in the Educational Review of June demonstrates the hold which the subject has upon the public and the methods which will be used to remedy the situation. SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ATHLETICS Closely allied to this subject is the whole vexed question of school and college athletics, and the influence of the age is seen in the taint of professionalism which creeps into our student sports in spite of severe rules gr-\-erning eligibility. The taint will continue until it is thoroly ground into our students, yes and even into the faculty and alumni advisory councils, that in- 1905 J Educational progress of the year 119 tercollegiate games should be played for sportsmanship and not for victory; and that it is just as much a credit to lose as to win, provided you play a square game. Heroic efforts have been made in the last few years to draw up iron-clad rules carrying severe penalties, but the spirit of the old cry which used to gov- ern the ethics of sport in at least a half-dozen institutions of the Atlantic seaboard, of " anythmg to beat Yale " can only be eliminated when college pride and spirit prefer an honest defeat to a questionable victory. DEPARTMENTAL TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS The departmental plan o\ teaching, introduced into over 130 of the elementary schools of the City of New York during the last year, has attracted wide attention as the most comprehen- sive attempt to apply this principle to the public schools. It has been permitted at the option of the teachers in Boston and Chi- cago, and individual trials have been made in other places. It has been tried for two years in the city of Albany and the weight of opinion is favorable towards it, altho two years more of trial are deemed necessary to give a sufficient basis for comparison. An inquiry among the departmental teachers and the depart- mental pupils in the City of New York resulted in an almost unanimous opinion in favor of the plan. Its success is de- pendent, of course, on a large and thoroly organized corps of teachers, and it must therefore be confined to the larger cities. But where it can be introduced and be administered effectively, there would seem to be no reason why it should not be done. There is no more logic in a teacher's teaching all kinds of sub- jects than in a lawyer's practicing all kinds of law or a doctor's attempting tc treat all classes of diseases. The age of the jack- of-all-trades has passed in our professions and vocations. Why continue it in the one profession which is the foundation of ail others ? A careful inquiry into the results of this method of teaching was recently instituted by Mr. Kilpatrick, and some of the mos't noted advantages claimed from an educational standpoint are as follows : (i) Expert teaching; the child is always under the control I20 Educational Review [September of the teaclier who is best qualified to teach any given subject. The teacher herself becomes hig-hly proficient in the science of the branch, as well as in the best methods of teaching it. (2) Improved discipline. (3) Possibilities of more complete equipment in the way of special apparatus for the most effective teaching. (4) Better distribution of time and continuity of work. (5) Placing the responsibility directly upon the teacher for the advancement of the class in each subject of the grade. (6) Economy of supervision, economy of time and equip- ment. (7) The promotion of individuality thru placing greater re- sponsibility upon each child and increasing his opportunities. (8) Much greater interest in the subject on the part of the scholar when presented by an expert teacher. (9) It is a step towards the individual development of the pupil which in the present day of routine class machinery is much to be desired. EDUCATION FOR THE INDUSTRIES I choose this term because the term industrial training is in- variably associated in the public mind with manual training, which is not all of w'hat is meant. Education which trains for the work of the world, whether it be the arts, the trades, agri- culture, mining, or commerce, is the subject which is engrossing more of public attention tlian any other in the educational field. The business and commercial world is asking in all seriousness if we cannot send out young men and women somewhat better fitted for business conditions. There is no question about the training of those who are to enter the professional and technical fields, but for the workers in the varied industries there is doubt. Social life in this country has grown from simple needs to the com.plexity of the highest modern civilization with all the en- tailed obligations. Our education has grown and expanded with it. When the applications of steam and electricity from 1830 to i860 revolutionized the entire social structure, our education changed its form to meet the demands upon it. A revolution in industrial methods is going on to-dav almost as 1905 J Educational progress of the year 121 marked, and our educational machinery must be remodeled suf- ficiently to meet it. Stripped of all verbiage our country is get- ting too large, and our needs too complex, to train all children just alike. But the traditions and spirit of our country will not for a moment sanction the establishment, as in Europe, of two systems of instruction, — one industrial and one cultural; one for working classes and one for governing classes. Our solu- tion of the problem is forced to be a combination course; the same for all children in earlier years, with all which that implies of hope and opportunity, containing enough manual training to benefit all, and an option in the higher years to afford the special training desired for the work of life. How to adjust our ma- chinery to the demands and the conditions, the kind and the extent of schools to be instituted to meet the requirements, are our greatest problems to-day. The progress of the country under this heading is more in the general acceptance of the idea and the means taken to meet it than otherwise. A catalog ex- tensive and striking could be made of the commercial and man- ual-training high schools established, the shop-work and practice courses introduced in the grades, the technical and trades schools instituted, and the departments of commerce organized in the universities ; but it would be only cumulative evidence of the feeling abroad in the land. At the convocation of the Uni- versity of the State of New York last week the entire program of two days was given to an intensive consideration of this topic and the ablest experts in the country addressed the meetings. Out of this agitation will come an adjustment satisfactory to our commercial and industrial development, and in harmony with our laws and traditions. HIGH SCHOOLS The growth of high schools lias been greater in the last two years than during any similar period since 1895. Four hun- dred and thirty schools have been established and the increase of students in attendance aggregates 43,595. Secondary education has seemed to recede from its two extreme positions and approach a more common ground. The former general and scholastic courses have been made more practical, and the 122 Educational Review [September practical courses that have heretofore been somewhat narrow are being broadened by the introduction of cultural subjects. Manual-training- high schools are being looked upon less as trade schools and more as a liberal-education process. An ex- ception to this, and an experiment which involves to the extreme the parental control of the state, is the recent establishment of the Girls' Technical Training School in Xew York on the East side. It is designed to supplement the grammar-school grades by three years of instruction in dressmaking, milliner}-, stenog- rapliy. Ixx^kkeeping. domestic science, etc.. so that its graduates may at once find profitable employment in our shops. English, mathematics, geography, and United States history, some science, and a modem langfuage, or science option, are the other studies. It is the first approach in this country at public ex- pense to the ccolcs priniaires suf>eru-urcs of France, and while there is no doubt of its great practical value to a municipality like New York, its effect upon the educational policy of the United States will make it an object of close obsenation and interest. Hie two- and three-year courses in commercial studies are being raj^idly discontinued, and the four-year commercial course recommended bv the committee of the Department of Business Education of this Association in 1903 has met with general favor, and many commercial high schools have been established with this course as a basis. The Minnesota Agricultural High School has for its purpose to train students to become useful citizens as well as good fanners and housewives. The account of its development con- tained in Apj:>endix B and C of the Report of the Committee on Industrial Education in Rural Sdiools. is worth careful study, as the co-ordination of the rural school, agricultural high school, and agricultural college undertaken by the State of Minnesota is pioneer work and is attractincr wide attention. RURAL SCHOOLS The consolidation of country- schools is growing in popular favor, and perhaps has no place in this paper other than to re- port progress, inasmuch as it has been previously discussed. But 1905] Educational progress of the year 123 the recent nun eiiieiil lor instrnelion in the elements of ai;rienl- tiire in rural schools is a strong- additional argiunent in its favor. The larger the school, the hetter the equipment for teaching agriculture : and, what is more important, the greater the chance of securing a teacher who is fitted to give instrnclion. The Re- port of the Committee on Industrial Education in Rural Sch(K)ls and Comnuuiities has just l)een placed in the hands of the mem- bers of this Association and is an interesting and \alnahle docu- ment. The general conclusions of the Conunittee aie summed up in twelve findings, unanswerable in argument and conclusive in their reasons. I shall not give even a summary of these find- ings, as the entire reixM^t is on for discussion at this meeting. The report shouKl be studied tlioroly, however, as the (irst com- prehensive document on a phase of education which promises great results, not only in the dev-elopment of agricultural wealth, but also in holding young men to the occupancy of farms. EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH The last two years ha\e seen a remarkable growth in the educational activities of the Southern States. A continuous educational campaigii has been prosecuted vigorously in nearly every Southern State. This campaig'n has been participated in not ow\\ by leading educators but also by prominent [)(>litical leaders, and the appeal to the people for an increase in school taxes, the consolidation of scliool districts, and for gen- eral educational improvement, has borne fruit rapidly. The Southern Education Board and the General Education Board have co-operated cordially and effectively with the educational authorities of the various States, and their stimulating assist- ance has been appreciated by teachers and school officials. The organization of these Boards has been fully treated in the re- port preceding this and it is not my purpcvse to repeat it. The Boards came at a time when public sentiment was ripe for such a campaign as has 1)een waged. College and University men have been foremost in their participation and the pu1)lic press has lent most valuable aid. School improvement clubs and associations have been formed thruout the South, and edu- cation has become a rallying cry in political campaigns. The 124 Educational Review [September determination of the South to educate all of its people, and its decision, in spite of poverty and other handicapping con- ditions, to do this as a business proposition and to do it at once is one of the most satisfactory occurrences of recent years. While for a long time the urban population of the South has had good public-school facilities, it must be remembered that nearly eighty per cent, of the ^wpulation of the Southern States is rural. It is chiefly for the improvement of rural school facilities that this educational campaign has been waged, and the unparalleled growth in public sentiment, showing that the movement has the thoro support of the people, is one of the most interesting and gratifying educational facts of our time. The time-honored Peabody Fund, established in 1867, is about to disappear as a distinct factor in Southern education, the trustees having determined to relinquish the trust, only the interest of which has been used heretofore, and dispose directly of the funds, amounting to about two and a half mil- lion dollars. One million dollars is to be given to the Peabody Normal College at Nashville. Tenn. The disposition of the remainder is as yet undetermined. The gift of ten million dollars to the General Education Board made last week by John D. Rockefeller puts the work of that Board upi^n a solid basis for a century to come and establislies a reserve force in the field of education which may be thrown at will to strengthen any weak point in the line. North, South, East, or AVest. teachers' pensions and Carnegie's gift The question of ])ensioning teachers on the theory that thev are members in long and honorable standing of the civil service of the state and should receive grateful recognition upon retire- ment has been greatly strengthened in principle by the almost universal satisfaction over the recent gift of Mr. Andrew Car- negie of ten million dollars for tlie pensioning of college pro- fessors who have retired from work on account of old age or disability. It is too early yet to know the plans for distributing the benefits of this fund or to ascertain its limitations, inasmuch as the board of control has but recently been appointed. But if 1905] Educational progress of the year 125 this principle is sound in its application to colleges, it is equally sound as applied to elementary and secondary schools, and it may pave the way to a general agitation of the subject and acceptance of the idea. The report of the Committee of the National Educational Association on salaries, tenure, and pensions, submitted for the consideration of this body at this meeting, states that hardly a beginning has as yet been made in the United States towards creating a system of pensions for teachers. In making this statement the committee emphasizes the distinction between a pension system properly so-called and the various schemes of mutual aid, retirement funds, or old-age stipends that have been organized and are maintained primarily by the teachers them- selves and at their own expense. The United States seems to have fallen behind other nations in this respect, and Great Brit- ain, France, and Belgium have more satisfactory laws pro- viding for pensions to retired teachers. The report states that there is no commonwealth in the United States in which public- school teachers in all cities and counties are by provision of law pensioned upon retirement out of public funds. Local author- ities have taken some notice of the subject within the last few years, but with the exception of New York, Detroit, and San Francisco, no municipality can be said to have a public pension system. The provisions in all other cities are based upon the in- surance plan of deductions from teachers' salaries. The law creating a retirement fund in Greater New York, the sources of which fund are the moneys forfeited or withheld for absence from duty, the moneys received from donations, legacies, and gifts, and fi\'e per cent, annually of all excise moneys, was amended by the legislature of 1905 so as to exempt from levy and sale by virtue of an execution all pensions or annuities pay- able out of the public-school teachers' retirement fund. The new school codes of New Jersey and Ohio both recognize the insurance principle in the creation of retirement funds. This question is one which will be much before the public dur- ing the next decade, and the report of the committee of this ass(3ciation is particularly valuable in the facts and deductions which it presents. 126 Educational Review [September Correlative with this topic is the tenure of office of teachers. The principle should be recognized that security of jxtsition is of fundamental importance in order to secure faithful and efficient service from public-school teachers. A school force which is constantly shifting or liable to sudden change cannot produce the good results obtained under a i>ermanent tenure. There is not the incentive for bright young men and women to enter the teaching profession that would prevail were the princi- ple of permanency established. The reluctance of men to enter the teaching profession and the general uneasiness of those who are engaged in it are largely due to this fact. The advocacy of tenure of office for all teachers during competency and good behavior, after they have first served a satisfactory probationary period, was the basis of a bill introduced into the New York legislature last winter, but for the passage of which public opin- ion did not seem ripe. This is about the state of affairs which exists in all parts of the country. The report of the Un'ted States Commissioner of E-ducation made public in 1904 con- tains an investigation of the length of service of teachers in cities of 8000 population or over, which shows that in 379 cities or towns out of the total of 545 exceeding this limit of popula- tion, 50 ])er cent, of tlie male teachers have been engaged less than 13 years, and 53 per cent, of the female teachers less than 10 years. teachers' salaries Considerable progress has been made in the last few years in the matter of teachers' salaries, and the report of the com- mittee on teachers' salaries, tenure, and pensions just submitted to this Association gives an abundance of figures and the neces- sary available data for the consideration of this subject. The principle at issue needs no discussion here, but the statement can be safely made that there is a general disposition to advance the salaries of teachers in the public schools of the United States, tho it is not in proportion to the increased cost of living or to the advanced requir'^ments for the certification of teachers. Most of the larger cities have adopted a fixed salary schedule providing for minimum and maximum salaries for each position and a regular yearly increase. These schedules I905J Educational progress of the year 127 are as diverse as can be imagined, and seem to be based rather upon the opmion of the local authorities than upon either the size of the city or tlie purchasing power of a dollar in that commumty. The variation in the salaries of similar positions in cities of the same relative size is sometimes startling- in the extreme. In some cases the difference is due to the personality of the occupant of the position, but in most cases to the variable quantity known as boards of education. Mmimum salary laws correct m prmciple and indicative of a desire to deal justly with he situation, have recently been passed in Indiana, Maryland West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The deductions and inferences from this interesting report would fill a volume, but can have no further place in the resume I have attempted. The chief sign of progress is the general favor with wh,ch the attempt to improve the salaries of teachers has been received by the people m general. The recognition of the principle that it saves money to the public to paj for expert service will do more to further the progress of popular educa- tion in this country than any other one item. One of the keen observers accompanying the Mosely Commission stated that the people of the United States spend a marvelous amount of money on their public schools, but that the salaries of teachers are not sufficient for the service the country desires or should have; that the money lavished on the schools goes to buildings or equipment which are on a much more generous scale than in England, but that the teachers-the living force of the schools — are kept short. The raising of the Harvard endowment fund to yield an an- nual income of one hundred thousand dollars, to be applied to the mcrease of the salaries of the professors, is a notable event ^ of the year and indicates the general feeling on the question :Similar funds are now being raised by the alumni of other col- leges. THE BACCALAUREATE AND PROFESSIONAL COURSES The last two years have seen the adoption of many experi- ■ ments— I use the word rather advisedly— in the direction of a shorter combined baccalaureate and professional course. In the 128 Educational Review [September face of the increasing demands of the professional schools, and with opportunity for almost unhmited laboratory research, this shortening- has been done at the expense of the college course. The ix)licy of Harvard, Columbia, Cornell, and Chicago has been in this direction. The last revision of the curriculum of Columbia, voted in January, 1905, to take effect next Septem- ber, is the most radical step thus far adopted, and at the same time the most defensible. It has the merit of entire frankness, and of logical reasoning, even if we don't agree with all the premises. The requirements for graduation are 124 points, each point meaning satisfactory cc^mpletion of work requiring attendance one hour a week for a half year. After a student has obtained 72 points he is at liberty to take up work for the remaining points in any of the professional schools of the Uni- versity except law, which requires 94 points. A brilliant stu- dent can make Ji points in two years. The average student will make 60 points. It becomes possible, therefore, by hard, per- sistent, and thoro work, to win the two degrees in six years ; it is quite possible to do it in six and one-half years ; and not dif- ficult to do it in seven years. The student may m.ake up his mind at the end of two or two and a half years whetlier he will pursue the college course for the full four years, or whether he will take ad\'antage of the shortened time to gain his profes- sional degree. The other changes which accompany this scheme are the adoption of semi-annual admissions and graduations which come from making the half year the unit of credit, and the establishment of a program of studies for the degree of B. S.. which does not require Latin; a regulation preventing those whose work is consistently poor in all courses from receiving a degree, and a further regulation to prevent browsing about the course which prescribes that at least nine points must be under some one department. Quoting from a resume of the new pro- gram by Professor Thomas, " the expectation is that the new program of studies will prove especially attractive to students who may wish to obtain a college education before entering one of the schools of technology or applied science. ... To avoid dupl 'cation the college should gradually gather into its 1 905 J Educatio?ia I progress of the year 129 jurisdiction all those fundamental disciplines which are at once important in general education and necessary for particular lines of professional study. The professional schools will then be able to confine themselves more closely than now to strictly professional instruction." This program will undoubtedly be watched with great in- terest and will be the basis of many discussions and conclusions. Under the auspices of the Education Department of the State of New York, efforts have been made the past year to establish a medical elective course in the last two years of the arts col- leges of the State which will be accepted by medical schools as an equivalent of one year of medicine. It has progressed to the point of outlining the course, an expressed willingness on the part of several colleges to adopt it, and of two medical schools to accept it. This arrangement will earn the baccalau- reate and medical degree in seven years. There has. however, been noticeable during the last two years a strong reaction against the tendency to shorten the college course, and from the papers and discussions which have been contributed during this period it is evident that there has been a return to the distinct work of the American college as such. This is accentuated, and the work of the small college strength- ened by Mr. Carnegie's recent statements concerning contem- plated action, and the gifts of D. K. Pearsons to numerous small colleges in the West. President Hadley in his article in the Century Mogazine for April, 1905, puts the matter in an un- answerable form which should be studied by everyone in- terested in this phase of our educational life. This article, which is based upon the statement of a French scholar that the bachelor's degree is a social rather than a pedagogical institu- tion, and in which he demonstrates that the college course is valued not solely or primarily for its studies but rather for its associations, concludes as follows : " Tmie alone can show whether the idea of allowing a student to develop his professional activity at as early a period as pos- sible, but postponing to as late a period as possible the narrow- ing of his sympthies and the lessening of his points of contact ^ 30 Educational Review [September with men outside of iiis profession, is a practical or an im- practicable one. " While we are waitin^r for this question to be decided, we shall probably see two sets of experiments going on in different universities. In those which are connected with our large cities where the work of the professional school counts for more and the life of the college for less, we are likely to see a tendency to shorten the college course — a tendency to make a sharp line of demarcation between the studies of that course and the pro- fessional studies which are to follow it. and to disregard or undervalue the social adjuncts which a college course carries with it. In smaller places and among institutions which have a more distinctly collegiate atmosphere, we may expect to find these tendencies reversed. — to see an effort to maintain the col- lege course in its integrity and include within it as much as pos sible of preparation for the actual work of life, — in the belief that the gain to American institutions and American citizenship resulting from the contact of different types of men with one another will be strong enough to resist the tendency of such a college to disintegration and valuable enough to compensate for any difficulties and losses which the prosecution of such a plan inx'oh'es." Prophecies are presumably out of order, but there are in- dications that undergraduate work will eventually be entirely separated from the distinctive university courses, and all work preparatory thereto left to secondary schools and colleges. ENTRANCE TO THE PROFESSIONS Material progress has been made in the last two years in establishing legal ])rovisions in the x-arious States guarding the entrance to the professions of law, medicine, dentistry, veter- inary surgery, nurse-training, and public accounting. The necessity of maintaining relatively uniform standards in the va- rious States is now recognized sufficiently to induce legislative action. The State of New York leads in her elaborate code governing all of these professions, and the laws of other States are usually based upon the New York statutes. The Southern and far Western States are still slow to act. 1905J Educational progress of the year 131 In law, the State of Missouri has estabhshed a State board of examiners and a prehminary education equivalent to a gram- mar-school course. In medicine, reciprocity provisions for indorsino- other State licenses have been passed in Georgia, Iowa, Missouri, and Wy- oming. Medical acts have been revised in South Carolina, Ken- tucky, Vermont, and Wyoming. In dentistry. State boards of examiners have been created by Kentucky and Wyoming; Mississippi requires liigh-school education or its equivalent as a preliminary to the examination. In pharmacy, New York has made eight years in elementary schools and one year in high school a prerequisite to entering a school of pharmacy. Pennsylvania has become the second State requiring a diploma from a reputable pharmacy school for admission to licensing examinations. In veterinary medicine, Maine and Missouri have established State boards of examiners, and New York has raised the en- trance requirement of veterinary colleges to a four-year high- school course, or its equix^alent. placing this profession on a par with medicine and dentistry. In nurse-training, Maryland has created a State board of ex- aminers, and the equivalent of a high-school course and •diploma from a training-school is required for registration. UNIVERSITY SUMMER SCHOOLS The last two years seem to have marked perceptibly the pass- ing of the summer school of methods and the growth in public favor of the university summer school. This is a distinct step in advance, inasmuch as it substitutes for the spasmodic efforts of diverse agencies, a regular curricuUim maintained by a re- sponsible organization. The growth of the university summer schools is phenomenal and teachers are patronizing them to a remarkable degree. A number of cities have made it a financial or professional advantage to th^ teachers who attend univer- sity summer schools. Sevei'al cities give specific advances in salary to the teacher who brings a certificate of achievement ; others allow several points toward professional examinations for the winn-'ne of similar credentials. 132 Educational Review [September THE PUBLIC LIBRARY^ AN INTEGRAL PART OF OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM The public library as an educational force is beginning to be much more thoroly understood and used. If civilization is to advance and free institutions be insured, there must be intelli- gence on the part of the people and due regard paid to the con- stant improvement of the individual. The school does not hold the child any great length of time. The average term of in- struction per pupil for the whole country is now about 5.17 years, and an additional means of instruction must be provided at -public expense. When school days are over there is no agency but the public library to efficiently take the place, and for busy men and women it is the only opportunity for larger infor- mation and for self-education, which is in reality the broadest and best education. The highest civilization is that which lives together in mutual helpfulness. It means to each citizen a source of help, comfort, and protection, each giving according to his power and each acquiring according to his deserts. An ignorant and unenlightened people cannot live such a life as this. Small men and women cannot enter into it. There must be breadth of horizon and largeness of outlook, grounded in information, intelligence, and character. The common school has thrown wide the door of opportunity, and its work must be carried to completion by the public library. That this is realized by the public is amply demonstrated by the remarkable increase of public libraries and the growth and extension of its principles. Five hundred and six library gifts in the United States for the year ending May 31. 1904, the latest figures available, are reported at $6,103,137, of which nearly one- fourth was given by Mr. Carnegie. He has given during the last fifteen years nearly forty millions of dollars to establish 1350 libraries. The appropriation for the City of New York for current library expenses for the year 1905 was $634,393. The free circulation of books in the City of New York for 1904 was 6,339,190, and for the State of New York a grand total of 11,347,802. Accurate statistic-^ nre not available from other portions of the country, but in twenty-three States there are / 1 905 J Educational progress of the yea r 133 State library commissions, or departments, to promote the establishment of public libraries and to assist them in main- taining high standards of usefulness. The number of free libraries is rapidly increasing from year to year, and, in the light of its supplementary function to the public-school, library growth is one of the brightest signs of the times. SPECIAL EDUCATION Special education — a term which I have never liked, seem- ingly coined to avoid the use of the word " defective " and which has always to be defined as education applying to chil- dren defective in some measure — has made a wonderful ad- vance during the last two years, particularly in two ways: First, a growing appreciation and practical acceptance on the part of the public that it is as much a part of the duty of the state to provide free education for children defective in any respect as for those who are normal ; this is evidenced by in- creased interest and increased appropriations for the mainte- nance of schools for special instruction. Second, the great in- crease in the number of manual-training courses in schools for the deaf and dumb, blind and feeble-minded children, whereby they are not only trained to be mentally more alert, but often lay the foundation of a trade which will support them during life. In connection with the Ohio School for Feeble-minded Youth, there has recently been established a custodial farm of sufficient acreage to give employment to the adult feeble- mmded of the State in such a way that the sexes are entirely separated, not only from each other but from society at large. In the courses of study for the blind there has been introduced a great amount of nature-study, by which the sense-perception is being greatly increased and a knowledge of the outer world more closely brought to the mental sight of the child. At the St. Louis Exposition there was on exhibition a group of 358 specimens of insects gathered, classified, and mounted by blind pupils, the only aid given being that which was rendered by ordinary children in catching the specimens. If this increased study in nature-work will aid to cultivate in the blind a habit of exact thought in the place of the irregular emotions which 134 EdiuaCiunal Review [September have hitherto characterized this class <;f chiUh-en, it will be a distinct step in advance. A resohitioii passed by the American Medical Association in New Orleans, in May, 1903, asking- that measures be taken l)y boards of health, boards of education, and sch(X3l authorities and, if possible, legislation be secured looking toward an ex- amination of the eyes and ears of all school children, has been adopted by the Mississippi Valley Medical Association, the American Public Health Association, and over twenty State medical associations. In about thirty cities of the country formal tests of the sight and hearing are maintained by official medical inspectors, and in a number of municipalities medical inspectors are appointed by the public-school authorities to test not only the sight and hearing but other organs of the body. This guardianship of the health of children is producing re- markably good results. In many of our cities also special classes are formed for the training of children, more or less abnormal, who with proper care can make greater intellectual advance. These classes are always small and in charge of a teacher specially fitted for the delicate work. COMPUL.SORY EDUCATION AND JUVENILE COURTS The feeling of responsibility on the part of those carrying on the affairs of the state for the education of the young is in- creasing. There is a greater ap[)reciation of the child's rights to an education and an insistence upon parents sending chil- dren to school up to the full age limit. The compulsory educa- tion laws have been amended in many States with this end in view. Children's courts have been established in many cities and truants and incorrigibles carefully supervised and placed where they can secure a good elementary education. Notable juvenile courts are those conducted by Judge Lindsay of Den- ver, Judge Tutliill of Chicago, and Judge Stul)bs of Indian- apolis. SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATION The measures for adapting the public-school system to the varied conditions of a great urban pcjpulation are significant 1905] Educatio7ial progress of the year 135 features of our social and economic progress. Various forms of continuation schools for those who are employed during the day are being- established in all the large industrial cities. The educational centers for working people in Boston, the evening School of Trades in Springfield, and the great number of evening schools in New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago are instances in point. These schools teach a range of subjects almost as wide as the day schools, tho leaning strongly to the practical. The attendance of recently arrived immigrants at these schools is noticeable and significant. The use of the public schoolhouses in the evenings as social centers, for popular lectures, for parents' meetings, and for study clubs, begun in the larger cities, is rapidly being adopted in smaller cities and industrial towns, and brings a double return to the community for the investment in educational equipment. The humane as well as educational principle involved in maintaining vacation schools in crowded cities where children can find recreation as well as instruction in manual training, gymnastics, and athletics is reclaiming thousands of boys and girls from street life and turning gangs of embryo toughs into normal trained men and women. The public-school gymna- sium and playground is recognized to be as potent a factor in modern school training and upbuilding of character as can be employed. For this reason one of the most notable events of the school year just closing is the appropriation of one million dollars for the purchase and the equipment of playgrounds in the tenement districts of New York and Brooklyn. Three hundred thousand dollars was also appropriated for purchasinp- three athletic fields for the use of the pupils of the greater city. It is money well spent. Nearly every city in the United States of one hundred thousand inhabitants maintains vacation schools. The great development in the last five years has been due to New York's action in taking over the schools formerly conducted by the Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor, and its great need has led to the prosecution of the work with corresponding vigor. 13.^ Educational Review [September THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION A paper of tliis nature would not be complete without refer- ence to the educational exhibits of the Universal Exposition held at St. Louis in 1904. in which exhibit thirty-three States and Territories and twenty-tw(j foreign countries participated. At the same time there may be a doubt as to whether this ., ,.^.'.^:-.\ /.•;-.-•-% ,^^.^^'-'.\, /• %•-. "^, V •"• A*^ o v>i, .^ /> o o ^-.^ o Jv^-n » " *_" V ^^0^ O ' 6 . o •' .0*^ I . .'\ v> <. *' .. ^^ ,0 A' «-p ,s °o V ^*^tr»,j. -1'. '^ 0' ^^ -^^ A ^^-v -^^ ^ -^ <' ;^ (? .^^ "^. 'i^.' ^ -^ *- ^^o^ •^ . . »)>. - ' ' > ^\, -v <- V -> /% -^^ /^ ^r-- /-^ --p^ Z^'^:- ^ ./V^^\ ^^^^i^^°- .^' 0' "^^