Class _£ Book._ _^__ Copyright^ , COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. READER FOR COMING AMERICANS READER FOR COMING AMERICANS READINGS AND LANGUAGE LESSONS IN HISTORY, INDUSTRIES AND GOVERNMENT By PETER ROBERTS, Ph. D. New York Young Men's Christian Association Press 1910 •** K V Copyright, 1910, by the International Committee of Young Men's Christian Associations CLA25I TABLE OF CONTENTS Part One — Historical I. The Discoverer of America 13 II. American Aborigines 16 III. The Rivalry of Nations 20 IV. The Deliverer of America 24 V. An Attack on Quebec 28 VI. Palmetto Logs and Victory 31 VII. The Patriot Spy 35 VIII. Uncivilized Backwoodsmen 38 IX. A Midnight Surprise 42 X. The Obelisk with the Empty Space 46 XL Area of the United States 49 XII. Geographical Divisions 52 XIII. Wars of America 56 XIV. Old Hickory at New Orleans 60 XV. The Preserver of the Union 64 XVI. General Grant 68 XVII. Devotion to the Union 72 XVIII. Dying for the Flag 75 XIX. Population 78 XX. America and the World 81 Part Two — Industrial I. General Resources 89 II. Coal 91 III. Petroleum 93 IV. Salt 95 V. Lead 97 VI. Lumber 99 VII. Rice 101 VIII. Printing 103 CONTENTS IX. Paper 105 X. Iron 108 XI. Steel 110 XII. Steamboats 112 XIII. Locomotives 114 XIV. Electricity 1 16 XV. The Telegraph 119 XVI. Leather 121 XVII. Chemicals 124 XVIII. Silk Industry 126 XIX. Cotton Industry , 128 XX. Starch 131 Part Three — Government I. Forms of Government 139 II. The Beginnings of American Democracy. 143 III. The New England Township 145 IV. The County 148 V. Public Education 151 VI. The Citizen and the Government 153 VII. Who Can and Who Cannot Vote 155 VIII. Government and Property Interests 159 IX. Why Taxes Are Imposed 160 X. Different Kinds of Taxes 162 XI. The City 164 XII. Why Cities Have Laws 166 XIII. Maintaining Order 168 XIV. State Government 170 XV. State and Local Governments 173 XVI. The Administration of Justice 176 XVII. Congress 182 XVIII. The President and His Cabinet 185 XIX. The States and the Nation 189 XX. Naturalization 194 PREFACE The millions of foreign-born in America, if they are to love this country, must know that the country is worth loving. The definition of the Republic, "A government of the people, by the people and for the people," conveys no meaning to the alien unless he is shown how the people rule. To sing, "The land of the free and the home of the brave," is not enough ; it must be accompanied by a rehearsal of some of the deeds of the free and the brave. The foreign-born can only learn by systematic teaching that America has a form of government well calculated to reflect the needs of the people; that our courts of justice guarantee to each man the fruits of his labor; that civil and religious liberty is enjoyed by all who dwell under the shadow of the stars and stripes. These facts are a "gospel of glad tidings" to millions of immigrants. They come hoping for great things ; it remains with us whether or not they shall realize their hope. A government dependent upon militarism and bureaucracy can afford to ignore the ignorance and illiteracy of its subjects; a democracy cannot. Our brother immigrant needs education, and when he understands that justice and truth, free- dom and liberty, rights and duties, are necessary in a democracy, he will help to preserve them. The Reader is designed for the use of those who either have finished the course in "Preparatory Eng- lish,"* or who have a sufficient knowledge of the Eng- *"English for Coming Americans," a course in preparatory English for the foreign-speaking, comprising thirty lessons, by Peter Roberts, Ph. D. Y. M. C. A. Press, New York. 8 PREFACE lish language so as to profit by attending classes in which questions in history, government and industry are discussed. Our aim has been to furnish material for class work which a wise teacher may use accord- ing to his discretion. The objective is to kindle the love of the alien for a form of government evolved on this continent by a free people. The Teachers Language is conversation, and the purpose of this Reader is to furnish material to teachers who aid the foreign-speaking to talk, read and write the English language accurately and fluently. The following is my way of teaching — taking for instance Lesson L, The Discoverer of America: — 1. I tell the story in simple language to the class, pointing on the world's map the place from which Columbus started and the island where he landed. 2. We go over the lesson in the Reader. I ask each student by name to read a sentence. Each member in the class pays particular attention to pronunciation and I emphasize the points about which questions will soon be asked. Jan stumbles over a word. I ask the class if he pronounces it correctly : No : what is the right pronunciation ? All say it : all read the sentence : that's it. Now proceed. We read the last paragraph in unison. 3. I go to the map again and point out Portugal and ask Michael to read the note about it. I point PREFACE 9 out the Bahamas and ask Petro to read the note about it. We find New Providence and Nassau. 4. I ask questions ; not only those given in the lesson but others also : anything that pertains to the subject about which the students are willing to talk. Oscar gives monosyllabic answers. I ask him to give a fuller answer. I encourage the backward and see that the forward ones do not give all the answers. 5. We find the words given under "synonyms" in the lesson ; each time I ask a pupil to use the synonym and read the sentence. We then take up the words of like sound. I write on the blackboard : "The tool is . ln the box" and tell the students to write it and inn choose the correct word. I do the same with "to and too," "knew and new," "the and thee," "would and wood." 6. I write on the blackboard while the students are writing the sentences : Columbus discovered America Great finally an island in I tell the class what parts of speech the words on the upper line are. Then I take up the supplemental words and do the same. I explain : noun is the name of a thing (illustrate). verb denotes action (illustrate). adjective qualifies noun (illustrate). preposition shows relation (illustrate). 7. Before dismissing the class I ask each student to write, at home, all he knows about Columbus and bring it with him next time. 10 PREFACE The grammar lessons are given for the convenience of the teacher; he must exercise discretion as to how much to give the pupils, according to their capacity. He should avoid all abstraction, give concrete in- stances of all he teaches, and as far as possible ob- jectify every lesson. The teacher need not follow the lessons consecu- tively. The instruction in grammar can be adapted to any lesson in Part One or Part Two. It is not advisable to introduce instruction in grammar in con- nection with the lessons in Part Three, because of the variety of subjects to be discussed in them. Each lesson affords opportunity for the intro- duction of supplemental words and phrases. The teacher should ever keep this in mind and give prac- tice to the students in the choice of adjectives, ad- verbs or qualifying phrases to amplify simple sen- tences. PART ONE HISTORICAL READINGS IN HISTORY I. THE DISCOVERER OF AMERICA (1445-1506) Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492. He was a native of Genoa, Italy, and began a sea- faring life when he was fourteen years old. He was a poor boy with limited education, believing at first, as all others did at that time, that the earth was flat. However through years of experience he became pro- ficient as a sailor. He married a navigator's daugh- ter and came into possession of many valuable maps and charts. After much study he concluded that the earth was round and that by going west he would come to India. He was very ambitious to put his belief to a practical test. Columbus became a resident of Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, then a center of nautical enterprise, and he tried to interest the people of that country in his plans. But all thought him foolish and his scheme fantastic. After eighteen years of waiting, insult and poverty, Isabella, Queen of Spain, became inter- ested in his cause and she and the King placed at his disposal three ships manned by sailors ready to sail upon unknown seas. Columbus sailed westward for ten weeks before he saw land. During that time the sailors more than once threatened mutiny and Col- umbus resorted to various devices to calm their fears. They finally landed on one of the group of islands we now call the Bahamas. Columbus supposed these were islands off the coast of Asia and that the inhabi- 14 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS tants were Indians. The islands were called the West Indies because they were reached by sailing west — India proper was called the East Indies be- cause it was reached by the eastern route. Columbus returned to Europe to tell of his dis- covery and soon other navigators came to the New World. Columbus lived to make three other voy- ages to the new land and died (1506), believing that he had discovered only a new way to Asia. It was some years later before men knew that Columbus had discovered a new world. The continent was called America after Americus Vespucius, a navigator, who was supposed to be the first to discover the main land and of whose voyage an account was printed. Explanations Portugal : A kingdom of Europe situated on the western part of the Iberian Peninsula, with Lisbon as its capital. Bahamas: A group of islands northeast of Cuba and east of Florida. The capital city is Nassau on the Island of New Providence. Questions 1. What can you tell of the early life of Columbus? 2. Whom did Columbus marry and what came into his possession? 3. What was the common belief regarding the shape of the earth ? 4. What did Columbus conclude from his study? 5. What was he ambitious to do? 6. Whom did he first try to interest in his plans ? 7. How long was he kept waiting? 8. Who finally came to his aid? 9- Describe incidents of his voyage. 10. Where did he land? LESSONS IN HISTORY 15 11. Did he return to Europe? 12. How many more voyages did he make? 13. After whom was the continent named and why? Synonyms Concluded — inferred Nautical — naval (of the Disposal — command sea) Enterprise — undertaking Occasions — incidents Fantastic — unpractical Resorted — used (had re- Mutiny — revolt course to) Navigator — one who sails Seafaring — sailor Words Like in Sound All — an adj ective ; awl — a shoemaker's tool Boy — a lad; buoy — a float In — a preposition ; inn — a small hotel Knew — did know ; new — not old The — an article; thee — a pronoun Time — duration ; thyme — a plant To — a preposition ; too — an adverb ; two — a numeral Would — a verb ; wood — timber Grammar — Parts of Speech A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. In order to distinguish words in sentences, grammarians classify them into parts of speech. There are eight parts of speech : noun, pronoun, adj ec- tive, adverb, verb, preposition, conjunction and interjec- tion. A Noun is the name of any person or thing : Columbus, ship. A Pronoun stands for a noun, Columbus, who discov- ered, etc. An Adjective qualifies nouns: Columbus was a poor boy. 16 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS An Adverb qualifies adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs: Columbus, extremely poor, waited very long for help, etc. A Verb denotes being or action. Columbus discovered America. Men live. A Preposition shows the relation between words : Columbus came to Portugal from Genoa. A Conjunction joins words and sentences: Columbus and his sailors, etc. An Interjection is a word expressing sudden and deep feeling: O fie, etc. Let the student name the parts of speech in the first five lines of the lesson. II. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES When Columbus and the other early navigators discovered and explored the American continent the country was inhabited by the Red Men; they were called Indians as the country was supposed to be a part of India. Scholars differ in their ideas as to the origin of this race. Antiquarians claim to find evidences that the continent has been inhabited many thousands of years. The so-called Indians may have been descendants of this prehistoric people or their ancestors may have reached America from Asia at a comparatively recent date. The civilization which the Europeans found on this continent was varied. In Mexico, Central America and Peru the people lived in cities and were advanced in many of the arts — ruins of wonderful buildings still exist in these countries. In the terri- tory now occupied by the United States and Canada LESSONS IN HISTORY 17 the Indians were in a barbaric state. The country was mostly forest and the inhabitants not numerous. They lived largely by hunting and fishing. Their houses were crude structures built of poles or logs, and their clothing was mostly made from the skins of animals, although these were often made into a soft leather (buckskin) and prettily colored and embroidered by the women. The white men were received at first as friends, but differences soon arose ; the colonists were overbearing and the natives were treacherous and revengeful. As the settlers increased in numbers and pushed fur- ther to the west their advance was disputed by the Indians who resented being driven from their homes and hunting grounds. For many years there was bitter strife along the borders. But there could be only one end; the Red Men were everywhere forced to yield before the superior enterprise of the white invaders and long ago became a thoroughly con- quered race. Many Indians have now adopted the new civilization and are prospering, especially as farmers; others are cared for by the government on tracts of land set apart for their use and called reservations. There are now about 300,000 Indians in the United States. Their long wars with the whites and among themselves, together with the ravages of con- tagious diseases and vices introduced by Europeans, fearfully reduced their numbers. In recent years however peace has generally prevailed. Schools and industrial institutions have been established by gov- ernment and Christian missionaries have made earnest 18 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS efforts in their behalf. Under these conditions, though some tribes did not take kindly to the civili- zation of the white men, they are believed to be hold- ing their own as to numbers. Questions 1. Why were the Red Men called Indians? 2. What do we know of their origin? 3. What about the civilization of the old Mexicans and Peruvians? 4. Describe the Indians as found by the Puritan settlers. 5. Tell what happened as these colonists pushed their settlements inland. 6. What was the final result ? 7. How many Indians are there now in the United States? 8. Describe the different ways of living among the Indians at the present time and give the reasons for the same. Synonyms Antiquarian — student of Diseases — sicknesses the old Explored — searched Ancestors — forefathers Evidence — proof Advanced — progressed Enterprise — daring Barbaric— not civilized Especially — particular- Borders — frontiers ly Civilization — methods of Invader — newcomer living Numerous — many Comparatively — rela- Origin — beginning tively Occupied — possessed Conquered — overcome Recent — modern Contagious — catching Revengeful — unforgiv- Discovered — found ing Descendants — children of Reservation — land set Disputed — contested apart LESSONS IN HISTORY 19 Strife — struggle Treacherous — false, Superior — higher and faithless better Vice — badness Territory — land Words Like in Sound But — a conjunction; butt — thick end High — tall, lofty; hie — hasten One — a number; won — did win Race — a people; race — to run Some — an adjective; sum — total Their — possessive pronoun; there — not here Grammar — N ouns Nouns form their plural by adding s to the singular: proof, proofs. Nouns ending in sh, ch, s and x add es: fish, fishes; church, churches. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y to i before es : part^ parties. Nouns ending in / and fe change / and fe to v before es: wife, wives. Nouns ending in o add es: negro, negroes (exception: piano, pianos, etc.). Some nouns form their plural irregularly: ox, oxen; man, men; tooth, teeth. Nouns are of two classes: Common and proper. A Common Noun denotes a class of persons or ob- jects: man, tribe, year. A Proper Noun denotes a particular person or object: Columbus, Asia. Nouns have two genders, Masculine and Feminine: man, woman. Gender is expressed in three ways: 1. By different word: man, woman; father, mother; bull, cow. 2. By prefixing a word indicating sex: he-goat, she- goat; man-servant, woman-servant. 20 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS S. By a suffix: lion, lioness; god, goddess; bride, bridegroom. Some nouns include both genders: child, parent. These are said to be of Common gender. Some nouns are not masculine nor feminine: stone, house. These are called Neuter nouns. Of course these last two classes of nouns are un- changed for they do not express gender. Let student find common and proper nouns in Lesson II. III. RIVALRY OF NATIONS After the discovery of the New World the mari- time nations of Europe were eager to gain possession of this territory and bring its wealth into their cof- fers. The rivals in this great race were the Span- iards, the French, the English, the Swedes and the Dutch. Spain held most of South and Central America, the region bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and also laid claim to other large sections of North America. The French held sway along the St. Lawrence and down through the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. The English colonies occupied the eastern part of North America below the lakes and had the advantage of controlling nearly all of the Atlantic seacoast. The possessions of the Dutch and Swedes were comparatively insignificant. Spain and England first fought for the mastery. Britain was at war with Spain and was disputing with her the supremacy of the seas. In the New World her seamen harassed the Spanish colonies on LESSONS IN HISTORY 21 both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. To crush this rising sea power Philip II. (1588) prepared an immense fleet and sent it against his British foe. The destruction of the Spanish Armada in the Eng- lish channel is one of the events of history and led to Spain yielding all claims in North America, except- ing the Gulf countries of Mexico and Florida. In 1664 the English, being at war with the Dutch, made a bloodless conquest of New Netherlands — the country about the mouth of the Hudson and along the river as far north as Albany. The conflict was now between the English and the French. These nations had been at war periodically for centuries and naturally the strife followed them across the water. There were alternating periods of hostilities and quiet for many years. The tide turned in favor of the English when, by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), France was compelled to cede to England its province of Acadia (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and a part of Maine) — a section especially valuable on account of its fisheries. Forty years later began the final conflict, known as the French and Indian War (1755-63). The French were first driven from the Ohio valley ; then followed a varying campaign in which the French were finally driven into Canada. In 1759 "the Key City" of Quebec fell and the following year the English were in full possession of Canada which was formally ceded to England by the Treaty of Paris (1763). Louisiana, then including the immense and little known territory west of the Mississippi, had already been purchased of France by Spain so that the 22 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS French now held not a foot of its splendid empire on the mainland of the American continent. The Anglo-Saxon was in practical control of the desti- nies of North America. Questions 1. Name the nations that were rivals in the strife to obtain possession of the New World. 2. What was their chief obj ect in this ? 3. What parts of North America did Spain hold? France? the Dutch? the English? 4. What special geographical advantage had the English colonies? 5. What great event decided the question of mastery between England and Spain? 6. What parts of North America did Spain keep ? 7. How came the Dutch to lose New Netherlands? 8. Were England and France often at war with each other? 9- What province was France first obliged to give up? 10. What was the outcome of the French and Indian War? 11. What town was considered the "key city" of Canada ? 12. When was it taken and by whom? 13. Has France at this time any possessions in North America ? Synonyms Advantage — benefit Hostilities — warfare Armada — fleet Immense — large Cede — to give up Insignificant — small Coffers — treasuries Maritime — bordering on Destinies — future the sea Disputing — contending Rival— competitor Eager — anxious Supremacy — mastery Harass — molest LESSONS IN HISTORY 23 Words Like in Sound Down — lower; down — fine soft feathers Great — large; grate — framework of bars; grate — to rub harshly- Left — past of leave; left — opposite of right State — a part of the Union; state — a condition; state —to tell Grammar — Pronouns Pronouns are classified as: Personal, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, Reflexive. Personal pronouns refer to the person who speaks, the person spoken to and the person spoken of: / assure you that he is a wise man. These pronouns have different forms as they precede or follow the verb or as they express possession: I struck him; he struck me; my horse; this book is mine. The following are the forms: 1st Person 2d Person Singular Plural Singular Plural my and mine me we our and ours us you and thou your and yours thy and thine you and thee you your and yours you Person Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine, Feminine and Neuter he his him she her and hers her it its it they their and theirs them 24 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Demonstrative pronouns point out the person or object referred to: this, that, these, those: this man, these houses. Interrogative pronouns ask questions : who, which, what: who speaks? which of the houses? what shall I say? Relative pronouns refer to a noun used in the same sentence: who, which, that and what: The man who sings. Who has three forms : who before the verb, whom after verbs and prepositions, and whose expressing pos- session: Whose horse is this? The man of whom we Reflexive pronouns represent the action as falling on the actor: He injured himself. These are formed by adding self to the pronoun: Myself, ourselves, herself. Let the student find the pronouns in Lesson III. and state what kind they are. IV. THE DELIVERER OF AMERICA (1732-1799) George Washington, "the father of his country," was born in Virginia, February 22, 1732. His father, a well-to-do planter, died when George was eleven years old and the boy grew to manhood under the careful training of a wise and cultured mother. His early education was not broad but he excelled in mathematics and at the age of sixteen became a surveyor. He was tall and manly in form and noted for his physical strength and courage, his careful business methods and his high moral principles. When nineteen he was given an important position in the Colonial militia and, during the French and Indian war which soon followed, he made a brilliant record for bravery and efficiency. At the close of hostilities, LESSONS IN HISTORY 25 at the age of twenty-seven, he married a beautiful and wealthy widow and for the next sixteen years lived the quiet life of a Virginia planter. But when in 1775 the War of Independence broke out people looked to Washington as their leader and for the long years of the Revolution he led the Colonial army with great skill, though through many discourage- ments and with varying success, until England finally acknowledged the independence of the American States. After the adoption of the Constitution (1787), Washington was chosen as the first Presi- dent of the United States and held the office for eight years. At the close of his second term he retired voluntarily and gladly to private life, honored and respected by the entire country. He died at his home of Mt. Vernon, on the banks of the Potomac River, December, 1799, in his sixty-eighth year. Washington was a man of great courage and devo- tion. He loved truthfulness and honesty ; was dis- creet and knew men. His wisdom and bravery were invaluable to the nation in the dark days of the war, while his qualities as a statesman were equally service- able to the nation when jealousies divided the States. Men of his stamp make and save nations. Explanations A colony is a company of people transplanted from their mother country to another country or province and still remaining subj ect to the parent state. The thirteen American colonies that revolted against the oppression of the government of England were a mixed population, but the great majority were descendants of the early settlers who represented the best blood of England. 26 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Questions 1. What was George Washington called after the close of the Revolution? 2. Where was he born and when? 3. Why are we not likely to forget the day of his birth? 4. What business did he enter as a young man? 5. Tell something about his appearance and character. 6. How old was he when he became an officer of the Virginia militia ? 7. What was his record during the war between the English and French? 8. To what position was he called by Congress when the War for Independence broke out? 9. What did he do for his country during the years of this war ? 10. After the adoption of the Constitution what office did he hold and for how long? 11. Is it common in your native country for men holding honorable and powerful positions to retire volun- tarily to private life ? Tell the students about any historical places or monu- ments of Revolutionary interest in your vicinity. Synonyms Brilliant — bright, glori- Mathematics — arithme- ous tic, etc. Constitution — rules of Militia — citizen soldiers government Plantation — large farm Discouragements — trou- Principles — character bles, hindrances Revolution — change of Efficiency — usefulness government Hostilities — warfare Surveyor — land measurer Independence — freedom Voluntarily — willingly LESSONS IN HISTORY 27 Words Like in Sound Born — beginning of life ; borne — carried Be — exist; bee — an insect Die — perish; dye — to color Grammar — Adjectives and Adverbs Qualities can be compared, hence adjectives and adverbs have comparison. Adjectives and adverbs form their comparative and superlative degrees by adding er and est to the positive: Tall, tall-er, tall-est; late, late-r, late-st. If the adjective and adverb are of more than one syl- lable, more and most are used: beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful; recently, more recently, most recently. Notice the following: Holy, holz-er, holi-est; thin, thin-ner, thin-nest. Adjectives ending in y change y to i before er and est; and those ending in a consonant preceded by a short vowel double the consonant. The diminishing quantity is expressed by less and least; noble, less noble, least noble. Notice the following irregular adjectives and adverbs: Adjectives Adverbs Good better best Well better best Bad worse worst 111 worse worst Much more most Much more most Little less least Little less least Late later or latter last Adverbs are generally formed from adjectives by the suffix ly: A sweet apple; he sings sweetly. Adverbs express time, place, manner and degree: We rose early; he is inside; he speaks softly; he is greatly honored. The Numerals are either adjectives or adverbs: Three ships ; the second day ; they came two by two. Let the student find the adjectives and adverbs in Lesson IV. 28 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS V. AN ATTACK ON QUEBEC (September-December, 1775) Quebec, in the Revolutionary War, was the key to Canada. Washington wished to take the city and ordered Benedict Arnold to march with eleven hun- dred men to attempt the arduous task. The distance between Boston and Quebec is 350 miles. The men covered the first 150 with ease, but the 200 miles of wilderness still to be covered meant hardship and suffering to the patriots. As they ascended the Kennebec River much of the cargo was lost; when they came to the Dead River a rainstorm had caused it to overflow its banks and their boats were either sunk or dashed to pieces and their provisions swept away. Their rations ran short, and a hundred miles of wilderness was before them. The men suffered hunger, their faithful dogs were killed and eaten. When they reached Quebec, the rollcall was answered by only 600 men, whose tattered clothes, bare feet and haggard faces testified to the suffering they had endured. The garrison in Quebec had been notified of their coming so that to surprise the fort was out of the question. Arnold camped in front of the city and was joined by Montgomery who had taken the city of Montreal. Even with the re-enforcement the patriots could not storm the city, so their only hope lay in a night surprise. The last night of the year was chosen for the attempt. A snowstorm raged, but at midnight the patriots started. Arnold led LESSONS IN HISTORY 29 the attack on one side of the town and Montgomery on the other. Early in the engagement Arnold was wounded and left bleeding in the snow. Morgan took command, carried the batteries and forced his way into the streets of the lower town, where he waited the signal of Montgomery. This young general went cautiously round a steep cliff and came face to face with the enemy. A storm of grapeshot swept the narrow pass and Mont- gomery fell dead. His troops, confused and dis- mayed, gave way and retreated. Morgan and his men kept up the fight all night in the streets, but in the morning they were outnumbered and were forced to surrender. The midnight attack had failed and the "key to Canada" remained in the possession of the British. Explanations The relative positions of Boston and Quebec to be shown on the map. Quebec was founded by the French 1608 and captured by the English 1759- Questions 1. What did Washington wish to do? 2. What was Quebec called? 3. How many soldiers did Arnold take? 4. Tell about Arnold's journey from Boston to Quebec. 5. What rivers did he ascend? 6. How many men had he at the end of the journey? 7. Who joined Arnold before Quebec? 8. How did they attempt to take the city? 9. Describe the attack and its results. SO READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Synonyms Ascending — going up Retreat — falling back Confused — perplexed Signal — sign Dismayed — filled with Surprise — take unawares fear Surrender — yield Patriot — lover of his Tattered — ragged country Troops — soldiers Provision — food Wilderness — forest Ration — allowance Words Like in Sound Felt — did feel; felt — a kind of cloth Night — darkness; knight — a title Still — an adverb; still — calm; still — a place for dis- tilling Grammar — Verbs Verbs are of two kinds : Transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs direct the action to an object: The men killed the dogs. Intransitive verbs limit the action to the actor: The plan failed. The verb "killed" (The men killed the dogs) is in the Active Voice. If we change the form to "The dogs were killed by the men/' the verb is in the Passive Voice. The difference is that the noun following the verb in the first form precedes it in the second. Intransitive verbs, limiting the action to the actor, cannot have a passive voice. The action may be expressed in different manners: 1. It may be a statement or a question: The garri- son is attacked; who attacks the garrison? Here the verb is in the Indicative Mood. 2. It may be a command or an advice : Bring me the horse; thou shalt not kill. Here the verb is in the Im- perative Mood. LESSONS IN HISTORY 31 3. It may be dependent upon another action: If I were in your place I would not go. Here the verb is in the Subjunctive Mood. 4. It may refer to simple action: To sleep. Here the verb is in the Infinitive Mood. An action may take place in the present, past or in the future. Hence we have three tenses : Present, Past, Future: I sleep, I slept, I will sleep. The verb in the third person singular, present indica- tive, takes the s form: He write-*; the man run-s; the kite flie-s; it echo-es. The rules governing the forma- tion of the plural of nouns are equally applicable in the formation of the s-form of the verb. The Past tense is formed by adding d or ed to the present form of the verb: We love, we love-d; it snows, it snow-ed ; we carry, we carri-ed. These are called reg- ular verbs; those which form the past tense in any other way are irregular, as I run, I ran. The Future tense is formed by the helping verbs, shall and will: I shall run; we will run. Find the verbs in Lesson V. VI. THE PALMETTO LOGS AND VICTORY (June 28, 1776) Fifty British ships and transports, anchored off the bar at Charleston, determined to capture the city and punish South Carolina, which had been one of the first States to declare its independence. Colonel Moultrie, in command of the patriots, had built a fort on Sullivan's Island, guarding the channel lead- ing into the harbor. The fort was constructed of palmetto logs and sand, mounted thirty-one cannon and was manned by 450 patriots. 32 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS The morning of the conflict the British fleet came up the channel with the tide. Four of the largest ships, carrying from twenty-eight to fifty guns each, anchored broadside to the fort while the smaller war vessels took position in a second line. The fleet opened fire and the missiles fell thick and fast upon the fort, but most of them were buried harmlessly in the sand. The bombardment was kept up all the morning but the little fort was not demolished. At noon the British attempted to change the position of their ships but in the effort three vessels were stuck fast on the shoals. The gunners at the fort saw their opportunity and made every shot tell on the enemy's ships. The shots splintered the masts and made sad havoc on the decks. Moultrie passed from gun to gun, cheering his men. "Take good aim, boys," said he, "and don't waste your powder." The flagship was pierced and on one occasion every man on deck was swept off except the admiral. The fort also had its trial ; when the flag was shot away and fell on the beach outside, Sergeant Jasper, leaping through one of the cannon openings, rescued it. He then fastened the flag to a cannon rammer and planted it again on the ramparts amidst the rain of shot and shell. Troops were landed from the transports and the fort was attacked in the rear, but the deadly fire of the riflemen drove the soldiers back. With the setting sun the roar of battle slack- ened, the attack had failed. At midnight with the ebb of the tide the battered vessels — a shadow of what they were that morning— slipped their cables and sailed out into the darkness with their dead. LESSONS IN HISTORY 33 The victory was Moultrie's and the British fleet was so shattered that it could neither fight nor go to sea. Questions 1. How large a fleet did the British send to Charles- ton? 2. Why did they especially wish to punish South Carolina ? 3. Why did the fleet anchor outside the bar? 4. Who commanded the patriots? 5. Where was the fort built? 6. What advantage had the earthworks over a stone wall? 7. Why did the four war vessels anchor broadside to the fort? 8. Tell what Sergeant Jasper did. 9. What part did the troops from the transports take in the battle? 10. How did the conflict end? Synonyms Admiral — high naval of- Missile — projectile fleer Opportunity — chance Attempted — tried Palmetto — a kind of palm Battered — damaged Position — place Cable — anchor rope Ramparts — wall, embank- Channel — passage ment Construct — make, build Rescue — save Declare — assert Shoal — sunken ground Demolished — ruined Splintering — shattering Ebb — flowing out Transport — troop-ship Words Like in Sound Bar — bank of sand; bar — piece of metal; bar — to exclude Fast — rapid; fast — firm; fast — to abstain from food Rain — water from the clouds; reign — rule Sink — to go down; sink — a kitchen fixture Sun — source of light; son — a male child 34 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Grammar — Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections PREPOSITIONS Precision of statement often depends upon the use of the right preposition after the verb. After verbs expressing rest : in, on, at and by are used : He rests in the house. After verbs expressing motion: into, to, unto, toward and from are used: He goes into the house. By indicates the actor; with the instrument: He was wounded by his friend with a sword. Between is used of two persons; among of more than two : Divide it between the two sons ; divide it among the five sons. CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions join words and phrases; they are of three kinds: co-ordinate, subordinate and correlative. Co-ordinate conjunctions couple independent propo- sitions: He went to town and bought a horse. Subordinate conjunctions couple a dependent to a principal sentence: He won the prize because he was industrious. Correlative conjunctions go in pairs: He was neither wise nor good. The most common are: both-and; either-or; neither-nor; whether-or; as-as; so-as; not- only; but-also. As-as makes equal comparison; so-as, unequal. INTERJECTIONS Interjections are of two kinds: 1. Simple words: O blessed retirement. 2. Words in themselves other parts of speech, but used as interjections: Peace! Point out the prepositions and conjunctions in Lesson VI. LESSONS IN HISTORY 35 VII. THE PATRIOT SPY (September, 1776) In the fall of 1776 Washington's heart was very heavy; his army had been defeated in the Battle of Long Island and he could muster only 14,000 men, most of whom were short of clothing, shoes, blankets and tents. The British army, numbering 25,000, was encamped along the shores of New York Bay and East River, while in the harbor anchored a large fleet of warships ready to assist the land forces at a moment's notice. Winter was fast approaching and Washington wanted to find out what point the enemy were planning to attack. He asked for a volunteer to go to the British camp to ascertain what was going on there. Officer after officer re- fused and when the enterprise was about to be abandoned for want of a man to undertake the perilous mission, Nathan Hale came forward and said, "I'll undertake it." He received his instructions from Washington that afternoon and accompanied by a trusty soldier started on his mission. Attired as a schoolmaster he crossed the sound, landed on Long Island and soon reached the British camp. He pretended to be tired of the rebel cause and said he was in search of a place to teach school. During the next two weeks he went from place to place drawing plans of forts and watching the movements of troops, patrols and guards. He accomplished his task and began his return trip to the American lines. He made his way 36 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS through the woods and past all the British camp fires on Long Island until he reached in safety the point where he had first landed. A boat was to meet him here the next morning to take him over to the mainland. He slept that night in a tavern frequented by British soldiers. Early the next morning, seeing a strange boat coming to shore, Hale thought, "That is the very boat I am looking for." He hastened toward the beach but was amazed to see six men standing erect in the boat aiming their muskets at him. He was taken to New York and the following morning was condemned to die the death of a spy. His executioner, as he led him to the place of execution, said, "Give us your dying speech, you young rebel." The young patriot said, "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." Explanations Describe on a map the position of the two armies and trace as nearly as possible Nathan Hale's journey. Tell about the statue of Nathan Hale in Union Square, New York City. Questions 1. What defeat did Washington suffer in the summer of 1776? 2. Describe the condition of his army as winter approached. 3. How did he attempt to ascertain the plans of the English ? 4. Who volunteered for the perilous mission? 5. What was the sure fate of a spy if found out? 6. Tell what you can of the story of Nathan Hale. 7. How was he captured? 8. What were his last words? LESSONS IN HISTORY 37 Synonyms Abandoned — given up Defeated — overcame Accomplished — finished Heavy — sad Amazed — astonished Muster — gather Approaching — coming on Pretended — made believe Ascertain — find out Sound — a body of water Assist — help Trusty — faithful Words Like in Sound Here — at this place; hear — to perceive sound with the ear Meet — to come together; meat — animal food; meet — proper Week — seven days; weak — not strong Grammar — The Sentence The natural order of the English sentence is: Subject Verb Object Washington fought the British Each of these may be amplified by modifying words. Washington, the patriotic general, bravely fought the arrogant British. Every sentence has a main assertion. Care should be taken not to hide it by modifying words, parenthetical clauses, etc. Half the art of composition is to place the modifying words in the right relation to the principal parts of the sentence. If a sentence is unwieldy, cut it up. State your main proposition in simple words, then add the qualifying words, always being careful to put them as near as pos- sible to the part they qualify. Punctuation marks are used to make the meaning of what we write as plain as possible. The Comma (,) is used: 1. To separate two or more verbs having the same obj ect : The horse ran off, upset the carriage, and killed itself. 38 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS 2. To separate subordinate sentences: The horse, which I bought, ran off. 3. To separate qualifying words : The horse, fright- ened at the automobile, ran off. 4. To separate words when and, or or nor is omitted: The horse, carriage, and harness were destroyed. The Period (.) is put at the end of every sentence and after all abbreviations: D. D. The Comma and Period are the marks most frequently used. The other marks are semicolon (;) colon ( :) interro- gation (?) and exclamation (!). A sentence which has two or more large divisions, within which the comma is used, should have its large divisions separated by a semicolon. If within the large divisions the comma and the semicolon are used, the large divisions should be separated from each other by the colon. Marks of interrogation are used after questions. Marks of exclamation are used after expressions of violent emotion. Name punctuation marks in Lesson VII. VIII. "UNCIVILIZED BACKWOODSMEN" (1778-1779) The American frontiersmen rendered valuable ser- vice during the Revolutionary War. One of the most efficiently conducted campaigns was that of Colonel George Clark, of Kentucky, against Kaskas- kia and Vincennes, two British forts that controlled the Illinois country. Between the first of these and the frontiersmen lay 100 miles of wilderness in which various tribes of Indians lived, who, instigated by LESSONS IN HISTORY 39 the British, made hostile raids and were a constant menace to the border settlements. Knowing that the surest defense would be to carry the war into the enemy's country, Colonel Clark gathered 200 brave men, sailed down the Ohio River and journeyed across country in the hot days of summer to Fort Kaskaskia. He arrived in the village when the British officers and the light-hearted Creoles were engaged in a dance. The garrison thought themselves so safe that even the sentinels had left their posts. Clark, leaving a few men at the entrance, went boldly into the great hall and, leaning against the door posts, watched the gay dancers. At last an Indian spied him and springing to his feet gave the war whoop. The dance stopped, women screamed and the men rushed to the door. Clark coolly said : "Go on with your dance, but remember that henceforth you dance under the American flag and not under that of Great' Britain." Several months later in the depths of winter Colonel Clark with less than 200 men set out for a march of 140 miles across country to Fort Vincennes. Their journey over the Illinois prairies was not diffi- cult but when, in February, they reached the low Wabash country, the ice had just broken up and the country was flooded. The troops waded through icy water by day and slept on the muddy hillocks at night. Their food gave out but they pushed on and finally found shelter in a wood two miles from their desired goal. At nightfall, Clark and his brave fellows quietly entered the village and before the British general knew what was going on he and his 40 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS soldiers were safely intrenched within rifle shot of the fort. The garrison attempted a brave defense, but with unerring aim the patriots picked off the gunners and silenced the guns. General Hamilton was soon obliged to give up the fort, as he said, "To a set of uncivilized backwoodsmen with rifles." Thus the vast territory between the Ohio and the Mississippi Rivers and south of the Great Lakes fell into the hands of the patriots. Explanations Creole: One born of European parents in the Ameri- can colonies of France or Spain or in the States which were once such colonies; especially a person of French or Spanish descent who is a native inhabitant of Louis- iana or one of the States adjoining, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. — Webster. Kashashia is situated on the Illinois side of the Missis- sippi River about half way between the present city of St. Louis and the mouth of the Ohio. Vincennes is on the Indiana side of the Wabash River — which here di- vides that state from Illinois — and about seventy miles from where that river enters the Ohio. Colonel Clark's march was a little north of west and across the entire width of Southern Illinois. Questions 1. What two campaigns did Colonel Clark conduct? 2. Tell what led him to do this. 3. How many men did he take on his first cam- paign? 4. Tell what you think of the soldiers. 5. Where was Kaskaskia situated and how did Clark reach it? 6. What was taking place when Colonel Clark arrived? 7. Tell what he did. LESSONS IN HISTORY 41 8. How far was Kaskaskia from Vincennes? 9. Tell what you know of the march to Vincennes. 10. Tell how Clark and his men took the fort. 1 1 . Why were not the soldiers in the fort able to fire their cannon? 12. What words did General Hamilton use in his report of the surrender? 13. What were the results of these campaigns? Synonyms Frontiersmen — pioneers Prairies — grassy plains (men of the border) Rendered — gave Harbored — sheltered Rifle — a Ion g-b a r r e 1 e d, Hillocks — little hills small-bore gun Instigated — incited Unerring — sure Menace— danger Words Like in Sound Flag — banner; flag — flat stone; flag — a plant; flag — to droop Lean — to rest against ; lean — not fat ; lien — a property claim Post — a large stake; post — a station; post — to inform; post — to place Grammar — Capitals, Punctuation Capital letters are to be used in the following in- stances : 1. In the first word of every sentence. 2. In the first word of every line of poetry. 3. In the first word of every direct quotation. 4. In the pronoun I and the interjection 0. 5. In words used of the Godhead. 6. In all proper names, titles of books, titles of per- sons, and names of corporations. 7. In words personifying objects. Let the student correct the following : We love j ames. When i was in new york city. We worship god the 42 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS father. His name shall be wonderful, counsellor, mighty god. He wrote the "fall of rome." He exclaimed: "o the misery of life!" The concern is called, the lehigh coal and navigation company. Behold, wisdom calleth thee; justice sits on her throne; mercy is pleading. His words were: "you may depend on me." our fortress is the good greenwood, our tent the cypress tree; we know the forest round us as seamen know the sea. we know its walls of thorny vines, its blades of reedy grass, its safe and silent islands within the dark morass. Punctuate and put capitals in the following: "For want of a nail the shoe was lost for want of a shoe the horse was lost and for want of a horse the rider was lost the boy fell into the water and was drowned the book which you gave me was very interesting whether or not I can go is doubtful george allan and henry swam across the river the soldiers alarmed the enemy and took to flight. IX. A MIDNIGHT SURPRISE (July, 1779) Stony Point is a rocky bluff, shooting out from the west shore more than half a mile into the Hudson River and, in its highest part, rising nearly 200 feet from the water. It is a natural sentinel, guarding the far-famed Highlands of the Hudson. Early in the War of the Revolution, the British gained possession of the place and strongly fortified it, christened it "Little Gibraltar" and defied the LESSONS IN HISTORY 43 rebels to take it. Washington decided to take Stony Point and give the English a surprise. "Mad Anthony" Wayne was chosen to lead in the desperate exploit. The day before the intended movement the dogs for three miles about the fort were killed, lest some unexpected bark should alarm the garrison. Nine hundred men were chosen for the venture and not a gun was to be loaded, except those of two special companies. At eight o'clock in the evening the troops were halted about a mile from the fort. No man was permitted to speak and they ate their supper of bread and cold meat in silence. After the meal their leader read the order of battle and the men were permitted to rest for several hours. At midnight the troops fell into line and no man was to utter a word until the main parapet of the fort was reached. A negro named Pompey, who knew the password for the night, was their guide. The two companies with loaded guns were to make a false attack in the center while the main columns were to advance on either side, Wayne leading that on the right. The approach lay for some 600 feet over a narrow neck of marshy ground where the men had to wade waist deep in the water. As the patriots were discovered the pickets gave the alarm, the gar- rison rushed to their posts and opened upon the Americans with great guns and musketry. The two companies with loaded guns, forming the center column, opened a brisk fire and drew the attention of the garrison, while the main columns pushed rapidly forward on either side, cutting their way through the timber defenses and scaling the slopes, 44 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS and entered the fort simultaneously. The resistance was stubborn, but Wayne's sturdy yeomen, fighting only with their bayonets, overpowered the enemy and were masters of the fort in the brief space of half an hour. Only one man managed to escape from the garrison ; he leaped into the river and swam to the British ship Vulture, then lying in the river. Washington soon came to Stony Point and offered thanks to Almighty God who had been "our shield and protection amid the dangers we had been called to encounter." Explanations Gibraltar: An immense rocky promontory in the South of Spain, guarding the straits of the same name which connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. It rises to the height of 1440 feet above the sea and is connected with the mainland by a narrow neck of flat ground. It was captured by the English in 1704. The limestone rock contains many curious caves, and addi- tional excavations have been made for purposes of forti- fication. The rock is defended by a thousand guns, many of whose black muzzles peer from openings made in the solid rock. The place is considered impregnable and is the "key to the Mediterranean." Questions l- On what river is Stony Point situated? Describe its location and character. What did the British call it? Why? Why did Washington wish to capture it? 5. What officer had charge of the movement? 6. Why were the dogs in the neighborhood killed ? How many men did Wayne take with him? How many were there in the British garrison? Describe the order of attack. LESSONS IN HISTORY 45 10. How were the Americans to use their guns? 11. Describe the battle. 12. How many of the British soldiers escaped? 13. What did Washington do upon his arrival? 14. What does this tell you as to Washington's char- acter Synonyms Bluff — a bold headland Pickets — outside senti- Brisk — rapid nels Christened — named Scaling — climbing Company — part of a reg- Selected — picked out iment Sentinel — guard Halted — stopped Simultaneous — at the Marshy — wet same time Parapet — wall, breast- Silence — stillness work Venture — a risk Yeomen — countrymen Words Like in Sound Bark — noise made by a dog; bark — the covering on a tree; bark — a sailing vessel Lie — to recline; lie — an untruth Grammar — The Article A or an is used in speaking indefinitely of one indi- vidual or of an entire class, hence it is called the indefi- nite article: A horse, a crowd, an eagle, an angle. The is used to point out a particular object or class of objects, hence it is called the definite article: The man, the apples. Notice: "A priest and king" mean one man holding two offices. "A priest and a king" means one for each office. The article a generally stands before the adjective: A white horse. But if the adjective is many, what or such, or if the adjective is preceded by too, so, how or as, the article stands between it and the noun: Many a day is lost; so heinous a crime. If ■ great stands before 46 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS many the article resumes its usual place: We suffered a great many things. The is used before the names of rivers, mountains and seas : The Hudson ; the Adirondacks ; the Mediterranean. The is used before the name of a people when spoken of collectively: The Americans; the Dutch. When used with certain nouns it denotes a calling: The church; the bar. When both and all qualify nouns the is put between the adjective and the noun: All the plans have failed; both the parties are wrong. Correct the following: A apple falls to a ground. A men go to work. A many sorrow have we. Great many a chains are forged. The both horses are lame. A too heinous crime. A so great crowd. An horse for sale. Red River runs to the bay. Behring Sea is in dispute. Notice: "A Daniel has come to judgment," means one possessing a character similar to Daniel. The most wicked, the most atrocious, the boldest villain is for the sake of emphasis. X. THE OBELISK WITH THE EMPTY SPACE On the battlefield of Saratoga stands an obelisk commemorating the battle fought there during the Revolutionary War. Four great leaders led the patriots to victory, but upon this obelisk only three bronze tablets are seen — the side to the south has an empty space. The fourth leader, Benedict Arnold, who won so great a name in this battle, forfeited his place on this monument because he betrayed his country when fighting for freedom and independence. LESSONS IN HISTORY 47 Arnold, a brave and efficient soldier, asked for the command of West Point, which was the door of communication for the Continental forces, between New York and New England. Washington, in con- sideration for his services, gave him the command. Arnold, proud and ambitious, labored under the de- lusion that his services were not appreciated and that he was not promoted as rapidly as he ought to be. In this state of mind he made a bargain with the British to deliver West Point into their hands for $30,000 and a major-general's commission in the British army. Had the plan succeeded the patriot cause might possibly have failed. Fortunately the spy who was the intermediary in the plot was cap- tured at the critical moment, the treason of Arnold was discovered and West Point was saved. The traitor, however, made his escape to a British gun- boat that was lying in the river and he lived to take up arms against his country. He is said to have asked a patriot prisoner once what the Americans would do with him should he fall into their hands. The man replied, "Bury with the honors of war the leg shot at Quebec but hang on a gibbet the rest of your body." Arnold died in London in 1801, de- spised and neglected even by the English people them- selves. Questions 1. What took place in Saratoga in the fall of 1777? 2. Why was Benedict Arnold's name omitted from the battle monument? 3. Name some of Arnold's qualities. 48 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS 4. Why was the possession of West Point especially- necessary ? 5. Tell how Arnold's treason was discovered. 6. Tell the conversation between Arnold and a cap- tured prisoner. 7. Indicate the battleground on the map and if possible show a picture of the obelisk. Synonyms Aims — aspires Intermediary — a go-be- Bronze — a composite tween metal Obelisk — monument Commemorating — in Promotion — advance- memory of ment Commission — office Reprimanded — blamed Confided — trusted Tablet — place for in- Efficient — capable scription Forfeited — lost Trait — habit Gibbet — gallows Words Like in Sound Bury — cover up ; berry — a small fruit Made — past of make; maid — a young girl Seen — past of see; scene — a view; scene — part of a stage play Grammar — Correct Concord Good composition must conform: 1. To grammatical usages. 2. To the right use of words. 3. To words fit for the occasion. When writing be sure that you have something to say,, then say it in a direct way and use your own language. Short sentences are preferable to long ones. Good English words are preferable to classical words. Everything should be called by its proper name. LESSONS IN HISTORY 49 The verb must always agree with the subject: I am sorry; we are sorry. Two or more nouns connected by and are followed by a plural verb: Honor, glory and dominion are the fruits. If two nouns, one negative and one affirmative, are connected by and the verb agrees with the affirmative: Truth, and not prejudices, is to be our guide. As well as connecting singular nouns is followed by the verb in the singular: John, as well as James, goes to town. Singular nouns connected by and, if preceded by each, every, no, are followed by the verb in the singular : Each man and woman was introduced. Correct the following: I's going to town. You's doing well. John and his wife goes to market. The oats I sowed is good. I gives him the slip. Justice as well as mercy are needed. Virtue, and not fine words, are the measure of men. Each one of the soldiers go home. No man and no woman were safe. Every house and every stable were burned to the ground. Observe: "The clergy sign the remonstrance." Here each one in the profession is referred to and so the verb is in the plural. "The legislature sits" ; here we regard the body collectively and so the verb is in the singular. XI. AREA OF THE UNITED STATES By the Treaty of Paris (September 3, 1783), after the War of Independence, the United States came into possession of 827,844 square miles of territory. Twenty years later the land between the Mississippi and the crest of the Rocky Mountains, was purchased from France. In 1818 Florida was purchased from Spain, and next came the Oregon Territory which 50 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS was acquired by treaty from Great Britain (1846). One year later, the Republic of Texas was annexed, and, in the following year, at the close of the Mexican War, the territory north of the Rio Grande and Gila Rivers was relinquished to the United States. Five years later the Gadsden Purchase was made, establishing the boundary of the United States on the Pacific coast. In 1867 Alaska was acquired by purchase from Russia for $7,200,000. The Hawaiian Islands were formally annexed by the United States, August 12, 1898. Porto Rico, the Philippines and Guam were ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) as a sequence of the Spanish-American War. Thus at present the area of the United States is 3,726,500 square miles. Continental United States, exclusive of Alaska and the island possessions, contains 2,972,584 square miles of land surface, which is somewhat less than Europe (3,700,000 square miles). Upon this terri- tory, populated by the nations of Europe, has grown up a race which is hardier and stronger than any of those dwelling in the Old World. The European stock has been improved by long residence in this favored land. The story of how the race has grown and how it has developed the resources of the country is full of interest and encouragement to all. Questions 1. What resulted from the Treaty of Paris, 1783? 2. Forty years later what large addition of territory was made by purchase from France ? 3. From whom did the United States purchase Florida ? LESSONS IN HISTORY 51 4. How was Texas acquired? 5. What great State on the Pacific was gained as a result of the Mexican War? 6. What territory was purchased from Russia? 7. What islands came to the United States as a result of the recent Spanish- American War? 8. How has the present population of the country been made up? 9- What has been the effect of the mixing of the different European races in this country ? Synonyms Annexed — added Relinquish — yield Area — extent Sequence — following Crest — summit after Improved — made better Treaty — agreement Grammar — Possession Possession is expressed by the possessive pronouns, by apostrophe and s added to the noun and by the preposi- tion of before the noun : Mine; my house ; John's horse ; the city of New York. The last two forms are often interchangeable. If the source of possession is a person 's are preferable; if a thing, of is preferable. "The soldier's cloak" is correct, but if a relative clause follows the better usage is, "The cloak of the soldier who fell in battle." "His brother Prince Arthur's wife" — when two or three nouns refer to the same person the 's are only af- fixed to the last. "A ring of gold" — here of expresses the material of which something is made. Notice the following forms : The boys' hats ; for con- science' sake; for appearance' sake. Correct the following: The city's heart; a house of John's; mine garden; John's wife's sister's home; this is the general's sword who won the battle; the girls's school; the boys' hat; the store's window. 52 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS XII. GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS We have seen the vast extent of the territory of the United States and how it has grown to its present size. At the birth of the Nation there were only thirteen States and these all bordered on the Atlantic Ocean. Even before the close of the Revolution the people of the seaboard country had pushed inland hundreds of miles, had settled the Mohawk valley in New York and had sailed down the Allegheny and the Ohio, forming settlements on the banks of both. A few daring spirits had penetrated to the "dark and bloody ground," a name given Kentucky because of the many Indian massacres which took place there. After the war emigration flowed steadily west- ward. The hardy New Englanders were glad to exchange their rocky hillsides for the rich soil of, Western New York and Northern Ohio ; farther south they pushed into and through Pennsylvania to the Southern Ohio country, while the rugged moun- taineers of Virginia and the Carolinas crowded along the Wilderness Road into the blue-grass regions of Kentucky and the fertile valleys of Tennessee. This westward movement has continued until the original thirteen States have become forty-six and form an unbroken chain across the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The States are very unequal in size ; Rhode Island and Delaware are very small while Texas and Cali- fornia are immense. The area of Texas would con- tain that of Great Britain and Ireland, Denmark, Holland and Belgium. France is hardly equal in LESSONS IN HISTORY 53 size to New England, New York and Ohio, while the countries of Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Spain and Portugal combined only equal the area of the States east of the Mississippi River. Only a trip across the continent by one of the transcontinental railway lines can give one an idea of the extent of the country which supports millions of families in comfort. Geographers for convenience' sake have separated the States into certain groups, thus enabling us to refer more easily to the different sections. The fol- lowing are the divisions generally recognized at the present time: 1. The New England States : Maine, New Hamp- shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island. 2. The Central Atlantic States : New York, Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia. The District of Columbia, in which the city of Washington is situated, is included in this division. 3. The North Central States: Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South and North Dakota. 4. The Plateau or Rocky Mountain States: Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana. 5. The Pacific Coast States : California, Oregon, Washington. 6. The Southern States : North and South Caro- lina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louis- iana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas. 54 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Explanations Observe the manner of abbreviations of the names of States: N.Y. — New York, etc. When States have the same initial letter the first and last letters are taken, as Me. — Maine; or the first syllable, as Minn. — Minnesota. Questions 1. What did the people of the Atlantic States begin to do as they increased in number? 2. What fine country lay west of New York State? 3. What splendid country south of the Ohio River ? 4. What other name was given it, and why? 5. What can you tell about the size of the different States ? 6. Name two of the smaller ones; two of the larger ones. 7. What State do you live in? 8. Into how many groups have geographers divided the States? 9. Name one or more States in each of these groups. Synonyms Area — surface Region — section Daring — brave Rugged — robust, sturdy Exchange — swap, give Spirits — persons one for the other Transcontinental — Immense — very big across continent Massacre — murder Trip — j ourney Penetrated — pushed in Vast — large Recognized — known Words Like in Sound Distinguish between the following words: Known — past participle of know; noun — a part of speech Rise — to go up; rice — a cereal Soon — adverb; swoon — to faint Which — pronoun; witch — a sorceress LESSONS IN HISTORY 55 Observe the formation of the words: Westward, northward, eastward, southward, down- ward, upward, etc. Grammar — Correct Substitutes The pronoun must agree with the noun in number, person and gender: Mrs. Doyle, together with her sister, came to town. The boys rowed their boat up the river. If the gender of the noun is not known the pronoun it is used: The child broke its arm. This is the explan- ation of "Who is it?" "He is as tall as me" is wrong — say as I; "he suffers more than me" is wrong — say than I; "no one is so blessed as him" is wrong — say as he. Conjunctions do not govern the objective case. Who, whose and whom refer to rational beings ; which refers to irrational beings and to things ; that refers to nouns of any kind: The man who lives; the horse which ran ; the house that Jack built ; the angel that came. What is often used for that which: It desires what it has not. Either and neither refer to one of two objects: Both are guilty, neither will be spared. The other means the second of two; another, one of any number above two: You take one, I, the other; "another yet — a seventh." Each refers to individuals in a group : To each accord- ing to his works. Every refers to all in the group viewed collectively: England expects every man to do his duty. Each other refers to one of two persons : Husband and wife love each other. One another refers to more than two: Men should love one another. Correct the following: It is not for such as us to complain; he is no better than her; the horse who was shot; there are three causes 56 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS for crime neither of which, etc.; they are judged every man according to their works; a hundred men in arms encouraged each other. XIII. THE WARS OF NORTH AMERICA The two great wars which have had most impor- tant influence upon the development of North America are the War of the Revolution, through which the Republic came into existence, and the Civil War, which preserved the integrity of the United States as a nation. In only the first of these was Canada involved. The Revolutionary War was caused by the attempt of Great Britain to take money from the colonies without their consent. The British government was heavily burdened by war debts and the English Parliament determined to make the colonies pay a part of this debt by imposing duties upon certain commodities used by the colonists. The King and his ministers did not consult the colonists and the latter had no one to represent them in Parliament. When the taxes were imposed the colonists protested, holding that taxation without representation violated a fundamental principle in Anglo-Saxon ideas of government. The King insisted upon the royal pre- rogative and held stoutly to his policy. The result was the war for independence which began in 1775 and lasted for seven long years. Hostilities extended from Canada on the north to Georgia in the south, the storm-center shifting from time to time from one section to another. The first outbreak occurred near LESSONS IN HISTORY 57 Boston in Massachusetts, and the war practically ended with the capture of Lord Cornwallis and his army at Yorktown, Virginia. Peace negotiations followed and in 1783 Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States. In 1812, the United States declared war against Great Britain because that country while at war with France insisted upon the right to search Ameri- can ships. This war lasted two years. It was quite largely a naval war, although there was more or less fighting along the Canadian frontier, where two attempted invasions failed. The British attacked Washington and burned several of the public build- ings but failed in an attack on Baltimore ; they also made an attempt against New Orleans where they were defeated with heavy loss. While the war was uncalled for, the right of search was never again in- sisted upon by Great Britain and the American States were brought more closely together by the conflict. The war with Mexico was brought on by a dispute over the boundary between Mexico and Texas, the latter State having gained its independence and been annexed to this country. Opinion was greatly divided with reference to this war and it has been generally considered as an unjust assertion of rights by a strong nation against a weak one. The terri- tory acquired as a result of the war, for which the United States paid $15,000,000, was greatly bene- fited by the change. The Civil War of 1861-65 was fought to preserve the integrity of the Nation. For many years there 58 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS were disputes between the North and the South with reference to the extension of territory where slave labor was used. These disputes divided the country and Congress was the scene of many acrimonious debates and many efforts at peace by compromises. When the North, however, asserted its strength by the election of President Lincoln, the Southern States attempted to secede from the Union and set up a government of their own. The President refused to recognize the right of the States to secede and a four years' war followed, unexampled in the expenditure of life and money. The Union was preserved and, under the institutions of free labor, both North and South have achieved phenomenal success in industrial development. In 1897 the people of Cuba rose in rebellion against Spanish misrule. The Americans naturally sympathized strongly with the Cubans. In 1898 the United States' battleship "Maine" was blown up in the harbor of Havana. Suspicion fell upon the Spanish government and public opinion demanded intervention of this government on behalf of the revo- lutionists. After six months of war, peace was de- clared and the independence of Cuba acknowledged. As a result of the conflict the United States came into possession of the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico. Questions 1. Name the two great wars told about in the lesson. 2. What resulted from the first of these? 3. Tell about the conditions that led to the war. 4. Where did the war begin? LESSONS IN HISTORY 59 5. What event practically ended the war? 6. What caused the second war with Great Britain ? 7. Name some of the events of the war. 8. Was the war with Mexico generally popular in this country? 9. Mention some of the territory acquired from Mexico. 10. What was the amount paid by this government? 11. For what was the Civil War fought? 12. Describe events leading to it. 13. How was America involved in war with Spain? 14. What single event led to the declaration of war? 15. What territory came into possession of the United States as a result of this war? Synonyms Achieved — gained Imposing — placing Acrimonious — sharp, bit- Integrity — wholeness ter Involved — mixed up Burdened — loaded Prerogative — vested Commodities — articles of right value Preserved — kept Duties — taxes Protested — objected Fundamental — founda- Secede — separate tion, bottom Violated — broken Words Like in Sound Birth — coming into life; berth — a sleeping place Due — matured ; dew — moisture Peace — tranquillity ; piece — part. Right — correct; rite — a form; write — to inscribe, to trace Rose — did rise; rose — a flower Throe — agony; throw — fling, cast out Grammar — C omparison Adjectives usually stand before the noun they qualify. Averse, afraid, conformable, coeval, coequal, commen- 60 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS surate, follow the noun for the reason that a qualifying phrase depends ujDon them: The son, afraid of the snake, ran. The comparative degree is used when two objects are compared: John is taller than James. The superlative, when more than two objects are com- pared: John is the tallest of the group. Else, other, rather, otherwise imply comparison and must have than after them: Jupiter is nothing else than an imaginary god. When numeral adjectives qualify nouns the plural sign is often omitted in the noun: A thousand horse; a hundred cannon. "The four first" means that the speaker has in mind four sets of objects and he refers to the first of each series. "The first four" means that the speaker has one object in mind and refers to the first, second, third and fourth of the series. Correct the following: "In the present misery inde- scribable of the laboring classes"; of the two men Jones is the tallest; the stronger of the dozen men is Smith; Robinson went rather to trade and not to college; the house is none other but the one in which we lived. XIV. OLD HICKORY AND NEW ORLEANS During the closing days of 1814, 10,000 British troops, veterans from European campaigns, gathered below New Orleans with the purpose of capturing the place. General Andrew Jackson, known as "Old Hickory," had been placed in charge of the city and its untrained militiamen, but on the very day that the British vanguard appeared his tested backwoods rifle- LESSONS IN HISTORY 61 men from Tennessee and Kentucky marched into the city with their coon skin caps and with their long guns on their shoulders. To gain time Jackson delivered a fierce night attack on the British camp, and every able-bodied man was put to work with pick and shovel, throwing up a line of entrenchments between the river and the swamp, five miles below the city. A few days later the British attempted to destroy the earthworks with their artillery, in which they were greatly superior to the Americans, but their efforts failed. The final battle was fought on Sunday morning, January 8, 1815. During the night the tread of moving regiments and the rumbling of artillery betrayed the intended attack and soon after midnight the American general warned his officers, "The enemy will soon be upon us." Every man hurried to his post. The stalwart backwoodsmen leaned on their long rifles and peered out into the foggy morn- ing towards the enemy's camp. As the fog lifted the sound of bugles was heard and the long lines of red-coated grenadiers and kilted Highlanders appeared moving steadily forward. Nearer and still nearer they came. From the American breast- works the great guns opened, but not a rifle cracked. The assaulting columns broke into a doublequick and were nearing the American lines. Suddenly a sheet of flame burst from the breastworks and the advancing ranks faltered, stopped, broke and fled. Another splendid regiment advanced but met a like reception and the ranks again fell back. The British general-in-chief in person led the third 62 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS assault and the columns advanced with brave deter- mination. But nothing could withstand the death- dealing volleys of the backwoods marksmen and again the proud lines gave way. The bright uni- forms of the British officers were easy targets for the sharpshooters and one after another the three generals in command fell before their unerring aim. The battle lasted less than a half hour; the British lost 2,500, the Americans but 21. This was the last battle of the war ; in fact peace had already been de- clared (Treaty of Ghent, December 24, 1814) before this deadly conflict took place, but the news did not reach New Orleans until after the battle. Explanations Highlanders: Men from the Highlands of Scotland forming a part of the British army and wearing a kind of short plaid petticoat, reaching from the waist to the knees. These kilts are still worn by men in the Scotch Highlands and by boys in the Lowlands. Questions 1. With what nation was the United States at war in 1812-15? 2. What city in the south was to be attacked? 3. What general was in command of the city? 4. What kind of soldiers did the British have? 5. What kind defended the city? 6. What did the American general do to gain time? 7. What work did he have to do to aid in the defense ? 8. Did the British attempt to destroy the defenses and did they succeed? 9. When was the final battle fought? LESSONS IN HISTORY 63 10. Describe the assault. 11. How long did the battle last? 12. What were the losses on the two sides? 13. What important fact was made known after the battle was fought? Synonyms Campaign — military op- erations Falter — waver, hesitate Flee — run Grenadiers — tall soldiers Highlanders — mountain- Stalwart — strong Swamp — low wet ground Target — mark Tested — tried Uniform — soldier's dress Vanguard — head of the eers Kilt — short skirt Peering — looking army Veteran — experienced troops Words Like in Sound Post (both noun and verb): post: a large stake — a hitching post; post: to place — to post a notice Sheet — a thin broad article or surface — compare a sheet of paper, a sheet of tin, the sheet on the bed, a sheet of water Yard — three feet; yard — an enclosure Grammar — Verbal Forms Singular nouns connected by neither-nor, either-or are followed by the verb in the singular : No voice nor sound was heard; either William or George was present. If the nouns differ in person, the verb agrees with the nearest: neither you nor I am right; either you or he is mistaken. To generally accompanies the infinitive, but after bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make and see, and generally after help, need and please it is omitted: I bid thee go. 64 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS The verb to be takes the same case after it as before it : It is 7. The verb to teach has two objects following it: Teach me thy laws. The one is the person, the other the thing taught. Verbs signifying making, appointing, creating, etc., are followed by two objects. We change a verb from the active to the passive: 1. When we want to direct special attention to the action. 2. When we do not know the actor. 3. When we want to conceal the actor. Correct the following: Every limb and feature were marred; no part of the house or the barn were destroyed; either the husband or the wife are in the wrong; neither master nor servant were happy; either Johnson or I is wrong; the king, surrounded by his servants, were taken prisoner; my intellect and not my heart consent; many a man among the spectators come to grief; let every one in the room please themselves. XV. THE PRESERVER OF THE UNION (1809-1865) Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809, of humble parents, and his boyhood was spent in a frontiersman's home. He attended school for less than a year and grew to manhood knowing little more than how to "read, write and cipher to the rule of three." He possessed an active mind and was fond of books. After the day's work he would lie for hours on the cabin floor to read by the light of the open fire the few volumes within his reach. A trip LESSONS IN HISTORY 65 down the Mississippi River on a flatboat and the sight of the slave market in New Orleans made an im- pression that largely molded his after life. He studied law, entered politics and became a logical, forceful and popular speaker of great originality. He was elected to the Illinois legislature. He prac- ticed law in Springfield, Illinois, and his clear insight into politics soon won him first rank in the State. He was honored by his party by being chosen their representative in the United States Congress. In 1860 the issues in connection with the slavery question were stirring the nation ; Lincoln was nomi- nated for the Presidency by the Republican party and elected by the majority of the people as a pro- test against the extension of slave territory. He had scarcely taken his seat in the White House before Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor was fired upon by South Carolina troops and the four years' conflict of the Civil War began. Lincoln, by his wisdom, his honesty of purpose, his faith in God and in the American people, led the Union safely through the storm of fratricidal war, and just as peace had been gained through costly victories he was shot down by the hand of a fanatical and misguided actor. Lincoln was a great-hearted, God-fearing man. He bore the griefs of the nation and died a true martyr to the cause of freedom. At this day, after the smoke of battle has cleared and human prejudices have died out, the name of Lincoln is revered through our whole land — South as well as North — and he is known and honored in every civilized land the world 66 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Questions 1. Of what State was Lincoln a native and to what class of people did his parents belong? 2. Tell how he got his early education. 3. What journey did he take when he was a young man and what did he see? 4. In what way was this a preparation for Lincoln's great life-work ? 5. What were some of the steps by which Lincoln came into public notice? 6. By what political party was he nominated for President? 7. What happened in South Carolina soon after Lincoln became President? What followed? 8. What qualities of mind and heart made Lincoln a good and safe leader? 9. What is the present opinion of Lincoln? 10. Did you hear of Lincoln before you came to America ? Synonyms Cabin — log house Logical — sound and clear Fanatical — half crazy Martyr — one dying for Forceful — strong Nominated — -named Fratricidal ■ — brother- Popular — jgenerally liked killing Revered — reverenced Humble — lowly Slave — bondman Impression — effect Words Like in Sound Arms — implements of war ; arms — parts of the body Not — adverb; knot — a bond Grammar— Time in Action An action in the past may have three forms: 1. The simple past, as: John left yesterday. 2. When the action is in the past, but the period of LESSONS IN HISTORY 67 time comes up to the present and includes it, then we have the form: John has left the city today. 3. When the action referred to is complete before or at some definite past time, then we say: John had left the city before his brother arrived. The first is called the past; the second the present perfect; and the third the past perfect. To form the various tenses and moods of the verb, helping or auxiliary verbs are used; these are: be, can, could, do, did, have, had, may, might, must, should, shall, will and would. Can, could, may, might, must, should are used to express power, necessity and permission: Can you do it? I can; Must you go ? Yes, I must go ; May I go ? Yes, you may go. Will and shall express the future. Will is used when the actor expresses resolve, determination: I will go — my determination is to go. I shall go — simple futurity. In the second and third persons we say : You or he shall go — my mind is set on his going; you or he will go — simple futurity, for the going rests with the persons of whom we speak. "I will drown and no one shall help me," shouted a man who accidentally fell into the water. The phrase well illustrates the wrong use of will and shall. The verbal form in ing and the auxiliary be form a progressive expression which represents unfinished action :" I am writing (now) — present; I was writing (at one o'clock) — past; I shall be writing (at one o'clock to- morrow) — future. In the irregular verbs we have a different form in the compound tenses from that used in the past tense: I gave; I have given. It is incorrect to say: I have gave. The form given is called the past participle of the verb give, and it is important to use the past form in the past tense and the past participle in the compound tenses. Let the student find the irregular verbs in Lesson XV. and give the principal parts of each. 68 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS XVI. GENERAL U. S. GRANT (1822-1885) The Union general who commanded the United States armies during the closing year of the Civil War and whose brilliant campaign won the decisive victories that ended the Rebellion was Ulysses S. Grant. He was born in Ohio, 1822, and was de- scended through both father and mother from early New Engand families. His ancestors fought in both the French-Indian and Revolutionary wars. His father was a farmer-tanner. He procured for his son an appointment to West Point from which young Grant graduated in 1843. His record at the school was not a brilliant one. He served in the Mexican War, took part in nearly every engagement and was twice promoted for bravery. In 1854 he resigned from the army and entered business, in which he was not successful. At the breaking out of the Civil War he had difficulty in obtaining a position under the government and entered the war as colonel of a regi- ment of Illinois Volunteers. Later he was made brigadier-general of volunteers and rose rapidly, his capture in quick succession of Forts Henry and Donaldson on the Tennessee River being the first substantial success of the war. His capture of Vicks- burg with its garrison of 30,000, which opened the Mississippi and cut the Confederacy in two, followed by the brilliant operations about Chattanooga, rendered Grant the most conspicuous figure in the war and led to his being created lieutenant-general LESSONS IN HISTORY 69 and made commander-in-chief of the national forces. He took personal command of the armies in the East and began and fought that series of great and bloody battles that resulted in the fall of Richmond, the capture of Lee and Ins army and the downfall of the Rebellion. General Grant was one of the people. He was a taciturn man and slow to express an opinion. He was not fond of writing and sometimes failed to report, to the discomfort of his superiors. He occa- sionally coined sentences that were apt, and which have passed into history. His greatest character- istic was his indomitable courage and grit. In defeat and discouragement he never relinquished his pur- pose to push on the war to a successful issue. He kept his forces in constant action and this brought the war to an end. In 1868, the Republican party nominated General Grant for the Presidency of the United States and he was elected. He was absolutely honest and be- lieved that the men whom he selected as friends and advisers were the same. He was a sterling patriot and rendered great service to his country. He was strenuously opposed to wasteful expenditure on the part of the government and exercised his veto power to defeat bills for appropriation of money which he thought extravagant. He tried to give the people non-partisan civil service and induced Congress to pass a civil service reform bill in 1871. General Grant was chosen President for the second term in 1872. It was during this term that the so-called Alabama Claims were settled by an 70 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS international court of arbitration — Great Britain was charged with dereliction of the neutral laws by permitting vessels to be built and equipped in British waters to prey upon American merchant ships. General Grant died in 1885 and lies buried under a marble mausoleum on the banks of the Hudson in New York City. Questions 1. Who commanded the Union armies during the closing year of the Civil War? 2. In what State and in what year was he born ? 3. What can you tell about his ancestry? 4. Where was Grant educated? 5. Tell about his services in the Mexican War. 6. Did he remain in the army ? 7. When the Civil War broke out did the govern- ment have a place for him ? 8. In what capacity did he enter the war? 9. After being made a brigadier-general what cam- paign did he conduct in Tennessee? 10. What city on the Mississippi River surrendered to him and why was it an important capture? 11. To what position did the government call him after his brilliant Chattanooga campaign? 12. What followed his being placed in command of the eastern armies? 13. Mention some of Grant's characteristics, habits and ways. 14. To what high office was he twice elected by the people ? 15. How long ago did he die? 16. Where is he buried? Synonyms Absolutely — entirely Coined — made, originated Brigadier-general — bri- Colonel — regimental gade commander commander LESSONS IN HISTORY 71 Conspicuous — -prominent Decisive — conclusive Dereliction — neglect Extravagant — wasteful Indomitable — invincible Mausoleum — tomb Obtaining — getting Previous — earlier Procured — obtained Resigned — gave up Sterling — pure Strenuously — strongly- Substantial — real Taciturn — silent Tanner — dresser of hidt Words Like in Sound Bill — account; bill — a beak; bill — bank note; bill — a proposed law Slow — not quick; slough — quagmire, bog; sloe — wild plum Grammar — Right Relation Prepositions should not occupy the last place in the sentence: He drew the sword which he killed her with. The phrase from thence — from that place. The from is generally considered superfluous and thence and whence only are used. Prepositions are generally attached to these adverbs: wherein, whereof, thereof, etc. Prepositions often determine the meaning of the verb, hence it is important to use the right preposition after the verb. Notice the following: Correspond with (a per- son) Correspond to (a thing) Adapted to (by plan) Adapted for (by nature) Agree to (a thing) Agree with (a person) Convenient to (a person) Convenient for (a pur- pose) Part from (a person) Part with (a thing) Taste of (food) Taste for (art) Confide in (to trust in) Confide to (to intrust to) Confer on (to give to) Confer with (consult) Differ from (in likeness) Differ with (in opinion) Reconcile to (a person) Reconcile with (a state- ment) 72 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Avoid the too frequent use of conjunctions. Correct the following: I could not though I wished to ; I agree with his statement ; the house is convenient for him; it is not convenient to me to go; I differ from his judgment; it is began; it is stole; it is wove; he is a honest man; it is a easy thing; the eldest of the two sons; his task is near done; everybody were disposed to help him; this book is different to that; I have to go to the dentist's; shall you promise to come? say when I would come ; shall you write after you arrive ? XVII. DEVOTION TO THE UNION The attempt to hoist two flags in this country failed. This was due to men who put their country first and self-interest second. One of these men was Charles Russell Lowell, a descendant of one of the best families of New England, a scholar of rare ability and a leader among men. After graduation he entered the iron business, but when his country wanted men, he left his business and sacrificed his life in the cause. He received his first commission as captain of infantry, but his ability on the field, his bravery and self-possession in action, soon brought him advancement. His end came in the famous battle of Cedar Creek, when a disastrous retreat was turned into victory by the personality and courage of General Sheridan. Lowell had saved one wing of the surprised army, holding his position against re- peated assaults. Several horses had been shot under him, and about noon he was struck in the chest and painfully but not mortally hurt. When the order LESSONS IN HISTORY 73 came to advance, a comrade helped Lowell to the saddle and his brigade was the first ready. Leading the charge he dashed forward, but when the battle raged hottest he was struck and fatally wounded, dying soon after in a village house to which friends had carried him. Thousands of noble lives were thus sacrificed in defense of the Union. They were men of courage and patriotic ardor, who gave the best that was in them to their country. The lesson Lowell's devotion teaches is that men who by fortune and education have inherited most are the ones who owe most to their country. Questions 1. What do you know about the family of Charles Russell Lowell? 2. What kind of a man was he? 3. Why did he leave his business and go voluntarily into the war? 4. What was his character as a soldier? 5. Tell something about the battle in which he was killed. 6. What lesson are we taught by Lowell's life and death? Synonyms Ability — power, skill Hoist — raise Ardor — zeal Inherited — received by Brigade — division of an birth army Rare — uncommon Comrade — companion Sacrifice — to give up 74 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Words Like in Sound Chest — upper part of the body below the neck; chest — a wooden box or trunk Rare — unusual; rare — raw Grammar — Miscellaneous Avoid the use of them who and they who: We should regard them who are wise; read those persons. The title of a book is singular: "The Annals of New York" are an important book; read is. When more than one auxiliary is used be sure that each has the proper accompaniment: The house has, is, or shall be occupied; read, has been, is being. Observe the verbs lie (to rest or repose) and lay (to put down something). The principal parts are: Present Past Past Participle Transitive verb lay laid laid Intransitive verb lie lay lain Confusion in the use of the verbs arises from the fact that the past of the one is the same as the present of the other: The sick man lies in bed; the sick man lay in bed; the sick man has lain in bed ; I lay the book on the table ; I laid the book on the table; I have laid the book on the table. Sit — he sits in the chair. Set — Mother sets the table; the sun is setting. Stop — ceases to move. Stays — remains in one place. Teach — imparting instruction. Learn — absorbing knowledge. Correct the following: he don't; I ain't going; every one of the boys brought their books; my son is to be married to I don't know who; he is better behaved than me; the people was astonished; the man who I saw; will LESSONS IN HISTORY 75 you learn me my lesson? he do think you are wrong; the boys' coat is too large ; the girl's school is well attended ; he told him and I ; men should be polite to each other ; in his face discontent and sorrow manifested itself; you have chose the worser; will I see you tomorrow? can I go to the garden? the men have, are and shall be paid high wages; he laid abed till nine; lay down and rest; after laying awhile in this position he rose up; the boat stays in Bridgeport; the man stops at the Walton; the garment was neatly sewn; I writ my name; one club has commenced last Friday; polygamy never has and never can be a vice of the great body of people. XVIII. DYING FOR THE FLAG During the Civil War both North and South gave exhibitions of great valor. This bravery was often witnessed in defense of the flag, which frequently trailed in the blood of its bearer. The Union soldiers, in the battle of Fredericksburg, were climbing the slope leading to the Confederate position. They were repulsed, and before they could reach shelter the flag-bearer was shot and the flag fell in the open. A captain rushed to rescue it and was instantly shot. Another captain followed his example and he also paid the penalty, falling on his comrade. Several private soldiers attempted to rescue the ensign, but each met a like fate. At last an officer, dropping to the ground, crawled to the place, rescued the stained banner and bore it back to the place of safety. Equal bravery was shown by Southern soldiers. At Gaines' Mill the Confederate troops advanced in 76 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS order to take a strong position. The fire of the Union forces was deadly, and the flag-bearer of the advancing troops was shot down. Instantly the flag was taken up by another who, in turn, was shot down ; but no sooner was the flag down than another raised it aloft, and paid the price — his life — as did his compatriots. Another followed — he also fell and so did the fifth, all falling near each other. Thus has the flag been honored by brave soldiers, and, in every country, men have freely given their lives in defense of the flag they loved. Questions 1. What does the flag of a country represent? 2. Describe the rescue of the flag at Fredericksburg. 3. Tell of similar loyalty to a flag at Gaines' Mill. 4. Were not all of these soldiers really of one country ? 5. Why should a foreign-born person love the American flag? 6. Should we not be ashamed of doing anything that would dishonor the flag of our country? Synonyms Equal — like, the same Penalty — price Exhibition — a showing Repulsed — driven back Frequently — often Valor — courage Instantly — at once Words Like in Sound Back — an adverb; back — a part of the body Bore — past of bear; boar — a wild hog Last — the hindmost; last — a shoe form Distinguish between both and booth; rise and raise LESSONS IN HISTORY 77 Grammar — Miscellaneous In the same sentence the past tense goes with the past tense; the present goes with the present or the future: no writer would write a book unless he thinks it will be read. Read, thought it would, etc. The infinitive of the verb expresses what is either future or contemporary at the same time indicated by the principal verb: I found him better than I expected to have found him. Read, to find, etc. Observe: Affect — to influence Effect — to bring about Get — to obtain, come into possession of Have — to own, to possess Distinguish between: smart and clever; mad and angry; dull, stupid and dumb; fly and flee; love and like ; sly, cunning and skilful ; think and guess ; bred and reared; expect and suspect; rise and raise. Guard against, worser, lesser, chiefest, extremest, more perpendicular, four square. Two negatives in English make a positive: I will not go I don't think — I will go I think. Correct the following: Him and me went to New York; who of the boys has cut the tree? divide the apple among Thomas and I ; them that seek wisdom will find it; who is this for? I have sown all my oats and it is growing nice; who will I direct the parcel to? we sorrow not as them that have no hope; whom do men say that I am? he that doubts I speak not to; it cannot be me you mean ; it won't rain I don't think so ; does he not behave well and keeps his work? dancing is more pleasant than to walk or ride ; he will never do so no more ; the dew are falling, it is growing chill, our excursion was over, we turned for home; he throwed the ball; he seed him; he knowed better; we be all of us from the country; he was drowned; the goods was shipt yesterday; take either of the five; Jack and Jim fighted one another; neither of these four hats is mine; each one of the dozen is injured. 78 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS XIX. POPULATION The population of North America is about 100,- 000,000, ninety per cent of the number being of European descent. The other ten per cent are Red Men, Africans and Asiatics. When the English conquered Spain on the seas, and wrested from France the Ohio valley and Canada, the Anglo-Saxon was in control of the destinies of North America. Other nations have freely emi- grated to the New World, but the government and institutions, the laws and the customs, the industrial and commercial life, have been molded and directed by men of Anglo-Saxon origin and ideas. The growth of population in North America has been phenomenal. At the time of the Revolutionary War there were no more than 3,000,000 persons in the country. Fifty years later the number had increased more than threefold, and at the opening of the twentieth century more than 80,000,000 of people lived in North America. This marvelous growth of population is largely due to the tide of immigration which has continu- ously flowed into this highly favored country for the last fifty years. Since the United States became an independent nation more than 26,000,000 immi- grants have landed in the country; and another 2,000,000 have entered Canada. Thus, North America is the land of the immigrant, and fully one third of the population at any period during the last fifty years has been and is made up of persons of foreign parentage. LESSONS IN HISTORY 79 This constantly inflowing human tide makes many cities cosmopolitan communities where representatives of every civilized country are found. In 1664, when the English took what is now New York City, it was a cosmopolitan community in which no less than twenty-five different languages were spoken. And since that time the great number of immigrants landing in the port of New York and remaining in the city has kept the population more foreign than native. This is its character today and it is destined to be such as long as immigration continues. America is the land of opportunity to the immi- grant, if only he comes with the resolution to do hard work, to observe the laws of the land, and to cooperate with all that is for the upbuilding of the Republic. Men of sound bodies and minds, of good moral char- acter, willing to work, are always welcomed in the land. Millions of men and women now in America get better wages for labor, have greater freedom in the pursuit of happiness, and many more material and educational advantages than they had in the old country. The land is by no means full. There is room for millions more, if means are devised to dis- tribute the immigrants into sections of the country where opportunities for settlement exist and where their services are most needed. Questions 1. What is the present population of America? 2. What proportion are of European descent? 3. Name the two great Anglo-Saxon nations. 4. What events gave the Anglo-Saxon control of North America? 80 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS 5. How many people were there in this country at the close of the Revolutionary War? 6. Tell how the wonderful increase in population has come about. 7. How many immigrants have landed in the United States since it became a nation? 8. Why do you call New York a cosmopolitan city? 9. Ought all immigrants to try to learn the English language ? 10. What three qualities in an immigrant will make him welcome in this country? 11. Is it a good plan for immigrants to remain in the big seacoast towns? Synonyms Commercial — trading Conquered — subdued Continuously — constant- Cosmopolitan — world- wide Devised — thought out Industrial — working Marvelous — wonderful Material — valuable Opportunity — chance Phenomenal — unusual Remaining — staying Resolution — determina- tion Wrested — forced Words Like in Sound Distinguish between sound — a noise; sound — whole, not decayed; sound — a body of water Mind — mental power; mind — to take care Means — a plan and agency; means — wealth Grammar — Miscellaneous Avoid long words: "To spit" is better than "to expec- torate"; "to love" than "to cherish amorous affection"; "thief" than "kleptomaniac"; "oyster" than "succulent bivalve." Avoid such sentences as: "The night was brilliantly bright with the radiance of astral and lunar effulgence" which means, "The moon and stars shone brightly"; "he LESSONS IN HISTORY 81 expired in indigent circumstances/' for, "he died poor" ; "his vituperation exacerbated the pharmaceutical chem- ist" for, "his abuse angered the druggist" ; "a contusion of the integuments beneath the orbit/' for, "a black eye." Place the qualifying words in the right place: Correct the following: The man dismissed his servant who had never before without inquiring done so unkind an act; it is a long time since I commanded him to have done it; I love bread and butter; he was bred in the South; we suspect the trip will be pleasant; they shall fly from the wrath to come; he was much effected by the news; they shall fly from the coming storm; I must get my lessons; I have got to do it; I have got a new mit; he divided his money between the three sons; I guess he is dishonest; he was so dumb that he could not learn to read; he was mad at the delay; the sculptor has a cun- ning hand; mankind resemble each other most in bar- barous countries; they spent the summer at the north in a small village; there is constant hostility between the trades unions; you may rely in what I say and confide on my honesty; I have seldom seen such a tall man; the letter was not as well written as I wished it to be; do like I did; they were once rich but now are poor; the entire monopoly of the whole trade; they turned back again to the same city from whence they came forth; the first discoverer of America; adversity both taught you to think and to reason ; I am surprised how you could do such a thing; I don't know as I shall go and I don't know but what I shall. XX. AMERICA AND THE WORLD At the beginning of the nineteenth century the French undertook to express the republican motto, "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity." But it remained for the United States to do this in the most emphatic, 82 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS practical and permanent way which has been satis- factorily tested since the close of the Civil War. Equality has been the passion of Americans. The Old World distinctions are not found here. Every man, woman and child is equal before the law. Every person has equal opportunity to go and come any- where in the country without having his right to do so questioned. The day laborer has equal right with the highest in the land to enjoy the fruit of his labor ; the son of the wage-earner and the son of the capi- talist has each the opportunity to secure an educa- tion, for the doors of colleges and universities stand open alike to all. The workingmen of America have equal right with the employers of labor to organize for the protection of their rights, and every work- ingman is backed by the law of the land in his right to labor wherever he will and under whatever condi- tions he chooses. Every voter has an equal right to cast his ballot and to express his opinion in the press or in public speech on any topic. Each man has the same right to profess and propagate his particular religious belief, providing he obeys the laws of the land and respects the rights of other men. Never before in the history of the world has the principle of equality found as wide an application as in North America. The same is true of Liberty. It was the freedom given the sons of colonists and immigrants that developed the West and made possible a chain of States reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Free discussion of public questions has been the secret of success in the solution of grave problems which LESSONS IN HISTORY 83 confronted the people. There are 90,000,000 people living together in the United States and there is absolute freedom of trade between them, so that any- one can go where he will, and buy and sell without meeting any barriers to commerce, save those of just laws. It is the assurance given every man that he is free to develop the best that is in him which accounts for the number of inventors, statesmen and educators who have risen from humble origin in America. There are no laws or customs to check the son of the poor man if he have the capacity to succeed, and there are no prejudices to hold the quick and the able from reaping the fruits of their success. At a cost in men and money that surprised the world, the United States settled the question that free labor shall be the basis of our industrial development. In no country in the world has the rank and file of the population enjoyed such freedom as in America. The third — Fraternity — has been equally honored in America. We have no king or emperor, no aris- tocracy or caste. It is a government "of the people, by the people and for the people," and how often have the people cooperated to bring about results that were deemed impossible by philosophers and statesmen of older countries. They threw off the yoke of dependence and formed National and State governments ; twelve million men stood together in their determination to preserve the integrity of the Union, and when the sword was sheathed the spirit of Fraternity brought the two sections together in the common aim to make this nation the greatest of modern times. No cities in the world are as cosmo- 84 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS politan as ours and none are more enterprising or prosperous, and this is possible because of the frater- nal spirit that dominates the great American heart in whose country representatives of all nations meet to work out the destinies of a free people. Questions 1. What was the motto of the French Republic? 2. Does the present government of the United States demonstrate very fully the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity? 3. Does the United States Constitution insure liberty and equality of rights to all its citizens? 4. Does the equality of rights mean in any sense equality of position or of property? 5. May the son of the poor workingman become learned and rich? If this is so, tell how you know it. 6. Which would you rather be, wise and good, or merely rich? Synonyms Absolute — entire, perfect Application — practical test Assurance — promise Basis — bottom, founda- tion Capitalist — moneyed man Confronted — came before Discussion — debate Distinctions — differences E mphatic — force f ul Express — state, utter Fraternity — brotherhood Passion — strong love Practical — workable Prejudice — hastily formed ideas P ropagate — spread Rank and file — common people Solution — settling Topic — sub j ect Words Like in Sound Cast — to throw; caste — social position Here — at this place; hear — to catch sound Rank — row; rank — rancid; rank — position LESSONS IN HISTORY 85 Grammar — Miscellaneous Avoid the use of ambiguous words: the revolting Bulgarians; his presence was against him; the statement is not true (false or inaccurate). Secure the proper word: The anatomy of Bulgaria, for autonomy; the allegories of the Nile, for alligators; the subject is tattooed, for tabooed. Avoid superfluous words: hitherto and before now; I wrote a letter to him. When a noun is self-sufficient avoid an unnecessary- adjective: "the book" is better than "the written book"; "murder" than "a planned homicide." Avoid such phrases as: I am sure; I am convinced; it seems to me; as I think. Watch the following words: little and small used for slight and trifling; only for alone; doubt for fear; less for fewer; most ancient for oldest; all not for not all; can but for cannot but. After verbs of doubt, fear or denial that is preferable to but, but what, but that: I have no doubt but you can help me. Read that. Correct the following: This is none other but the gate of Paradise; wanted a young man to look after a pony of a religious turn of mind; a fried dish of oysters; the negroes are to appear at church only in boots ; there is a wonderful combination in his manner of elegance and ease; not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also; I shall neither depend on you nor on him; I doubt that his partiality has carried him too far; he has lent to the people a quantity of books ; no man had less friends and more enemies; the rabid animal bit Mr. Robinson and several other dogs ; the thief illuded the police; this here is my seat; his two sisters both of them were well educated; mine is equally as good as yours. PART TWO INDUSTRIAL READINGS IN INDUSTRIES I. GENERAL RESOURCES The United States is highly favored with a coast line 18,000 miles in length. It has the same length of navigable rivers and another 1000 miles of water front along the shores of the Great Lakes. This gives excellent facilities for internal commerce, while numerous bays and harbors line the coasts. The temperature is favorable to the growth of an ener- getic people, while a plentiful rainfall and the warmth of summer make possible the growth of a great variety of vegetation. The fertility of the soil is remarkable. The coast regions of the Atlantic are abundantly supplied with rivers and are well forested; they are suited to the growth of wheat, corn, tobacco, cotton, etc. The mountain ranges, stretching from Newfoundland to Alabama, are the finest regions for the uses of man that the world affords. The lake region has an ex- ceedingly fertile soil, and an abundant rainfall; and in the South the land and climate are suited to the growth of sugar, cotton and rice. The great plains are given over mainly to cattle raising and the plateau region is rich in mineral wealth. The Pacific slope is of great fertility and well watered, and the climate makes it the garden spot of the United States. The forests cover about thirty-five per cent of the area of the country and are for the most part east 90 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS of the Mississippi. In the Northern Atlantic States is found the white pine; in the Southern States the yellow pine, and in the Mississippi valley are found the oak, hickory, ash, etc. Wood is also found in the Rocky Mountains and on the Pacific Coast. Food fish abound in the waters of the seas and lakes. The mineral resources are abundant. There are 335,000 square miles of coal-bearing strata widely distributed in the country, while supplies of iron ore also abound in many sections. Other metals are found in more or less abundance, so that the United States leads all countries in the production of coal, iron, copper, lead, gold and silver. It also leads in the quantity of such products as corn, wheat, lumber, meats, tobacco, cotton and petroleum. For these reasons we believe the United States a favored country and a good place for men to live. Words of Like Sound Ash — a tree, "The tub is made of white ash"; ash — left from burning, "The ash heap is in the back yard." Bay — a body of water, "The boat sails on the bay"; bay — a color, "Thomas bought a bay horse." Cent — a coin, "The newspaper costs one cent"; sent — did send, "I sent my son for some coal"; scent — an odor, "The blossoms have a sweet scent." Ore — a mineral, "Iron ore is taken from the earth" ; oar — to row with, "The man put the oar in the boat"; o'er — over, "The ship came o'er the sea." Pine — a tree, "The pine tree is tall and straight"; pine — to suffer, "It is sad to see the child pine away." Soil — earth, "A farmer tills the soil"; soil — to make dirty, "I fear Stanislaus will soil his new shoes." LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 91 II. COAL Coal is the principal source of heat, light and power. It is of vegetable origin, the growth having been deposited in swamps in heavily wooded areas, such as is represented today by the "Dismal Swamp" of Virginia. It assumes first the form of peat, then by gradual transition it passes into lignite, then into various grades of bituminous coal, and then through heat and pressure into anthracite. The change from peat to true coal has been gradual, and has taken possibly millions of years. Coal is produced in commercial quantities in fifteen States ; but Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois and West Virginia produce more than seventy per cent of the total tonnage. The United States leads the world in annual tonnage of coal produced. It is estimated that the coal fields of the United States contain 3000 billion tons, of winch 1700 billions are anthracite or bituminous, and 1300 billions are lignite and low grade coals. Anthracite is found in Northeastern Pennsylvania, and differs from bituminous coal in the amount of volatile matter it contains. There are different kinds of bituminous coal. Some of it fuses together under heat and when the gases are burnt off, a residue of a porous character is left known as coke. These coals are known as caking or coking coals, and are the most valuable of the bituminous variety. The coke is used principally as a fuel in the manufacture of iron. Other coals are rich in gas and are chiefly used in the manufacture of the gas which lights our homes, cities and towns. Other 92 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS bituminous coals are adapted for the use of boilers and are known as steam coals. One variety, com- paratively rare, is known as cannel coal, so called because of the candle-like flame with which it burns. The United States now produces annually between 450 and 500 million tons of coal. Coal mining in America has gone on for about 100 years, and up to the present time the tonnage produced has doubled every ten years. If this rate of consumption con- tinues, the supply of high-grade coals will be ex- hausted in less than two centuries. The end of the supply of anthracite coal in Pennsylvania is now in sight. It is the duty of the Nation to conserve its coal supply, which is so essential to the industrial life of the country. Words of Like Sound Ball — a round object, "The earth is round like a ball"; bawl — to cry aloud, "The peddlers bawl their wares through the streets" ; ball — a dance, "Gretchen went to the ball with Hans." Bound- — border, "The woods bound our farm on the south"; bound — to leap, "The deer bound away over the prairies" ; bound — made fast, "They bound the crazy man with ropes." Clothes — dress, "Girls all like to wear good clothes"; close — shut, "Always close the door quietly"; close — near, "John and Mary like to sit close to each other." Green — a color, "The white house with green shut- ters" ; green — not dry, "Green wood does not burn well" ; green — a common, "The boys and girls dance on the village green." Low — not high, "The sheep jumped over the low wall"; low — bellow, "The cattle low as they come to be LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 93 milked" ; lo — behold, "Lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf." Pen — to write with, "I dip my pen in the ink" ; pen — an enclosure, "We shut the pigs in the pen." III. PETROLEUM Petroleum is an inflammable oily liquid mixture that exudes from the earth, oozes from crevices of rocks and floats on the surface of water. It is also called coal-oil, rock-oil, mineral-oil, and the Indians sold it for medical purposes as "Seneca oil." It has been known from time immemorial and the pagan perpetual fires were possibly of this origin. Geolo- gists believe that petroleum has been formed of decomposed organic matter, either vegetable or animal. It is found in commercial quantities in North America, Europe and Asia. The annual pro- duction of the world is more than 5,000,000,000 gallons, half of which is produced in the United States. Russia' is the only country that competes with the United States in volume of production, hav- ing an annual output of 2,250,000,000 gallons. The remainder is supplied by Austria, Germany, Sumatra, Java, and Canada. Petroleum was known to exist in Pennsylvania from the first time Europeans settled there ; but its commercial importance began in 1859, when the first oil well was sunk near Titusville, Pa. Oil is being produced today in commercial quantities in several States, but Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana lead all 94 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS others. Petroleum as it comes from the earth is crude oil. It is used in this state for steam raising and other purposes, but the major part is refined and yields gasolene, naphtha, benzine, kerosene, paraffin, etc. Besides these refined products a residuum ren- ders such by-products as tar, pitch, etc. Much the larger part of the oil is suitable for burning and is used in lamps in every part of the world. The ques- tion of transporting oil to market led to the con- struction of pipe lines, some of which are hundreds of miles in length. The plan is to lay a six-inch pipe as a main, then pumping stations are built along this line every thirty miles or so, which force the oil, when necessary, up grade. These pipes run from the oil fields of Pennsylvania to New York and Chicago. Some carry the crude product from the oil region to the refineries, others carry the refined product to distributing centers. Words of Like Sound Hay — mown grass, "Make hay while the sun shines"; hey — an exclamation, "Hey, John, where are you going?" Hair — nature's clothing, "I fear my hair is turning gray" ; hare — a small animal, "The hare has very long ears." Heard — did hear, "I just heard the shop-whistle"; herd — a number of animals, "A large herd of cattle passed this morning." Heel — a part of the foot, "I bruised my heel on stone"; heal — to cure, "salve would heal the bruise on your heel." Heart — an organ of the body, "The heart beats about seventy-two times a minute" ; hart — a male deer, "A hart bounded away through the woods." LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 95 Hire — to engage, "The boss wishes to hire Casimer for twenty dollars"; higher— comparative of high, "Casi- mer wants higher wages." IV. SALT Salt is a mineral product and is a very important article of food. It is one of the commonest natural substances and is found in sea water, in deep springs, and in the form of rock salt. It is obtained in com- mercial quantities in fifteen States and in Canada. Salt is prepared in California from sea water, and in Utah from the water of the Great Salt Lake. The process is as follows. Several series of vats or tanks, about a foot deep, are set up on posts at different levels above the ground, so that the brine may be drawn from one to the other by means of pipes. The salt water is pumped into the highest and left to stand for ten days, then it is passed into the next series of tanks and exposed to evaporation by the sun's rays for two or three days. It is then drawn off to a third series of tanks and lastly it runs into the fourth, where the salt crystallizes. Natural salt is found in New York, Ohio and some other States at great depths. Rock salt is found in Michigan, Ohio, Kansas, etc. In Europe salt is mined by means of shafts, but in the United States no shafts are used. The method obtaining in Amer- ica is to bore a pipe hole to the salt bed ; if brine exists, it is pumped to the surface; if not, then a second pipe is inserted in the first, fresh water is 96 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS forced down between the two pipes, and a salt solution is pumped up through the smaller pipe. The salt is then reclaimed by artificial evaporation by means of steam heat. Salt has been used by man from time immemorial, and, in the Orient, its use has a religious and social significance. It is a necessary element in the food of most mammals and wild animals beat out trails many miles long to get to salt-licks. It is used to preserve organic substances from decay and has important uses in chemical and industrial arts. About 20,000,000 barrels a year are produced in the United States, and some 4800 wage-earners are employed in the industry. Of the materials used in the production of salt the most expensive is the fuel needed in plants where evaporation is carried on by means of steam. Words of Like Sound Him — personal pronoun, "I saw him yesterday"; hymn — a sacred song, "The choir sang my favorite hymn." Kill — to take life, "Thou shalt not kill"; kiln — an oven, "The potter bakes his wares in a kiln." Knave — a rascal, "A miserable knave stole my coat"; nave — center of a church, "The choir marched down the nave singing." Knead — to mix or mold, "The women knead the dough in a pan"; need — want, "My wife is in need of a new dress." Night — the dark hours, "The night is dark"; knight — title, "The Sir Knight wore a sword." Pail — bucket, "Wilhelm goes to the pump for a pail of water"; pale — light color, "The woman is sick, she is very pale." LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 97 V. LEAD Lead was known to the ancients, who made some use of the metal in commerce. It is mentioned in the oldest historical works, and was used in a variety of ways by barbaric peoples. The Romans used lead to make water pipes, tanks, weights and rings. The Chinese have worked lead from remote ages and still continue to do so. At present its chief value to them is in sheet lead to line chests in which tea is packed and transported to all countries on the globe. Lead is seldom found native but its ores are common in Great Britain, Germany and Spain, while America has some rich deposits. In the United States lead was first discovered in 1621, but the quantity was not large. In the middle of the eighteenth century it was used as currency in parts of the country. In the middle of the nine- teenth century the lead deposits of Wisconsin, Illi- nois, Missouri and Kansas were found, and a few years later those of the Rocky Mountain district were located. Our chief supply of lead now comes from Idaho, but other States also contribute to make up the grand total. The ores that are smelted for the purpose of securing lead, contain zinc, silver and gold, but these latter metals only occur in small quantities. When the ore is taken from the mine the first operation is to break it up ; it is then passed through machines, which remove as far as possible all impuri- ties before it is transferred to the smelting furnaces, 98 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS where the final refining process takes place. Lead is soft and can be easily melted. It can be readily squeezed into the forms of rod, pipe or sheet. Its compounds are used in medicines and as pigments. Its adaptability for roofing, for lining sinks and cisterns, for piping and for shot and balls, makes it one of the most serviceable metals of modern times. The lead industry is fraught with danger to the employees. Men who work in lead mines or in the lead smelters must exercise great care, for lead intro- duced into the system leads to lead poisoning, which is difficult to cure and often proves fatal. Hence lead workers should be very careful to wash their hands before they eat, for the chief source of poison- ing is by eating with unwashed hands. They should also change their working garments at the close of every day's work and have them washed often. Respirators and gloves should also be used by employees and some firms wisely insist that their employees take these precautions. The United States produces annually about 300,- 000 tons of lead; this is not enough to meet the market demand and every year large quantities are imported from Mexico and other countries. About 8000 persons are employed in mines and around smelters, the chief business of which is to produce lead. The commodity is also a by-product in many other smelters where the chief production is either copper or zinc. The total value of the lead pro- duced in 1907 was about $32,000,000 ; the industry is growing and the market demand is strong. LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 99 Words of Like Sound Ceiling — top of a room, "Some plastering fell from the ceiling last night"; sealing — to seal with wax or paste, "They have a machine for sealing letters." Chaste — pure, "The maiden was as chaste as a lily" ; chased — pursued, "The dogs chased the deer." Choir — church singers, "We have a boy choir in our church"; quire — twenty-four sheets of paper, "twenty quires of paper make a ream." Choose — to pick out, "The boys choose sides to play ball"; chews — to chew with the teeth, "The cow chews her cud." Match — to light with, "Matches should be kept in a safe place"; match — like, "Tony and Tesla match well in size." Pray — act of worship, "The child kneeled by the bed to pray"; prey — to take by force, "The lion seized and devoured his prey." Seed — to sow, "The farmers sow seed in the field"; cede — to give up, "France was obliged to cede Acadia to England." VI. LUMBER America is rich in forests, but if the present drain goes on for another twenty-five years, there will be little timber left in the country. The lumbermen market annually about fifty billion feet, valued at about $700,000,000. The annual cut is estimated to be three times the annual growth and good lumber is becoming more scarce and costly every year. The lumber generally used in large structures is from the pines and firs, which are commonly called ever- 100 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS greens. Furniture, tools and vehicles are made of hardwood, such as the oak, chestnut, maple, walnut, hickory and birch. The red woods are used for pen- cils, while wheel spokes are made of hickory. Sawmills are generally erected in or near the for- est and the workers camp near the mill. In many large plants the trees are cut down by machinery. The limbs are chopped off by the woodsmen and the logs are ready for the mill. They are usually hauled out in winter on sleds, to the mill if near, to a lumber railway or to a stream for "driving" down with the spring freshets. In the mill the logs are sawed into boards or large timbers, then the product is seasoned, or dried out, so that the lumber will not shrink, crack or warp after it is used in buildings, etc. The pro- cess of drying timber is sometimes carried on in the open air and sometimes in kilns by artificial heat. Lumber meets the needs of men in a thousand ways, in the home, in factories, in mines and in commerce. Large quantities of wood are annually ground into pulp and made into paper, the yield of firewood each year is immense, and we have learned that leather is tanned from extracts of the bark of chestnut, oak and hemlock. Trees also yield tar, rosin and tur- pentine, while many chemicals are derived from the products of the forest. Lumber being thus so impor- tant in the industrial and domestic life of the nation, it behooves America to take care of her forests, so that the annual cut will not exceed the annual growth; for thus only will the forests continue to yield the necessary amount of products to supply our needs. LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 101 Words of Like Sound Feet — plural of foot, "My lot is forty feet wide" ; feat — an exploit, "Dan thinks it quite a feat to jump the fence." Flee — to run away, "The wicked flee when no man pursueth"; flea — an insect, "The flea torments the dog." Fur — soft hair, "My girl has a fur muff" ; fir — a tree, "The fir tree is a kind of pine." I — pronoun, "It is I, be not afraid"; eye — organ of sight, "I got a cinder in my eye." Red — a color, "Our flag is red, white and blue"; read — did read, "My boy read the paper to me." Pitch — to throw, "I saw the men pitch quoits"; pitch — tar, "They daubed the seams of the boat with pitch" ; pitch — inclination, "A roof with a steep pitch does not leak easily." Your — personal pronoun, "Is this your purse?" ewer — a pitcher, "She poured water from the ewer into the basin." VII. RICE Rice is the cereal most used by man, being the principal article of food in countries containing two thirds of the world's population. Rice is native in India and was cultivated there from the earliest times. It is supposed to have been introduced into China from India about 2822 B. C. It is also produced in North and South America, Europe, Africa and in the islands of the sea. The annual product is esti- mated at 170,000,000,000 pounds, one third of which is grown in India, another third in China and the rest in Japan, the Philippines, America, Africa, etc. Rice was introduced into the United States in 1647, and for two hundred years it was chiefly grown in 102 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS the Carolinas and Georgia. During the last twenty years the cereal is grown in Louisiana and Texas, and at present about ninety-five per cent of the total production in America is produced in these States. The industry has grown very rapidly in the last decade by the introduction of improved machinery, which enables one man and five mules to do in a day what it took a whole family and hired help to do previously in a season. In 1890, 137,000,000 pounds were produced in America ; now the annual produc- tion is more than 500,000,000 pounds. During this time the consumption of rice in America has more than doubled, so that producers find a constantly growing market. Rice, as every other cereal, must be prepared for market. The primitive method of milling was to place the rice in a hollow stone or block of wood, then pound it with a stone pestle ; the blow cracked the hull, which was then removed from the cereal by fric- tion. The hull and the bran were later separated from the grain by the process of winnowing. This primitive method was used in the United States when rice was first cultivated, and it is the process still in vogue in Asiatic countries. Improved machinery enables the American to prepare for market in a given period nearly one hundred times more rice than can be done by the old method by a laborer in India or China. Words of Like Sound Lax — loose, weak, "John's teacher is lax in school discipline"; lacks — wanting, without, "Henry's teacher lacks good sense." LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 103 Lesson — a task, "Bridget has learned her lesson"; lessen — to diminish, "We must lessen our living ex- penses." Links — part of a chain, "A blacksmith mended the broken links in the chain"; lynx — an animal, "The lynx is a savage but cowardly animal." Nose — organ of smell, "The drunkard has a red nose"; knows — does know, "The boy knows his lesson per- fectly." Order — neatness, "The girl puts the boss's desk in order"; order — command, "The boss gave an order to the gatekeeper." Plain — level, "A prairie is a grassy plain"; plain — clear, "The teacher made the lesson very plain"; plane — a tool, "The carpenter smooths the board with his plane"; plane — a mine slope, "The car of coal goes down the plane." VIII. PRINTING Lawrence Coster, a Dutchman, made the first mov- able type. His invention was an accident which happened as follows : One day he went to the woods with his grandchildren. The little fellows wanted him to carve their names on the bark of the beech trees. He took his penknife to do this, for he was fond of whittling, and split off some five pieces of bark. He then cut the letters of the alphabet upon them, one letter on each piece, wrapped them in a piece of soft paper and carried them home. When he opened the package, he saw the forms of some of the letters distinctly printed on the white paper. This suggested the possibility of printing, and Coster thought and thought upon it, until at last he in- 104 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS vented the plan of printing books. He whittled pieces of wood into types, which he properly arranged and adjusted in a press. He then, by means of a long lever, operated his machine to print. John Gutenberg (1444) of Mentz, Germany, learned all that Coster knew and further developed the art of printing by inventing cut metal types. Cast metal types were invented by Peter Schoeffer (1455), but the first work printed from them did not appear until seven years later. William Caxton (1471), having learned the art of printing in Flanders, set up the first printing press in London. In 1800, the Earl of Stanhope invented an im- proved printing press, and fourteen years later the first steam printing machine was put up in London. Cowper and Applegath (1827) invented a four- cylinder machine, which printed 5000 copies in an hour. Twenty years later, Applegath invented an eight-cylinder machine which printed 12,000 copies an hour. In the early fifties, Hoe's printing machine, an American invention, had ten feeding cylinders and printed 20,000 copies an hour. Today the best printing machines feed themselves with paper from a continuous web; print both sides at one operation ; supply themselves with ink ; damp the paper ; cut it into sheets ; fold the sheets ; register the number of impressions, and produce more than 20,000 copies an hour. This achievement in modern printing is possible because of the development of the art of stereotyping and electrotyping. LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 105 Words of Like Sound Bough — a limb, "I cut the green bough from the tree"; bow — to nod, "Petro made a bow to the lady"; bow — the front, "Hans stood in the bow of the boat." Letter — a character of the alphabet, "The small boy learns his A B C's" ; letter — a written message, "My brother wrote me a letter." Piece — a part, "Give me a piece of bread" ; peace — quiet, without strife, "Grant said, 'Let us have peace'." Sack — a bag, "We got a sack of flour at the store"; sack — a garment, "Freda has a pretty new sack." Sea — a large body of water, "We had a severe storm at sea"; see — to look, "We see many new things in America." Seem — to appear, "I seem to be learning rapidly" ; seam — a crack, "There was a seam in the face of the coal"; seam — edges joined, "My new coat ripped at the seam." IX. PAPER The word paper is derived from the word papyrus, a reed, the pith of which was used by the Egyptians to make the thin film on which writings were pre- served. Eumenes, King of Pergamus in Asia Minor, two hundred years before Christ, invented a way to make parchment from the skins of animals. At the beginning of the Christian era, the Chinese made paper from pulp artificially prepared, but down to the twelfth century little was known of the process of paper manufacture. The knowledge of the art seems to have traveled westward and, in 1100 A. D., the Moors introduced its manufacture into Spain. Linen paper was made in Europe in the following 106 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS century, specimens of which are today found in some of the European monasteries. The first paper mill in England was erected at Dartford, in the year 1590, which produced coarse white paper. Writing and printing papers were manufactured at this time in France and Holland. Persecutions drove some of the manufacturers to other countries where they set up factories and taught the people the secrets of the manufacture. The first paper-making machine was patented in England in the beginning of the last century by a Frenchman, and in 1807 the machine was improved and could manufacture paper in a web of indefinite length. In 1856, esparto, or Spanish grass, was introduced in the manufacture, and the following year a process was discovered to make parchment paper, which is paper passed through a solution of sulphuric acid whereby it becomes a tough, skin-like material. The paper industry has developed very rapidly in the United States, which at present produces a larger tonnage than any other country. Paper is made from a variety of raw materials, but the most impor- tant of them in quantity and economy is wood. For this reason the large paper mills are found in States where wood of the right quality can be plentifully obtained. The paper industry is closely associated with the intellectual life of the people. Paper is the medium above all others for the dissemination of knowledge, for communication between friends and for the art of decorating the interiors of buildings. The cost of the paper used to publish books is larger than that LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 107 used in any other kind of printed product. If esti- mated in tonnage, the amount used in newspapers leads. It takes each year more than a million tons of paper to print the world's news for the use of the people of North America. More than 600,000 tons are put into books, and another 150,000 tons are used for writing papers. About 70,000 persons are employed in the industry. We seldom think what quantities of paper are used in simple business transactions. The transfer system on our trolleys requires annually more than 3,000,- 000,000 slips. The telephone subscriber's books in three large cities number 1,500,000 and contain 3,000,000 pounds of paper. Papers and magazines enter every home and if all that are printed were equally divided, each family would have two papers per day. About 10,000 different books are issued annually, and the post office department handles each year half as many letters as there are people in the United States. This shows how intimately associated with the intellectual and social life of the people is the paper industry. In the printed page are con- served the results achieved by inventors and scientists of all ages who have stood in the van of civilization. Words of Like Sound Dew — condensed moisture, "The dew makes the grass wet"; due — matured, "My rent will be due Saturday." Done — accomplished, "This work is nearly done"; dun — to solicit, "The grocer will dun me if I do not pay." Draft (draught) — to sketch, "I have a draft of my new house"; draft — a current of air, "Don't sit in a draft" ; draft — anything drawn, "John sent me a bank 108 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS draft"; (draughts, checkers, "I saw two men playing at draughts"). Earn — to gain by service, "I make out to earn my living"; urn — a vase, a receptacle, "There are flowers in the urn in the yard." Right — not wrong, "When we do what is right we are happy"; right — not left, "Always keep to the right in driving"; rite — a ceremony, "The rite of baptism is performed by the priest"; write — to mark, "I write letters with a steel pen" ; wright — a mechanic, "My father was a wheel-wright." X. IRON Iron is one of the metallic elements found in nature which cannot be decomposed by any method known to science. It is found in nearly all rocks. No one knows who first discovered it, for men made imple- ments of iron in prehistoric times. Iron is found native in small quantities, but is chiefly derived from ores which are abundant and widespread. It is found in plants and animals, in sea and mineral water. It exists in the sun and stars and comes from space to earth in the form of meteorites. Large iron ore deposits are found in the United States. In the Appalachian field, stretching from Newfoundland to Alabama, large deposits of rather impure ore are found. The deposits of the Lake Superior region are extensive and pure and easily mined and transported to market. The Rocky Mountains and the ranges nearer the Pacific Coast contain inexhaustible supplies of iron. Colorado, having a supply of coal suitable to smelting, is the LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 109 only State in this region that has developed her iron fields. The ore is found at varying depths and some- times, as in the Messabi Range, is obtained by surface mining. The ore when mined is transported to furnaces where the impurities are separated and the iron, in a more or less pure form, is run into molds ; this after cooling is known as cast-iron. This product is very brittle and not malleable. Wrought iron is produced by a process of "pud- dling," and can be worked up to finished products. The quantit}' of iron produced annually in the world is about sixty million tons, nearly half of which is produced in the United States. The major part of the production of the furnaces of America is used in the making of steel. Iron, together with coal, is the most important of the mineral substances, and forms the material basis of the industrial prosperity of the nation. The United States is fortunate in the pos- session of large quantities of both. Words of Like Sound Can — able to do, "I can go home if I wish"; can — a tin vessel, "We get milk in a quart can." Mold — a pattern, "He ran lead bullets in a mold"; mold — to shape, "I saw a woman mold bread" ; mold— a fungus, "There was mold on the cheese." Range — a cooking stove, "Mary built a fire in the range"; range — a row or series, "The road crosses a range of hills"; range — an area, "There is a deer range in the park." Steal — to rob, "The Bible says, 'Thou shalt not steal' "; steel — refined iron, "Hans works in a steel-mill." Wait — to delay, "I will wait for you at the corner" ; 110 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS weight — heaviness, "Did you find out the weight of the coal?" Wave — water, "A great wave dashed over the ship's deck"; wave — to move, "I saw Hilda wave her handker- chief." XI. STEEL Steel is manufactured from iron by one of two general methods, (1) by burning the carbon out of pig iron (cast-iron) as in the Bessemer and open- hearth processes; (2) by* adding carbon to wrought iron as in the crucible process. Cast-iron contains about four per cent of carbon, wrought iron only a slight trace of it, while the various kinds of steel are mixtures between these extremes. Steel containing less than one third per cent of carbon can be welded ; if more than three fourths per cent it can be tem- pered to different degrees of hardness. While carbon exerts the greatest influence on the physical proper- ties of steel, other ingredients, as manganese, nickel, chromium, tungsten, etc., are often added, especially to crucible steel, to influence its hardness. Steel is sometimes classified as soft, medium and hard, the demarcation however being indefinite ; that between soft and medium is sometimes called mild steel. Trade names are sometimes given to steel according to its uses. For example, from the Besse- mer and open-hearth processes are obtained: (1) from the soft steel, what are known as fire-box steel, flange steel, rivet steel; (2) from mild or medium steel, shell steel (for boilers), structural steel, ma- LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 111 chinery steel; (3) from hard steel, rail steel. From the hard steel made by the crucible process are ob- tained tool steel and spring steel. Steel castings are made by pouring the molten metal into molds of the required shape the same as is done in making iron castings. About seventy-five per cent of the iron produced in the United States is used for manufac- turing steel. Steel is of great service in modern industry and the articles made from it are constantly increasing. Railway rails up to 1855 were made of iron and were speedily worn out; steel rails last about six years. American manufacturers were the first to make freight cars of steel and the annual output in the country is now about 70,000. Pittsburg is the cen- ter of the American steel industry and Pennsylvania produces more than fifty per cent of the entire amount manufactured. Ohio, Illinois and New York follow in the order here given. The total steel pro- duction of the world is about 60,000,000 tons, about one half of which is produced in the United States. Words of Like Sound Ring — a circle, "The horses run fast around the circus ring" ; ring — to sound, "The sexton will ring the curfew bell at nine o'clock"; wring — to squeeze, "The women wash and wring the clothes." Road — a way, "The road to the city passes our house"; rode — did ride, "John rode the bay mare to town" ; rowed — did row, "I rowed a boat on the river." Rock — stone, "They are drilling the rock for a blast"; rock — to tip, "Ann rocks baby to sleep in the cradle." Roll — to turn, "They roll the big log over and over" ; roll — a sound, "John beat the long roll on the drum"; 112 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS roll — a biscuit, "I had only coffee and a roll for break- fast." Tack — a small nail, "The carpet is fastened down with tacks" ; tack — direction, "In sailing against a head wind we tack." Tick — a clicking sound, "The baby laughed to hear the watch tick"; tick — bed covering, "The man filled the bed-tick with straw"; tick — credit, "The baker made a tick of what I bought." XII. STEAMBOATS Ocean travel is one of the wonders of our time. It is made possible because of the steamers which cross every sea on the globe. The steamboat, the predecessor of the modern steamer, was invented more than a century ago (1788). Many attempts were made to navigate by steam power, but the practica- bility of it was demonstrated by Robert Fulton, in August, 1807, when the Clermont made the trip from New York to Albany, a distance of 150 miles, in thirty-two hours. At the time the steamboat was started, crowds lined the shore to see "Fulton's Folly." Less than thirty people in the city of New York believed in the success of the enterprise. The crowd hardly expected the boat to move a mile an hour. When the Clermont sailed over the waters and successfully made the trip the question of steam navigation was solved. This first steamboat was crude, its movements were slow, but with it came a new era in water transportation. In 1809, steamboats were placed on the Ohio and, LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 113 within the next decade, they made the trip up the Mississippi from New Orleans. Steamers were used for a long time in the coasting trade in America before an attempt was successfully made, in 1819, to cross the ocean. That year the steam vessel Savannah for the first time crossed from New York to Liverpool. Ocean travel was greatly facilitated by the use of coal in the production of steam (1836), by the inven- tion of the screw propeller (1836-38), and by the use of iron for ship building (1838). In 1838, steam vessels began to ply regularly between America and England, and the same year England began to build war steamers. The rivalry between sailing ships and steamers was for a time intense, but as the latter increased in strength, speed and capacity freight and passenger traffic was largely transferred to them. The Clermont foreshadowed ocean travel by steam navigation, which today is considered as safe and regular as railroad travel. Words of Like Sound Side — a surface or boundary, "A stone hit the side of my house"; sighed — breathed deeply, "The woman sighed and cried." Sole — only, "I was the sole survivor of the wreck"; soul — spirit, "I pray Thee, Lord, my soul to take" ; sole — the bottom, "The shoemaker put a sole on my shoe"; sole — a fish, "We bought sole in the fish market." Steak — a piece of meat, "Beef-steak is very expen- sive"; stake — a small post, "I drove a stake into the ground"; stake — a bet, "To play games for a stake is gambling." 114 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Straight — not crooked. "The avenue is wide and straight"; strait — a narrow passage, "The Narrows is a strait leading into New York harbor." Suit — to please, "I hope the house may suit you"; suit — clothes, "Hans has a new suit of clothes" ; suit — action of law, "I am subpoenaed as witness in a law- suit." Watch — a timepiece, "Does your watch keep good time?" watch — to guard, "Tiger is a good watch dog"; watch — to observe, "I can watch the people from my window." XIII. LOCOMOTIVES Steam was used as a motive power long before Stephenson applied it to locomotives. The first locomotive built by Stephenson was in 1814, when it drew thirty tons and traveled at the rate of six miles an hour. In 1829, he won a prize for the best loco- motive, which weighed no more than six tons and traveled at the rate of twenty miles an hour. The first locomotive seen in America was imported from England in 1829: it proved useless because the track was not built for so heavy a weight. Two years later (1831) the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company chose steam as the most practical motive power. Its first engine was the "Tom Thumb," which made thirteen miles an hour. About that time the "Best Friend," of the South Carolina Railroad, with five loaded cars ran from sixteen to twenty-one miles an hour. The following year a locomotive made the trip from Albany to Schenectady (seventeen miles) in one hour. At that time (1832), it took LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 115 four days to go from Albany to Buffalo; now we make the trip in six hours. At a dinner given in honor of the trip from Albany to Schenectady, one of the toasts voiced a daring prophecy : "The Buffalo Railroad — May we soon breakfast in Utica, dine in Rochester and sup with our friends on Lake Erie." As soon as the locomotive proved practical, the development of the railroads of the country was rapid. Men were anxious to reap the first fruits of the new transportation system. Engines and rolling stock built about the middle of the last century were not one sixth as heavy as those built at present. Hence the roads and bridges first built were not strong enough to bear the heavier weight and larger loads. This has necessitated the rebuilding of many roads and bridges. In the year 1869 the first railroad crossing the continent was built. Today the capital invested in railroads represents one seventh of the total wealth of the country. Two fifths of the total mileage of the world is in the United States, and the extent of our railroads exceeds that of any other country. Words of Like Sound Ate — did eat, "The man ate his lunch"; eight — a number, "It is after eight o'clock." Bad — not good, "I fear you are a bad boy"; bade — did bid, "My friend bade me goodbye." Bard — a poet, "Shakespeare is called the 'Bard of Avon' "; barred — shut out, "Teams are barred from the new pavement." Mark — a line or sign, "I drew a chalk mark across the floor"; mark — a coin, "The mark is a German coin." 116 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Till — to cultivate, "The farmers till the soil"; till — a small box, "The money is in the till under the counter" ; till — time, "I cannot go till tomorrow." Well — a deep hole, "I drew a bucket of water from the well" ; well — health, "I was sick, but am now well." XIV. ELECTRICITY Electricity is an invisible agent which, in conjunc- tion with special mechanical devices, manifests energy that is of service to man. It was known in its sim- plest form long before the Christian era, but the originator of the science of electricity was Gilbert, who lived and conducted his experiments in the seven- teenth century. The men who have brought it into practical use are, Leyden, Galvani, Volta, Franklin, Wheatstone, Morse, Edison, etc. Down to the middle of the last century electricity was little used and was of small commercial value. About that time its practical application to the art of telegraphy was a prophecy of its commercial and industrial importance. Ten years later the dynamo was constructed which made it possible to apply elec- tricity as a motor power in factories and shops. Another decade passed before it was applied to the stock-ticker, the burglar alarm and other electrical contrivances, useful to men in domestic and commer- cial life. In 1880 the telephone came into vogue and elec- tricity came into more common use as an illumi- nant. Ten years later engineers were busily engaged applying this subtle agent in the operation of street LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 117 cars. At the beginning of the present century the adoption of electricity as a motor power for factories, shops, mines, railroads and automobiles is marked. So general has the application of electricity become that every important industry in the country uses it in one form or another. It is an indispensable factor in modern civilization and much of the convenience and comfort of life are dependent upon it. By it our homes are lighted, and its application to heating rooms and cooking food is annually extending. Every town of importance has its streets lighted by electricity, its fire-alarm system operated by elec- tricity, and the street cars lighted, heated and moved by electricity. It carries the messages of man to the ends of the earth, "has moored the continents of the globe side by side," and transfers life and death signals to ships on the ocean. It refines our metals, welds our steel and is of inestimable value in the arts and sciences. The mechanical agencies through which it works are innumerable and upon no other element does the inventive genius of our generation, in order to devise new instruments to meet the require- ments of our industrial and commercial age, devote so much time. In the last quarter of a century, no fewer than 19,000 patents have been taken out by electricians. To produce this power men are harnessing water- falls everywhere, but in no place is this done as at Niagara Falls, where large buildings, deep shafts, immense tubes, powerful turbines, and long tunnels are the tools used to harness this wonder of nature and make it subservient to the needs of man. Elec- 118 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS tricity can be transmitted for scores of miles without much loss ; some of the most eminent electricians have suggested the possibility of utilizing the coal at the mouths of the tunnels and shafts where it is mined to produce electricity, and to distribute the same from thence rather than carry the bulky and dirty commodity to market and cart it to factory, shop and home. In no country is electricity used as extensively as in America, and the enterprise and ingenuity of Americans in the use and development of electrical appliances accounts largely for the marvelous indus- trial development of North America. If the money annually spent in the United States upon electrical appliances were evenly divided each person in the Republic would have between seven and eight dollars. Words of Like Sound Bass — a low tone, "Melukas has a good bass voice" ; base — the bottom, "I stood at the base of a tall column." Beat — to strike^ "I beat a bass drum in the band"; beet — a vegetable, "Beet is good pickled in vinegar." Been — past of to be, "John has been to the circus" ; bin — a box, "The oats for the horse are in the bin." Beer — a drink, "Anton got tipsy drinking beer"; bier — a wooden stretcher, "They carried the dead man on a bier." Berth — a sleeping place, "I slept in a berth on the ship"; birth — coming into existence, "Tomorrow is my birth-day." Belle — a fine lady, "Marie is the village belle" ; bell — to ring, "The fire bell rang last night." Palm — inside of hand, "I held the young bird in my palm"; palm — tree, "Dates grow on a kind of palm." LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 119 XV. THE TELEGRAPH Rapid messages sent from place to place depend upon the telegraph ; verbal communication between important centers depends upon the telephone ; com- munication between widely separated ships upon the sea can be carried on only by wireless telegraphy. The first to discover the action of an electric cur- rent on a magnetic needle was Oersted, a Danish physicist, who died in 1851. This laid the founda- tion of telegraphy. In 1832, Samuel F. B. Morse began his experi- ments and three years later perfected an instrument by which he successfully sent verbal messages along an electric wire. The following year (1836) Pro- fessor Wheatstone, of King's College, London, made an electro-magnetic apparatus by which thirty sig- nals were sent through four miles of wire. In 1839, the first telegraph line was set up from London to West Drayton, a distance of thirteen miles, by W. F. Cooke. Morse had considerable diffi- culty in convincing business men of the practicability of his invention. Men were skeptical and would not put their money into it. The government came to his aid. In 1844, it made an appropriation to build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. This in America and the London experiment in Eng- land proved the practicability of telegraphy and in the next two years telegraph companies were organ- ized in both countries. A few years later and the leading cities of the Eastern States were connected by telegraph lines, 120 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS and before the middle of the last century lines went as far west as Chicago. In 1861, the government made an appropriation to carry a telegraph line across the continent, thus connecting the cities on the Atlantic with those on the Pacific Ocean. Telegraphic communication between the continents was more difficult, but Cyrus W. Field essayed the task and succeeded. In 1851, the first submarine cable, crossing the English Channel, was laid. The wire was enclosed in a covering of gutta-percha. Six years later and Field was busy laying a cable across the Atlantic, to join Europe and America by telegraphic commu- nication. After 300 miles were laid the cable snapped. The 3^ear 1865 saw Field making another attempt to tie the continents together with a copper wire, but again the rope snapped in mid-ocean. The following year he made the third attempt and success- fully laid the cable. In this third effort the cable lost the previous year was recovered, spliced and completed. The invention of wireless telegraphy is recent, but it has proven practical and the United States Signal Service and the United States Navy have adopted it. Wireless messages have already been successfully con- veyed a distance of more than 4000 miles. How far this invention will supplant the telegraph and cable remains to be seen. The telephone, winch was invented by Alexander G. Bell, in 1870, is more convenient than the tele- graph for short distances, but it has not largely inter- ferred with the business of the telegraph companies. LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 121 Men a thousand miles apart have communicated with each other by telephone and the prophecy is that San Francisco and New York will in time communi- cate with each other by this means. The telegraph lines of Great Britain were trans- ferred to the government in 1869; those of America are in the hands of private corporations. Words of Like Sound Air — the atmosphere, "The wind is the air in motion" ; heir — one who inherits, "Guisseppe is heir to a house in Naples." Blue — a color, "Petro wears a blue cap" ; blew — did blow, "The wind blew my hat off yesterday." Bruise — =to pound or batter, "Did Paul bruise his finger with a hammer?" brews- — to brew, "Old Nan brews beer." Cannon — a great gun, "There are many cannon in the fort"; canon — a church law, "A priest must obey the canon law of the church." Canvass — to solicit, "They canvass for money for the Y. M. C. A."; canvas — cloth, "Jacola's overalls are made of canvas." Mass — quantity, "A great mass of coal fell from the roof" ; mass — a rite, "Many people attend mass Sunday mormn XVI. LEATHER Leather is the skin of animals prepared by chemi- cal and mechanical processes. The skin thus pre- pared can resist decay and is given certain new qual- ities which make it of great commercial value. 122 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS The art of dressing hides has been known from pre- historic times. The object to be attained in the art is to overcome the tendency of the hide to break, to enable it to resist the effect of water, and to increase the strength of the skin. The processes of curing skins, whereby these results are secured, vary greatly. China has specimens of leather 3000 years old. The Egyptians, 3000 years before the Christian era, had knowledge of the art of tanning. When Columbus discovered America he found that the Indians knew the art of dressing the skins of deer and buffalo, and the Eskimos today dress leather in a primitive way. In 1790, the use of lime to loosen the hair on the hide very materially aided the tanning process, and since then tanners have successfully devised means by which to shorten the time necessary in the process of preparing hides for market. The skin of almost every four-footed animal is used, but the various kinds of leather marketed are named partly from their use and partly from the ingredient used in their manufacture. The tanning industry in the United States employs about 10,000 workers and is chiefly concentrated in those States having hemlock and oak forests, which supply bark necessary for tanning. Leather from the tanneries is used for many purposes but the major part of the product is consumed in the making of foot-wear, belting, harness, and carriage and furni- ture upholstery. Sole-leather, in 1907, consumed more than fifty per cent of all the leather manufac- tured in the country. The boot and shoe industry of America is very extensive and is practically limited LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 123 to the Northern States east of Chicago. Massachu- setts leads all other States in the manufacture of shoes and is credited with more than forty per cent of the total product. The shoe industry for the most part is located in large cities and the total number of wage-earners is about 155,000. The glove industry also consumes much leather and gives employment to about 17,000 wage-earners. Thus if we take the number of workers who are employed in the leather industry together with those who work the leather into finished products, such as shoes, gloves, etc., the total number of employees will be more than 250,000, most of whom live under urban conditions. Words of Like Sound Coat — a garment, "David has a new cloth coat"; cote — pen for sheep, "The sheep are safe in their cote." Colonel — an army officer, "The colonel rides at the head of his regiment" ; kernel — a seed, "We shell the kernels of corn from the cob." Core — the center, "The core of the apple contains the seeds"; corps — a body of troops, "An army corps is composed of several divisions." Hide — to conceal, "The children play at 'hide and seek' " ; hide — a skin, "General Grant's father dealt in hides and leather." Miner — one who mines, "The miner digs coal for us to burn" ; minor — under age, "A minor cannot vote." Sight — power of seeing, "I can see well; my sight is good"; site — situation, "Smith has bought a site for a new house"; cite — to summon, "The constable came to cite me to court." 124 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS XVII. CHEMICALS The manufacture of chemicals is an important in- dustry and is constantly growing. The army of workers employed in it numbers more than 60,000, and the number of establishments in which they work is about 1800. Hundreds of substances are produced in these chemical factories which are of great value ; no home in the land can get along without these products, while they furnish some of the most essen- tial articles used in manufacturing industries. Our medicines and our disinfectants are chemical products, the colors used in dyeing come from the same source, and so do many ingredients used in the arts. The farmer gets a large percentage of his fertilizers from the chemical works, and they also supply him with material for killing vermin which injure trees and destroy crops. One of the largest products of the chemical facto- ries is sulphuric acid, which is largely used in the production of other substances. So important is sulphuric acid in modern life that the amount pro- duced in a country is taken as an indicator of its civilization. The United States at present produces about 2,000,000 tons a year. The annual tonnage has been greatly increased by the erection of facto- ries near smelters, the fumes from which are used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The chemical industry has recently been stimulated by the application of electricity in manufacturing. Many factories have been erected near Niagara Falls, where cheap electrical power can be had. The LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 125 chemical plants of this country are chiefly found in the East where the country is most thickly populated. Each of the States of New York and Pennsylvania has more than 300 factories, while the State of Wyoming reports fewer than five. As the States are more fully populated, the number of factories is increased. No important industry in the country is without its chemical department, in which expert chemists are employed to decide what ingredients are con- tained in goods and metals whose quality determines the markets open for them. The employees in this industry also must exercise great care personally, for the effect of the acids and fumes incident to the work is injurious to the system. Words of Like Sound Cord — a string, "I tied the package with a strong cord"; cord — a measure for fire wood, "I sawed a cord of wood for fifty cents"; chord- — a musical tone, "He played 'The Lost Chord' on the organ." Cousin — a relative, "My cousin is visiting me"; cozen — to cheat, "The boy tried to cozen me at craps." Creek — a small stream, "We went fishing in the creek"; creak — a harsh sound, "I heard the door creak in the night." Dear — a term of affection, "My children are very dear to me"; deer — an animal, "Deer is sold in market as venison"; dear — high-priced, "Venison is good eating but dear in price." Dessert — last course, "We had pudding for dessert"; desert — barren, "The camel is called the 'Ship of the Desert.' " Rest — quiet, "I am tired, let me rest awhile"; rest — remainder, "Where is the rest of the money?" 126 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS XVIII. SILK INDUSTRY The silk industry was introduced into Europe from China in 555 A. D. Two monks, missionaries in China about to return home, concealed silk-worm eggs in a cane, brought them to their native land and introduced a new industry to a continent. It was not until the twelfth century, however, that the manu- facturing of silk assumed commercial importance in Europe. Its center then was Sicily, where cater- pillars were bred and silk spun and woven. About the beginning of the sixteenth century the industry spread into Italy, Spain and France. Persecution in France and Holland drove men interested in the silk industry to England and in 1585 they erected silk factories in that country. In the sixteenth century the method of manufac- turing silk was not much improved upon that which the Chinese had practiced centuries before, but in 1589 Rev. William Lee, watching the nimble fingers of his wife knitting, invented a frame for weaving silk stockings. This gave a great impulse to the industry, but the inventor reaped little profit from his invention. He died neglected and in great dis- tress. The industry in England was greatly stimu- lated in the seventeenth century by French refugees who fled to that country when the Edict of Nantes was revoked (1685). In the seventeenth century, the Italians had better machinery for silk manufacturing than the English. In 1715 John Lombe went from England to Piedmont to learn the method. He secured access to the silk LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 127 mills, bribing two Italians for the purpose, studied the machinery, and made drawings and models of its parts. When the Italians found out Lombe's pur- poses, he and the two Italians had to fly for their lives, but on his return to Derby he erected a silk-throwing mill on the Italian model. In 1806 Jacquard, a Frenchman, invented an apparatus by which the most complicated designs may be woven by ordinary workers. The invention is a series of punched cards which, attached to the silk loom, regulates the elevation of certain of the warp threads and the depression of others at each movement of the loom. Jacquard met with the same fate as other great inventors. Wealthy manufac- turers combined to mar the success of his invention and rob him of the profits of his genius. Before he died he had the pleasure of knowing that his inven- tion was in operation on three continents — Europe, America and Asia (China), and in a few years after his death the same contrivance was successfully ap- plied to the manufacture of carpets and other fabrics. The silk industry has been rapidly developed in America, which now leads the nations of the world in the amount of silk goods turned out in its factories. The plants are chiefly located in the States of Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, New York and Connecticut. Words of Like Sound Flow — to move smoothly or continuously, "The New England rivers flow into the Atlantic"; floe — floating ice, "Dr. Grenfell was carried out to sea on a floe." Flower — a blossom, "The rose is a favorite flower"; 128 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS flour — ground grain, "White bread is made from wheat flour." Flue — a passage or duct, "The chimney flue needs cleaning"; flew — did fly, "A swallow flew into the chimney." Fowl — a bird, "A fat fowl well cooked is good eat- ing"; foul — filthy, "No one should use foul language." Frank — candid, "I like Bill because he is so frank"; franc — a coin, "A five franc piece is about ninety-five cents (U. S.)." Pick — to take, "We pick up the nuts in the woods"; pick — a tool, "The miner works with pick and shovel." XIX. COTTON INDUSTRY The art of weaving cotton into cloth is very old. The name of the inventor is not known. The looms of Babylon maintained their celebrity long after the Assyrian Empire had fallen. Egypt and Phoenicia were producers of fine linen centuries before the Christian era. The tool used by the ancients was a hand-loom which was composed of a rectangular frame, from one side of which yarn was stretched to the opposite side and the transverse thread was passed over and under the threads by the hand. This is the loom that was used in earliest historic times and it is the one used today in semi-civilized countries. This vir- tually was the only one used down to the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1767, James Hargreaves, a weaver of Lancas- ter, England, invented a spinning-jenny with eight spindles, which supplanted the old way of spinning LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 129 by hand with the help of the spinning-wheel. But Hargreaves fared no better than Jacquard, Lee, Cort and many other inventive geniuses. The cotton manufacturers leagued themselves against him and he died in obscurity and distress. Two years later Richard Arkwright, a barber by trade, invented a spinning-machine that was operated by water power. He at first was persecuted and neglected, but he interested a wealthy firm, entered into partnership with it, reaped the reward of his invention, was knighted by the king and left a large fortune. Ten years later (1779) Samuel Crompton invented the "mule" in which the spindles are arranged in a movable carriage. He did not patent his invention, but threw it open to the world. It produced yarn very much softer and of treble the fineness of any previously made in England. The invention gave a great impetus to the cotton industry, but Crompton got involved in financial troubles and died in poverty and neglect. In 1785, Dr. Cartwright invented the power-loom which revolutionized the industry. He imitated mechanically the three essential movements in weav- ing. His machine first separated the threads of the warp into two sets, leaving a space through which the weft could pass; then the loaded shuttle was hurled through, and last was a device to press the filling thread against the preceding one, thus making a united surface. Cartwright solved the problem but was maligned and persecuted by both manufacturers and employees. His invention, however, made it possible to keep pace in weaving with the spinning ISO READER FOR COMING AMERICANS machines which had been able to produce far more yarn than the hand looms could employ. The Cart- wright machine is the one now in use although many improvements have been made since his day. Wool is spun and woven by virtually the same process. The variety of the products of the textile industries is very great ; raw cotton, wool and silk can be wrought to finished goods of endless variety. The cotton industry is concentrated for the most part in southern New England, Pennsylvania, North and South Carolina and Georgia. The woolen industry is chiefly carried on in southern New England, New York and Pennsylvania. The United States ranks second in cotton manu- facture, third in woolen manufacture and first in silk manufacture among the nations of the earth. About half a million wage-earners are employed in the tex- tile industries and the annual product t»f the mills of America is valued at about $1,000,000,000. Words of Like Sound Gate — an entrance, "Always close the gate when you go out" ; gait — a movement, "A cow runs with a swinging gait." Guest — a visitor, "An old friend was my guest last week"; guessed — did guess, "I guessed that you were to be married." Hail — frozen rain, "I heard the hail falling on the roof"; hale — hearty, "My grandfather is a hale old man" ; hail — salutation, "Hail, Columbia, happy land." Hall — a room or building, "The city hall is a fine structure" ; "The Union meets in a large hall" ; haul — to pull, "The mule teams haul the logs." LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 131 Pair — two, "Ann has a pair of new gloves"; pear — a fruit, "We have a pear tree in our yard"; pare — to peel, "Jeanne must pare the potatoes for dinner." Pound — to beat, "Don't pound on the door"; pound — weight, "A pound avoirdupois is sixteen ounces" ; pound — an enclosure, "There are two cows and a pig in the village pound." XX. STARCH Starch is a white substance found in all vegetable foods. It is odorless and will not dissolve in cold water. The source from which starch is derived dis- tinguishes the various kinds found in commerce. It is generally presumed that starch finds its chief use in laundries, but this is of least significance from a commercial standpoint. The names of the different kinds of starch used for food are: Arrowroot, tap- ioca, sago, corn-starch, rice starch, wheat starch, etc. It is used under these various forms for desserts, and supplies to infants and old people a nutritious and palatable food. Many other articles of diet are the product of starch. A large percentage of the table syrups are produced from it by an interesting process of chemical reaction. Boil starch with a weak solution of acid and you obtain a sweet liquor. By varying this process starch-sugar is obtained, which is used by confectioners for decorative pur- poses. This starch-sugar together with a syrupy product, known as glucose, forms the basis of candy manufacture; it is used in the production of various sweets, from the gum-drops to chocolate creams. 132 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS In the arts starch is extensively used in the textile industry. Every thread before it is woven is treated with a starch solution, so that the shuttle may pass over it with the minimum of friction. In the manu- facture of cheap goods, starch paste is used for filling, giving the fabric the appearance of possessing "body" and "finish," both of which vanish with the first washing. The same starch paste is also used to make the body in calico prints. Starch in the corn goes into the making of whiskey, and is exten- sively used in the manufacture of alcohol. When it is cooked with another substance (diastase) the product is sugar which, when fermented, yields alco- hol. It is not necessary to separate the starch from the grain before it is manufactured into alcohol. Thus starch fills a large place in the world: in a white shirt it fortifies the heart of many a man; in food, it soothes the delicate taste of weak stomachs ; in fabrics, it makes the cheap products marketable; and in drink it brings many wives and daughters to calico dresses. Words of Like Sound Lower- — not so high, "I occupied the lower berth in the stateroom"; lower — to make less, "They threaten to lower my wages at the mill"; lore — learning, "The teacher was wise in ancient lore." Main — chief, principal, "Steel manufacture is the main industry of Pittsburg"; mane — long hair of an animal's neck, "The bay horse has a black mane"; Maine — a State, "Maine is the largest of the New Eng- land States." Male — the stronger sex, "Male and female made he LESSONS IN INDUSTRIES 133 them"; mail — government carrying system, "I have just received two letters by mail." Mantle — a cloak, "And in his mantle muffling up his face"; mantel — a shelf, "The old clock ticks on the mantel." Martial — warlike, "The band struck up a stirring martial air"; marshal — an officer, "The marshal wore a broad sash across his breast." Might — strength, "It is a false saying that 'Might makes right' " ; might — imperfect of may, "James might go if he would" ; mite — a small particle, "A mite of dust blew into my eye." PART THREE GOVERNMENT LEST TEACHERS FORGET In teaching the elements of government refer to local, State and National civic activities. Pictures of men holding Federal, State or municipal offices should be introduced whenever possible, and an occa- sional visit to the city hall, the council chamber, a justice's court, the police court, the county court, a Federal court, political primaries and conventions, etc., will be both interesting and instructive. These students should see the laws and customs in actual operation. If the pupils are far enough advanced let them organize themselves into a council, appoint committees, etc., so that each student may play the part of town official according to the role assigned him. In this way the pupils will live and act parts assigned officials according to political usage and soon become familiar with the operations of our forms of government. Whenever a diagram illustrates the lesson the teacher should draw an outline on a blackboard or a manila sheet, and at the suggestion of the pupils fill in the offices, duties, etc. If one of the pupils is skilful in drawing, let him put the outline on the blackboard and then the teacher, at the suggestion of the class, will insert the offices, duties, etc. BOOKS OF REFERENCE The teacher, who conducts a class in government, will find the following books of value : "Civil Government in the United States," John Fiske, $1.00. "The American Commonwealth" (abridged edi- tion), James Bryce, $1.75. A Comprehensive Almanac (that issued by the New York World or the New York Tribune), 25c. A Legislative Manual of the State, which may be had from a representative in the State Legislature. A copy of the city charter and ordinances, to be obtained from a city officer. A copy of a Legislative bill. Copies of forms used in the business of the various courts (civil and criminal) and in connection with elections. Copies of forms used in real estate transactions, the various kinds of notes, etc. Every institution interested in giving instruction in civil government should secure copies of the above books and forms that they may be readily consulted by a teacher. READINGS IN GOVERNMENT I. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT The governments of Russia, England and the United States differ. The first is known as an absolute monarchy ; the second as a limited monarchy; the third as a democracy. In Russia the Czar is supreme. He makes the law; he executes the law; he interprets the law. In England the King rules but his powers are limited ; the Parliament shares the duties of government and curtails the sovereign's power. In the United States the people rule; they make laws through men of their own choosing. The government of the United States has three departments : legislative, executive and judicial. These three departments are separate but inter- dependent. One group of men is elected to make the laws ; another to execute and enforce the laws ; and still another to interpret or explain the laws. Government is a development. We have first the township*, then the county, then the State, then the Nation. Hence we find townships make counties ; counties makes States ; States make the Nation. The United States was formed by the federation of thirteen States. These original States were thirteen *In Virginia and some other States the unit of government differs from that in New England, the county organization being the political unit and the management of affairs chiefly in the hands of county officers. The large plantations of Virginia were in striking contrast to the farms of New Eng- land where the people could easily get together and settle the affairs of their more compact communities. Absolute Mom arc hy CZAR- CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY Democracy people LESSONS IN GOVERNMENT 141 sovereign powers which entered into a firm league of friendship and the National Government was only an agent of the States. When the Constitution was adopted a Federal Union was formed which assumed definite functions that could not well be discharged by the individual States. Questions 1. How many forms of government are there? 2. Describe the three forms of government. 3. Name countries governed in these different ways. 4. Tell something about the three departments of the government of the United States. 5. How are these three departments related? 6. Describe briefly the building up of our govern- ment. Name the steps. 7. How many States formed the first government or confederation? 8. Point out these States on the map. 9- Describe the relation of the States to each other before the adoption of the Constitution. After its adoption. 10. Name some advantages of the new or Federal Union. Hints to Teachers With this lesson use the United States map showing the Thirteen Original States. Show the relation of the stripes on the American flag to the Thirteen States. Show the three divisions of government by the three circles (see diagram), which are interdependent, and the difference in the three forms of governments as these departments rest on the Czar or the people. 142 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Refer to the diagram of the "Banded States." The circles disconnected would illustrate the condition of the States before the Constitution was adopted. Show the students a copy of the Constitution and read sections guaranteeing each citizen freedom of speech, of religion, a free press, equality before the law and the right of franchise. Call attention to the written Constitution as an impor- tant safeguard of the rights of the people and as pecu- liarly American. Note. — The circles disconnected would illustrate the condition of the States before the Constitution was adopted. LESSONS IN GOVERNMENT 143 II. THE BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY The beginnings of American democracy are best observed in the New England townships. The early settlers were largely Puritans from England. They were so called because they wished to purify govern- ment and church as those then existed in England. They came to America as church congregations, accompanied by their pastors. The first company of men, those who founded the Plymouth Colony, are called the Pilgrim Fathers. The object of these early immigrants was to form a church (with them church and community were one and the same) in the management of which they would be free to govern themselves without the inter- ference of bishops and kings. When such a company or congregation came to Massachusetts the government of the colony granted it a piece of land upon which all could live together and attend the same church. This grant of land comprised the township. A meeting-house was centrally situated and near it was the town pasture, or common, with the block-house, or rough fortress for defense against the Indians. Around these the dwellings gradually clustered into a village. The schoolhouse, store, tavern and town house naturally followed. Beyond these were the farms, which were small in size and within convenient distance. The small size of the farms made it possible to bring to- gether many families in a compact neighborhood. 144 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS The people forming such a village and tilling the soil were fairly equal in social position. All the affairs of the congregation were settled in the public meeting, which every member of the company could attend. For generations these men had been accus- tomed to local self-government and to public meetings for discussing community affairs. This they were bent on maintaining and extending, for it was the chief end for which they had crossed the ocean. In this way was established, two hundred years ago, a kind of government which is the best political train- ing school ever invented by a freedom-loving people. Questions 1. What is meant by a New England township? 2. Did the Puritans come to New England in organ- ized groups? 3. What was their chief purpose in coming to America ? 4. How did the colony deal with future immigrants ? 5. Describe how towns were built up. 6. Were the farms large or small? 7. What about the social rank of the New England villagers ? 8. How did the Puritans prove their love for self- government ? 9. Show the relation of this township system to political liberty? Hints to Teachers Show pictures of Puritans and explain the name to the class. Tell how membership in a church was necessary in order to be a voter or an office holder and read the Second Amendment to the Constitution. LESSONS IN GOVERNMENT 145 The Puritans fled from England because bishops and kings interfered with their religious freedom ; but this did not teach them tolerance — religious tolerance is a growth. Tell the story of Roger Williams. Give some instances from history of the rigid observ- ance of the Puritan Sabbath and the "blue laws" which were enacted. III. THE NEW ENGLAND TOWNSHIPS The government of a New England township centers in the town meeting, usually held in the town house. All grown men of the township are expected to be present to vote. Any one may introduce a motion and take part in the discussion. At the town meeting measures for the administration of the town are discussed and either adopted or rejected; appro- priations are made for the public expenses of the town and town officers are elected for the }^ear. The executive magistrates of the town are called selectmen and are from three to nine in number, ac- cording to the size and population of the town. They issue the call for the town meeting, authorize and lay out highways, grant licenses of various kinds and impanel jurors. They act as health officers, assessors of taxes and overseers of the poor. They listen to complaints from the citizens and represent the town in law suits affecting it. The town clerk keeps records of the transactions at the town meeting ; records the births, marriages and deaths in the township and issues certificates to persons who declare an intention of marriage. He 146 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS records the names of candidates and the number of votes for each in the election of State and county officers ; he also keeps on record accurate descriptions of the position and bounds of public roads in the town. The treasurer receives and takes care of the money coming in from the taxpayers and out of it pays the authorized public expenses. He keeps a strict account of these transactions and makes a report of them each year. The constable serves warrants and writs. He pur- sues criminals and takes them to jail. He summons jurors and sometimes collects the taxes. Where the duties of the selectmen are too numerous the town chooses assessors of taxes to prepare the tax list and overseers of the poor to manage the town almshouse and settle questions arising with regard to the homeless poor. In a New York town the officers are : A supervisor (who is a member of the law-making board of the county), a town clerk, one or more assessors, one to three commissioners of highways, four justices of the peace, a town collector, an overseer of the poor and constables. The supervisor, town clerk and justices constitute a town board, the general duties of which correspond somewhat to those of the selectmen in a New England town. In many of the Middle Atlantic States and those of the Central West there prevails a system that is a compromise between the New England and Virginia systems, in which the town and county share about equally in the functions of local government. CENTRE. Of DEMOCRACY Note.— The object of this figure is to illustrate how the various offices in the town government are founded by democracy and are its most simple ex- pression in self-government. The off-shoots of the larger branches show the duties involved in the office specified. The teacher should build this in the presence of the class as suggested in the preface. 148 READER FOR COMING AMERICANS Questions 1. Where does the government of a New England township center? 2. Who are the voters in such a meeting? 3. Can any one take part in the discussions? 4. What are the three things generally done in the town meeting? 5. What are the executive magistrates of a New England town called? 6. How many are they in number? 7. What are their duties? 8. What are the town clerk's duties? 9. What are the duties of the treasurer? 10. What are the duties of constables? 11. If the duties of the selectmen are too numerous what does the township do? Hints to Teachers On a map show a township as part of a county. Name the officers of your town or city and describe their duties. Connect these as far as possible with the officers in a New England township. Show the democratic principles of popular govern- ment in the selection of officers and method of their appointment. The students will be more interested if the lesson is illustrated by actual political relations around them. Construct a figure like diagram and insert the names of the local office holders and specify their duties. IV. THE COUNTY The county is made up of several townships, as the State is made up of counties. A county, like the township, is a corporation ; it can hold property, sue and be sued. One of the towns is chosen for the LESSONS IN GOVERNMENT 149 county seat, in which the courthouse and jail are located. The county commissioners, or board of supervisors, sustain similar relations to the county as selectmen do to the town. They represent the county in law suits ; apportion the county taxes among the towns ; lay out, alter or discontinue certain highways within the county ; have charge of houses of correction or alms- houses and erect and keep in repair all county build- ings. A county treasurer receives and disburses for county purposes all funds gathered from taxes and fines. The county clerk or register of deeds, preserves the records of all land titles and transfers of land within the county — all deeds and mortgages are registered in his office. Justices of the peace are chosen by the people or appointed by the Governor of the State. Their powers vary in the several States but they issue warrants, take bail and have civil and criminal juris- diction over sundry petty offenses. The sheriff must attend all county courts and inflict the sentence of the court. He is responsible for the preservation of the peace within the county. Courts hold regular sessions at the county seat and try civil and criminal cases. Counties also have probate courts which have jurisdiction over all matters relating to wills, administration of estates and appointment of guardians. The register, or judge of probate, in some States called surrogate, is an officer of this court. \-*\ \ H J -i\ 3 * \ f A 9*> \\ / ^ / ♦, V M X* X >^ hfi 22 3< o