mum Bill WBmL ■BI WMmm mmm J er - ^ IO > I2 > possibly in Isa. lv. i ; probably in Deut. xiv. 26, it is applied to 'the grape in the cluster.' The Rabbins have a similar use of the word. Baal Hatturim, in Deut. xvi. n, says, "At Pentecost, when corn is reaped, and wine is now in the grapes." In wine countries, the common language applied to the growing grapes is, ' the wine-blooms.' The grape-cure is called the ' wein cur.' In Spain they say, una buena cosecha de vino, 'a good gathering of wine.' — (Father Connelly's Diccionario Nuevo, Madrid, 1798.) A traveler in the Pyrenees says, "Flocks of sheep and goats enliven the hills ; corn and wine, flax and oil, hang on the slopes." — (Collin's Voyages, 1796, p. 82.) (b) Yayin as used very frequently for the 'foaming blood of the grape' was, as we have said, probably applied to the expressed juice because of its turbid appearance. Perhaps the claret-grape, which has red juice, suggested the metaphor, " He washed his garments in yayin, his clothes in the blood-of-grapes." (Compare Gen. xlix. 12 with Isa. lxiii. 1 — 3.) In Job xxxii. 19 the word is applied to the must-wine, translated by the Septuagint gleukos. Cant. v. 1 (compared with vii. 9) refers to a sweet, innocent yayin, which might be drunk ' abundantly ' by young women. A peculiar use of the corresponding Chaldee term, khamar, is occasionally found in the Targums. ' Wine reserved in its grapes ' (Targum on Cant, viii. 2). On Cant. i. 14 we fall back on the other sense: 'They took clusters of grapes and pressed wine out of them.' (c) In Prov. ix. 2, 5, yayin seems to point to a boiled-wine, or syrup, the thickness of which made it needful to mingle water with it before drinking: while, unmixed with fluid, it was probably con- sumed with milk (Isa. lv. 1; compare vii. 22; Ezek. xxvii. 17). "To the honey of raisins," says Baron Bode, "the Persians give the name of shire." According to D'Herbelot (1680), the words strop, sherbet, etc., came from the Arabic shir-ab [' sweet water '], applied to any kind of drink in general. — [Bibliotheque Orientate: Art. Sirop.) In the East, sherab to this day includes ' all sorts of wine,' sherab-jee signifying 'wine-seller'; but the sense of sirop with us undeniably proves the existence of a syrup-wine formerly. The Mishna (Terumoth, xi.) shows that, anciently, wine so preserved was used in the offerings. " Wine [yayin) of the heave-offering must not be boiled, because it lessens it." Bartenora, in a note, says, " For people drink less of it," which is true, since boiling renders it richer and more cloying. The Mishna adds, " Rabbi Yehuda permits it, because it improves it." Such a wine Wisdom prepares, and, on the day of her feast, is aptly represented as mingling with water for her guests. (d ) There was also the yayin mixed with drugs, of various sorts : the ' mixed-wine ' of the sensualist, spiced and inebriating ; a cup of still stronger ingredients, used as the emblem of Divine judgments, the 'cup of malediction' (Psa. lxxv. 8); the 'turbid-wine,' full of poison. As Dindorf [Lexicon et Comment., 1804) says, " Yayin khamar, vinum fermentescit — calici vino turbido et ve?ienato ple?io, a cup full PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxvii of wine, thick, foaming, and poisonous." Of Deut. xxxii. 33 he says, "Khamath taanaim yaynahm, this wine is the poison of dragons — venerium draconum ; sermo quo delectantur est noxious, pessimus." (e) Yayin was also applied to every species of fermented grape- juice. The characters of fermentation are well marked in Prov. xxiii. 31, where it is described as 'red' and 'sparkling,' in which condition we are forbidden even to look upon it with desire. Not in one-half of the 141 texts, however, can it be shown that such wine is the kind to which the word is applied, by anything in the context. Yayin, then, being accepted as a general term, it would follow that we should expect, as time went on, that specific terms would be adopted to designate special kinds or states of wine, and this is exactly what we find to be the case in the later books. 2. Q^DJJ, ahsis, occurs in five texts, — Cant. viii. 2; Isa. xlix. 26; Joel i. 5; hi. (Heb. iv.) 18; Amos ix. 13. The word is plainly con- nected with ahsas, ' to tread,' and denotes ' something trodden out.' It is grape-juice purely; and never seems to have acquired the ambiguous meaning of the Greek gleukos and the Latin mustum, which were undoubtedly sometimes applied to the juice of grapes in an initial state of fermentation. Joel hi. 18, 'the mountains shall drop down new wine ' (ahsis), is not all a figure. Pallas says, in 1793, of the grapes in the Hungarian vintage, "In August they ripen, burst, and begin to evacuate their juice. The Shirnoi contains a rich juice, and bursts when ripe." — (Travels, i. p. 314.) Professor Douglas rightly says that " the passage, ' they shall be drunken with their own blood as with sweet-wine,' is no proof that must, which is unintoxicating, cannot here be meant ; for neither is blood intoxi- cating: but all the meaning that the verb conveys is, to drink till one is satiated or cloyed. ' Ahsis of the Pomegranate ' is an evidence that the word was sometimes used in that width of meaning which the etymology sanctioned." — (Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary, p. 1097. Glasgow, 1866.) 3. fc^Q, soveh or sobhe, from sabha, ( to drink to satiation,' occurs but thrice. It is chiefly interesting as affording a link of connection between classical wines and those of Judea, through an obviously common name, being identical with the Greek hepsema, the Latin sapa, and the modern Italian and French sabe, 'boiled grape-juice.' The inspissated wines called defrutum and syrczum were, according to Pliny (xiv. 9), a species of it : the last name singularly suggests the instrument in which it was prepared — the syr or caldron (Nahum i. 10). "The property of organic substances," says Liebig, " to pass into a state of decay, is annihilated in all cases by heating to the boiling-point." Columella tells us of the kind of degeneration to which such preparations were subject. "Defrutum, however carefully made, is liable to grow acid" (xii. 20). To this corre- sponds the statement of Hos. iv. 8 — 'Their sove is sour! Such j xxviii PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. preparations are made in great quantities in the East, in Calabria, and in the south of France, to this day. (See Works of Dr Lees, ii. p. 144.) 4- HDO' khatnar, is the Chaldee equivalent of the Hebrew yayin, and occurs only in Ezra and Daniel. Its derivation is from the Hebrew khe7ner (see Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Psa. lxxv. 8), which may be translated foaming, or turbid, or as we say in English, ' yesty,' barmy, scummy. It has, therefore, a very wide application, and its meaning comprehends ' all sorts of wine,' without shutting us up to any in par- ticular. 5. VDJTj khometz, is simply ' sour-wine,' vinegar, ' sick-wine,' wine 1 gone ' sour. It was, no doubt, chiefly applied to the thin sour drink made from the last pressure of the grapes, with water added, and was, like the Roman posca, something halfway between ginger-beer and French vin-ordinaire. In the East, the term koumiss is applied to fer- mented, sour mare's or camel-milk. The word had a somewhat broad application to sour and fermented things. 6. ^i^Tl' tirosh, is not ' wine ' at all, but ' the fruit of the vine- yard ' in its natural condition. The vine says, ' Shall I leave my tirosh ? ' ' They shall tread tirosh, but shall not drink yayin.' Nothing but a foregone conclusion, fostered by the mistranslation of ancient and modern versions — versions which traditionally sustain and deceive each other — could have hindered scholars from perceiving the true sense of this word. Neither Versions nor Lexicons, however, have been consistent. The Septuagint, the Chaldee Targums, the Syriac, Arabic, Vulgate, etc., have, in one text or another, rendered the word as 'berry,' 'vines,' 'vintage,' 'fruit,' 'grapes,' etc. On Micah vi. 15, Julius Bate, M. A., in his ' Critica Hebrasa,' 1767, observes, "Hence it is plain that tirosh is what is pressed, the grapes." Gesenius, in three texts, renders it ' grapes,' and so others. Tirosh is perhaps correctly derived from yarash, ' to possess, to inherit,' just as Hierusalem is from yerash and salem = ' possession of peace.' Drusius, in 16 17, commenting on Gen. xxvii. 28, observes that " the idea of ' possession ' is implied in tirosh, because amongst those things which a man possessed by inheritance, vintage-produce was the chief, and received this name by way of distinction."* * The note in Kitto's 'Pictorial Bible' (Ed. 1847), objecting to our derivation, alleges that "the grape could not be more important to the Jews than the goose- berry to us " ! and further, that it is "unlikely that the solid products of the vine should be so conspicuously placed beside corn " ! ! If the reader will peruse three texts, selected at intervals, he will perceive how very far vinous prejudice will lead critics to ignore the plainest facts. Numb. xvi. 14, " Given us inheritance of fields and vineyards." Lev. xxvi. 4, 5, " The land shall yield its produce \_corn\, the trees give their fruit. Your threshing [of corn] shall reach unto your vintage." Isa. xvi. 9, "Joy is taken out of the plentiful field ; in the vineyards there shall be no shouting." In Micah vi. 15, sowing seed of corn, and treading olives and grapes, all occur together, side by side. What is the present condition of things in Bible lands ? The Rev. Smylie Robson, missionary at Damascus, thus writes, after noticing corn and olives : — " The fruit of the vine is the only other kind which can PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXIX Those who give to the word the meaning of mustum, grape-juice, and then add, by way of explanation, that it is " a strong wine which gets possession of a matis head, and drives him out of himself," not only invent a fiction and contradict demonstrable facts, but contra- vene the clear context of every passage wherein the word occurs, which in no instance whatever is connected with inebriety. Out of thirty-eight texts in which tirosh is found, in thirty it is associated with corn (not bread), in one (Micah vi. 15) with olives, in twenty-one with orchard-fruit, and in twenty with both corn and fruit. It is never once connected with shemen, 'oil,' though Smith's ' Bible Dictionary ' erroneously states the contrary ; it is only thrice found in the company of ' wine,' and then by way of distinction, as a different thing ; and it is constantly associated with ' dew,' ' rain,' ' dryness,' and other conditions affecting natural ' growth.' Within the compass of philology there is hardly any word which, by the conjoint evidence of etymology, context, and circumstance, is more clearly shown to be a collective term expressive of a class of natural produce. The notion that tirosh signifies the same as ahsis, or the alternative supposition, that this latter should have been invented when the former was in constant use for the same idea, is simply incredible. That V[™1> dahgan, denotes growing ' corn ' in general, and not some species of grain, as 'wheat' or 'barley,' has never been ques- tioned. That it denotes an artificial preparation like 'bread' or 'cake' has never been imagined. Yet this term is found in per- petual association, under common natural conditions favoring or opposing growth and increase, with tirosh. ^HU 1 * yitzhar, is a second term, twenty-one times used in connection with tirosh. It is derived, as Dindorf, Gesenius, and others admit, from a root signifying to ' shine,' ' glisten,' like the Spanish term azahar, ' orange-flower,' and the Latin aurantium, for the shining orange class of fruits. The oliveyards also shine and glisten in the sun ; hence we have suggested ' olive-and-or chard-fruit ' as the English equivalent of 'yitzhar, completing a beautiful triad of natural blessings — (1) Corn-fruit, (2) Vine-fruit (3) Orchard-fruit ; or, in other words, the produce of field, vineyard, and orchard. Agreeing with Professor Douglas, that " a common deriva- tion of tirosh from the verb to ' take possession,' because it intoxicates, is too arbitrary to deserve serious refutation " (' Imperial Bible Dictionary,' p. 1097), we accept the sense of 'vine-fruit' as that demonstrated by induction, and giving a meaning which at once fits every context and honors the Divine word. (For further evidence, see ' Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii.) be said to form a substantial part of the food of the people. . . . From August to December, bread and grapes are, substantially, the food of the people. . . . It is perfectly safe to eat grapes constantly to satiety. Grapes are dried in large quantities. There is another form in which the fruit of the vine is preserved for use. By pickling and beating, a substance called dibs [debhash, artificial honey- cake] is made out of the grapes. . . . It is only ignorance which would pare away and attenuate scriptural expressions." — Missionary Herald of the Presby- terian Church in Ireland, 1845. See this testimony more at length on page 93 of the Notes. XXX PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. 7- ^p" 1 ' y e $&* (Arab, 'ukeb, cavum esse), originally a ' cavity,' • coop, or vat in which grapes or olives were put for the purpose of being trodden ; but perhaps, secondarily, by becoming generic for the whole apparatus {tota machind), the lacus or cavity into which the wine and oil flowed {in quern vinum expressum defluit). So Dindorf, who cites Hesychius — leenos hopou staphulee pateitai. Gesenius also accepts the double sense of yeqev. J. D. Paxton, the American, says of Bhadoom, " Several [fruit] houses seem to be common property, where they express the juice of the grape. They have a row of large vats, into which the grapes are thrown ; and beside these some stone troughs, into which the juice flows. Men get into the vats, and tread the grapes. . . . They take the juice from the troughs and put it into large boilers, reduce it to one-half" {Travels, p. 215). Capt. Colville Frankland says of Solima, "The grapes are trodden out upon a kind of stone platform ; the juice, running off through a little channel, is received in a basin cut in the rock, from whence it is carried in buckets to the boiler, where it is skimmed, and allowed to cool. It is boiled and cooled twice, and then put into great earthen jars, and becomes a rich syrup" {Travels, ii. p. 10, 1827). Prof. Murphy of Belfast, in order to prove the liquidity of tirosh, has narrowed the sense of yeqev to that of the ' must-lake,' or hypoleenos, but without any reason or even good authority. It occurs sixteen times, and in most of the texts is more appropriately referred to the upper than the under vat. In Numb, xviii. 27, 30; Deut. xv. 14; xvi. 13; 2 Kings vi. 27; Hos. ix. 2, it is associated with ' corn ' and the ' threshing-floor.' In Job xxiv. 11 it is plainly the place of treading shriveled grapes that yield no wine to quench thirst. In Isa. v. 2 it is used for the whole of the apparatus, not for part of it — much less for the last part to the exclusion of the first! In Isa. xvi. 10, to avoid giving to 'yayin' its natural contextual sense of grape, the translators are compelled to insert i out 1 and 'z';z/ P oora h, an d with 'heaps' of corn and fruit. " When one came to the yeqev to take fifty (clusters), the poorah, ' the Fruit-house,' had but twenty." A more baseless assumption than that yeqev signifies either often or solely the wine- trough, was never made in support of another baseless assumption — viz., that tirosh was the liquid trodden out, and not the fruit ' trodden.' 7nesek, ' a mixture,' is of course applicable to many mix- tures; of wine with water, or with aromatics, or with drugs. The verb is used in Prov. ix. 2, where ' Wisdom mingles her wine,' doubt- less with water ; certainly not making that ' mixed- wine ' in relation to which she pronounces ' woe ' to those that ' seek ' it. In Cant. viii. 2 we find the kindred term mezeg, translated ' liquor ' ; and in Prov. xxiii. PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxxi 30; Isa. lxv. 11, we have memsach, respectively rendered 'mixture' and (inferentially) ' drink-offering.' 9- nt^&SW' ashishah, perhaps from a root signifying ' fire,' denotes a cake of dried grapes. " By universal consent," says Prof. Douglas, " it is now understood to be some kind of cake, probably a cake of dried fruit." It occurs in 2 Sam. vi. 19; 1 Chron. xvi. 3; Cant. i. 5; Hos. hi. 1 ; and is unfortunately rendered ' flagons ' and ' flagons of wine.' 10. O^DJ27> shemarim, 'preserves,' from shamar, l to preserve,' — as shemdnim, ' fat things,' from shemen, ' fat ' or oil. Our oldest trans- lators rendered it better than the modern. Coverdale renders ' sweet things'; the Bishop's Bible (1568), 'delicate things'; Forerius and Grotius, ' a feast of vine-fruit ' (vindemia). Preserves form an essential part of Oriental feasts : * They eat the fat {shemen) and drink the sweet 1 (Neh. viii. 10). 11. -Q££?, shakar, 'saccharine drink,' is related to the word for T -- sugar in all the Indo- Germanic and Semitic languages, and is still applied throughout the East, from India to Abyssinia, to the palm sap, the zhaggery made from it, to the date-juice and syrup, as well as to sugar and to the fermented Palm wine. It has, by usage, grown into a generic term for ' drinks,' including fresh juices and inebriating liquors, other than those coming from the grape. [See ' Works ' of Dr Lees, ii. 1853, Art. 'Strong drink,' Art. 'Wine,' etc., for abundant illustrations, and for refutation of Fuerst's derivation.] Mr Palgrave, in his ' Arabia,' says, having bought for three farthings a handkerchief full of ' delicious ' dates, " we hung it up from the roof-beam to pre- serve the luscious fruit from the ants, and it continued to drop molten sweetness into a sugary pool on the floor for three days together " (i. p. 253). Such a beverage was rightly called shakar, and naturally and necessarily produced that satisfaction and cloying fullness which is well expressed by the cognate verb, and which has its parallel in the history of the corresponding Greek words, methuein from methu, ' sweet wine,' ' mead,' etc.* The force of the prophet's words may be understood from considering this, the etymological and primary sense of shakar: — 'The sweet dtink shall become bitter to them that drink it.' II. Our second proposition assumes a more positive form — viz., that the Bible teaches, clearly and fully, by a series of continuous and consistent testimonies, that intoxicating drink is an evil article ; poisonous to the body, seductive to the soul, and corrupting to the * The views taken of these words were generally adopted in Dr Eadie's Bible Cyclopcedia, especially as to tirosh and yitzhar, and the generic sense of shakar and yayin. They were all incorporated in Kitto's Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literattire (1845), the first Edition, the only one truly called Kitto's; and they have been entirely adopted and admirably sustained in Bastow's Bible Dictionary, and in Dr Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary (1866). XXXll PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. circumstances of man : or, to put the idea in another shape, we hold that the Bible vindicates its claim to Inspiration by having anticipated on this point the fullest witness of Science, and having exhausted the teachings of human History ^ And here will naturally start up, in defense of palatable Error, all the hydra forms of prejudice and convention ; for it is very hard for the fleshly lusts and fashions of the world to bow before even Divine truth. Yet — appealing to a World that at least ' professes ' to believe in the fact that God has spoken in His word — why should our proposition startle and convulse it ? What other branch of practical morals is there on which it is more needful that God should have instructed mankind, by precept, by warning, and by example ? Why, then, are the people and the preachers so loth to receive the teach- ings, or so bitter in their condemnation of the proposition itself,— so ingenious in the invention of objections, yet withal so illogical in their criticism and so intolerant of inquiry ? Dr Steudel, in his essay on ' Inspiration,' puts a serious question : — " To appropriate the Spirit, I must renounce my own inclinations, and give a real consent to all the Word presents as true. Why refuse homage to just that part of the Divine wisdom to which our own depravity cares not to consent ? " It is not enough, then, that we have ' the Scriptures to search ' ■ we must come to the search in a proper moral attitude. We must come, not for confirmation of opinion, which is pride, but for purity of life, which is true profit. Our aim must be both Truth and Good. It may be asked here, therefore, without offense, whether he who seeks to justify the use of alcoholic beverages by the Scripture, is not very liable to a sensuous bias in his interpretation ? If God's works and law — manifested in experience and science — cannot justify drinking, is it not very wrong to rush to His Word ? May not the wish be father to the thought? The objector is not merely defending his own practices, and pleading for his own appetites; he is, even more than the Abstainer, liable to the bias of Opinion. The difference is this, that the drinker's opinion is an old and inherited one, sanctioned by a life-time of custom ; ours, a newly acquired belief, the result of inquiry and experience. Let us, then, in coming to this investigation, strive honestly to desire to know the Divine will, and implore the aid and purifying influence of 'the Spirit of Truth.' Let us seek to place ourselves before the Word, so that its declarations may be photographed upon the soul. In the language of Bishop Ellicott, in ' Aids to Faith,' " Pray against that bias which, by importing its own foregone conclusions into the Word of Scripture, and by refusing to see, or to acknowledge, what makes against its own prejudices, has proved the greatest known hindrance to all fair interpretation; and has tended, more than anything else in the world, to check the free course of Divine truth" (p. 421). Nothing has surprised us more, on the part of professed Christians, than their reluctance to receive any principle which would harmonize Science and Scripture on this subject, and their extreme anxiety not to ascertain what appears to us the PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xxxill plain meaning of Scripture, but to discover some critical process whereby it may be evaded. Passing, however, from general prejudices, moral and intellectual, let us enumerate and expose a few of the commonest, but most operative, false assumptions and delusive principles of interpretation. i. "The Church," says the Objector, "is against the Abstinence theory. It has known all about the Scriptures, and it has universally supposed that intoxicating wine is good, in moderation. That abstainers should have found a new light is incredible. We cannot suppose so many doctors of the Church, and such myriads of pious Christians, to have been in error or sin." In this series of assumptions, each particular is deceptive. There always have been abstainers in the Christian Church, and we profess to have found no new light, but to be illuminated by the old, old lamp. Two questions are involved in this objection: (i) Is the Bible an exhausted book? (2) Has the professing Church ever erred in its dogmas and practices ? To put the questions is to answer them, but we will do more. On the first point, there is a consensus of opinion, whatever that may be worth. The Roman Catholic Church expressly claims the power to decide on controverted points of Biblical Theology, and has so decided recently on the Immaculate Conception. Amongst Theo- logians of the English and Genevan Churches, and the Dissenting bodies, take the following : — Robinson, in Address to the Pilgrim Fathers, says — "If God reveal anything to you by any other instrument of His, be as ready to receive it as ever you were to receive any truth by my ministry ; for I am verily persuaded — I am very confi- dent — the Lord hath more truth yet to break forth out of His Holy Word." The Hon. Robert Boyle (1680) says: — "As the Bible was not written for any one particular time or people, ... so there are many passages very useful, which will not be found so these many ages ; being possibly reserved by the Pro- phetic Spirit that indited them ... to quell so?ne foreseen heresy, ... or resolve some yet unformed doubts, or confound some error that hath not yet a name." Bishop Butler, in his Analogy (1737), says: — "Nor is it at all incredible, that a Book which has been so long in the possession of mankind, should yet con- tain many truths as yet undiscovered. For all the same phenomena and the same faculties of investigation from which such great discoveries in natural knowledge have been made in the present and last age, were equally in the possession of man- kind several thousand years before. And possibly it might be intended that events, as they come to pass, should open and ascertain the meaning of several parts of Scripture." The Interpreter (1862) says : — "A day is coming, when Scripture, long darkened by traditional teaching, too frequently treated as an exhausted mine, will at length be recognized in its true character, as a field rich in unexplored wealth, and conse- quently be searched afresh for its hidden treasures." Vinet, in his Lectures, says: — "Even now, after eighteen centuries of Chris- tianity, we may be involved in some tremendous error, of which the Christianity of the future will make us ashamed." Dean Stanley says : — " Each age of the Church has, as it were, turned over a new leaf in the Bible, and found a response to its own wants. We have a leaf still to turn — a leaf not the less new because it is so simple." e XXXIV PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. On the second point — that of Authority — take the following : — The Church Article, XXL, on General Councils, says : — " They may err, and sometimes have erred, even in things pertaining to God." While Art. XX., on Church Authority, says: — "It is not lawful for the Church to ordain anything that is contrary to God's word written ; neither may it so expound one place of Scripture that it be repugnant to another." If, for example, the Church were to decree that 'a wife of whoredom' (Hos. i. 2) was the same sort of woman as 'the prudent wife from the Lord' (Prov. xix. 14), it would "so expound one place of Scripture that it be repugnant to another;" but how could it be more repugnant than to explain that ' the cup of blessing ' contained that sort of wine which is a ' mocker,' a ' deceiver,' a 'poison,' and which 'biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an adder'? Dr Edward Williams, in his 'Equity and Sovereignty,' observes that "the greatest of uninspired men have sometimes deviated from the narrow path of truth, and all are liable to deviate, through the remains of prejudice, and the want of closer search under the teachings of celestial wisdom" (p. 397). Professor S. Lee, in his 1 Hebrew Grammar,' points out that, " under the synthetical method — i. e. the mere propounding of certain rules, which might be true or false, and which in cases innumerable were not true — most men eventually discover that they can pronounce with certainty on scarcely anything connected with the letter of the Hebrew Bible. The only foundation that can safely be relied on is, that of the nature of things, considered in conjunction with real Oriental usage." Bishop Ellicott, in 'Aids to Faith,' has an admission even more to the purpose: — "Experience teaches us that there is a very large residuum of less important passages in which interpreters break up into groups, and in which the Expositor of the nineteenth century has to yield to the guidance oi principles perhaps but recently recognized, yet from their justice and truth, of an influence and authority that cannot be gainsaid. There are, indeed, even a few cases, but confessedly unimportant, where the modern interpreter has to oppose himself to every early version and every patristic commentator, and where it is almost certain he is right in so doing" (p. 390). 2. "When the word is the same, the thing is the same; if, there- fore, 'wine' means intoxicating-wme in the cases of Noah and Lot, it must mean the same when used by David in the Psalms, and by the Evangelist in the Gospel narrative of the changing of water into wine."* Certainly not, we answer. Any lexicon or dictionary in any language will refute the assumption in almost any page. See under such words as Creation, Spirit, House, Angel, Gun, etc. Not, as we have shown, that words have so many different meanings, but so many different applications. Take a familiar Bible word — Ruakh, * Singular to say, in the first learned sermon ever preached and printed against abstinence, this was the argument ; and it is the staple of all others to this day. The Rev. W. H. Medhurst, on January 30th, 1838, said: — "As Noah and others got drunk with yayin (wine), yayin MUST, in every text, mean a fermented liquor." No advance has been made upon the logic and criticism of this position. PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXXV _____ — ______ 1 , _ , 'spirit,' in three texts: (i) "God made a ruakh to pass over the earth;" (2) "Pharaoh's ruakh was troubled in the morning;" (3) "A ruakh came forth and stood before the king" — Ahab. Here one word is suggestive of •three distinct things and ideas; and the word has several other applications. As regards a general term, the context only can show to what it is applied, and so suggest the species intended. Wine, for example, is ' the juice of grapes ' — quite irrespective of the change that comes over it in fermentation; just as the word 'doctor' means, in common usage, 'a learned man,' quite irrespective of his special diploma as physician, surgeon, apothecary, or divine. As with the words 'man,' 'doctor,' 'spirit,' 'wife,' so with wine; it is not the word itself, but the context that defines (if at all) what sort of man, doctor, spirit, wife, or wine it is — good, bad, or indifferent. Theologians, writing against Colenso, at once become sensible on this point, though they go back to the false position as soon as the 'wine-bottle' comes on to the board. Professor J. L. Porter, of Belfast, thus expounds the fact and law : — " The Hebrew word baith does not necessarily signify a ' house ' [as in Beth-lekhem, the house of bread]. In Gen. xxvii. 15; Exod. xxiii. 19; 1 Kings xxiii. 7, etc., it means a 'tent.' At the present day the Bedawy Arab uniformly calls his ' tent ' belt — i. e. a ' house,' — though the proper Arabic word for ' tent ' is kheimeh [home] ; and he speaks of the 'door' of his 'house,'" — which, with all due respect to Dr Porter, shows that belt is also as correct a term for tent as any other. This notion of 'proper use' is a crotchet of scholars, traditionally adopted and repeated. 'Prevent' was as proper when used for 'helping' as it is now when used for 'hindering.' It is not generally difficult to see the truth on questions when the purse and the passions are not concerned. For example, the English Church organ called the Record, for January 9th, 1861, had a long review of Dr Cheever's book on 'The Guilt of Slavery,' which, on that topic, argues on precisely the same principles that we have applied, for thirty years, to the drink question. The Record thus welcomes Dr Cheever's endeavor : — "We have had occasion to observe the tendency among Biblical commentators to traditional interpretation of Scripture. In the present instance the result has been to obscure altogether, and, in fact, to reverse the teaching of the Book. We must look behind the word- to see the nature of the thing. There is no word for ' slave ' to be found in the whole Bible, either Hebrew or Greek, paradoxical as this statement may appear to most of our readers; no word which means, distinctively and only, what we mean by 'slave.' The Hebrew word (obedh) includes service of every kind; and the condition of service cannot be learned from the word itself." In like manner, the Hebrew generic word for wine (yayin) includes grape-juice in many states, and the special quality cannot be learned from the word itself. There is no word for fermented wine in the Bible, no word meaning only that; much less is there such a word associated with God's approval, implicit or explicit. It is enough for XXXVI PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. us that in no case where wine is named as a blessing does anything occur in the context indicating alcoholic quality, but in very many cases the reverse; while, on the contrary, it is beyond denial that Divine displeasure is very frequently a&ociated with intoxicating drink. 3. "But good men used intoxicating wine, for they got drunk; there- fore this is equivalent to God's sanctioning it." This dogma is refuted by the stating of it. It would equally justify polygamy and slavery, for both were permitted; nay even laws were made, not to abolish, but to regulate them. Not only does this criticism prove too much; we have the highest authority for rejecting its principle, since He who spake as never man spake has declared that the lust was suffered, not because it was good, but "because of the hardness of the heart." The Divine light comes to men by dis- creet degrees, as their mental vision is somewhat prepared for it — a truth that refutes the next and kindred fallacy. 4. "What is not entirely prohibited is partially sanctioned." According to this, the harmony of slavery with Christianity is indis- putably proved from the Bible, inasmuch as St Paul, writing to Onesimus, a slave, never told him to run away ! # This fallacy, however, appears in so many Protean forms, that it will be useful to give various illustrations of its supreme absurdity. (1) The law which declares that 'thou shalt not kill' does not mean or imply that half killing is right. 'Thou shalt not commit adultery,' interpreted by our Lord, does not mean that we shall indulge in ' Platonic love,' but rather that the remotest desire leading to the act shall be suppressed. He who says you shall not go to Z certainly does not either assert or mean that you shall go to K or L. (2) The universal usage of language, ancient and modern, sacred and secular, refutes this distorted principle of interpretation. Alexis, in his 'Fanatic' (in Athenaeus), has this passage: — "I think some of those I meet will blame me for being drunk so early in the day." Will any one hence conclude that to be drunk later in the day was not at all blameworthy in popular estimation? In Eccles. vii. 17, the command, 'Be not overmuch (rahvah) wicked,' cannot surely be equivalent to 'Be moderately wicked.' If the reprobation of 'excess of riot' and ' superfluity of naughtiness' does not involve eulogy on a i little riot' and a i little naughtiness,' why should a cau- tion against ' excess of wine ' mean or imply a commendation of ' a little wine'Pf In 'The Last of the Barons,' by Bulwer (Lord Lytton), we read the following prayer, put into the mouth of a knight: — " From e the right thing for a non- bishop! Weisinger, the continuator of Olshausen's Commentary, says expressly, " The qualification, ' husband of one wife,' professedly implies a special reference to the bishop, for this is not required of all." The morality of our age, the instincts of purity, fortunately unite in repudiating this monstrous distortion of language. He adds, "Abstinence, prudence, and modesty denote qualities such as especi- ally befit a bishop." Very true, but the correct inference is not that other people are exempt from the obligation and advantages of those virtues because they are, for special reasons, imposed in the mandatory shape on bishops. 5. "But," persist other objectors, "the fact that the apostles direct deacons and deaconesses not to be given to much wine, certainly implies that some intoxicating wine is permissible, if it does not pro- nounce it to be good." # This is a treble mistake, — of history, of inference, and of criticism. For (1) it assumes that, in fact, nothing but intoxicating wine was abused or capable of abuse in antiquity, which is contrary to the plainest testimony. When Cratinus in his ' Ulysseses,' quoted by Athenaeus (hi. 56), says, — "You were all day glutting yourselves with white milk"; and Solomon declares that * much honey is not good'; we must assume at once the fact of abuse, and the non-alcoholic nature of the substances abused. Amphis, in his 'Uranus,' says, — " Sating herself till eve with every dainty," which is a phrase parallel to the well-known line of Isaiah, — "Tarry till night, till wine inflame them," you such advice. But good men have got drunk. Noah was a good man ; Lot was a good man ; yet they both got drunk. You tell me our Lord said, 'Be not overcharged with drunkenness.' Mind, He did not say, Do not get drunk, but 'be not overcharged with it. ' Now can't you get drunk without being dead drunk ? But, you reply, St Paul says, ' Be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess. ' Observe here, again, he does not say, 'Be not drunk,'' but 'be not excessively drunk.' Observe, too, he says, 'Be not drunk with wine,'' — he does not prohibit spirits. So you may get drunk on beer, or brandy, even to excess, without violating this injunction." In the old English poem of Piers Plowman, in the ale- house scene, the goodwife charges her daughter not to get drunk often, for that would be a reproach to her. Is the modern inference just, that occasional crapu- lence would be meritorious or innocent ? XXXVlll PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. but conveying no idea of intoxicating quality. Fondness for gorging, with sweets and dainties, was one of the vices of the ancient Greeks. Damoxenus, in his ' Syntrophe' (Ath. iii. 61), says they — "Who look most solemn in the promenades, Know, for all that, the fish's daintiest part, And make men marvel at their gluttony." Hence (2) the inference falls to the ground, because the historic premiss is a network too wide for the special fact ; and it is, moreover, not valid in form. (3) The critical blunder is exposed in this Com- mentary, p. 368. There are also numerous assumptions, which we may designate specially as false facts of interpretation, to which the tippling critics cling with an absurd tenacity. A few samples must here suffice : for others we refer to the text of our Commentary. 1. The Saturday Review, in noticing a pamphlet by a provincial physician, says : — " ^fermented wine is a myth; the pure blood of the grape is but a transient product of the vine — and, in the words of Dr Barclay, '■quite wipossible 1 to preserve"! Now we have not only preserved such wine, imported from Florence, for sixteen years together, but we have induced an able chemist to prepare such wine extensively for both medical and sacramental uses ; hence, if Dr Barclay be right, so far from miracles having ceased, their product can be purchased at 24s. per dozen. The ' impossible ' has been achieved ; and in the Exhibition Book of Prizes this impossible wine actually received ' honorable mention.'* For many years past such wine has also b^en made at a vineyard in the neighborhood of Cincinnati. Inspissated wine has been spoken of in all ages, and is amongst the commonest products of wine countries, and is still called sabe. A respected minister amongst the Society of Friends, Mr Robert Alsop, in a letter to ourselves, under the date of 1 86 1, thus writes: — " The syrup of grape-juice is an article of domestic manufacture in almost every house in the vine districts of the south of France. It is simply the juice of the grape boiled down to the consistence of treacle. This syrup is, in those parts, the common medium for making family preserves ; and a great variety of fruit and other vege- table products are so embalmed, such as fresh figs, almonds, peaches, plums, melons, pumpkins, tomatoes, etc. As to the use of [ordinary] wine, it is almost entirely confined to the men. It is proverbial that if a young woman is known to be in the habit of using it, she is unlikely to receive proposals of marriage." 2. It is frequently urged, "The old wine is better than the new, and therefore owes its superiority to the process of fermentation." * Dr Hassall's report in the Lancet contains the following passage: — "Mr F. Wiight (of Kensington) exhibits what he calls Sacramental or Passover wine, which consists of the unfermented juice of the grape, and is made to meet the views of those ministers who believe that the wine used at the institution of the Sacra- ment was unfermented, and consisted simply of the expressed juice of the grape. It forms a very palatable beverage." PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. XXXIX This is an inference from a solitary premiss, and therefore invalid. The objector probably assumes that nothing but alcohol can give superior flavor. This is a mistake, since unfermented wine also improves by age, for a reason well known to chemists. In the preparation of scents and other volatile principles, as well as in the bottling of grape-juice, the sapid particles get too intimately mingled with the bulk of the liquid to be detected so fully by the taste; but by being kept, and kept quiet, they are again liberated, and impinge more perceptibly upon the nerves of the palate. Mr Wright's old passover wine is, therefore, sensibly better than the new. Moreover, the flavors and aromas of wines, which determine their price, are not in any ratio to their fermentation or their alcohol. 3. It is said, "The new skin-bottles of the ancients allowed the elastic gases of the fermenting liquid to expand them, and therefore they did not burst and spill the wine." This is a delusion, for the strongest hide of hog or ox, formed into a bottle and filled with grape-juice that had begun to ferment, would, if closed up, be burst asunder as with imprisoned steam ; and if not closed, then the old bottle would run no risk of rending.* A cubic inch of sugar, transformed into carbonic acid gas, occupies a space of probably forty times as much. 4. " There is but one kind of wine, because ' wine ' is defined in the dictionaries as the fermented juice of the grape." This is not true of the oldest dictionaries, and the modern ones cannot settle the usage of words in ancient times — but only induction from the literature of antiquity, f A modern lexicon may define wine as ' the fermented juice of the grape/ but what said the greatest of the logicians of the thirteenth century — Thomas Aquinas? Discoursing (the original can be seen in Migne's Patrologice, 4th book, 74th sec. 5th art.) of the proper substance to be used in the eucharist, he says, "Grape-juice (mustum) has the specific quality of wine" — speciem vini. The objector falls into the fallacy of excluding the 'mare' from the genus 'horse'; for, though fermented-juice is 'wine,' it is so not to the exclusion of the first form of wine — namely, the unfermented juice. That the 'Angelical Doctor' was right, usage will show: — Hippocrates (b.c. 400), in his work on diet, says, — " Glukus is less fitted to make the head heavy . . than other wine (oinodeos)." Athenaeus, the Grammarian (a.d. 280), in his 'Banquet' (lib. i. s- 54) — * " The force of fermenting wine is very great, being able, if closely stopped up, to burst through the strongest cask." — (Chambers's Cyclopedia, art. ' Wine,' 1750.) "The way to preserve new wine in the state of must is to put it up in very strong but small casks, firmly closed on all sides, by which means it will be kept from fermenting. But if it should happen to fall into fermentation, the only way to stop it is by the fume of sulphur." — (Miller, Gardener's Dictionary, art. 'Wine,' 1748.) See further, Works of Dr Lees, ii. p. 158, and elsewhere. t See translations from the ancient and classic authors, Greek and Roman, p. 434. Also various portions of this Commentary, showing the application of words for 'wine' in Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Greek, Latin, etc., to 'grapes,' 'grape-juice,' 'boiled grape-juice,' etc. xl PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. "The Mitylenseans have a sweet wine {glukun oinon), what they call prodromos, and others call it protropos." And again (ii. 24), he says to the dyspeptic tippler, — " Let him take sweet wine, either mixed with water or warmed, especially that kind called protropos, the sweet Lesbian glukus, as being good for the stomach ; for sweet wine (oinos) does not make the head heavy." Dioscorides (a.d. 90), in his 'Materia Medica,' expressly ranks the Roman sapa, 'boiled wine' — Hebrew, sovai or sobai — under the 'genus vini.' Suidas, Lexiconist (950), defines sweet wine thus:— - "Gleukos — to apostalagma tees staphulees prin pateesthee — ' the droppings from the grapes before being trodden.' " Dr Avenarius, Hebrew Lexiconist (1588), defines — "Ahsis, mustum, recently expressed and sweet. German sus : sussurWEiN." Lord Bacon, in his 'Natural History' (1597), says, — "As wines which at first pressing run gently, yield a more pleasant taste, . . . so observations which flow from Scripture gently expressed and naturally expounded are most wholesome and sweet." Parkinson (1640), in the 'Theatrum Botanicum/ says, — "The juyce or liquor pressed out- of the ripe grapes, is called VINUM, wine. — Of it is made both SAPA and DEFRUTUM, in English Cute, that is to say boiled wine, and both made of mustum, NEW wine ; the latter boyled to the halfe, the former to the third part." Lyttleton, in his 'Latine Dictionary' (Lond. 1678), says, — " Mustum, sc. Vinum. Hebrew, matz, expressit. Muston, vinum cadis recens inclusum. Gleukos, oinos neos, 'new wine.' Angl. ' Stum, i. e. NEW WINE close shut up, and not suffered to work." W. Robertson, M.A., Cambridge (1693), in ' Phraselogia Generalis,' — "Wine; Vinum, merum. — New Wine, Mustum. — New Wine that runs out without pressing ; Mustum lixivium. — Wine prest, Vinum tortivum. — Wine yet on the tree ; Vinum pendens." The Glossarium of Carolo du Fresne (Tomus sextus, Paris, 1736), — "Vinum Coctum. Gallic, vin cuit. Vinum de pura gutta. Gall., Demere- goutte [mother-drop], Vinum protropum est vinum sponte defluens, ante-quam uva calcatur. Mtistum, Vinum pede pressum. Quod pede tantum calcatur, medium inter vinum sponte defluens," etc. J. M. Gesner, the critic, in index to ' Scriptores Rei Rusticse veteres Latini' (1730), says, — "Once for all it must be observed, that the words vinum, vitis, uva, and vinea, as kindred terms, are sometimes used synonymously. The juice of apples, pears, pomegranates [as in Cant. viii. 2], and sorbs, was called vinum." [Alfieri, in his Dizionario (Venice, 1751), shows that this use is still preserved in part in Italian, as it also is in German : — " Vino, a liquor well known, extracted from the fruit of the vine. Vinoso, juicy, full of wine. Uva vinosa, grapes full of wine. Mosto, vin nuovo, must."] E. Chambers, F.R.S., in his 'Cyclopaedia' (6th Ed. 1750), has the following, a mere translation from an older French Dictionary : — "Wine, in France, is distinguished into — Mere-goutte, 'mother-drop'; which is 'the Virgin-wine,' — which runs of itself out of a tap in the vat. Must, sur- must, or stum ; which is the WINE or liquor in the vat, after the grapes have been trod. Pressed Wine, 'vin de pressurage,' is that squeezed with a press out of the PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xli grapes. Sweet Wine, * VIN doux, ' is that which has not yet fermented. Natural WINE is such as comes from the grape, without mixture. Burnt Wine is that boiled up with sugar. There is also a sort of Malmsey Wine, made by boiling of Muscadine. " Dr Lueneman, in his ' Worterbuch ' (Leipzig, 1780), has — tl Mustum i. n. der Most junge Wein [new wine]. Vinea, ein Weinberg, WEiNgarten. — Vinolentus, voll Wein "[full of wine. Bottger's Worterbuch has — " Junger Wein, new wine. WEiN-jteltem, to press grapes. Wein-beere, grape (wine-berry). WEiN-beer-saft (wine-berry juice). WEiN-ernte, vine-har- vest. WEiN-traube, grape-cluster."] The 'London Encyclopaedia,' published in 1829, says, — " Rhenish must is of two kinds. That made without boiling is only put up so close that it cannot work; this is called stum wine'''' — stum being evidently a con- traction from mustum, like 'his from omnibus. Dr Webster, the American, in his great 'Dictionary' (1828), has — i( Must, new wine — wine pressed/; om the grape, but not fermented." [In this definition he is only following Johnson, and others still older. B. Blount, in his ' Glossographia ' (1670), has "New wine, that first pressed out of the grape." E. Phillips, in his ' World of Words ' (1671), has "Wine newly pressed from the grape."] Dr Ure, F.R.S., the chemist, in ' Dictionary of Arts' (1836), says, — "Juice, when newly expressed, and before it has begun to ferment, is called must, and in common language, sweet wine." F. E. J. Valpy, M.A., in 'Etymological Dictionary' (1838), has — " Mustus, new, fresh, young. Hence Mustum, i. e. vinum, fresh wine — as Merum for Merum Vinum." Baron Liebig, in ' Letters on Chemistry ' (2nd series, 1844), wrote, — " If a flask be filled with grape-juice and made air-tight, and then kept for a few hours in boiling water, . . . THE WINE does not ferment " (p. 198). "The fermentation of wine and of beer-wort are not isolated phenomena." " The wine is left to ferment. One of the wiNE-growers of the Duchy," etc. The Popular Cyclopedia (1846), which is a translation from the t German Conversation Lexicon,' has the following : — "Must, the juice of the grape. In wine countries this unfermented sweet must is distinguished from the sour must, or unripe wine of a year old. It can be kept in close vessels after the mucilage has been precipitated" — [or settled on its lees]. "Wine. — There is only one species of wine \fprotropos~\ made without beating, treading, or pressing; this is what they call in Spain lagrima [tears]. The grapes, melting with ripeness, are suspended in bunches, and the wine is the produce of the droppings. The juice of the grape, when newly expressed, and before it has begun to ferment, is called must, and, in common language, sussur wein [sweet wine]. It is turbid, has an agreeable and very saccharine taste." Dr W. Freund, in his ' Worterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache ' (Leipzig, 1845), has— "Vmdemia [vino-demo, 'to draw wine from']; I. Vintage; II. Transf. (a) Grapes, wine ; (b) pi. vintage-season; (c) harvest of similar things, as oil-olive, honey, etc. "Vinum, digammated from oinos, wine. Transf. {a) grapes ; (b) fruit-wine. " Mustum, new or unfermented wine." 5. " Some classical scholars — whose scientific education, however, has been neglected — have objected that " the juice of the grape con- / xlii PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. tains alcohol by nature, and even grapes have been known to intoxi- cate ; and so the whole theory of the abstainer gives way." It is altogether erroneous to suppose that grapes, or grape-juice freshly expressed, have any taint of alcohol. Many years ago a careful chemist, at our solicitation, went through a very elaborate examina- tion of the whole matter, and demonstrated that alcohol forms no part of grapes. The experiments were published in the public papers, and a reward of ^50 offered by the British Temperance League " to any person who will extract any appreciable quantity of alcohol from grapes, ripe or rotten, provided the fruit has not been in any way meddled with by art." The intervention of man is always necessary to the placing of fruit in a condition to permit of the vinous fermentation. In the cases where bears, hogs, or men are inebriated with grapes, it is the result of gorging, whereby they turn their stomachs into a brewing vat ; the fruit fermenting instead of digest- ing, and vapors, probably alcohol also, may be generated, which affect the head.* During 1867 some clergymen in Ulster were prematurely rejoicing over the reputed discovery of 'a trace of alcohol' in the passover wine prepared by Mr Wright, using the supposed fact as a glad reason for returning to the adulterated port which contains a maxi- mum of spirit and only a trace of ' the fruit of the vine ' ! That chemist, however, at once proceeded to Belfast, and in the presence of the public experimentally demonstrated that his wine was not proved to contain even ' a trace.' Professor Hodges, and Dr H. Brown, who made the rash assertion, had deceived themselves. They had asswned that the chromic acid test would reveal the presence of no other substance besides alcohol in the wine, whereas the fruit aroi?ias give the same reaction. Dr Hodges, who is a respectable chemist, admitted that an enormous quantity of the wine must be used in order to find an exhibitable quantity of alcohol! This passage in the history of controversy illustrates the justice of what Liebig observes, that " from the moment the imagination is allowed to solve questions left undecided by researches, investigation ceases — truth remains unascertained ; and there is not only this negative evil, but in error we create a monster, envious, malignant, and obstinate — which, when at length trutn endeavors to make its way, crosses its path, combats, and strives to annihilate it." In this case, happily, the friends of light were stronger than the devotees of darkness, and the appeal to common sense was more successful than that to authority. That alcohol is not a product of growth — i. e. of those natural pro- cesses that perpetuate the forms of ' created things ' — is a fact that at once negatives the preceding objection. Even some imperfectly informed abstainers have been too easy in their acceptance of pseudo- scientific dogmas. Here is one specimen : — * See Dr Lees' 'History of Alcohol,' 1846, and 'Text-Book of Temperance,' for detail of experiments. PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xliii 6. " The new products which result from fermentation are attributa- ble rather to the life than the death principle." Now grape-sugar and albumen are plainly products resulting from the life of the vine. But by decomposition, which only ensues when these substances are parted from the vital organism, the albumen becomes yeast, and thereafter the alimentary sugar is resolved into the poison alcohol and carbonic acid. What ///^-principle produces this ? ' The power of the living God ! ' True, but that power is as much present in death as in resurrection; in decay as in growth; in decomposing as in composing; in simple as in complex combinations; and what is common to ' creation ' and ' destruction ' cannot destroy the difference between them, which the objection attempts to do. Unfortunately, we have to deal with a school of complacent critics who have so much got the habit of teaching as to have forgotten that of learning, who will argue about sciences they do not understand; and it is almost impossible to excite in them a suspicion that they may be wrong. Otherwise, we might have hope in reproducing such language as the following from Professor Liebig: — "It is contrary to all sober rules of research to regard the vital process of an animal or a plant as the cause of fermentation. The opinion that they take any share in the morbid process must be rejected as an hypothesis destitute of all support. In all fungi, analysis has detected the presence of sugar, which, during their vital process, is not resolved into alcohol and carbonic acid ; but after their death, from the moment a change in their color and consistence is perceived, the vinous fermentation sets in. It is the very reverse of the vital process to which this effect must be ascribed. " Fermentation, Putrefaction, and Decay. These are processes of ^composition, and their ultimate results are to reconvert the elements of organic bodies into that state in which they exist before they participate in the process of Life, [whereby] complex organic atoms of the highest order are reduced into combinations of a lower order, into that state of combination of elements from which they sprang" {Letters on Chemistry, 2d series, 1845). It is from this point of view that we are enabled to perceive the symbolical fitness of the Biblical prohibitions of ferment, and its de- generated products, in all such ceremonies and sacrifices as typified Life, Purity, and Regeneration. It has been very beautifully observed by Professor Fraser, of Edinburgh, that — "The Divine Ideas expressed in the laws of Nature are, through our physical discoveries, becoming, in the form of similar ideas in ourselves, a part of the experience of man. Every scientific discovery puts us more in sympathy with the Divine meaning. The antagonism of Faith and Science disappears, as each deepening insight into natural law is felt to bring our thoughts into nearer harmony to those Divine thoughts of which our otherwise strange surroundings in this world of sense are found to be the expression." A little reflection would show that on a point of daily morals so important as temperance and the use of inebriating beverages, one which in so many forms crosses the path and confounds the purposes of the Sacred Oracles, it is hardly credible that the most advanced examples of inspired wisdom, in lawgivers, prophets, and apostles, should antagonize alike the partial truth of the contemporary philo- sophy of paganism, the experience of successive ages, and the con- Xliv PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. elusions of modern Science forced upon the reluctant judgment of its disobedient priesthood. Yet the fact is undeniable, that, in spite of the opposition of the interested, the venality of the press, and the despotism of fashion, Providence has, during the last thirty years, compelled Science to lay her successive offerings upon the altar of Temperance. We can here only attempt an Epitome of the Evidence furnished by Observation, Statistics, and Science, but it shall be an historical consensus — drops, as it were, from 'a cloud of witnesses,' — in the language of divines and dramatists, physicians and philosophers : — "Wine deceiveth him that drinketh it." — The Vulgate, Hab. ii. 5. "How exceeding strong is wine! it causeth all men to err that drink it." — I Esdras iii. 18. "Water makes those who drink nothing else very ingenious, but wine obscures and clouds the mind." — Eubulus, B.C. 375. " I admire those who desire no other beverage than water, avoiding wine as they do fire. Hence arise irregular desires and licentious conduct. The circulation is hastened. The body inflames the soul." — Clement of Alexandria, a.d. 180. " O thou invisible Spirit of Wine, if thou hast no other name to be known by, I will call thee — Devil." — Shakespeare. " The fumes of the Wine left him nothing of his more refined nature. All that was honorable or intellectual in his character had now completely ceded to all that was base and animal." — Wilkie Collins, * Antonina, 185 1. "Alcohol is a disturber of the system, and cannot be regarded as a food. . . . Alcohol neither warms nor sustains the body. Alcohol should be prescribed medi- cinally as carefully as any other poisonous agent." — Dr Edward Smith, i860. "The influence of alcohol upon the nervous system, and particularly upon the brain, is manifest by a progressive and constant series of symptoms, which, in different degrees of intensity, are reproduced in all individuals. These constitute a true poisoning; and this morbid state is exhibited under three phases : — (1) sur- excitation; (2) perturbation; (3) abolition of the cerebro-spinal functions." — Dr Michael Levy, on 'Hygiene,' Paris, 1857. "Facts establish, from a physiological point of view, a line of demarcation between alcohol and foods. Alcohol is not a food. It acts in a feeble dose as an irritant; in a larger as a stupefiant." — Professors Lallemand and Perrin, Paris, i860. " Alcohol does not act as food ; it does not nourish tissues. It cuts short the life of rapidly-growing cells, or causes them to live more slowly. The stunting which follows its exhibition to young animals is readily accounted for." — Lionel S. Beale, M.D., F.R.S., of King's College Hospital, 1863. "Experience and statistics, amongst operatives, soldiers, and middle-class civilians, in England, America, Germany, and India, establish the truth that, under the same circumstances, the percentage of sickness and mortality is twice as great amongst moderate drinkers as abstainers, and four times as great among drink- hards." — Dr Lees. "Alcohol is a mere drug ; and although a constituent, is not the valuable one in wine." — Robert Druitt, M.D., Report on Wine, 1866. "Finally, there are a number of substances, of which we are not able to prove that they are either used for the repair of the tissues, or transformed in the body so as to generate heat; in this class we place alcohol, chloroform, the aethers, various alkaloids, strychnia, morphia, and the vegetables which contain them." — F. E. Anstie, M.D., 1864.* [For other testimonies see Note to Matt. iv. 7.] * This author inconsistently contends, however, that alcohol is food, because it arrests waste ! He begs his definition, which we entirely repudiate. Food is that which, first, acts innocently upon the body, and, secondly, acts usefully by making blood. Alcohol does neither. Scientific men should scorn mere tricks of defini- tion, and adhere to facts. PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xlv Now it seems to us, that so far from having, in any one particular, contradicted these truths, the Bible has most singularly confirmed, and, in words at least, anticipated them. History says — "All nations who drank intoxicating wine, in all conditions of climate and culture, have erred through its use, and gone out of the way." Scripture responds — " Israel, God's chosen nation — her priests, her teachers, her princes and kings, drank wine in bowls, and were swallowed up of wine, wherefore they were sent into cap- tivity." Experience says — "The common and social use of intoxicants, alcoholic or otherwise, has a physical tendency to create an intem- perate appetite, insatiate as the grave, making slaves of thousands." Scripture answers — "Wine deceiveth a lofty man, and en- largeth his desire as hell (Hab. ii. 5) ; it bringeth poverty and pain, sorrow and remorse upon him, yet he crieth, '/ will seek it yet again'''''' (Pro v. xxiii. 35). Morality teaches — " Wine is dangerous — it slowly but surely en- snares and enslaves the Will. Terrible is the power of this tricksy spirit to allure; it causeth all men, of whatever rank, to err." Scripture re-echoes — " Wine is a mocker (latz) ; Wine is a de- frauder (bogad). Woe to him that giveth his neighbor drink!" (Hab. ii. 15). Virtue exclaims — "Wine stimulates the sensual nature, and nar- cotizes the moral and spiritual : whence arise irregular desires." Scripture replies — " Look not upon it, lest thine eyes look upon strange women, and thine heart go after perverse things." Experiment proves that " alcohol is a disturber of the brain, and decreases consciousness and the perception of light, and ' casts dark- ness over the soul ' " (Eubulus). Scripture correspondingly commands — that " God's priests, while doing His work, shall drink no strong drink, lest they die"; — and it further declares, that " while the drinking Jews rebelled and corrupted their ways, His Nazarites remained pure as snow." Physiology announces — that " the maximum strength of man can only be realized by abstinence from alcoholic wine, which cuts short the life of growing cells, and stunts the growth of young animals." Scripture records — that " when the strongest man was to be reared, an angel from heaven imposed the practice of abstinence upon both mother and child." Science declares — that " intoxicating wine is not food; that alcohol is a mere drug; that it should be prescribed as carefully as any other poisonous agent; that, as & poison, it ranks with strychnine, opium, and tobacco." And Scripture finally anticipates all this, for, in text after text, such wine is not only described as acting like the poison ' of the serpent and the basilisk,' but actually called a poison (Deut. xxxii. 33; Hos. vii. 5; Hab. ii. 15). xlvi PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. When Christians are half as anxious to harmonize Bible teaching with Temperance truth, as with geology or astronomy, they will find ready to their hands a much ampler and far simpler apparatus of conciliation. One final illustration must suffice. According to Augustine, the Manicheans held that intoocicating wine (for they used grapes) was Fel principiis tenebrarum — ' the gall of the Prince of Darkness.' Now the Bible clearly speaks of a wine that is ' the poison of dragons,' and describes with the very signs of fermentation, a wine that ' biteth like a serpent.' Thus the idea of wine being a poison is not a mere modern notion. It can be shown, however, that it is the express and literal language of Inspiration ; nay, more, that on the supposition that it was the Divine purpose to teach us that wine is poisonous by means of the Scripture, God has done so in the only possible way, i. e. by the use of the proper Hebrew word for ' poison.' If any one chooses to argue that the word has other possible mean- ings, less true and applicable to the case, we can only protest against eliminating the true and most fitting sense of the passage, and thus mak- ing the Bible into a ' nose of wax.' In the A. Version there are only two words translated poison, and one of these is so translated but once ; in the margin ' a poisonful herb.' The texts prove that this word (rosh) really signifies some special herb of a bitter nature, like hyssop, hemlock, or the poppy. The other word is khamah, — the Hebrew term for 'poison' in general, connoting that inflaming property common to so many intoxi- cants.* In the A. V., the word is actually translated ' poison ' in six out of the eight instances in which it occurs as the name of a physical substance or property : — Deut. xxxii. 24. The poison of serpents of the dust. Deut. xxxii. $$• Their wine is the poison of dragons. Psalm lviii. 4. Their poison is like the poison of a serpent. Psalm cxl. 3. Adder's poison is under their lips. Job vi. 4. The poison drinketh up my spirit. It may be objected that the skin bottle Hagar carried with her is called khameth, and that this is the same word. Even granting that (of which there is no proof), no example occurs of the use of khameth for 'bottle,' from the time of Moses to that of the minor prophets. It was, then, quite obsolete in the days of the latter — had been so, apparently, for eight centuries, — and, moreover, there were four other words for ' bottle,' and four or five for cup, in regular use by the later Hebrews. To depart from the current and continuous meaning of khamah, as 'poison,' and identify it with a long obsolete word for kidskin 'bottle,' is a simple whim.f Even then the idea returns, since * There is another word (root, mar, ) signifying in one passage ' gall-bladder ' or venom, but not ' poison ' in our broad sense. t Dr McCaul, Professor of Hebrew in King's College, in his ' Examination of Bishop Colenso's Difficulties,' has the following concerning the Hebrew khamu- shim, to which the assailant of the Pentateuch, taking a leaf out of the book of the assailants of Abstinence, persisted in assigning the exclusive meaning of PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. xlvii ' the bottle ' could only mean, like i the cup of the Lord's right hand,' a vessel containing some destructive potion. But khamah had a ' figurative ' use as well, and is the word so often translated fury, anger, wrath, displeasure. As ' poison ' is that which disturbs or destroys the body, so God's cup of wrath is that mental poison which destroys the soul. Professor Nordheimer, in his ' Critical Grammar,' translates hay-yayin hak-kha?nah as the 'maddening wine' (Jer. xxv. 15), because it is that punishment which makes mad. " They shall drink, and be moved, and be mad." As yayin harekakh (spiced wine) in Canticles literally means ' wine which (is) spice,' so yayin hakhamah literally is ' wine which (is) poison.' We now direct attention to two plain texts where Tyndale seems to have been thoughtlessly and implicitly followed, and so the word 'bottle,' under the unconscious influence of prejudice, displaced the word for its poisonous contents. He who had so correctly translated the word as 'poison' before, could not do so here, simply because he could not believe in the sense it gave. We who know how literally true that sense is, why should we seek to obscure or ignore it ? Hosea, vii. 5 : " The princes made him sick with khamah (poison) of wine." Habakkuk, ii. 15, 16: "Woe unto him that giveth his neighbor drink, that puttest thy khamah (poison) to him! The cup of the Lord's right hand shall be turned unto thee." Lexicons and commentators cannot make this matter plainer than does the context. Even our translators, in putting 'bottle,' say in the margin, as did Tyndale, l heat through wine.' St Jerome's version has fel, 'poison,' 'gall.' Montanus has venenum tuum, 'thy poison.' Drusius cites others; so does Rabbi Jonah in Ben Melech. The learned Dr John Gill says, "The word is by some translated 'thy gall,' 'thy poison,' which fitly enough expresses the poisonous doc- trines which men sensibly imbibe." Professor Pick translates, 'pouring out his wrath. 1 It is plain, beyond denial, that the prophets were not speaking of wine-vessels at all (much less of princes handing skin- vessels to the king), but of the causal-quality of the liquor drank. It was the khamah which sickened and maddened; and the declaration is, that God will pour His cup (elsewhere called khamah, fury) upon the man that giveth his neighbor khamah to drink. If that drink were not poisonous, where would be the foundation for the figure ? The lexicons cannot deny the facts. Parkhurst defines khamah as 'an inflammatory poison'; Archbishop Newcome has 'gall, poison.' The Arabic still retains the word in several forms, as khumat, shumum, khemah, for 'poison,' 'fever] etc. So we reach the old conclusion, that whenever we are willing to credit the Biblical teaching, we shall find 'armed': — "The meaning 'armed' is not only doubtful, it is improbable; first, because it does not suit the context of Exod. xiii. 18. Its suiting the three other places where the word occurs cannot outweigh the fact that it does not suit here. The testimony of the ancient versions is of no value, as the word does not occur at all after the Book of Judges, and had therefore become obsolete long before the time of the earliest of them, the Lxx. Their translation is a mere conjecture." xlviii PRELIMINARY DISSERTATION. an exact accordance between Biblical language and physical truth. If men are not willing, they will go on evading, quibbling, controvert- ing, to the end, wresting the Bible to their own destruction, and con- verting a volume which is the Directory of moral purity and life, into an instrument of sensual depravity, social deception, and moral death. In Lessing's beautiful book, 'On the Education of the Human Race,' after comparing the Jewish Bible to a primer, he refers to the captivity under Cyrus, when the Jews were first made conscious of the full meaning of their own Scriptures, and, through the influence of courtly fashion, first effectually taught sobriety : — " Revelation had guided their reason, and now, all at once, reason gave clearness to their revelation. The child, sent abroad, saw other children who knew more — who lived more becomingly, — and asked itself, in confusion, ' Why do / not know and do that too ? Ought I not to have been taught and admonished of all this in my father's house?' Thereupon the child again sought its primer, which had long been thrown into a dark corner, in order to throw off the blame upon the primer. But, behold ! it discovers that the blame does not rest upon the book: that the shame is solely its own, for not having long ago known this very thing, and lived in this very way." So the Christian Church has been sent abroad into the realms of science, and it has there been taught a practical lesson of physiology and dietetics, which it would never adopt on mere principles of self- denial. Thereupon, partly in wonder, partly in doubt, and partly in opposition, it has begun to consult its primer, to confirm, to question, or to confute the truth of Science. We trust and hope, that when the investigation is completed, the shame will be confessed to be its own, for not having long ago known this very thing, and lived in this very way. F. R. L. THE BOOK S OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Great pains were taken in the Preliminary Dissertation to state what we regard as the true relation of the Bible to the use of alcoholic drink, to anticipate mistakes of the issue, and to expose false principles and facts of interpretation. It seems, however, to be in vain, for one London paper (T/ie Athenceum) has, in its notice of the first edition of this book, grossly misrepresented the object of it as being to prove that Bible wines were mainly unfermented ! — and a second paper ( The Echo) has, in reference to the notes on Gen. i. 29, published a criticism which shows that the writer had not even read the second page of the Commentary ! He says : — " Of course this ingenious argument depends upon the assumption that the benefits derived from the alcohol do not compensate the loss of the sugar— this is the whole point in dispute, and must be settled upon other than scriptural grounds." Yes, of course, and therefore the exposition proceeds to 'Cos. facts which relate to the prin- ciple. When an apostle says, ' Do good as you have opportunity ' — it is reason applied to facts that must show wherein the good consists — in other words, how to fulfill the law. When the Saviour says, ' Love your neighbor,' it is not the bare text that shows who is our neighbor; and hence the very need of the exposition and of the parable. The Echo argues that because scripture-law and words do not explain themselves, but want a commentary, therefore none should be given ! As the law which says, ' Thou shalt do no murder,' is to be interpreted by the judge who determines its meaning : so the law which says for what purpose God gave fruit and grain to man, must be inter- preted by the rational critic, and any system which the facts in evidence show to be inconsistent with that purpose, or with the welfare of mankind, must be condemned. THE BOOK OF GENESIS. Chapter I. Verse 29. And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed ; to you it shall be for meat. Every herb] Hebrew, kal asev. Asev, as full-grown herbage (including grain of all kinds), is distinguished from desheh, young and tender grass, and from khatzir, ripe grass, fit for mowing. The Lxx. renders asev by chorion, green plants of every species ; but Aquila has chloee, young green corn or grass. The Vulgate reads herbam. Every tree] Hebrew, kol hah-atz, i. e. every plant of woody fibre, in distinc- tion from flexible sprouting plants. So the Lxx. pan xidon, every kind of wood or timber ; and the V. universa ligna, all sorts of wood-growth. To you it shall be for meat] Lahkem yihyeh Uahkelah, "to you it shall be for eating "=that which is to be eaten. With this agrees the Targum of Onkelos, — le-maikal. The Lxx., Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, all read eis brosin, — for eating. The V. has in escam, — for food. This Divine saying is a Charter at once concise and all-comprehensive. What- ever produce of the earth is fit for food, it places at man's disposal. From dust was the human body formed, and out of the dust comes its sustenance. He who fashioned and animated the one, freely bestows the other. The animals that are eaten derive from the vegetable world all that renders their flesh nutritious. Men are not bound to eat everything that grows, but they can eat and assimilate nothing which has not first grown up under the power of the Highest. In regard to the food so bountifully provided, man's duty comprehends- I, Thankfulness to his Divine Benefactor, which involves devotion ; 2, Co-operation with the laws of Providence for the increase of this food, which involves industry ; 3, Appropriation of this food to the end designed, the health and vigor of man, which involves frugality and temperance. All waste of food is condemnable ; and waste occurs when more food is consumed than can be made use of in the body : — hence the glutton abuses both his body and the material fitted to nourish it. Waste equally accrues when food is deprived of any of its nutritious properties ; still more palpably, when food becomes transformed into any substance charged with evil to mankind. Such waste is always and inevitably connected with the vinous fermenta- tion which converts grape-sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. Sugar, the good creature of God, and a real food, is destroyed, and, by new chemical affinities, its elements are broken up, and fresh substances formed, of which it cannot be truly GENESIS, I. 29. said, " they shall be to you for food." The assertion that alcohol is in sugar, or in any unfermented saccharine substance, can only be made in utter ignorance of the alphabet of chemical science.* This waste of food has become all the greater since — in order to produce intoxicating liquors in larger quantities than the fermented juice of grapes could yield — grain, to the extent of about fifty million bushels yearly, is employed in the United Kingdom alone for brewing and distillation. By the malting process the starch of corn is converted into sugar, and this again by fermentation into alcohol and carbonic acid. Distillation draws off the alcohol thus formed, and the spirit so educed (not produced), being mixed with less water, more readily exerts its specific effects. The solid food thus wasted would supply a fair amount of aliment to some millions of persons every day all the year round. The plea that the alcoholic fermentation is ' a natural process ' cannot avail in extenuation of this waste, since it is no more natural than those other processes of decay against which food is assiduously guarded, nor would alcoholic liquors come ' naturally ' into existence at all, were they not designedly manufactured by man himself. " God made man upright ; but he found out many inventions." As the sole end sought by this waste of food is the production of an alcoholic beverage, it devolves upon those who sanction the transformation to show that some compensating advan- tage is thereby secured. (1) That alcohol is itself a food is an hypothesis desti- tute of all scientific support ; for being destitute of nitrogen, it cannot make blood or help to repair bodily waste. The theory at one time generally received, that its com- bustion produces animal heat, is now abandoned as being proofless, while a series of careful experiments by distinguished men of science in France and England have furnished evidence that alcohol is in course of ejection, unchanged, thirty hours after being swallowed. (2) Another theory, that alcohol serves as an equivalent for food by diminishing the metamorphosis of tissue, is without weight, for experi- ments have not justified the theory; and were it otherwise, the use of alcohol to diminish the normal waste of tissue would be open to censure, as a mischievous interference with one of the vital processes on which the renewal of corporeal strength depends. (3) Could it be shown that alcohol, when imbibed, is neutral as to any sensible effect, its manufacture at the expense of the staff of life would be a vast economic crime ; but the probability is that its operation on the healthy organism is always in some degree deleterious, the measure of injury varying with the quantity, strength, and frequency of the amount imbibed. In all works on toxi- cology alcohol is classed among narcotico-acrid poisons, and like other poisons, its action when not fatal, is yet demonstrably pernicious. Some of its evil effects, though apparently trivial or even insensible at the moment — as, for example, in impairing the redness of the blood-globules and the structure of the blood-vessels — assume a serious importance when regarded as cumulative during a succession of years. (4) No dispute, indeed, can arise on the point that, as ordi- narily consumed (for its exciting property), alcohol occasions a large amount of disease and premature death, apart altogether from the sin and misery of intoxica- tion. (5) Along with these physical consequences due account should be taken of its influence on the moral, social, and religious life of the countries where it is com- * The old chemical formula of sugar is oxygen 3, hydrogen 3, carbon 3 ; the new is oxygen 3, hydrogen 6, carbon 3 ; but in the decomposition of sugar these elements recombine so as to generate alcohol and carbonic acid ; thus : — O H C O H C 01 , ( Alcohol ... 132 N { Alcohol ... 162 uia 1 Carbonic acid 2 o 1 1N ew ( Carbonic add . 201 3 3 3 363 Not only is the sugar of grain and fruit thus destroyed, but their albumen becomes converted into yeast, and thus ceases to be food. GENESIS, II. 1 6, 17. 5 monly consumed; and were this done, the stupendous folly of converting a nation's food into such an insinuating article would not fail to be recognized, deplored, and denounced by the Christian world. (6) The assertion that man has a natural pre- disposition or instinct for intoxicating articles, because he has always and everywhere been known to use them, is untrue from first to last, (a) The reason is not a correct statement of the facts, since many tribes have been discovered who were ignorant of all intoxicants, and others have made systematic regulations for their exclusion, (d) Any argument in favor of intoxicating drinks from their prevalent use would be equally available in favor of war, slavery, drunkenness itself, and vice of every description, (c) Natural instinct, so called, might be depraved in- stinct, the transmitted result of parental transgression of natural law. (d) But, in reality, natural instinct (save where the drunkard's appetite runs in the blood) is universally repugnant to the use of alcohol until it becomes perverted by persistent consumption of alcoholic compounds. (7) The final conclusion is, that the manu- facture and use of alcoholic beverages are opposed to the Divine charter which assigns the produce of the earth to man for food. By the destruction of the sac- charine and albuminous constituents of fruit and grain, ignorant or ungrateful man virtually declares, "To me they shall not be for meat," thus seeking to nullify and reverse the benevolent designs of his heavenly Father. Chapter II. Verses 16, 17. 16 And the Lord God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden thou may est freely eat : 17 But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. It has been contended that the Divine procedure, in creating the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, and permitting access to it by our first parents, is reason for allowing the use of intoxicating liquors and the traffic in them as beverages. Virtue, it is argued, is strengthened by exposure to temptation and resistance of it. But the danger of such reasoning is apparent on reflection, for, under the pretense of proving virtue and piety, and invigorating them by the opposition evoked, the darkest spirits of evil may claim to be recognized as angels of light and benefactors of our race. In like manner, the progress of holiness, both in the individual and in humanity, may be exibited as a misfortune, because diminishing the number and intensity of these trials of fidelity ! What we are sure of as regards the Divine economy, in the Edenic as in every after age, is, that God has never put His creatures to any proof involving an inducement to evil doing, and that He has never needlessly exposed them to moral danger. "He cannot be tempted of evil, neither tempteth He any man;" but "His tender mercies are over all His works." Whatever is to be understood by the tree of knowledge, and whatever construction, literal or allegorical, is put upon the Mosaic narrative, we know that some external tests of men's spiritual obedience were unavoidable, and that in the period of his innocence these tests did not address themselves to any depraved proclivity or bias. To infer from thence that men may now tempt themselves by using articles that originate a diseased appetite, and that they may tempt others by engaging in a traffic in such articles, is surely a lamentable wresting of the Divine Word. Temptation is unavoidable under the present constitution of society, and when resisted, is, by Divine grace, converted into a means of holiness ; but so far from therefore encouraging temptation, and GENESIS, III. 6. occasions of it, we are taught to pray, "Lead us not into temptation;" and we are warned that though ' offenses ' — causes of stumbling — must needs come, through human wickedness, woe is it to the man by whom they purposely come; and we are solemnly warned against putting an occasion of falling in a brother's way. Even were there any reality in the analogy suggested, it would only lead to this conclusion — that strong drink may be manufactured and houses for its sale set up, but that all indulgence and traffic in it must be prohibited — the virtue of men being put to the proof in resisting the temptation to use and traffic in the prohibited liquor. Would those who descant on the value of temptation care to have drink and drinking-houses exhibited while all connection with them was put under moral and legal ban? Yet this is the only analogy to be gathered from this passage; the tree of knowledge of good and evil was, indeed, planted and placed within reach, but the command given was not to eat of it, and the recompense of disobedience was death! Chapter III. Verse 6. And when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat, and gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat. This verse sententiously describes the 'great transgression'; voluntarily com- mitted, indeed, but occasioned, in no small measure, by the circumstances preceding it. Eve was standing on dangerous ground, near to the forbidden tree, which she should have avoided; she was found in dangerous company, that of the subtle serpent, which she should have shunned; and she was engaged in dangerous excercises which she should have disallowed, lending an ear to deceptive counsel, and fixing an eye on a seductive substance. Is it strange that, so situated and employed, she should have fallen? Would that her progeny had taken warning from her want of true wisdom ! * How impressive the lesson — that, whenever possible, both the sphere and occasions of evil, as well as its actual operations, ought to be dreaded and excluded ! Those who see no sin in using a little drink, or in occasional visits to the tavern, argue as Eve might have done the moment before "she took of the fruit, and did eat." Though Adam's appa- rently ready compliance with Eve's invitation to share the unhallowed feast is a mystery, it is certain that he was powerfully influenced by affection for his spouse ; and thus his act becomes an example of the influence for good or evil, which women exercise on the other sex, and through them on the destiny of the world. When that influence is directed against the fashionable and fatal dietetic use of intoxicating drinks, it will bless mankind beyond measure. Much ingenious but useless speculation has been wasted on curious questions arising out of this text; such as the period which elapsed between Adam's creation and Eve's formation, and between their conjugal union and their common sin; the *The leading journal of Britain has said, that if our Temperance doctrines are correct, " Paradise was wrongly constructed" ; but a calm review of the case will demonstrate the contrary. Eve fell, not because evil was prohibited, but because she willfully tampered with duty, and courted tempta- tion. The fall was the result of the wickedness of the Tempter, and the weak self-confidence of the Tempted, teaching that we should not desire to be 'led into temptation,' much less place ourselves tvithin its charmed circle. " Circumstance, that unspiritual God And miscreator, makes and helps along Our coming evils with a crutch-like rod." — Childe Harold, Canto iv. GENESIS, III. 6. nature of the serpent that acted the tempter's part; and the character of the tree and the fruit "whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all our woe."* An opinion has even been hazarded that alcohol was the forbidden fruit, by which is perhaps meant that its juice was of an alcoholic quality. This is of course a mere conjecture, and the assumption that alcohol existed ready formed in Eden, and not elsewhere, is wholly gratuitous. No doubt it is possible to trace a resemblance between the fascination ascribed to the fruit of this tree, and that which is produced by intoxicating drink ; for to those who have become accustomed to it, the latter is 'pleasant to the eyes,' and excites sensuous desire; tending, when drunk, to create in its admirers a conceit of superior wisdom, that ends in folly and sows the seeds of bitter disappointment. Ancient tradition has attributed to the eating of the forbidden fruit effects analogous to those of inebriating liquor ; an idea which Milton, in his regal poem, has brought out with consummate skill. He represents that Eve, on tasting 'those fair apples,' became the subject of an unnatural appetite and exhilaration : — " Greedily she engorged without restraint And knew not eating death ; satiate at length, And heighten'd as with wine, jocund and boon." She thus describes her feelings to Adam : — " Opener mine eyes, Dim erst, dilated spirits, ampler heart, And growing up to godhead." So she felt, yet the great poet exposes the delusion by an expressive touch : — " But in her cheek distemper flushing glowed. Adam, however, yields, and when the hapless pair sin together, — " As with new wine intoxicated both, They swim in mirth, and fancy that they feel Divinity within them, breeding wings Wherewith to scorn the earth ; but that false fruit Far other operation first displayed, Carnal desire inflaming." — Paradise Lost, ix. In this poetical description no probability is violated by the supposition that the effect of the forbidden fruit was to stimulate the sensual tendencies and undutiful ambition attending the outward act of transgression. Then came the revulsion and shame related by the sacred historian (Gen. iii. 7). The conception that an intoxicating influence proceeded from the 'alluring fruit' doubtless strengthened the belief that a continuance of man's original innocence would have been accompanied by abstinence from all liquors capable of producing such ' distemper ' of body and mind. That Milton entertained this opinion is plain from his picture of the entertainment provided by Eve for Raphael, when — "Fruit of all kinds, in coat Rough or smooth rind, or bearded husk, or shell, She gathers tribute large, and on the board Heaps with unsparing hand ; for drink the grape She crushes, inoffensive must, and meaths From many a berry, and from sweet kernels press'd She tempers dulcet creams." It may be objected that the use of flesh-meat was as little sanctioned by primitive man as the use of intoxicating liquors. But there is a radical distinction between the cases. Animal food is composed of the same elements as other food; while alcoholic liquors are distinguished from other beverages by qualities believed by many to make them very valuable and desirable, if not necessary to human health * The vulgar opinion that the fatal fruit was a species of apple originated in the twofold use o^ the Latin pomttm and malum, as signifying round fruit in general, and the apple-fruit in particular. The apple being the best known of English orchard fruits, has gained a questionable distinction which it is likely to retain for long. 8 GENESIS, VI. 5, and longevity. Were this estimate correct, their use would have been specially appropriate in the times of man's innocence; and the moral danger now associated with their consumption would then have been reduced to its lowest point. Chapter VI. Verse 5. And God saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually. The causes of this intense depravity of the antediluvians have been learnedly discussed by legions of theologians, but the silence of Scripture offers ground for nothing better than ingenious guesses. Whether it was associated with, and promoted by, the use of inebriating drinks, is also a branch of the same inquiry on which conjecture can cast but the faintest glimmer. If the fruits of the earth were only eaten for food, or their juice drunk immediately after being expressed, the terrible secret of vinous fermentation may have been reserved for a later age. This happy ignorance — or the sagacious prudence which refused to apply the discovery — may have prevailed among the 'sons of God,' in their integrity and simplicity of heart. In his 'World before the Flood,' James Montgomery represents the wife of Enoch " 'midst fruits and flowers," as engaged — " Plucking the purple clusters from the vine To crown the cup of unfermented wine." — Canto 3. As to the self-reprobated sinners on whom God's mercy waited in vain, it is scarcely credible that they should have remained ignorant of the fermenting process, or that if acquainted with it, they should have denied themselves so agreeable a medium of adding a new zest to every vice, and depraving depravity itself. That they were ' eating and drinking ' in a state of lawless revelry when the judgment of God overtook them appears to be indicated by the Saviour's words (Luke xvii. 27) ; and it is difficult to imagine that the ' insolence ' with which they were ' flushed ' had not, like that of Sodom, wine to inflame it. If, on the other hand, it is thought more likely that that awful wickedness was not aggravated by the intoxicating bowl, this view of the depths of evil to which human nature can sink without the aid of alcohol, is an unanswerable reason why such an artificial and potent agent of demoralization should be utterly discarded from the Church and the world. Chapter IX. Verses 20 — 27. 20 And Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted a vine- yard : 21 And he drank of the wine, and was drunken ; and he was uncovered within his tent. 22 And Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father, and told his two brethren without. 23 And Shem and Japheth took a garment, and laid it upon both their shoulders, and went backward, and covered the nakedness of their father ; and their faces were backward, and they saw not their father's nakedness. 24 And Noah awoke from his wine, and knew what his younger son had done unto him. 25 And he said, Cursed be Canaan ; a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren. 26 And he said, Blessed be the Lord God of Shem ; and Canaan shall be his servant. 27 God shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem ; and Canaan shall be his servant. GENESIS, IX. 20 — 27. V. 20. Husbandman] Literally, ' a man of the earth ' (or ' red-soil'— adahmah. ) The Lxx. has georgos gees — 'a cultivator of the earth.' The V. agricola, 'field- cultivator. ' A vineyard] Kerem, a Hebrew term signifying a cultivated piece of land set with fruit-trees. One of the principal of these was the vine, and hence kerem became generally applied to a vineyard — tilled land devoted chiefly but not exclusively to the culture of the vine. Noah's kerem probably included all kinds of fruit-bearing plants. Some of the Rabbins held that though the vine had been cultivated before, Noah was the first to conduct the cultivation methodically, and to set the vines together as a vineyard. The Lxx. has kai ephuteusen ampelona, and the Vulgate et plantavit vineam, both meaning 'and he planted a vineyard.' The Targum of Jonathan enlarges the Scripture narrative with a curious legend — "And Noah began to be a cultivator of the earth, and he lighted upon a vine which the flood had carried away out of the Garden of Eden, and he planted it in a vineyard, and in that very day it blossomed, and its grapes ripened, which he pressed out; and he drank from the wine, and was drunk." V. 21. And he drank of the wine, and was drunken] Hebrew, vay- yasht min hay-yayin vay-yiskkar, "And he drank from the yayin" (wine) — i. e. some of it — "and was filled (with it)." The Targum of Onkelos reads ushthai min khamrah urvi, "and he drank from the khamrah (wine), and was drunk" (or drenched). The Lxx. has kai epien ek tou oinou, kai emethusthee, "and he drank from the wine, and was drunk" (or surcharged). The Vulgate, Bibensque vinum inebriatus est, "and drinking the wine he was inebriated" (or saturated).* [On yayin, the generic term rendered 'Wine' in the A. V., see Prel. Dis.] It can hardly be doubted that a name was given by the ancient Hebrews to the expressed juice of grapes, and if that name was not yayin, what was it? But that they should have selected a name having reference to the occult fermenting process is an hypothesis highly improbable, for such a specific discrimination would have peremptorily interdicted the application of the name to the juice of 'grapes in an zmfermented state, whereas that it was so applied is absolutely certain. Let the generic meaning be sought for in the juice yielded by manual or mechanical pressure, and there will be no difficulty in accounting for the contimced application of the name to the grape-juice under any change to which it was spontaneously exposed, or artificially subjected. It has been gravely alleged that Yayin must always be taken to signify inebriating grape-juice, because such is its signification the first time it occurs, viz., in this verse — a conclusion as ridiculous as would be the statement that the Hebrew words ruakh, elohim, shahmaim, and eretz, invaria- bly express, in all parts of Scripture, the meanings they respectively bear in the first verse of the first chapter of Genesis — viz., 'spirit,' 'the True God,' 'the visible firmament,' and 'the terraqueous earth.' It is notorious, on the contrary, that other and very different uses of all these words are common in subsequent parts of the Old Testament. Generic terms, as is well known, are sometimes variously employed to convey opposite ideas ; as from barak, 'to kneel,' come the derivative meanings of ' to bless ' and ' to curse.' If it be asked how we know that the yayin used by Noah was intoxicating, we reply, Not so much by the ambiguous *" Ebrius, literally one who has drunk his fill; drunk, intoxicated; in general, abundantly filled. Etymology dubious, usually derived from e and b, root of bibo, ' I drink.' Inebrio, to make drunk, inebriate; to saturate, fill full." — Dr Smith's Latin-Eng. Diet. Pliny, in treating of the vine, remarks (xiv. 3), Conduntur et musto uvce, ifisceque vino suo inebriantur, " Grapes are preserved also in must, and are themselves inebriated (soaked) in their own wine." 10 GENESIS, IX. 20 — 2J '. word translated 'was drunken,' as by the condition into which the wine cast him. Where the context does not decide the special use of a generic term, the broad sense must be retained. Vay-yishkar, 'and was drunken,'' answers to the old English sense of the word 'filled with drink' — not necessarily with , intoxicating drink. Shah-kar (whence comes yishkar) is rendered by Gesenius, 'to drink to the full,' with an implied reference to the saccharine quality of the liquid drunk. V. 24. And Noah awoke from his wine] Hebrew, vay-yiqetz Noakh miy- yayno, ' And Noah awoke from his wine ' — leaving it, as it were, behind him. [ Yah-qatz signifies to wake or rouse up. ] With this agree the Hebrew-Samaritan text, the Samaritan Version, and the Tar gum of Onkelos. The Lxx. is expressive — exeneepse de Noe apo tou oinou, "And Noah became sober from the wine" \exeneepse comes from ek in the sense of ' entirely, ' and neephein ' not to drink ' — meaning he became perfectly sober] — and figuratively 'recovered his senses,' 'came to himself — a sense which the Arabic version preserves — "But when Noah had recovered himself from his drunkenness." Noah drinking copiously of grape-juice which had become fermented and intoxi- cating (of which some have supposed he was not aware), himself became intoxicated, and, as it would seem, so suddenly as to fall down uncovered in his tent; in that condition he is found by his son Ham, perhaps also by his grandson Canaan, who show their want of decency and filial piety by at once informing Shem and Japheth ; jf, indeed, we may not understand that they related the fact with mockery or glee. The latter at once proceed, with delicate alacrity, to cover their father's shame, and when the patriarch recovers his consciousness he knows — by a peculiar intuition — what has transpired, and is supernaturally prompted to pronounce a curse on Canaan, and a blessing on Shem and Japheth. It has been supposed that the Yayin may have been purposely drugged by Ham or Canaan, but the form of the narrative gives no countenance to such an aggravation of his son and grandson's guilt. It is not probable that such an incident, if real, would have been unknown to Moses, or left unrecorded if known. Whether this was Noah's first and only act of intoxication is a question that may be reasonably answered in the affirmative : how it should have been committed at all is a question to which a plausible answer is more difficult. Can we suppose that he had lived for 600 years ignorant of the vine? or that he had never before expressed its juice?* or that he had never pre- viously allowed it to ferment before drinking it? Can we suppose him ignorant to this time of the nature and use of fermented wine? or was he induced by some passing circumstance (of heat or thirst) to take a draft unusually large? On the whole it may be inferred, from the absence of Divine reproof, that his intoxication was neither intentional, nor the result of gratifying a morbid love of intoxicating liquor. Observation I. It is noticeable that the first time intoxicating liquor is named in Holy Writ it is associated with intemperance — a presage of the same connection from that period to the present. Caustically, but with saddest truth, does Butler, the author of 'Hudibras,' say of this 'pleasant poison,' — *Dr Pye Smith conjectures that the Vine, after the deluge, may have been finer and fuller of juice than before, and that this circumstance suggested the idea of expressing its juice, which would become intoxicating without the knowledge of the fact at first. The narrative, indeed, gives no intimation of surprise at the effect produced, which would surely have been felt had it been a novel state : but, on the other hand, it may be said that the burden of the reproof seems to rest upon the fact of reveal- : ng the nakedness of the Patriarch, which his son might attribute to another cause than the one assigned by the narrator. GENESIS, XIV. 15, 1 8. II "Which since has overwhelmed and drowned Far greater numbers on dry ground Of wretched mankind, one by one, Than e'er the flood before had done." 2. A good man was the first victim of this alcoholic spell. If he was not cognizant of it, or was too confident of his ability to resist it, the warning is equally clear and strong. Whether the danger of using intoxicating drink is unsuspected or despised, it is imminent and real — even to the pious. The only recorded sin of the Antediluvian preacher of righteousness was the sin of one act of intoxication ; but who shall reckon up the number of such sins, and of the sins to which this vice has led, which have befallen the noblest and purest natures by an addition to intoxicants ? Abstinence alone is safe, and good for all. 3. The tendency of intemperance to entail, directly or indirectly, family misery and misfortune, is illustrated by the curse brought upon Canaan. Those who take pleasure in the intemperance of others, or delight in deriding it, are fitting themselves for a wretched future. By its immediate effects, and reflex associations, strong drink is a source of immeasurable woe. Fabricius relates as a Jewish legend, that when Noah planted the vine he killed a sheep, a lion, an ape, and a sow, and having mingled their blood, poured it upon the roots of the plant, so that the use of wine (not, however, the fresh, but the fermented blood of the grape) has since been attended, in succession, by the placidity of the sheep, the boldness of the lion, the nonsensical noisiness of the ape, and the filthy brutishness of the sow. The legend carries its moral on its face, but is only half the truth, since the domestic and social influences of inebriating drink yet remain to be symbolized. Chapter XIV. Verse 15. And he divided himself against them, he and his servants, by night, and smote them, and pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left hand of Damascus. That Abraham, with a comparatively small array, should have defeated and scattered the hosts of the four confederate Assyrian kings, is not very surprising, even apart from the special aid of the Most High; their imaginary security laid them open to a successful night assault ; and Josephus, who perhaps followed some local tradition, adds that while some were asleep in bed, others machesthai de apo methee on dunatoi, "were not able to fight on account of drunkenness. " Amongst the spoils may have been some of the 'wine of Sodom,' by which the victors were themselves overcome. Secular history supplies parallel instances of similar indulgences and similar results. Chapter XIV. Verse 18. And Melchizedek king of Salem brought forth bread and wine : and he was the priest of the most high God. The Hebrew reads lekhem vah-yayin — ' bread and yayin ' ; with which agree the Hebrew- Samaritan Text and Samaritan version. Onkelos has lekhem va-khamer, 1 bread and khanier? The Lxx., artous kai oinon, ' loaves and wine.' The Vulgate, panem etvinum, 'bread and wine.' A question may arise, whether the yayin of this passage is not to be understood in the sense of grapes rather than their expressed juice [as in Jer. xl. 10 — " Gather ye yayin and summer fruits "] — seeing that bread and grapes continue to be associated in the East as articles of daily food. If the 12 GENESIS, XIX. 3, 30 — 35. common acceptation of grape-juice is preferred, the juice may have been recently expressed. That it was fermented and intoxicating is a groundless conjecture. Even the knowledge that it was so would not demand or justify the common use of alcoholic liquors in the present day. Dr Kitto on this passage observes, that "in the language of Scripture, 'bread and wine,' as the chief articles of meat and drink, represent all kinds of food." Kalisch remarks, "He brought out to Abraham bread and wine, not to refresh him or his men — for Abraham had, among the booty of his enemies, seized their large stores of provisions also, — but to perform a symbolical ceremony in which bread and wine have a typical meaning." Chapter XIX. Verse 3. And he made them a feast, and did bake unleavened bread, and they did eat. A feast] Hebrew, mishteh ; Lxx., poton ; Vulgate, convwium. Mishtehis derived from shah-thah, ' to drink. ' In hot climates cool and acid fluids form a desirable and important element in all social entertainments. The name would thence be naturally applied to all the provision on such occasions. The English Version properly renders it by 'feast' aud 'banquet.' Unleavened bread] Hebrew Matzolh, the plural of matzah, which is generally derived from matzatz, ' to suck,' ' to be sweet ' — hence matzoth, ' sweet things ' — i. e. loaves or cakes not fermented ; similar, no doubt, to the ' cakes ' {ugoth — circles of kneaded dough) made ready by Abraham for the angels (Gen. xviii. 6). Dr A. Clarke assigns to matzatz the secondary meaning of ' to compress ' — matzoth being the name given to cakes made of dough compressed — heavy, or ' sad. ' Matzoth is contrasted with fermented matter {khahmatz) in Exod. xii. 15, 19, 20, 34, 39, etc. In the fermentation of dough, its saccharine property is reduced, because partially changed into alcohol, which is afterward expelled by the heat of baking. The notion that there is ' spirit in bread ' is, therefore, a vulgar error. The Lxx. gives azumous, and the Vulgate aztima, 'unleavened things.' Chapter XIX. Verses 30 — 35. 30 And Lot went up out of Zoar, and dwelt in the mountain, and his two daughters with him; for he feared to dwell in Zoar; and he dwelt in a cave, he and his two daughters. 31 And the firstborn said unto the younger, Our father is old, and there is not a man in the earth to come in unto us after the manner of all the earth : 32 Come, let us make our father drink wine, and we will lie with him, that we may preserve seed of our father. 33 And they made their father drink wine that night : and the firstborn went in, and lay with her father ; and he perceived not when she lay down, nor when she arose. 34 And it came to pass on the morrow, that the firstborn said unto the younger, Behold, I lay yesternight with my father: let us make him drink wine this night also ; and go thou in, and lie with him, that we may preserve seed of our father. 35 And they made their father drink wine that night also : and the younger arose, and lay with him ; and he perceived not when she lay down, nor when she arose. Nashqeh (twice), rendered 'let us make drink,' does not imply any compulsion, but simply 'let us give to drink.' Yayin occurs four times in this passage, GENESIS, XIX. 30 — 35. 13 and in each case is translated 'wine.' Onkelos puts khamrah as the equivalent. The Lxx. reads— potisomen ton patera heemori oinon, "Let us cause our father to drink wine." The Vulgate is stronger — inebriemus eum vino, "Let us inebriate him with wine." That this yayin was suffered to become intoxicating by fermentation is exceed- ingly probable, though some explain its potency by the supposition that, whether fermented or not, it had been mixed with powerful drugs. In the fourth book of the 'Odyssey,' Helen is described as casting into the wine {oinon) prepared for Telemachus, a drug {pkarmakon) said to be "grief-assuaging, anger-allaying, and causing oblivion of all ills " (neepenthes facholon te kakon epileethon apanton). In the tenth book, Homer tells of the use made by Circe of 'direful drugs ' (pharmaka lugra). Milton turns this legend to a noble allegorical account in his 'Comus,' where the son of Bacchus and Circe is depicted, and his " Baneful cup With many murmurs mixed, whose pleasing poison The visage quite transforms of him that drinks." That Circean arts were known and practised in Sodom is highly probable, and that Lot's daughters became acquainted with the method of preparing the 'en- chanted' potion is very likely. It is certainly hard to understand how, under such solemn circumstances as those from which the righteous patriarch had just fled, he should so suddenly, and, as it were, with his eyes open, have sunk into such debasement. The Orientals, at the present day, have a knowledge of drugs, which they use for similarly profligate purposes. The objection that Lot's daughters could not have procured the drugs in their seclusion is of no force, for the wine may have been brought from Sodom; and if not, the ingenuity which obtained the yayin would be equal to its adulteration for their impure purpose. The words of Moses (Deut. xxxii. 32, 33) — "Their vine is of the vine of Sodom, . . . their wine is the poison of dragons," naturally construed, implies that the wine of Sodom had a traditional reputation for the qualities which drugs are known to impart. The silence of Scripture is not a strong objection; for the narratives of the Bible generally leave much to be inferred. What is positively affirmed is, that the juice of the grape was used; and that it had became corrupted and corrupting in some way, whether by fermentation or drugging, or both, is made certain by the effects. Observation 1. It may be inferred that Lot was not accustomed to drink wine, or his daughters would not have plotted to entrap him into the partaking of it. These deviations from his habitual abstinence were the cause of grievous sin to the patriarch, who had kept himself pure in Sodom. Where an article inherently dangerous is concerned, separation from it is the only security even for the best of men ; and when perfect safety can be found, why should good men reject it? 2. The tendency of intoxicants to inflame sensual propensities is graphically pointed out in this transaction. Lot's daughters knew the quality of the instrument they employed. The insensibility induced did not deprive the alcoholic wine of its lustful influence (Prov. xxiii. 33). The excitement of the animal passions is the first effect of all alcoholic liquors; hence they may be said to carry within them the germs of all the excess to which they give rise. If the daughters of Lot drank of the wine they pressed upon their father, they would do so from their acquaintance with its libidinous influence. Female chastity is never more imperiled than when plied with strong drink. For this and other reasons the ancient Romans enjoined strict abstinence upon their women. Can indulgence, however moderately, in such liquors, be an illustration of Christian temperance ? 14 GENESIS, XXVII. 22, 25, 28, 37. 3. The evils of drunkenness cannot be too seriously pondered in order to warn against any connection with the drink by which it is caused. Excellent Matthew Henry says on this passage, "Drunkenness is not only a great sin itself, but the inlet of many sins ; it may prove the inlet of the worst and most unnatural sins, which may be a perpetual wound and dishonor. A man may do that without reluctance, when drunken, which, when sober, he could not think of without horror. . . . From the silence of Scripture concerning Lot, henceforward we may learn that drunkenness, as it makes men forgetful, so it makes them forgotten, and many a name, which otherwise might have been remembered with respect, is buried by it in contempt and oblivion." Chapter XIX. Verses 14, 15, 19. 14 And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and took bread, and a bottle of water, and gave it unto Hagar, putting it on her shoulder, and the child, and sent her away : and she departed and wandered in the wilderness of Beer-sheba. 15 And the water was spent in the bottle, and she cast the child under one of the shrubs. . . . . 19 And God opened her eyes, and she saw a well of water; and she went, and filled the bottle with water, and gave the lad drink. It is clear that Abraham was attached to Hagar, and did not consent to dismiss her except under a conviction that her safety and the boy's would be secured. He provided for their principal and more urgent wants by furnishing them with "bread and a bottle of water" — in the Hebrew, lekhem vekhamath maim. Bread was to be their solid, water their liquid, sustenance. In most Western countries water is so abundant that the value placed upon it in the East seems exaggerated; but a visit to Eastern lands would show that no estimate of this value can be too great, and that in water is to be found the true elixir vitce after which there has been so much ingenious and useless search. The Oriental mind is scarcely capable of the shameless ingratitude too common among us, and from which many pro- fessing Christians are not free — of despising the only fluid which is essential to animal existence and comfort. Chapter XXI. Verse 25. And Abraham reproved Abimelech because of a well of water, which Abimelech's servants had violently taken away. To a sheik or pastoral chief like Abraham, the possession of a 'well' was exceedingly precious ; and both the value of this property, and his natural resent- ment at the injustice committed, would dispose Abraham to remonstrate with a prince even so powerful as Abimelech, against the violent usurpation of which his servants were guilty. Chapter XXVII. Verses 22, 25, 28, 37. 22 And Jacob went near unto Isaac his father; and he felt him, and said, The voice is Jacob's voice, but the hands are the hands of GENESIS, XXVII. 22, 25, 28, 37. 1 5 Esau 25 And he said, Bring it near to me, and I will eat of my son's venison, that my soul may bless thee. And he brought it near to him, and he did eat : and he brought him wine, and he drank 28 Therefore God give thee of the dew of heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine. . . . . 37 And Isaac answered and said unto Esau, Behold, . with corn and wine have I sustained him. V. 25. He brought him wine, and he drank] The Hebrew is yayin, the Targumists give khamrah, the Lxx. oinon, and the V. vimim. Whether the yayin was fermented or not is not said ; nor, however prepared, would the inci- dent form a rule of conduct to us. The Targum of Jonathan introduces into this part of the narrative a legend which shows that the Chaldee khaniar was appli- cable to ' grape-juice ' in the unfermented state. The passage runs thus : — " Neither had he (Jacob) wine with him, but an angel had prepared and brought to him some of the wine which had been in its grapes from the beginning of the world ; and he gave it into Jacob's hand, and Jacob carried it to his father, who drank it." Of such wine {yayin or khamar) none need scruple to partake, even if some other than an angel were the purveyor. V. 28. Corn and wine] The ' dew of heaven ' included all kinds of moisture necessary to the ' fatness of the earth ' ; and this ' fatness ' is partially defined by the concluding clause, " and (or even) plenty of corn and wine." The Hebrew is dahgan ve-tirosh — not corn made up into bread nor vine-fruit made into wine — but the actual growth of the field. [On Tirosh, see Prel. Dis.] It is sufficient to remark that the association here, and in many other passages, of tirosh with corn, as a pro- duct of the soil, proves it to have been a solid substance, and not a liquid. Nor is this conclusion invalidated in the least by the fact that the Targumists translate it by khamar ; that the Lxx. version \% pleethos sitoic kai oinou, 'fullness of corn and wine ' ; that the V. has abnndantiam frumenti et vini, ' abundance of corn and wine ' ; and that other versions treat it as the liquid produce of the vine. After pas- sages will show, however, that the Lxx., Vulgate, and other versions give render- ings of tirosh that favor our argument, while the case of the Targumists simply proves that, for some reason unknown, they ignored a distinction very clearly drawn in the only authority, the Hebrew original. It is to be remarked, indeed, that in almost every case where tirosh occurs in the Hebrew and Hebrew-Samaritan texts, and where the Targumists render it by khamar, the learned compilers of Bishop Walton's Polyglot give mustum (new, unfermented wine) as the equivalent ; as likewise do all the Continental versions of the Bible — German, Italian, Spanish, French, etc. V. 37. With corn and wine have I sustained him] The Hebrew is — dahgan ve-tirosh semaktiv — "Corn and Tirosh have I sustained him with." The Lxx. has — "with corn and wme I have supported him" — si to kai oino esteerisa auton. The V. gives, "with corn and wine I have established him "—frumento et vino stabilivi eum. Obs. It is God who bestows the 'fatness of the earth,' that man's heart may be filled ' with food and gladness ' ; but enlightened piety will ever draw a distinction between the Divine gifts and the misuses to which they are put. To conclude that the two are identical, or that the first sanctifies the second, is an absurdity too gross I 6 GENESIS, XL. 9 — 13, 21. to deceive any, when plainly stated; yet the most ordinary form of objection to the Temperance Reform is based on this very absurdity ; — as, for example, the inference generally advanced, that alcoholic wine and beer are God's good gifts, because the fruit and grain employed (and extensively destroyed) in making strong drink are Divine gifts ! To honor and rightly use ' the fatness of the earth ' is to consume it with as littie alteration for the worse as possible. On the other hand, to convert Tirosh into an intoxicating liquid is not to appropriate the fatness of the vine as conferred by God, but is to abuse it in a manner that cannot be too soon repented of and abandoned. Chapter XXXV. Verse 14. And Jacob set up a pillar in the place where he talked with him, even a pillar of stone; and he poured a drink-offering thereon, and he poured oil thereon. And he poured a drink-offering thereon] Hebrew, vay-yassak aleihah nesck, 'And he poured upon it a pouring ' =that which was poured. What liquid it was that was thus poured out is not stated. See Note on Exod. xxix. 40. Chapter XL. Verses 9 — 13, 21. 9 And the chief butler told his dream to Joseph, and said to him, In my dream, behold, a vine was before me; 10 And in the vine were three branches; and it was as though it budded, and her blossoms shot forth; a?id the clusters thereof brought forth ripe grapes: nAnd Pharaoh's cup was in my hand: and I took the grapes, and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup, and I gave the cup into Pharaoh's hand. I2 And Joseph said unto him, This is the interpretation of it: The three branches are three days. 13 Yet within three days shall Pharaoh lift up thine head, and restore thee unto thy place ; and thou shalt deliver Pharaoh's cup into his hand, after the former manner when thou wast his butler. ... 21 And he [Pharaoh] restored the chief butler unto his butlership again ; and he gave the cup into Pharaoh's hand. V. 9. The Chief butler] The Hebrew is sar ham-mashqim, 'chief of the cup-bearers.' Mashqim is the plural of mashqeh, from shah-qah 'to drink,' the Hiphil conjugation of which takes the sense of giving-to-drink, as in the case of Lot's daughters ; so that the mashqeh was one who gave drink to another. A vine was before me] This is the first place in which the term ' vine ' occurs. The Hebrew is gephen, and denotes ' that which is bent — a twig ' ; hence ' a plant that has twigs,' and hence 'a vine,' which is its usual signification in the Old Testament. The Lxx. has ampclos, the Vulgate vitem. V. 10. And it was as though it budded] Bishop Horsley proposes to read, "And it was upon the point of putting forth its blossoms." And the clusters thereof brought forth ripe grapes] ' Clusters ' is the translation of eshkeloth, which originally signified the ' stalks ' of the vine. ' Ripe grapes ' is the A.V. rendering of anahvim, the plural of anahv, 'a cluster,' and GENESIS, XL. 9 — 13, 21. 1 7 usually 'a cluster of grapes.' The connection between eshkol (a stalk) and anahv (a cluster) was thus very close, and not always distinguished; for the eshkol would easily come to signify the stalk with the grape-clusters attached. 'Ripe' is an addition of our translators, but is partially supported by Kalisch, who takes eskeloth to signify 'unripe clusters'; and viewing bah-shal, not as 'to bring forth,' but 'to cook' or 'ripen,' he reads the clause thus: — "Its unripe cluster matured into ripe grapes." The description is concise and vivid. As the chief cup-bearer slept he saw first the bare form of a vine, then the vine with its buds just sprouting, next the vine in full flower, and finally the stalks with their berries ripened into purpled clusters. V. 11. Pharaoh's cup] The Hebrew of 'cup' is kos, supposed to be a contrac- tion of hones, 'a receptacle,' from kah-nas, 'to collect.' This narrative suggests several interesting questions : — I. Was the vine cultivated in Egypt? The text undoubtedly implies that it was, and this is explicitly affirmed of the period of the Exodus. On the other hand, a passage in Herodotus (book ii., ch. 77) states that the Egyptians "use wine pre- pared from barley, because there are no vines in their country" — oino d'ek krithedn pepoieemeno diachreeontai, ou gar sphi eisi en tee choree ampeloi. Sir G. Wilkinson conjectures that Herodotus may refer only to the corn-growing districts, which were not well adapted to the growth of the vine. Whatever may be the explanation, and however credible the testimony of Herodotus as to the state of things in his own age, his words cannot apply to Egyptian agriculture ten centuries preceding his visit. The evidence of Scripture as to the cultivation of the vine in Egypt has been corroborated by the paintings on the tombs of Thebes, some of which, copied by Sir G. Wilkinson ('Ancient Egyptians,' vol. ii., pp. 141 — 151), strikingly show that the vine was extensively and scientifically cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. Hellanicus even mentions a report that the first culti- vators of the vine were the settlers round about Plinthina, an Egyptian city on the Mediterranean. The time of vintage in Egypt was toward the end of June or commencement of July. In one painting boys are represented guarding the ripened clusters from the depredations of birds, and men are depicted plucking the grapes and carrying them away in wicker baskets. For wine-making the Egyptians sometimes used bags filled with grapes, which were squeezed by the turning of two poles in opposite directions. They also built raised platforms where men trod the clusters, whose juice flowed into a lower receptacle, and thence into vessels ready to receive it. Athenseus, who died a.d. 198, describes, in his 'Deipnoso- phistai,' various kinds of Egyptian wine, one of which — the Mareotic — he says, ' does not affect the head ' — kephalees ouk kathiknoumenos. Of the Tgeniotic, he states that "it has such a degree of richness \_liparon; literally, 'fatness'], that when mixed with water it seems gradually to be diluted, much in the same way as Attic honey well mixed." Of another species he remarks, that it is so thin and digestible that "it can be given without harm to those suffering from fever" — os tois puretmousi didomenos mee bleptein. The sober would select such wines as these, while the dissolute would seek after strongly fermented or drugged wines, and failing them, would drink to satiety of the less intoxicating sorts. The wall pictures prove that both men and women drank at feasts to intoxication, and some of the artists seem to have taken a sarcastic pleasure in holding up the intem- perance of their contemporaries to ridicule. At a later period, and possibly in the earlier ages also, palm wine and beer were extensively drunk, the native name of 1 8 GENESIS, XL. 9—13, 21. the beer appearing in the Greek writers as zythus, but known also as 'barley wine ' — oinos krithinos. Caution, however, is called for in pronouncing upon the nature of ancient liquors and the manners of the people. The pictured excesses may have been occasional, with long intervals of abstinence ; and concerning the articles used, the words of Sir G. Wilkinson are entitled to much weight: — "Con- sidering how persistent the custom was among the ancients of altering the qualities of wines by drugs and diverse processes, we may readily conceive the possibility of the effects ascribed to them, and thus it happened that opposite properties were frequently attributed to the same kinds." — (' Anc. Egypt.' ii. pp. 162-3.) 2. How far is the chief butler's dream to be understood as illustrative of actual usage? Josephus's version of the butler's speech is as follows : — "He said . . . that by the king's permission he pressed the grapes into a goblet, and having strained the sweet-wine, he gave it to the king to drink, and that he received it graciously" — elege . . . toutous autos apothlibein eis phialeen hupechontos ton basileos, diatheesas te to GLEUKOS dounai to basileipiein, kakainon dexasthai kecharis- mends. Josephus here uses gleukos to designate the expressed juice of grapes before fermentation could possibly commence. Whether the dream of the chief cup-bearer represented his practice at court is doubted. The writer of the article 'Joseph,' in Smith's 'Dictionary of the Bible' (Ven. Arch. Lord Harvey, M.A.), denies that any inference can be drawn from the dream as to the kind of wine supplied to the kings of Egypt at this period, and he points out that all the events (the growth of the vine, etc.) are described as transpiring with unnatural rapidity; but it may be rejoined, that as the events were in themselves natural, the proper conclusion is, that it was the custom of the chief cup-bearer to prepare the king's wine by pressing the juice of grapes into a receiver, and offering it — not perhaps instantly, but after straining it, while it was yet fresh and free from fermentation — to the royal hands. That the style of the narration is calculated to convey this impression can hardly be denied by any candid mind. Matthew Henry, the prince of practical commentators, observes, "Probably it had been usual with them to press the full ripe grapes immediately into Pharaoh's cup, the simplicity of that age not being acquainted with the modern art of making the wine fine." Bishop Lowth (on Isa. v. 2) observes, "See Gen. xl. 11, by which it should seem that they (the Egyptians) drank only the fresh juice pressed from the grape, which was called oinos ampelinos, — Herodotus, ii. 37." But in the opinion of some critics the phrase oinos ampelinos, 'wine of the vineyard,' is used simply to distinguish, not one kind of grape-juice from another, but grape wine from palm wine, barley wine (beer), etc. Sir G. Wilkinson, however, has obviously an eye to vineyard wine freshly made, when he speaks of it as one of the offerings to the gods of Egypt, and as "one of the most delicious beverages of a hot climate, and one which is commonly used in Spain and other countries at the present day." — ('Anc. Egypt,' v. p. 366.) As to palm wine, he remarks, "The modern name of it in Egypt is lowbgeh. In flavor it resembles a very new light wine, and may be drunk in great quantity when taken from the tree,* but as soon as fermentation has commenced its intoxicating qualities have a powerful and speedy effect." — {Ibid., iii. p. 375-) Dr Adam Clarke, in his note, is very decided: "From this we find that wine anciently was the mere expressed juice of the grape, without fermentation. The * This recalls the lines in Thomson's ' Seasons ' (Summer), — " Or stretched amid these orchards of the sun, Give me to drain the coco's milky bowl, And from the palm to draw its freshening wine, More bounteous far than all the frantic juice That Bacchus pours." GENESIS, XL. 9 — 13, 21. 1 9 saky, or cup-bearer, took the bunch, pressed the juice into the cup, and instantly- delivered it into the hands of his master. This was anciently the yayin of the Hebrews, the oinos of the Greeks, and the mustum of the ancient Latins." In his tract on the Sacrament he says vinum in place of mustum. 3. Were the ancient kings of Egypt permitted to drink wine? and if so, of what sort? Herodotus (B.C. 480), who traveled in Egypt, states that the kings, like the priestly class of which they were members, had a portion of wine allotted to them — a portion not large enough, indeed, to satisfy them all. To the same effect, Hecatseus (B.C. 549) and Diodorus Siculus (B.C. 50) — whose history is in the main a compilation from more ancient works — state that king Bocchoris, who reigned B.C. 766, enacted "that the kings should take as much wine as would refresh but not inebriate." On the contrary, Eudoxus, a learned Greek who had visited Egypt, and who died B.C. 340, is cited by Plutarch as affirming, on the authority of the priests, that until the reign of Psammetichus (B.C. 640) the kings drank no wine. The priests may have meant that the ancient kings were forbidden to use wine of an intoxicating quality. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, who enters into this question in his 'Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,' and in his Notes to 'Rawlinson's Herodotus,' refers to this narrative in Genesis as evidence that "as early as the time of Joseph the Egyptian kings drank wine; " but a per- mission to use wine prepared according to the dream might well have co-existed with a prohibition to use such sorts as, according to Rosenmuller, contained aliquid pestiferum — ' something pestiferous.' Dr Kalisch, in his ' Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament,' after referring to the conjecture that the chief butler assumes the wine to have passed through the fermenting process, significantly adds, " But it is as probable that some temperate persons (as it was later ordained in the Koran)* abstained from fer- mented wine on account of its more intoxicating power, and that at some period the priests, who regulated the king's table as they controlled all his public and private affairs, prohibited to him the fermented juice of the grape." The suggestion is not without force that the injunction in Prov. xxxi. 4, 5, "It is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes strong drink," was a recognition of 'the wisdom of Egypt,' and of the Egyptian kings. The king was the head of the priesthood ; and as regards the priests and their temple rites, it seems, from Herodotus, that in his day they were allowed " portions of wine, and that wine was offered in the temples, and poured upon the altars." The sepulchral paintings confirm the latter statement ; but Plutarch, in his ' Treatise on Osiris and Isis ' (sec. 6), furnishes an interesting statement, which we quote entire: — "As to wine, they who wait upon the gods in the City of the Sun [the ' On ' of Genesis, where Joseph's father-in-law was a priest, and the 'Heliopolis' of the Greeks] carry absolutely none into the temple, as something not seemly to drink in daytime, the lord and king looking on ; but the other priests use wine — a little, indeed — and they have many sacred solemnities free from wine {aoinous hagneias), when they spend the time in philosophizing, and in acquiring and imparting instruction on divine things. Even the kings themselves, being of the order of priests, have their wine given to them according to a certain measure as prescribed in the sacred books, as Hecatseus informs us. They began to drink (wine) from the time of Psammetichus, previous to which they drank no * The law of the Koran was undoubtedly borrowed by Mohammed from a pre-existing and tradi- tional morale and regimen. This idea of the possibility of the priests having been more strict at one period than another is illustrated by the fact that many of the ancient monastic institutions of Britain were founded (as their charters evince) on abstinence principles, from which, age by age, they departed, — first through the hospital and medicinal use of wine, until ' good cheer ' and inebri- ation became the rule. Hence an argument founded on the assumed uniformity of practice in dif- ferent ages must be viewed with suspicion. 20 GENESIS, XLIII. II. wine at all {proteron (fouls epinon oinon); and if they made use of it in their liba- tions to the gods, it was not because they looked upon it as in its own nature acceptable, but as the blood of those enemies who formerly fought against them, which, being mixed with the earth, produced the vine ; and hence they think that drinking wine in quantities {to methuein) makes men silly and mad (ekphronas kai parapleegous), being filled with the blood of their own ancestors. These things are related by Eudoxus in the second book of the Tour, as he had them from the priests themselves." The acknowledged fact that the use of wine was strictly forbidden to priests during their more solemn purifications, is of no small significance when compared with the similar interdict laid on the Jewish priests (Lev. x. 9). In the Cambridge Essays (1858) there is a curious paper by Mr C. W. Good- win, the Egyptologist, who furnishes translations of some writings of a supposed very high antiquity. Several are believed to be as old as the time of Moses, and in one of them, Amen-em-an, a steward of the royal house, writes to Pentaour, a poet, in the language of reproof. Among other things he says, " If beer (kek — which may signify palm wine, Mr Goodwin remarks) gets into a man it overcomes the mind. Thou art like an oar started from its place, which is unmanageable every way. Thou art like a shrine without its god ; like a house without its pro- visions, whose walls are found shaky. If thou wieldest the rod of office (?), men run away from thee. Thou knowest that wine is an abomination. Thou hast taken an oath (pledge ?) concerning strong drink, that thou wouldst not put it into thee. Hast thou forgotten thy resolution? " Chapter XLIII. Verse ii. And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, and myrrh, nuts, and almonds. And a little honey] Hebrew, u-meat devash, 'and a little of honey.' The Lxx. reads (v. 10), kai tou melitos, 'and (a gift) of honey.' The V. has et mellis, 'and (a little) of honey.' It is the opinion of not a few scholars that the Hebrew devash or debash was commonly if not exclusively used to represent the luscious substance formed by boiling down grape-juice to a jelly-like state. The note of Dr Adam Clarke upon this text is as follows : — " Most translate ' honey,' others ' date-juice '; but neither of these can be meant, as Egypt abounds in the best honey, and is rich in palm dates. The opinion of Shaw [Dr T. Shaw, F.R.S., the eminent traveler] is most proba- ble, that the Hebrew debash means a juice of the consistency of honey, prepared from dried grapes, and called by the Arabs dibs, the same name. This, in our day, is produced only in a tract of land about Hebron, and yearly sent to Egypt to the amount of three hundred camel-loads. Ksempfer describes a similar juice. A great part of the grapes is reduced by boiling to a syrup, which upon the tables of the poor supplies the place of butter, and, with abstemious persons, of wine, being mixed with water." Gesenius, in his lexicon, derives debash from a supposed verb dabash — Greek depso, 'to work up a mass'; hence debash, "so called as being soft like a kneaded mass ; " and having referred to several passages where he con- siders 'the honey of bees' is intended, he observes, "(2) Honey of grapes, i. e. must or new wine boiled down to a third or half (Greek hepseema ; Latin, sapa, GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 21 defrutum ; Italian, musto cottd), which is now commonly carried into Egypt out of Palestine, especially out of the district of Hebron (compare Russel's 'Natural His- tory of Aleppo,' p. 20) — Gen. xliii. 11 ; Ezek. xxvii. 17." Chapter XLIII. Verse 34. And they [the brethren] drank and were merry with him [Joseph]. The Hebrew runs, vay-yishtu vay-yishkeru immo, "And they drank and were well-filled with him." Yishkeru is from shah-kar, 'to drink to the fill,' of shakar, 'sweet drink,' extracted from the palm, etc. ; though shakar was sometimes used of any sweet or pleasant drink, such as the juice of ripe grapes. Where the 'sweet drink' had been allowed to stand for a time and become fermented, copious draughts would intoxicate; but intoxication cannot logically be inferred unless the circumstances (as in the case of Noah) indicate such a condition. The Hebrew term rah-vah also signifies 'to drink largely,' 'to be filled with drink,' but it has no allusion to the 'sweetness' of the draught. The Samaritan version gives, 'And they were heavy.' The Targums have vWavvi, which, like shah-kar, might include repletion or inebriation ; and Jonathan, in his Targum, adds by way of excuse or explanation, the curious declaration, "Because, from the day in which they were separated, they had not drunk wine (khamrah), neither he nor they, until that day." The Lxx. reads, "Now they drank and were well-filled with him" — epion de, kai emethustheesan mef autou; though methuo, like shah-kar, may be applied to both an innocent and an evil drinking. The Vulgate seems to adopt the more damaging alternative, 'And they drank and were inebriated with him' — biberuntque et ine- briati sunt cum eo, — unless inebriari is employed to express simple 'repletion.' The English version, ' were merry, ' is evidently designed to prevent the shock that would be given to the devout reader by a statement implicating Joseph in an act of excess and intemperance. Professor Stuart, of Andover, considers that what the patriarchs drank was "not a fermented liquor, but the simple juice of the grape (such as is described Gen. xl. 11) " ; and he adds, "That Joseph and his brethren 'were merry,' then, was not because they were intoxicated; and even if this were the case, as their example is not spoken of with any approbation, we could not deduce from it the conclusion that it is commended to our imitation." In truth, however, there is no good reason for concluding that such a sin was committed by them, or that it was approved and promoted by the pious Joseph. Chapter XLIX. Verses ii, 12. 11 Binding his foal unto the vine, and his ass's colt unto the choice vine; he washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes. 12 His eyes shall be red with wine, and his teeth white with milk. The Hebrew- Samaritan text reads as follows : — " His citizens being bound to a vine, and the sons of his strength to a vine-branch, he washed his vestment in wine, and his garment in the blood of grapes. He made him glad as to his eyes from wine, and white as to his teeth from milk." With this the Samaritan version coincides. The Lxx. Vatican Codex runs, "Binding to a vine his foal, and to the helix [or vine-shoot] the foal of his ass, he shall wash in wine his robe, and in the 22 GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. blood of grapes his garment. Cheering are his eyes above wine, and white are his teeth [more] than milk" — Desmeuon pros ampelon tonpdlon autou, kai tee heliki ton pdlon tees onou autou, plunei en oinb teen stoleen autou, kai en haimati staphulees teen periboleen autou. Charopoioi oi ophthalmoi autou huper oinon, kai leukoi oi odontes autou ee gala. The Vulgate renders, "Binding to a vine his foal, and to a vine-branch, oh! my son, his ass, he shall wash in wine his robe, and in the blood of grapes his cloak. More beautiful are his eyes than wine, and whiter are his teeth than milk" — Liga?is ad vineam pullum suum, et ad vitem, o fili mi, asinam suam, lavabit in vino stolam suam et in sanguine uvce pallium suum. Pulchriores sunt oculi ejus vino, et denies ejus lacte candidiores. The Syriac gives, "He will bind his colt to a vine, and the foal of his ass to a vine-branch. He will cleanse his vestment in wine, and his garment in the blood of grapes. His eyes are of a darker red than wine, and whiter are his teeth than milk." So in substance read the Arabic and Persian versions. The Targums, subsequently quoted, are too periphrastic to be cited here as translations. V. II. The choice vine] The Hebrew is la-soraqah — the feminine form of soma, 'a shoot' or 'tendril,' or 'a collection of branches,' from soraq, 'to interweave.' Bishop Patrick understands a reference to the vine of the valley of Sorek, adjoining Eshcol; and Bishop Lowth (Isa. v. 2), regarding 'Sorek' as a proper name, proposes to read 'to his own Sorek.' The Sorek vine might pos- sibly retain that name when transplanted. One conjecture identifies it with a species known in Morocco as the serki, which yields a small but very sweet grape, highly prized. In Fuerst's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance, Soraq is defined to be a vine laden with grapes ' filled with a red and superior wine ' — vino, rubro ac prcestanti impletis. As to Sorek, comp. Judg. xvi. 4; Isa. v. 2; xvi. 8; Jer. ii. 21. He washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes] This is a striking example of the parallelism which formed one of the features and beauties of Hebrew poetry — the two clauses differing in language but corresponding in sense — 'garments' answering to 'clothes,' and 'wine' {yayin) to 'the blood of grapes' {dam anahvim). 'Blood' is a poetical name for 'juice,' and is evidence of the ancient signification of yayin as 'the juice of the grape,' prior to fermentation. This juice, squeezed out, is yayin, and hence the juice in the grape, and even the grape itself, might, by a natural figure, bear the same name. [Compare Anacreon's poetical reference to oinos as 'confined in fruit upon the branches ' — pepedeemenon oporais epi kleematbn (Ode 49), and the description of the vintage-treaders 'letting loose the vine' — luontes oino7t.~\ Whether dam anahvim (blood of grapes) involves a reference to the color of blood is uncertain. If it does, and if soraq yielded a red juice, the allusion to that kind of vine heightens the poetical force of the passage. Grapes, purple as well as white, generally yield a colorless juice; but the skins of the purple sort dye the juice when trodden in the vat; and in this way, if in no other, the similitude would be sustained. [But as to 'blood of grapes,' see note on Isa. lxiii. 2, 3.] V. 12. His eyes shall be red with wine] This short clause has given rise to much diversity of interpretation ; and it will be necessary, for proper considera- tion, to divide it into parts : — 1. 'His eyes shall be red.' The Hebrew is khaklili ainaim, 'red (as to his) eyes.' But what is the meaning of khaklili? The Targums use it descriptively of the appearance of wine. The Lxx. (Codices A and B) has charopoioi, 'cheering' or 'gladdening'; but Origen, in his 'Hexapla,' notices that copies of that version were extant in his day (third century) with other meanings, viz., katharoi, 'pure'; GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 23 thermoi, ' glowing ' ; diapuroi, * flaming ' ; and phoberoi, ' terrible. ' Aquila's version gives katakoroi, 'satiated,' i. e. with color = 'deep-colored.' In the parallel pas- sage (Prov. xxiii. 29) the Lxx. rendering of khakliloth is pelidnoi, 'dark blue.' Symmachus there reads charopoi, ' gladsome ' ; and Aquila, katharoi, ' pure ' ; unless (which is not impossible) the transcriber substituted for an unusual word, such as katakori, one which he thought analogous and better understood. The Vulgate has pulchriores, 'more beautiful.' Gesenius has an elaborate but undecided note upon the word, which he inclines to render 'being dim,' without, however, rejecting the idea of something bright and flashing. One scholar finds in it the origin of al-cahal, the powder used by Eastern women to darken their eyebrows and deepen their beauty, this name of 'alcahal' being supposed to be the same which the Arabian alchemists gave to the spirit they distilled from wine, the 'alcohol' of modern science. To the same root are traced the Greek achluo, 'to darken,' and achlus, 'darkness.' Professor Lee prefers 'refreshed.' Unless some color is indicated no parallelism with the 'white' of the next clause is presented; it is also clear that the color has some relation to 'wine'; but to determine this relation requires an examination of the last two words. 2. ' With wine ' — Hebrew, miy-yayin. The Hebrew min is a preposition, with a very comprehensive range of use. Radically it implies separation, as in the text before explained, ' Noah drank of the wine ' — min hay-yayin ; i. e. he drank some of the yayin, which, by the act of drinking, was separated from the rest. Thus arises the sense of 'out of,' 'from,' and causatively, 'by means of.' This is the sense assigned to min in this passage by the English translators, who consider that the "eyes of Judah were to be red with wine," i. e. by means of wine. In the Targums on this passage, as will be seen below, min is several times employed with this signification. On the other hand, min may be used as a term of com- parison, in the sense of 'out of,' 'beyond,' 'more than'; and so construed the clause would read, "His eyes are red (or bright) above wine," i. e. are of deeper color and glow. It is curious to mark that Codex A, Lxx. , reads, apo oinon, ' from wine,' which partakes of the ambiguity of the Hebrew min ; while Codex B (quoted above) has huper oinon, 'above wine,' and versions generally' exhibit this reading. The renderings of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus are lost. The external evidence, so far as it has come down to us in ancient translations, is rather in favor of giving a comparative power to min, "red [or dark] above wine, white above milk;" but the internal evidence preponderates in favor of the causative sense, "red [dark] with wine, white with milk." The nth verse predicts an abundance of grape-juice, in which (speaking figuratively) the children of Judah should wash their clothes, and we are naturally prepared for an allusion in the 12th verse to some effect of that abundance, such as is indicated by the words, "His eyes shall be red with wine." The other rendering introduces a contrast not in harmony with the context, and which raises the question, Why should his eyes be described as redder (or darker) than wine, and his teeth as whiter than milk? It may be answered, indeed, that joy from the profusion of Divine mercies would cause the eyes to sparkle ; but this answer eliminates from khaklili the idea of color (for the eye is neither red nor dark because it sparkles), and it fails to explain why the teeth are said to be whiter than milk. Accepting, then, the English version as correctly rendering min by 'with,' we have to inquire, What is intended by this redness or darkness of eyes from an abundance of yayin ? Some critics have sanctioned the interpretation which connects this prophecy with the inflammatory redness or darkness of eye produced by excessive drinking; 'red,' as indicating the fierce flashing glances excited by alcoholic wine, or 'dark,' as denoting the dull, 24 GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. lack-lustre expression of the inebriate's eye. It is true that 'redness of eyes' is one feature in Solomon's portraiture of the drunkard; but this fact illustrates the proposition that 'the letter,' even of Scripture, may kill, if the spirit be overlooked. Piety revolts at the suggestion that Jacob promised as a blessing that which Solomon portrays as a curse. Professor Lee justly denounces this immoral exegesis ; but when he substitutes for it the brightness of the eye 'refreshed' by moderate draughts of wine, he lays himself open to a triad of objections: First, that he excludes from khaklili the idea of color ; secondly, that he makes this khaklili to depend on a limitation of wine, and not, as the passage itself implies, on its profusion ; and thirdly, that the 'refreshing' effect he associates with the moderate use of wine is, physiologically, different in degree only from that which he condemns. When the eyes are lighted up with wine, can the brain be said to be perfectly sober ? Has not the drinker then reached a stage of vinosity when he may regard himself as 'elevated,' but when calmer observers must look upon him as perceptibly lowered in his rational and moral standing? These expositions may all be considered faulty, as based on the assumption that the phrase ' red as to his eyes ' has regard to an appearance of the organ of vision itself; whereas nothing more may be intended than a dark red or deep-colored appearance round about the eyes, such as would be produced by contact with 'the blood of the grape.' Those who washed their very clothes in the flowing juice might be appropriately described as carrying the marks of it on their faces ; or if allusion is made to the crowded wine-press and the 'crushing swains,' what is more natural than to suppose the juice dashing and coloring with its spray the eyes of the gleeful treaders? The same usus loquendi is seen in 2 Kings ix. 30, 'And she [Jezebel] painted her face' — vattasem bap-puk ainiha ; literally, 'And she put into painting [or pigment] her eyes.' So Ezek. xxiii. 40, 'Thou paintedst thy eyes ' — kakhalt ainaik. Pliny says of the Roman ladies, that they were given to self- decoration, 'that their eyes must be painted' (or dyed) — ut tinguantur oculi quoque. In these and other instances the reference is not to the organ of sight itself, but to the eyelid, eyebrow, or other parts of the face. The English idiom furnishes parallel examples. In the familiar phrase, 'eyes red with weeping,' it is the border of the eyes, the cheek contiguous, which is meant; and in the 'blackened eye' some adjacent part. We conclude that khaklili indicates the color of the expressed juice of the grape, which (unless the juice were itself red) would take a purple hue from the coloring matter of the skin ; and this purple, being a rich deep color, forms the best possible contrast to the whiteness of milk. The 12th verse may, therefore, be rendered, "Empurpled are his eyes with grape-juice, and white are his teeth with milk." Schumann explains the last clause, "as if milk distilled from his teeth." The description is redolent of the field and the fold, at once poetical and prefigurative, but yielding no approval, direct or indirect, to the use of intoxicating drinks. In these verses what is said of Judah is, in reality, predicted of his descendants, whose future territory in the Promised Land was to be so prolific in vines, strong and of the finest quality, that young animals could be everywhere tied to them; while the vines should be so fruitful that, besides the quantities of grapes consumed as solid fruit, the clusters should yield enough juice to form streams like water, in which, if needful, the garments of the people could be bathed. The grape-treaders would be stained with wine up to their eyes ; and being blessed with pastoral as well as agricultural wealth, their teeth would seem as if made white by the milk they should consume. This promised abundance of vine-fruit and milk may be under- GENESIS, XLIX. II, 12. 2$ stood as indicating the fertility of Judah's soil, and the fecundity of his flocks and herds. Whether a typical allusion to Messianic times is included under this description the reader must judge for himself. 'Judah' has been regarded as representative of the Redeemer, and also as collectively symbolizing the Christian church. The Targumists connect these verses with the 18th verse, and construe them exclusively of the Messiah and His warlike achievements. Even Onkelos, who is generally concise, and keeps close to the Hebrew, here becomes diffuse, though he is outdone both by Jonathan and the Jerusalem interpreter. Their three paraphrases are translated in a foot-note, and prove how little the cultivated Jewish mind could, of itself, and even with the aid of the prophets, have developed that ideal of suffering yet triumphant Goodness, which the Gospels supply in the life of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.* * The Targum of Onkelos reads — "Israel shall dwell in his city; the people shall build his temple, and they shall be righteous in his city, and doers of the law according to his doctrine. The finest crimson shall be his clothing, and his apparel shall be of silk dyed with scarlet and diverse colors. His mountains shall be red with vineyards, and his hills shall flow with wine (ba-khamar) ; his fields shall be white with corn and flocks of sheep." The Targum of Jonathan runs: — "How beautiful is king Messiah, about to spring forth from the house of Judah ! He shall gird His loins and descend to make ready the battle array against His enemies, slaying kings with their nobles ; nor is there a king or noble who shall stand before Him who reddens the mountains with the blood of the slain, and whose blood-stained clothes resemble the skin of grapes. Beautiful as wine (k'khamrah) are the eyes of king Messiah, nor is He able to look upon impure connections and the effusion of innocent blood ; His teeth are pure from milk, so that they shall not eat the spoil of rapine and violence ; and therefore His mountains and winepresses shall be red with wine (mitt khamrak), and His hills shall be white with (mitt) corn and the wool of sheep." The Jerusalem Targum' is pitched in the same allegorical strain: — "How beafitiful is king Messiah, about to spring forth from the house of Judah ! He binds up his loins, and goes forth in battle array against those who hate Him, slaughtering kings with their nobles ; He dyes the vines red with the blood of their slain, and turns the hills white with the fat of their mighty men. His gar- ments are stained with blood, and He resembles one employed in treading grapes. How beautiful in their appearance are the eyes of king Messiah from wine ! (min khamrah), so that He cannot behold impure connections and the shedding of innocent blood. His teeth are rather employed in sacred rites than in eating the prey of robbery and violence ; His mountains are red with (min) vines, and His winepresses with His wine (khamrah) ; His hills are white with the abundance of corn and flocks of sheep." THE BOOK OF EXODUS. Chapter III. Verse 8. And I am come down to deliver them out of the hand of the Egyptians, and to bring them up out of that land unto a good land and a large, unto a land flowing with milk and honey. Flowing with milk and honey] Hebrew, zahvath khahlav u-d y vash. ' Milk and honey ' are used for the general produce of the land, and ' flowing with ' is a striking figure of abundance. Concerning debash, see note on Gen. xliii. II. The phrase ' flowing with milk and honey ' has a proverbial iteration in the Pentateuch. Besides the above passage, it occurs in Exod. iii. 17; xiii. 5; xxxiii. 3; Lev. xx. 24; Numb. xiii. 27; xiv. 8; xvi. 13, 14; Deut. vi. 3; xi. 9; xxvi. 9, 15 ; xxvii. 3; xxxi. 20. Also in Josh. v. 6; Jer. xi. 5; xxxii. 22; Ezek. xx. 6, 15. Chapter VII. Verse 24. And all the Egyptians digged round about the river for water to drink ; for they could not drink of the water of the river. The Nile was emphatically the river of Egypt — its only river, — and, as rain seldom fell, the main source of its water supply for irrigation and potable use. The deliciousness of the Nile water passed into a proverb, and it was considered so fattening that (according to a tradition preserved by Plutarch) the sacred bull Apis was not allowed to drink of it. The modern Turks are said to excite their thirst for it by the use of salt. That the water of their beloved river, to which they paid divine honors, should have been made loathsome to them, was one of the severest trials possible to the Egyptians, and one of the most forcible evidences which the God of Israel could exhibit of His supremacy over the deities in which they trusted. Chapter XII. Verses 8, 15, 17—20, 34, 39. 8 And they shall eat the flesh in that night, roasted with fire, and un- leavened bread ; and with bitter herbs they shall eat it. . . . is Seven days shall ye eat unleavened bread ; even the first day ye shall put away leaven out of your houses : for whosoever eateth leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day, that soul shall be cut off from Israel. . . . i 7 And ye shall observe the feast of unleavened bread. . . . 18 In the first month, on the fourteenth day of the month at EXODUS, XII. 8, 15, 17—20, 34, 39. 27 even, ye shall eat unleavened bread, until the one and twentieth day of the month at even. 19 Seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses: for whosoever eateth that which is leavened, even that soul shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel, whether he be a stranger, or born in the land. 20 Ye shall eat nothing leavened; in all your habitations shall ye eat unleavened bread. . . . 34 And the people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothes upon their shoulders. " . . .39 And they baked unleavened cakes of the dough which they brought forth out of Egypt, for it was not leavened ; because they were thrust out of Egypt, and could not tarry, neither had they prepared for themselves any victual. V. 8, 15, 17, 18, 20, 39. Unleavened bread] The Hebrew is matzoth, 'sweet things,' in all these passages. [On Matzoth, see Note on Gen. xix. 3.] In ver. 8 the Lxx. reads azuma, 'unleavened things,' and the Vulgate azymos panes, 'unleavened loaves.' In ver. 15 the Lxx. has azuma, the Vulgate azyma. In ver. 17 a singular variation occurs. The Hebrew- Samaritan text, which is followed by the Samaritan version, has matzvah, 'precept,' instead of matzoth ; so that instead of "And ye shall observe [or attend to] the unleavened things," it represents as the true reading, "And ye shall observe the precept." This reading is followed by the Lxx., which has teen entoleen tauteen, 'this command.' But the Vulgate follows our present Hebrew text, and reads azyma, 'unleavened things ' ; and the same reading was evidently in the MSS. used by the Targumists. Several Jewish rabbis regard the words as a command to watch the unleavened cakes, lest they became accidentally leavened ; and one rabbi draws the spiritual inference that care should be taken to keep the true doctrine from becoming corrupted by error.* In ver. 18, 20, the Lxx. has azuma, the Vulgate azyma. In v. 39, ugoth matzoth, rendered in the A. V. 'unleavened cakes,' is literally ' cakes — unfermented ones '; in the Lxx. it is azumous, ' unleavened ' [_artous, loaves, being understood] ; and in the Vulgate panes azymos, 'loaves unleavened.' V. 15, 19. Leaven] The Hebrew is seor, Lxx. zumee, Vulgate fermentum. Seor is supposed to be a derivative of soar, an unused root, related to shoar and sir, 'to boil up,' 'bubble up.' Zed, from which comes the Greek zumee, and ferveo, the root of the Latin fermentum, have similar significations. Seor may be regarded as any substance capable of producing- fermentation, — all yeasty or decaying albuminous matter. Such a substance tenaciously adheres to vessels containing fermented fluids, however carefully racked; and among a people possessed of imperfect refining contrivances, the command to put away all seor out of their houses and accustomed quarters during the passover feast, could never have been rigidly carried out if fermented liquors had been retained upon their premises. Seor occurs only in three other places — Exod. xiii. 7 ; Lev. ii. 1 1 ; and Deut. xvi. 4, — where it is rendered 'leavened bread.' Seor is supposed by some critics to enter into the composition of mishereth [_s being changed into sh~\, rendered in the plural ' kneading-troughs ' (ver. 34). The word also occurs Exod. viii. 3, and Deut. xxviii. 5, 17. Others prefer to derive it from shah-ar, 'to be left' or 'remain,' and understand by mishereth the remains of the dough left over from a * This recalls Paul's comparison in i Cor. v. 6 — 8. 28 EXODUS, XII. 8, 15, 17 — 20, 34, 39. previous baking; and to this construction the Lxx., Vulgate, and Targums incline : but that the reference is to some portable vessels used in the preparation of dough seems certain from the context in each of the places where the word occurs. Seor is related to the word sour — being, in fact, the 'sourer,' — and hence contrasts with matzah, 'the sweet' or 'fresh,' unspoilt. V. 15. Leavened bread] Hebrew, khahmatz; Lxx. zumeen ; Vulgate fer- mentatum. Khahmatz is generically any fermented substance — anything which has been subject to the action of seor. It might seem superfluous to raise the question whether khahmatz includes liquids as well as solids, since it is equivalent to asking whether fermentation is itself or something different. The modern Jews differ in their view of this question ; for though they generally include under khahmatz fermented fluids made from corn, the majority of them do not include under it fermented wine. This inconsistency is defended by a theory of the mediaeval Rabbins, " that the juices of fruits, including grape-juice, do not ferment." Now it must have been patent to all careful observers, first, that the juice of crushed grapes did ferment — 'boil up' or 'bubble' — when left exposed to the air for some hours, and without the adoption of preventive measures ; and secondly, that the cause of this fermentation was the prior fermentation of something (gluten) in the grape, which had thus become a powerful ferment, i. e. a seor. This seor decomposes the sugar of the grape-juice (glucose), the elements of which, entering into a new chemical relation, are changed into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. [See Note on Gen. 29. ] V. 19. That which is leavened] In ver. 19 the Hebrew kal okal makhmetzeth is literally " every one eating [or consuming] a fermented thing, " — from khahmatz as above. In ver. 19 and 20 the Lxx. has zumoton, the Vulgate fer??ientalum. In ver. 20, "Ye shall eat nothing leavened," the Hebrew stands kal makhmetzeth lo tokalu, " everything fermented ye shall not eat." V. 34. Before it was leavened] The Hebrew is terem yekhmatz ; the Lxx., pro tou zumotheenai ; the Vulgate, antequam fertnentaretur. V. 39. For it was not leavened] The Hebrew, ki lo khamatz ; Lxx., ougar ezumothee ; Vulgate, neque enim poterant fermentari. The substance of this decree may be succinctly stated. From the 14th day of the month Nisan, nothing that could cause fermentation, or that had undergone fermentation, was to be found in the houses, or to be used as articles of food by the Jewish people. The decree was strict, absolute, and universal, admitting of no exception as to place or person during the period named. To guard against a possible violation, the Rabbins afterward included the 14th day in the prohibited term — so far, at least, as to make a diligent search that every particle of the pro- scribed substance might be put away. The loss of civil and religious privileges was to follow disobedience to this statute — that is, as we may suppose, where the violation arose from willful carelessness or contempt, and not from involuntary oversight. The rigor of the law was, doubtless, mitigated in its administration by a regard to extenuating circumstances. Observation I. The prohibition against the presence of ferment and the use of all fermented articles is very explicit and emphatic, and the penalty for disobedience reads exceedingly severe. That a capital penalty was intended is, however, too probable, though some sentence resembling outlawry is involved. 2. That a prohibition so strongly declared and supported was not arbitrary in its origin is unquestionable, unless the divine legation of Moses is wholly rejected. EXODUS, xvii. 3, 5, 6. 29 A perpetuated remembrance of the embittered condition of their forefathers was one object to be secured. But the principal reason must be sought in that asso- ciation of ideas by which ferment and fermented things were regarded as symbolical of moral corruption and disorder. [See Notes on Matt. xvi. 6, 11, 12; 1 Cor. v. 7, 8.] Plutarch, in his 'Roman Questions* (109), and Gellius, in his 'Attic Nights,' remark that the priests of Jupiter were not permitted to touch leaven, because it was the product and producer of corruption. 3. No plea that would exempt fermented liquors from the sweep of this pro- hibition can be sustained, without ignorantly assuming a difference that does not exist, and ascribing the same ignorance to the lawgiver of Israel. The practice of the modern Jews is not uniform, some using fermented wine during the passover, and others an unfermented wine prepared from the maceration of raisins. But were their practice uniformly in favor of fermented wine, it would but furnish another and quite superfluous evidence of the Jewish tendency to "make void the law of God by their traditions." Chapter XIII. Verses 6, 7. 6 Seven days thou shalt eat unleavened bread, and in the seventh shall be a feast to the Lord. 7 Unleavened bread shall be eaten seven days; and there shall no leavened bread be seen with thee, neither shall there be leaven seen with thee in all thy quarters. V. 6. Unleavened bread] Hebrew, matzoth; Lxx., azuma; Vulgate, azymis and azyma. V. 7. Leavened bread] Hebrew, kkahmatz, 'what is fermented'; Lxx., zumoton; Vulgate, aliquid fermentatum. Leaven] Hebrew, seor; Lxx., zumee. The Vulgate is without a word, 'fer- mentatum ' or ' fermentum ' having to be supplied by the reader. Thy quarters] That is, all their accustomed places, such as dwelling-rooms, cellars, etc. The ferment was doubtless carried out from these to outhouses or caves. Chapter XVII. Verses 3, 5, 6. 3 And the people thirsted there for water; and the people mur- mured against Moses, and said, Wherefore is this that thou hast brought us up out of Egypt, to kill us and our children, and our cattle, with thirst ? . . . 5 And the Lord said unto Moses, Go on before the people, and take with thee of the elders of Israel; and thy rod, wherewith thou smotest the river, take in thine hand, and go. 6 Behold, I will stand before thee there upon the rock in Horeb; and thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall come water out of it, that the people may drink. And Moses did so in the sight of the elders of Israel. The murmuring of the Israelites for water, and for no other beverage, while it was a sad evidence of their unbelief, showed that while in Egypt they had little, if any, acquaintance with other drinks. Had they formed an attachment to other liquids, discontent at their absence would certainly have been expressed, as it was at the absence of the familiar fish, fowl, onions, and leeks. To satisfy their reason^ 30 exodus, xxii. 5, 29. able desire for water (though unreasonably and irreverently manifested) the rock in Horeb gave forth the stream which followed them in their subsequent desert wanderings. No stronger draughts, for health and strength, were required by them, their wives, and little ones, contrary to the opinion still prevalent which associates intoxicating liquor with necessary diet and refreshment. On this point ancient facts upset modern theory. Chapter XXI. Verses 28, 29. 28 If an ox gore a man or a woman, that they die; then the ox shall be surely stoned, and his flesh shall not be eaten; but the owner of the ox shall be quit. 29 But if the ox were wont to push with his horn in time past, and it hath been testified to his owner, and he hath not kept him in, but that he hath killed a man or a woman; the ox shall be stoned, and his owner also shall be put to death. This Mosaic regulation was designed to impress the Jewish mind with the value of human life, and the duty of preventing whatever might endanger it. The pas- sage plainly teaches — the lesson is world-wide and for all time — that in the Divine sight men are responsible for consequences which they may prevent, but do not; and it is no justification to plead that the consequences were not inevitable, nor designed, nor foreseen. Who can plead ignorance that the tendency of strong drink is to create a diseased craving for itself, or that the common sale of it actu- ally and extensively produces habits of intemperance? And when these tendencies and results are clearly declared and well understood, the personal duty of abstinence from intoxicating liquor, and the national duty of legislative prohibition of traffic in it, become abundantly plain. Such a duty may be described as 'expediency,' but it is at any rate an expediency the neglect of which places the neglecters in no enviable position. Ignorance and error may be innocent, but not when they result from a voluntary rejection of knowledge. The existence of Temperance Societies thus increases the responsibility of all classes. Chapter XXII. Verse 5. If a man shall cause a field or vineyard to be eaten, and shall put in his beast, and shall feed in another man's field; of the best oi his own field, and of the best of his own vineyard, shall he make restitution. Vineyard] Hebrew, kerem. To 'cause a field or vineyard to be eaten,' is an elliptical mode of expression. Bah-ar signifies to eat or consume, and is here used in the Piel conjugation to express the devastation which loose cattle would make in a field or vineyard. That the owner of the cattle should compensate in kind for the injury done was an equitable regulation. The Samaritan and Lxx. versions extend the verse by inserting after 'man's field' the following: — "he shah make restitution according to his produce; but if he has destroyed the whole field [of another], of the best," etc. Chapter XXII. Verse 29. Thou shalt not delay to offer the first of thy ripe fruits, and of thy liquors. EXODUS, XXIII. II, 15, 1 8. 31 The first of thy ripe fruits] The Hebrew is a single word, melaathkah, literally 'thy fullness,' or 'abundance,' here used to signify the first fruits due to the Giver of all good, and serving to remind the people that they were called upon to render to His service out of the abundance of His beneficence to them. " Freely ye have received, freely give." And of thy liquors] Hebrew, ve-dimakah, * and of thy tear ' ; from dema, *& tear,' an expressive metaphor of the gums and rich juices of trees and fruits that spontaneously drop from them. The same idiom is presented in the Greek dakruon ton dendron, and the Latin arborum lacrimce, 'tears of trees.' In Spain a wine called lagrima is made from the droppings of muscatel grapes, which, " melting with ripeness, are suspended in bunches " (Redding on Wines, p. 58); and the famous Tokay wine, or Tokay Ausbruch, i. e. flowing forth, derives its name from the juice which drops form the unpressed grapes grown in a single Hungarian vineyard. These droppings form the 'essence of Tokay,' which, when mixed with the juice of the vat in the proportion of 61 parts to 84 of the latter, compose the 'Tokay Ausbruch.' Quite different from these droppings are 'the tears of the vine,' a limpid distillation of the sap at the time the plant is budding (Redding, P. 50)- The Lxx. renders the passage dparchas halonos kai leenou sou, ' the fruits of the threshing-floor and thy wine-press.' The Vulgate reads, decimds tuas et primitias tuas, 'thy tenths and thy firstfruits.' Rosenmiiller states, "Some understand by dema the best and choicest part of anything, since the liquor or sweetness which flows spontaneously from trees, vines, and shrubs, is their choicest produce." Kalisch renders "from the abundance of thy corn and the choicest of thy wine." Chapter XXIII. Verse ii. In like manner thou shalt deal with thy vineyard, and with thy oliveyard. With thy vineyard] Le-karmekah. The soil was to be tilled and sown for six years in succession ; on the seventh it was to lie fallow, and what it spontane- ously produced was to be for the use, first of the poor, and then of the ' beasts of the field.' This humane law was applicable both to vineyards and oliveyards. Chapter XXIII. Verses 15, 18. is Thou shalt keep the feast of unleavened bread : (thou shalt eat unleavened bread seven days, as I commanded thee, in the time appointed of the month Abib; for in it thou earnest out from Egypt; and none shall appear before me empty.) ... 18 Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifices with leavened bread. V. 15. The feast of unleavened bread] Hebrew, eth khag ham-matzotk, 'the festival of unfermented things.' [See Note on Exod. xii.] Lxx.,azuma; Vulgate, azymorum. The month Abib] A bib is the same as Nizan, the first month of the ecclesi- astical year, and seventh of the civil year, the commencement of the Syrian spring- time, corresponding to part of our March and April. 32 EXODUS, XXX. 9. V. 18. With leavened bread] Hebrew, al-khahmatz, 'with what is fer- mented ' ; Lxx., epi zumee, ' with leaven ' ; Vulgate, super femiento, ' upon leaven.' Chapter XXIX. Verse 2. And unleavened bread, and cakes unleavened tempered with oil, and wafers unleavened anointed with oil ; of wheaten flour shalt thou make them. Unleavened bread] Hebrew, lekhem maizoth, 'bread of unfermented mate- rials,' i. e. a loaf made of unfermented dough. And cakes -unleavened] Hebrew, ve-khallath 7natzoth, 'and perforated cakes of unfermented materials.' And wafers unleavened] Hebrew, u-rqiqai matzoth, 'and thin-cakes of unfermented materials. ' Chapter XXIX. Verse 23. And one loaf of bread, and one cake of oiled bread, and one wafer out of the basket of unleavened bread that is before the Lord. Unleavened bread] Hebrew, ham-matzoth, ' the unfermented articles,' i. e. those enumerated in ver. 2. Chapter XXIX. Verse 40. And the fourth part of an hin of wine for a drink-offering. A hin of wine] Hebrew, ka-hin yayin, 'the hin of yayin.' According to Josephus, it was equal to two Attic choes, each choes equal to six English pints ; so that the hin was twelve pints, and the fourth part was three pints, English. For a drink-offering] Hebrew, ve-nasek, 'and (as) a libation,' from nahsak, 'to pour out' The A. V. tends to convey the mistaken idea of nasek as an offer- ing to be drunk. The Lxx. reads, kai spondeen to tetraton tou ein oinou, ' and for a libation the fourth part of a hin of wine.' The Vulgate has et vinum ad libandum ejusde?n mensurce, 'and wine of the same measure for pouring out.' It may be asked, How could this command be carried out in the wilderness ? Of course, obedience to all or any of the Levitical ordinances was dependent on the possession of adequate resources. Many of the prescriptions could not be completely complied with till after the arrival of Israel in the promised land. Some wine, however, was procurable during the desert sojourn, as appears from Lev. x. 9. For one explanation, see the legend of the Targum, quoted in the Note on Cant. i. 14. Chatter XXX. Verse 9. Ye shall offer no strange incense thereon, nor burnt sacrifice, nor meat-offering; neither shall ye pour drink-offering thereon. Drink-offering] See Note above on chap. xxix. 40. exodus, xxxiv. 18, 25. 33 Chapter XXXIV. Verse 18. The feast of unleavened bread shalt thou keep. Seven days thou shalt eat unleavened bread, as I commanded thee, in the time of the month Abib : for in the month Abib thou earnest out from Egypt. Unleavened bread] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented cakes.' Chapter XXXIV. Verse 25. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven. With leaven] Hebrew, al-khakmatz, ' with what is fermented ' ; Lxx., epi zumee, with leaven'; Vulgate, super fermento, 'upon leaven.' THE BOOK OF LEVITICUS. Chapter II. Verse 4. And if thou bring an oblation of a meat offering baken in the oven, it shall be unleavened cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, or unleavened wafers anointed with oil. Unleavened cakes] Hebrew, kholloth matzoth, 'perforated cakes, unfer- mented.' [See Note on Exod. xxix. 2.] And unleavened wafers] Hebrew, u-rqiqai matzoth, 'and thin cakes unfer- mented.' •Chapter II. Verse 5. And if thy oblation be a meat offering baken in a pan, it shall be of fine flour unleavened, mingled with oil. Unleavened] Hebrew, matzah, 'sweet' or 'fresh.' Observe that the con- ventional word ' unleavened ' does not express the wide meaning of unfermented. Chapter II. Verse ii. No meat offering, which ye shall bring unto the Lord, shall be made with leaven : for ye shall burn no leaven, nor any honey, in any offering of the Lord made by fire. Shall be made with leaven] Hebrew, ta-ahseh khahmdtz, 'shall be made with a fermented-substance.' For ye shall burn no leaven, nor any honey] Hebrew, ki kahl-seorvekahl- devash lo taqtiru, "for every [ = any] ferment and every [ = any] honey ye shall not burn." No seor (yeast, or fermenting substance) was to be present. The extension of this prohibition to honey {debasli) has been referred to the readiness with which honey ferments in contact with ferment. Others suppose that honey was excluded because commonly used in heathen worship. Some find allegorical reasons for the prohibition, as Baal Hatturim: — "Honey is forbidden because the evil concupiscence is as sweet unto a man as honey." The question whether by debash was here intended the honey of bees or of dates, or grape-juice reduced to a honeyed consistence by boiling, or whether it included all kinds, cannot be satisfac- torily settled. As in the next verse 'honey' is associated with the oblation of LEVITICUS, VIII. 2, 26. 35 firstfruits, there may be reason for the note of Rabbi Solomon Jarchi, who under- stands by it 'the firstfruits of figs and dates.' Chapter VI. Verse 16. And the remainder thereof shall Aaron and his sons eat : with unleavened bread shall it be eaten in the holy place ; in the court of the tabernacle of the congregation they shall eat it. Unleavened bread] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented-cakes.' Chapter VI. Verse 17. It shall not be baken with leaven. I have given it unto them for their portion of my offerings made by fire ; it is most holy, as is the sin-offering, and as the trespass-offering. Leaven] Hebrew, khahmatz, 'fermented-matter. 1 Chapter VII. Verse 12. If he offer it for a thanksgiving, then he shall offer with the sacrifice of thanksgiving unleavened cakes mingled with oil, and unleavened wafers anointed with oil, and cakes mingled with oil, of fine flour, fried. Unleavened cakes] Hebrew, kholloth matzoth, 'perforated unfermented- cakes.' And unleavened wafers] Hebrew, u-riqiqai matzoth, t and thin unfermented- cakes.' Chapter VII. Verse 13. Besides the cakes, he shall offer for his offering leavened bread with the sacrifice of thanksgiving of his peace offerings. Leavened bread] Hebrew, lekhem khahmatz, 'bread fermented. Chapter VIII. Verse 2. Take Aaron and his sons with him, and the garments, and the anointing oil, and a bullock for the sin offering, and two rams, and a basket of unleavened bread. Unleavened bread] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented-cakes.' Chapter VIII. Verse 26. And out of the basket of unleavened bread, that was before the Lord, he took one unleavened cake, and a cake of oiled bread, and one wafer, and put them on the fat, and upon the right shoulder. 36 LEVITICUS, X. 8 — II. Unleavened bread] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented-cakes.' Unleavened cake] Hebrew, kallath matzah, ' perforated unfermented-cake. Chapter X. Verses 8 — n. 8 And the' Lord spake unto Aaron, saying, 9 Do not drink wine nor strong drink, thou, nor thy sons with thee, when ye go into the tabernacle of the congregation, lest ye die : it shall be a statute for ever throughout your generations : io And that ye may put difference between holy and unholy, and between unclean and clean ; u And that ye may teach the children of Israel all the statutes which the Lord hath spoken unto them by the hand of Moses. Do NOT DRINK wine nor strong drink] Hebrew, yayin ve-shakar al-tasht, 'yayin and shakar thou shalt not drink.' The Lxx. gives oinon kai sikera ou piesthe, 'wine and sikera ye shall not drink.' The V. has vinum et omne quod inebriare potest non bibetis, ' wine and whatever is able to inebriate ye shall not drink.' On Shakar, which here occurs for the first time as a noun, see Pre- liminary Dissertation. Whether the noun was derived from the verb — which signifies 'to drink freely of the sweet,' — or whether the verb was formed from the noun (the name of the thing — ' sweet juice ' — being borrowed to describe its copious consumption, i. e. to shakarize, to drink largely of shakar), there is nothing that necessarily connects the word, as verb or noun, with intoxicating qualities. Shakar may have originally denoted sweet juice of all kinds ; but when distin- guished from yayin (as here), may be regarded as generically referable to any sweet juice except the juice of the grape; just as yayin generically included the juice of the grape, however expressed or prepared. When shakar in its fresh state was mixed, either by accident or design, with a ferment, or time was allowed for its own albumen to decay, it would itself become fermented, and if then freely drunk, would intoxicate the drinker. But it is contrary to evidence and probability to suppose that shakar was drunk in that state only, and that ' to shakarize ' was always tantamount to excessive indulgence in a fermented liquor. The Lxx. in this place merely gives shakar a Greek garb — sikera ; yet sikera was never a word current among classical Greek writers, or even in Hellenistic Greek, — i. e. the language as modified by the idioms of the Jews who wrote and spoke it. When, therefore, the lexicographers say that sikera signified ' all intoxi- cating liquors except wine,' they mean that shakar ha.d that signification; but such a definition is intrinsically defective. Judea was celebrated for its palms; and palm-juice got by tapping the tree, or squeezing the date-fruit, may have first given occasion to the name, which would extend its reference as the sweet juices of other plants came into frequent use. Probably related to shakar was the Greek sakcharon, applied to the juice of the sugar-cane; from this sprang the Latin saccharum, from which the English household word ' sugar ' is circuitously derived. The rendering of the Vulgate is periphrastic, and at the same time incorrect, if designed (as it doubtless was by St Jerome) to cover the whole meaning of the Hebrew shakar. The Targumists Onkelos and Jonathan in this place (and in this alone) render shakar by the Chaldee marvai and rn'ravai, derived from ravah, 'to drink largely, ' 'to drench,' and 'to make drunk' where the drink consumed was intoxicating, — LEVITICUS, X. 8 — II. 37 thus taking a similar extension of meaning to shakar, except that in mWavai the idea of sweetness in the article used was not distinctly conveyed. Observe — I. The matters of the prohibition — yayin and shakar. — If it be asked why all kinds of yayin (grape-juice) and of shakar (sweet juice in general) were prohibited, when the spirit of the interdict was limited to intoxicating species of both, it may be replied either (i) that the avoidance of all juices of the grape and other fruit when expressed was desirable in order to guard against mistake, where mistake would be so baneful ; or (2) that the command was left to be interpreted by its spirit, just as a prohibition in the present day against ' drink ' or ' liquor ' would be universally understood as not extending to all drink and all liquor, but as applicable only to that of an intoxicating quality. The former view is confirmed by the extension of the Nazarites' vow of abstinence even to vine-fruit. The Rev. John Wesley, in his New Testament Notes, observes on the prohibition, " Nor eat grapes — forbidden him for greater caution, to keep him at the further distance from wine." 2. The occasion of the prohibition. — The Jewish rabbis, and most Christian com- mentators, connect it with the sin of Nadab and Abihu, described in ver. I ; and the ground of this connection they find in the supposed commission of their sacrilege while under the influence of intoxicating drink. The Targum of Jonathan contains the clause, "As did thy sons, who died by the burning of fire. " Keil and Delitzsch think that the only connection lay in the rashness of Aaron's sons, and the tendency of strong drink to induce a smilar disposition; but this will not account for the issue of such a prohibition immediately after such a sin. More to the purpose is the language of Rev. J. J. Blunt, B.D. (in his 'Undesigned Coincidences of Scripture'): — "Thus far, at least, it is clear that a grievous and thoughtless insult is offered to God by two of His priests, for which they are cut off; that without any direct allusion to their case, but still very shortly after it had happened, a law is issued forbidding the priests the use of wine whe^ about to minister. I conclude, therefore, that there was a relation (though it is not asserted) between the specific offense and the general law; the more so because the sin against which that law is directed is just of a kind to have produced the rash and inconsiderate act of which Aaron's sons were guilty." Sad thought! that while the people generally, at that time, neither used nor craved for any intoxicating drink, two of Aaron's sons and assistants should have indulged in it till they fell into heinous guilt, and 'brought upon themselves swift destruction.' Thus early had the priests begun to err through wine, and through strong drink to wander from the way of obedience and safety. 3. The extent of the prohibition. — It had respect to all priests, through all generations, during all the period of their sacred ministrations. It is a remarkable proof of the tendency of the Rabbinical mind to make void the law of God, that some of the Jewish doctors of the post-Christian period (such as Maimonides) held that this statute was not broken if a small quantity was drunk, with a pause of time between, or if mixed with water, etc. Ains worth rejects these equivoca- tions. To infer that the use of intoxicating liquor was sanctioned at other times, or among other classes, is to overlook, — 4. The object of the prohibition. — This was to secure the sober, serious, and effectual performance of the priestly offices, — those that related to God (the discrimination of clean from unclean), and those which regarded the people (their instruction in the divine law). "This is a strong reason," observes Dr A. Clarke, "why they should drink no inebriating liquor." 38 LEVITICUS, X. 8 — II. 5. The solemnity of the prohibition — 'lest ye die.' — The meaning is either "Do not drink, lest ye die as the result of disobedience ; " or, "Do not drink, lest ye die by imitating Nadab and Abihu's sin, and so incurring their capital penalty." This proscription proclaims the concern of the Most High for His own glory, for the purity of His worship, the integrity of His ministers, and the welfare of His people. As legitimate inferences from the whole passage, we may conclude (1) that God regards the use of intoxicating liquor as pregnant with danger to His servants, whatever their rank and attainments ; (2) that the avoidance of this danger, by means of abstinence from such drink, having been a rule of His appointment, is still a course worthy of general imitation ; (3) that the adoption of this abstinence as a habit of life is specially approved by Him in the case of those who are required as 'a holy priesthood' to offer up without ceasing "spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to him by Jesus Christ." [See Note on Ezek. xliv. 21, where the continuance of this rule is affirmed, and its application to Christian times demanded, unless a revival of the Aaronic priesthood and the Levitical service is to be expected.] Philo Judseus, the celebrated Alexandrian Jew and Platonist, who was contem- porary with Christ, says in his treatise On Drunkenness (sect. 32) in reference to this text, "It is almost the only occupation of the priests and ministers of God to offer abstemious sacrifices, abstaining in the firmness of their minds from wine and from every other cause of folly. But Aaron is the priest, and the interpretation of his name is 'mountainous'; reasoning occupying itself with sublime and lofty objects. And no one who is so disposed will ever voluntarily touch unmixed wine or any other drug (pharmakon) of folly." [See also a quotation from Philo in the Note on Ezek. xliv. 21.] Some such impression St Jerome appears desirous of conveying in a passage in his letter to Nepotian concerning the life to be led by the clergy and monks (de vita clericorum et monachorum). In the section on 'feasts to be avoided' {convivia fugiendd) he writes: — "The apostle condemns, and the old law forbids, winebibbing priests (Lev. x.). Those who serve at the altar may not drink wine and sicera Whatever inebriates and throws the mind off its balance, fly, in like manner as if it were wine. Nor do I say this in order that a creature of God should be condemned by us [Jerome, like many later theologians, confounds the cor- ruption of the creature with the creature as formed by God], since, indeed, the Lord is called a wine-drinker (Matt, xiv.), and a small portion of wine was al- lowed to Timothy when suffering as to his stomach (1 Tim. v.); but in drinking we strictly require that there should be a measure according to the age, and the state of the health, and of the bodily members. So that if without wine I possess the glow of youth, and my blood affords sufficient warmth, and my system is vigorous and well strung, cheerfully will I abstain from the cup which is suspected to contain a poison.''''* If St Jerome, who flourished at the close of the fourth century, reflects in this passage the fallacy which attributes salutary, or at least marked medicinal prop- erties, to intoxicating liquor ; he no less clearly reflects the profound conviction of the purest minds, that the influence of such drink is dangerous to the moral and * Vinolentos sacerdotes Apostulus damnat et velus lex prohibet. Qui altario deserviunt vinum et siceram non bibant. . . . Quidquid inebriat et statum mentis evertit, fuge similiter ut vinum. Nee hoc dico quod Dei a nobis creatura damnetur. Siquidem et Dominos vina potator est appellatus, et Timotheo dolenti stomachum modica vini sorbitio relaxata est, sed modum pro cctatis et valetudinis et corporuvi qttalitate exigimus in potando. Quod si absque vino ardeo adolescentia, et injlammor calore sangtdnis, et succidento validoque sum corpore libenter carebo pocula in quo suspicio veneni est. LEVITICUS, XXIII. 6, 13, 17. 39 religious well-being even of those who fill the most sacred offices in the church, (4) Finally, if God in His wisdom enforced abstinence and prohibition as His pro- phylactic against intemperance within the circle of the priesthood, who can regard those measures as needless or extreme remedies for the same evil in general society at the present day ? Chapter X. Verse 12. And Moses spake unto Aaron, and unto Eleazar and unto Ithamar, his sons that were left, Take the meat offering that remaineth of the offerings of the Lord made by fire, and eat it without leaven beside the altar : for it is most holy. Without leaven] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented cakes.' 'Eat it with sweet [fresh] cakes ' is therefore the proper translation of this clause; 'unleavened,' by inference, as opposed to that which had fermented or corrupted. Chapter XIX. Verse 10. And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard; thou shalt leave them for the poor and stranger : I am the Lord your God. The literal translation of the first two clauses is — 'And thy vineyard [ve-kar- mekaJi\ thou shalt not glean, and the scattering of \u-pheref\ thy vineyard \kar- mekak] thou shalt not gather.' The grapes left after the first plucking or cutting, whether left on the vine or scattered on the ground, should be for the gleaning of the poor. [See Note on Deut. xxiv. 21.] Chapter XXIII. Verse 6. And on the fifteenth day of the same month is the feast of un- leavened bread unto the Lord : seven days ye must eat unleavened bread. Unleavened bread, twice'] Hebrew, matzoth, 'unfermented-cakes.' Chapter XXIII. Verse 13. And the meat offering thereof shall be two tenth deals of fine flour mingled with oil, an offering made by fire unto the Lord for a sweet savor : and the drink offering thereof shall be of wine, the fourth part of an hin. See Note on Exod. xxix. 40. Chapter XXIII. Verse 17. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals : they shall be of fine flour ; they shall be baken with leaven ; they are- the firstfruits unto the Lord. Leaven] Hebrew, khahmatz, ' fermented matter. ' 40 LEVITICUS, XXVI. 5. Chapter XXV. Verse 3. Six years thou shalt sow thy field, and six years thou shalt prune thy vineyard, and gather in t!he fruit thereof. Thy vineyard] Hebrew, karmekak, 'thy vineyard.' Chapter XXV. Verse 4. But in the seventh year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the land, a sabbath for the Lord : thou shalt neither sow thy field, nor prune thy vineyard. Thy vineyard] Hebrew, karmekah, 'thy vineyard.' Chapter XXV. Verse 5. That which groweth of its own accord of thy harvest thou shalt not reap, neither gather the grapes of thy vine undressed : for it is a year of rest unto the land. The grapes of thy vine undressed] Hebrew, ve-eth-invai nezirekah to thivtzor, 'and the grapes of thy separated thou shalt not gather.' The vine is here called nazir (separated or consecrated) because during the seventh year it was not to be pruned or plucked. Chapter XXV. Verse ii. A jubilee shall that fiftieth year be unto you : ye shall not sow, neither reap that which groweth of itself in it, nor gather the grapes in it of thy vine undressed. Nor gather the grapes in it of thy vine undressed] Neither ' grapes ' nor 'vine' is in the original Hebrew, which reads, ve-lo thivtzeru eth-nezirah, 'and thou shalt not gather (or cut off) thy separated.' Each fiftieth year was to be like every seventh — a year separated from the ordinary cultivation of the soil, and this idea of separation from toil, and consecration to rest, was naturally assigned to the whole produce of the land on these septennial and jubilee festivals. Chapter XXVI. Verse 5. And your threshing shall reach unto the vintage, and the vintage shall reach unto the sowing time : and ye shall eat your bread to the full, and dwell in your land safely. The vintage, twice\ Hebrew, batzir, 'the cutting off,' from bahtzar, 'to cut off,' a name transferred to the season when the grapes were gathered, which was generally done by cutting them away with a sharp instrument \jnazmara, pruning- hook], in order to avoid injury to the vine. THE BOOK OF NUMBERS. Chapter VI. Verses i- i And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, a Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite, to separate them- selves unto the Lord : 3 He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong drink, neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes, nor eat moist grapes, or dried. 4 All the days of his separation shall he eat nothing that is made of the vine tree, from the kernels even to the husk. V. 2. A Nazarite] The Hebrew nakzir (from nahzar, 'to separate one's self) has been retained in the English A. V. The Lxx. reads, " Man or woman, who- ever shall specially vow a vow to separate or purify himself with purity to the Lord {aneer ee gunee hos ean megalos euxeetai eucheen aphagnisasthai hagneian kurio)." V. 3. He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink] The Hebrew is miy-yayin ve-shakar yatzir, 'from yayin and shakar he shall separate himself.' The Lxx. has apo oinou kai sikera hagnistheesetai, 'from wine and sicera he shall purify himself (or purely abstain).' The V. is a vino et omni quod inebriare potest abstinebunt, ' from wine and whatever is inebriating they shall abstain.' The T. of Onkelos has makhamar khadath ve-atiq yivour, 'from wine, new and old, lie shall be separated.' Onkelos thus gives yayin the sense of 'new wine,' and shakar that of 'old wine,' which makes their difference to consist, not in a difference of the juice, but in a difference of age between portions of the same kind of juice, — that of the grape. A rabbinical tradition is mentioned by Maimonides, that strong drink made of dates, or such like, was lawful for the Nazarite, the kind forbidden here being strong drink made with mixture of wine ! Another of these traditions went so far as to state that "if a littie wine be mingled with honey, or the like, so that there be no taste of the wine, it is lawful for the Nazarite to drink it." What law could survive such unprincipled glosses and elastic interpretations ? And shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong drink] The Hebrew is kkometz yayin ve-khometz shakar lo yishteh, ' fermented-liquor of wine and fermented-liquor of shakar he shall not drink.' The Lxx. reads, kai oxos ex oinou kai oxos ex sicera ou pietai, ' and vinegar (fermented liquor) from wine, and vinegar from sicera^ he shall not drink.' The T. of Onkelos gives "the vinegar (khol) of wine new, and the vinegar of wine old." The V. has acetum ex vino et 42 NUMBERS, VI. I — 4. ex qualibet alia potione non bibent, ' vinegar from wine and from any other liquor they shall not drink.' That the V. should have rendered shakar'm this clause by qualibet alia potio is worthy of note. The English A. V. renders khomeiz by ' vinegar ' in the six places where it occurs in the Old Testament, according to the Masorite pointing, — Numb. vi. 3 (twice); Ruth ii. 14; Psa. lxix. 21; Prov. x. 26; xxv. 20. The Greek versions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, of this passage are lost, but in Psa. lxix. 21 and Prov. x. 26 they supply omphax, *an unripe (or sour) grape,' which is defended by Michaelis. Dr A. Clarke observes, " Khometz signifies fermented wine, and is probably used here to signify wine of a strong body, or any highly intoxicating liquor." As the ancients did not scienti- fically distinguish between the alcoholic and acetous fermentations, the generic word signifying ' fermented ' was used to describe both. In a hot climate, when yayin and shakar passed into the alcoholic fermentation, it was difficult to prevent the acetous following. It is the general complaint of winemakers on the Continent that they cannot keep their wines, or transport them to any distance, without mixing them with brandy — a contrivance not available to the ancients. Neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes] Hebrew, ve-kahl-mishrath anahvim lo yishteh, 'and every (=any) maceration of grapes he shall not drink.' Mishrath, from sharah, 'to loosen' or 'macerate,' signifies 'drink made of steeped grapes.' (So Gesenius.) Bishop Patrick understands " secondary wine, which was made by maceration of grapes in water, after the juice had been pressed out to make wine." The Lxx. has kai hosa katergazetai ek staphulees oupietai, ' and whatever is concocted (or elaborated) from the grape he shall not drink.' Aquila and Symmachus have pasan apobrexin staphulees, ' every infusion of the grape ' ; the V., et quidquid de uva exprimitur non bibent, 'and whatever from the grape is expressed they shall not drink.' The Syriac gives 'maceration of grapes.' Nor EAT moist grapes, or dried] Hebrew, va-anahvim lakhim vivashim lo yokal, 'and grapes moist (= fresh) and dried he shall not eat.' The Lxx., kai staphuleen prosphaton kai staphida ou phagetai, ' and the grape newly plucked, and the raisin, he shall not eat.' The V. has uvas recentes siccasque non comedent, ' grapes fresh and dried they shall not eat.' Onkelos has rattivin, ' green.' V. 4. Of the vine tree] Hebrew, mig-gephen ha-yayin, 'of (or from) the vine of the wine,' a phrase intended to mark definitely the nature of gephen, which might otherwise be taken to include every kind of flexile, twig-bearing tree. Gephen ha-yayin is equivalent to 'wine-yielding plant,' a mode of expression implying that yayin is the immediate produce of the vine, and that grape-juice does not become yayin by a subsequent fermentation. The Lxx. gives ex ampelou oinon, ' from the vine wine. ' * The V. has ex vinea, ' what concerns the production of wine,' a vineyard, or the vine generically considered. From the kernels even to the husks] Hebrew, makharzanim ve-ad zag, 'from the grapestones to the skin.' The Lxx. has apo stemphullon heos gigartou, ' from the grapestones unto the husk.* The Vulgate reads, ab uvapassa usque ad acinum, 'from the dried grape to the berry-stone.' Dr Gill remarks, "The Jews are divided about the two words here used, which of them signifies the outer- * The punctuation in Maia's splendid edition of Codex B makes the Lxx. to stand ex ampelou oinon apo stemphullon heos gigartou, ' from the vine wine from the grapestones to the husk.' This pointing would make oinon identical with the grape or cluster. But oinon may be a copyist's mistake for oinou. In the parallel case (Judg. xiii. 14) the Lxx. has ex ampelou tou oiwru, ' from the wine of the vine.' NUMBERS, VI. 13 — 20. 43 most part of the grape and which the innermost. Von Gersom agrees with us, but it matters not much who are in the right since both are forbidden." Chapter VI. Verses 13 — 20. 13 And this is the law of the Nazarite, when the days of his separation are fulfilled: he shall be brought unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: 14 And he shall offer his offering unto the Lord, one he-lamb of the first year without blemish for a burnt-offering, and one ewe-lamb of the first year without blemish for a sin-offering, and one ram without blemish for peace-offerings, 15 And a basket of unleavened bread, cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, and wafers of unleavened bread anointed with oil, and their meat-offering, and their drink-offerings. 16 And the priest shall bring them before the Lord, and shall offer his sin-offering, and his burnt- offering : 17 And he shall offer the ram for a sacrifice of peace-offer- ings unto the Lord, with the basket of unleavened bread : the priest shall offer also his meat-offering, and his drink-offering. 18 And the Nazarite shall shave the head of his separation at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and shall take the hair of the head of his separation, and put it in the fire which is under the sacrifice of the peace-offerings. 19 And the priest shall take the sodden shoulder of the ram, and one unleavened cake out of the basket, and one unleavened wafer, and shall put them upon the hands of the Nazarite after the hair of his separation is shaven : 20 And the priest shall wave them for a wave-offering before the Lord : this is holy for the priest, with the wave-breast and heave-shoulder : and after that the Nazarite may drink wine. V. 15. A basket of unleavened bread] Hebrew, ve-sai matzoth, 'and a wicker-basket of unfermented-cakes.' Wafers of unleavened bread] Hebrew, u-rqiqai matzoth, ' and thin unfer- mented-cakes.' And their drink-offerings] Hebrew, ve-niskaihem, 'and their libations.' [See Note on Exod. xxix. 40.] V. 1 7. With a basket of unleavened bread] Hebrew, al sal ham-matzoth, 'with a basket of the unfermented-cakes.' And his drink-offering] Hebrew, ve-eth nisko, 'and his libation.' V. 19. One unleavened cake] Hebrew, vl-halklath matzah akhath, 'and one perforated unfermented-cake.' And one unleavened wafer] Hebrew, u-rqiq matzah ekhad, ' and one thin unfermented-cake. ' V. 20. And after that the Nazarite may drink wine] Hebrew, •ve-akhar yisteh han-Nahzir yayin, 'and afterward the Nazarite may drink yayin. ' The ceremony of terminating the vow having been fulfilled, the principal condition of Nazaritism would also cease, and with it all the other conditions. Ceasing to be a Nazarite, the evidences of a Nazarite would no longer be binding ; but no obligation was imposed to drink yayin of any kind, much less was a sanction given to the use of inebriating drinks. 44 NUMBERS, VI. 13 — 20. Observation I. The rules of Nazaritism as explained in this chapter comprise the three negatives — 1, not to consume any produce of the vine; 2, not to cut the hair ; 3, not to touch any dead body. Many speculations have been put forth as to the reasons for these prohibitions. That each and all were suitably associ- ated with their vow cannot be questioned, for to impute an irrational arbitrariness to these regulations would be to impeach the divine wisdom. A Nazarite was, by his voluntary vow, so consecrated to the divine service as to be separated from the ordinary pursuits of men. This separation was according to the nature of the vow ; and if the vow was for life, so was the separation — not otherwise. It is a Jewish tradition that the vow could not be taken for less than thirty days. The Nazarite was not to touch any dead body, which was typical of his separation from things corruptible. He was not to cut his hair, the length of which signified his subjection (1 Cor. xi. 5) and visibly testified to his fidelity, and presented the symbol of strength and abundant vitality. He was not to take the produce of the vine, either liquid or solid, for this was an effectual safeguard not only against danger from the use of intoxicating drinks, but also against temptation or mistake should the inebriating article be substituted for the innocuous. "They were to eat nothing that came of the vine, to teach us with the utmost care and caution to avoid sin and everything that borders on it and leads to it, or may be a tempta- tion to us." — Matthew Henry. "Everything which might have even a tend- ency," says Professor Moses Stuart, "to inspire them with a taste for inebriating liquor was to be most carefully avoided." That this abstinence was prescribed as a means of moral protection is also clear from the conduct of those who gave them wine to drink, 'and so,' says Matthew Henry, 'did the tempter's work.' (Amos ii. 12.) Ainsworth remarks, "By this prohibition God taught the Nazarites sanctification in mortifying the lusts of the flesh, for the drinking of these endangereth men to 'forget the love of God,' to mock and to rage." No value can be attached to the rabbinical notion, adopted by Lightfoot, that the vine was forbidden to the Nazarites because it had been the forbidden tree in Paradise. The leper, according to Lightfoot, was an emblem of the wretched state of man since the fall, and the Nazarite the emblem of man in his state of innocence. Some Jewish writers, with whom Dr Gill coincides, think that there is a meaning in the law of the Nazarite following the law of ordeal concerning women suspected of conjugal infidelity, "and as wine leads to adultery, as Jarchi observes, abstinence from it, which the Nazarites were obliged to, and forbearance of trimming and dressing the hair, and a being more strictly and closely do voted to the service of God, were very likely means of preserving from unchastity and any suspicion of it." 2. Ancient Nazaritism was more comprehensive than teetotalism, so that no argument against the latter can be founded upon the contrast between Jesus and the Baptist [see Note on Matt. xi. 18, 19] ; whereas the remarkable health and vigor of the Nazarites (Lam. iv. 7) was a standing refutation of the still prevalent superstition which connects those physical blessings with some use of intoxicating liquor. 3. The essential spirit of Nazaritism — self-consecration to God, religious willing- hood — is incorporated with Christianity and identified with its highest develop- ments of liberty and excellence. Abstinence from intoxicating liquors is, there- fore, not less needful than in ancient times as a moral safeguard, unless it can be shown that those liquors have ceased to exert the fourfold influence of stimulating the animal propensities, weakening the reason, dulling the moral sensibilities, and diminishing the will-power. In moderate drinking these influences may be only NUMBERS, XIII. I/, 20, 23. 45 slightly felt, but the tendency cannot be mistaken ; and as the capacity of correctly estimating the danger and warding it off is lowered in proportion to the effect of the liquor consumed, the drinker is commonly the victim of self-deception until some palpable transgression covers him with shame, or until habit has fostered an appetite that eats into the soul as a canker. Both as a sanitary regimen and a spiritual auxiliary, abstinence is commended to universal Christian adoption by the conjoint statute and experience of the Nazarites. [Concerning Nazarites and Nazaritism, see Notes on Judg. xiii. 5, 7; Lam. iv. 7; Amos ii. II, 12; Luke i- I5-] Chapter IX. Verse ii. The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. With unleavened bread and bitter herbs] Hebrew, al-matzoth um'rorim, ' with unfermented-cakes and bitter-herbs.' Chapter XIII. Verses 17, 20. 17 And Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan. (Now the time was the time of the first-ripe grapes.) V. 20. First-ripe grapes] Hebrew, bikurai anahvim, 'the firstfruits of grape-clusters.' The Lxx. has prodromoi staphulees, 'the forerunners of the grape.' The V. gives quando jam prcecoquce uvo\hfel (gall) and venerium (venom). What is more curious in authorities is (as the reader may see by looking back), that Aquila and the Targumists understood by rosh, in this place, not 'poison' at all, but 'head' — a translation which by no means imparts clearness to their versions. Probably the poisonous substance here called rosh received its name from the head {rosh) of the berry containing it ; or (as some think) because the poison of the serpent is secreted in its head. By ' asps ' are meant some species of deadly adder or viper, whose poison, because quickly fatal, is described as akzar, 'fierce,' or 'virulent.' The Lxx. aniatos, and V. insanabile, 'incurable,' represent the effect rather than the quality of the poison. The A. V. ' cruel ' is emphatic, but too expressively moral to be applied to a physical poison. On the phrases 'vine of Sodom,' 'their vine,' and 'their wine,' it may be re- marked, — 1. There is no historical record concerning the kind of vine cultivated around Sodom and Gomorrah, but growing in such a bituminous soil it would probably possess peculiar qualities, the memory of which was handed down by tradition for ages. The vine of Sodom may even have survived the overthrow of the cities of the plain. Some commentators suppose a designed reference to the plant which bore the fruit known as 'apples of Sodom,' and described by Josephus as of a beautiful appearance, but crumbling to dust when plucked. Fruit of this sort, the inside of which an insect {tenthradd) reduces to dust, leaving the outside skin fair and attrac- tive, has been found by modern travelers near the Dead Sea. 64 DEUTERONOMY, XXXII. 37, 38, 42. 2. It is obvious that Moses, under the similitude of a Sodom-like vine, grapes of gall, bitter clusters, wine like serpent-poison and deadly adder's gall, furnishes a moral portraiture of Israel's rebellious state. The vine of Sodom marks their degenerate character, its bitter and poisonous fruit their vicious tempers, and its venomous wine their injurious conduct toward the saints and prophets of God ; but it is extremely unlikely that such images would have been borrowed from merely traditional or fictitious objects. The entire passage appears to glance retrospect- ively at the manufacture and use of powerfully intoxicating compounds familiar to the people of Sodom, the knowledge of which may have been transmitted to much later times. The figures themselves are a tacit but striking warning against inflaming drinks ; no innocent substances, no good (dietetic) creatures, could have furnished such symbols to the poet-prophet of Israel. As the passage is part of a Hebrew poem, we may be permitted to convert it into English verse : Their vine from Sodom draws its birth, Reared in Gomorrah's putrid earth ; Their clustered-grapes are nought but gall, Their stalks are bitterness to all ; Their wine huge-reptiles' poison makes, And fiery gall of hooded snakes. Chapter XXXII. Verses 37, 38. 37 And he shall say, Where are their gods, their rock in whom they trusted; 38 Which did eat the fat of their sacrifices, and drank the wine of their drink-offerings ? let them rise up and help you, and be your protection. And drank the wine of their drink-offerings] Hebrew, yishtu yayn nesikahm, ' and drank the wine of their libations.' So Lxx. and V. The wine poured out before the heathen idols was figuratively supposed to be drunk by them ; and Jehovah is represented as asking His faithless people what had become of those gods who had eaten and drunk (i. e. accepted) their offerings, and then deserted them in the hour of their need. Chapter XXXII. Verse 42. I will make mine arrows drunk with blood, and my sword shall devour flesh ; and that with the blood of the slain and of the captives from the beginning of revenges upon the enemy. " The Hebrew reads, ashkir kkitzai mid-dahm, ' I will satiate (drench) my arrows from blood ' ; the Lxx. methuso ta belee mou aph? haimatos iraumation, ' I will drench my darts from the blood of the wounded'; the V., inebriabo sagittas meas sanguine, ' I will inebriate my arrows with blood. ' The T. of Jonathan gives 'I will drench my arrows in the blood of their slain.' The Hebrew ashkir comes from shakar y 'to drink freely' of any sweet drink, and hence to be in- toxicated if the drink is fermented. In this passage the figure is confined to the idea of repletion, the Divine arrows being described as made to drink till they are soaked with the blood of those who fell under them, so great should be the slaughter of the guilty. DEUTERONOMY, XXXIII. 28. 65 Chapter XXXIII. Verse 28. Israel then shall dwell in safety alone : the fountain of Jacob shall be upon a land of corn and wine; also his heavens shall drop down dew. The fountain of Jacob] Hebrew, ain Yaaqov, 'the fountain (or eye) of Jacob.' As the same Hebrew word signifies 'eye' and 'fountain,' the versions differ. The Targumists take it in the sense of overflowing 'benediction.' Upon a land of corn and wine] Hebrew, el-eretz dahgan va-tirosh. This and the previous clause are rendered by the Lxx. epi gees Iakob, epi sito kai oino, 'upon the land of Jacob, upon corn and wine.' The V. has ocuhis Jacob in terra frumenti ei vini, ' the eye Jacob in a land of corn and wine. ' The Syriac gives the usual triad — 'the fountain Jacob in a land of corn, and wine, and oil.' The Arabic reads, ' of expressed juice ' (etzer). By ' fountain ' many commentators understand ' offspring ' — his posterity spread like the waters of a fountain. If we read 'eye,' then it is a figure of the patriarch gazing with delight on the fruitful land prophetically stretched out before him. THE BOOK OF JOSHUA. Chapter V. Verse ii. And they did eat of the old corn of the land on the morrow after the passover, unleavened cakes, and parched corn in the self- same day. Unleavened cakes] Hebrew, matzotk, ' unfermented cakes.' The phrase ' selfsame day ' seems to indicate the eagerness with which the people, sick of the manna, desired to eat the fruits of this long-promised land. It is added, ' And the manna ceased ' ; teaching us that miracles of feeding are not works of supererogation, but disappear when the ordinary supplies of Providence are available. For the right use of these natural supplies men are as responsible as for the miraculous gifts, and for their abuse (by changing them) as sinful as the discontented Jews who loathed 'the bread from heaven.' Chapter IX. Verse 4. They did work wilily, and went and made as if they had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up. And wine bottles] Hebrew, va-nodoth yayin, 'and bottles of wine'; Lxx., askous oinou, 'skin bottles of wine ' ; V, utres vinarios, ' wine-bags.' Chapter IX. Verse 13. And these bottles of wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be rent : and these our garments and our shoes are become old by reason of the very long journey. And these bottles of wine] Hebrew, ve-alleh nodoth hay-yayin, ' and these bottles of the wine ' ; the Lxx., kai outoi oi askoi ton oinou, ' and these skin bottles of the wine ' ; the V., utres vini, 'bags of wine.' JOSHUA, XXIV. 13. 6 7 Chapter XV. Verse ii. And the border went out unto the side of Ekron northward : and the border was drawn to Shicron, and passed along to mount Baalah, and went out unto Jabneel • and the goings out of the border were at the sea. Shicron] Hebrew, Shikron, 'drinking' or 'drunkenness.' Shicron was a town on the northern border of Judah. The reason of its name can only be conjectured. It may have had some relation to the abundance of shakar, ' sweet drink,' obtained from neighboring palm trees, or from the indulgence of the people in shakar, when not always safe to be drunk [see Note on John iv. 5], or, possibly, some famous drinker may have founded the city, whose name became a memorial of his intemperance. Chapter XXIV. Verse 13. And I have given you a land for which ye did not labor, and cities which ye built not, and ye dwell in them; of the vineyards and olive- yards which ye planted not do ye eat. The Hebrew, kerahtnin ve-zailhim, signifies 'vineyards and olive trees.' Lxx. has ampelonas kai elaionas ; the V., vineas et olivetas. The THE BOOK OF JUDGES. Chapter IV. Verse 19. And he said unto her, Give me, I pray thee, a little water to drink ; for I am thirsty. And she opened a bottle of milk, and gave him drink, and covered him. Chapter V. Verse 25. He asked water, and she gave him milk; she brought forth butter in a lordly dish. Milk] Hebrew, kkahlahv, 'milk'; the Lxx., gala; the V., lac. Butter] Hebrew, khemah, 'butter-milk'; the Lxx., bouturon ; the V., butyrum. It was the kind of milk best suited to assuage the warrior's thirst. Some critics read 'cream,' or milk from which the cream was not separated. Some think that both a fluid and a more solid form of milk were given to Sisera. Butter was not used by the ancients, nor is it used by the Orientals of the present day except medi- cinally. Utterly unsupported is the notion that Jael gave Sisera camel's milk which had fermented, in order that he might be thrown into an intoxicated stupor. J. D. Michaelis, who had referred to Niebuhr as a witness for the intoxicating property of camel's milk, is contradicted by Rosenmuller, who observes, "Dicit potius Nie- buhrius lac camelinum Arabibus, salubre et refrigerans haberi " (Niebuhr rather says that the milk of the Arabs' camel is healthy and refreshing). It is not always that an erring Michaelis has a critical Rosenmuller on his track. It is not certain, or even probable, that Jael resolved upon Sisera' s death till he had fallen asleep. His re- quest for no beverage but water, ' for I am thirsty,' is an example by which modern soldiers might profit. "Some think," says Dr Gill, "he did not ask for wine because he knew the Kenites did not drink any, and so of course kept none in their tents ; but though this was the custom of the Rechabites, who were the same with the Kenites (Jer. xxxv. 8), yet it is very probable the custom had not obtained among them, since it was enjoined by Jonadab their father, who lived in the time of Jehu (2 Kings x. 15) : ' She opened a bottle of milk, and gave him to drink,' which she did rather out of courtesy, being a better liquor, or with design to throw him into a sleep, which milk inclines to, making heavy, as all the Jewish commentators observe ; though Josephus has no authority to say, as he does, that the milk she gave him was bad and corrupt." Dr Gill is too hard on Josephus, who states that the milk {gala) was diephthoros eedee, which Rosenmuller considers to mean ' acid already,' but not therefore bad to drink. JUDGES, IX. 12, 13. 69 Chapter VI. Verse 19. And Gideon went in, and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour : the flesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him under the oak, and presented it. Unleavened cakes] Hebrew, matzoth, ' unfermented cakes.' [The same word occurs in verse 20, and twice in verse 21, and is correctly translated in each case 'unleavened cakes,' and not 'unleavened bread,' as in most other places of the A. V.] Chapter VII. Verse 25. And they took two princes of the Midianites, Oreb and Zeeb; and they slew Oreb upon the rock Oreb, and Zeeb they slew at the wine- press of Zeeb, and pursued Midian, and brought the heads of Oreb and Zeeb to Gideon on the other side Jordan. ' At the winepress of Zeeb] Hebrew, ve-yeqev Zeab, 'in (or at) the wine- press of Zeeb.' He may have taken refuge inside the press, hoping to be concealed till the pursuit was relinquished. Chapter VIII. Verse 2. And he said unto them, What have I done now in comparison of you ? Is not the gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim better than the vintage of Abi-ezer ? The gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim] Hebrew, olloth Ephraim, 'the gleanings of Ephraim.' The words 'of the grapes' in the A. V. are not in the Hebrew, but the sense is the same. The vintage of Abi-ezer] Hebrew, batzir Abiezer. Batzir, 'vintage,' from bahtzar, ' to cut away ' ; hence the cutting off of grapes when ripe = the vintage. The country of Ephraim was so prolific in grapes, that gleaning them after the regular grape-gathering was more profitable than to pluck the vineyards possessed by the descendants of Abi-ezer. This fact passed into a proverb to illustrate the superiority of some men's small actions over the greatest actions of others. Chapter IX. Verses 12, 13. 12 Then said the trees unto the vine, Come thou, and reign over us. 13 And the vine said unto them, Should I leave my wine, which cheereth God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees ? V. 12. Unto the vine] Hebrew, bag-gaphen, 'to the vine.' V. 13. And the vine said unto them] Hebrew, vat-tomer lahhem hag-gephen, ' said to them the vine.' Should I leave my wine, which cheereth God and man] Hebrew, hekhadalti eth-tiroshi hamsatnmaakh elohim va-anahshim, 'should I leave my 70 JUDGES, IX. 27. tiros h (fruit), which gladdens gods and men ?' The Lxx. has mee apoleipsasa ion oinon mou ton euphrainonta theon kai anthropous, ' should I not be forsaking my wine, which rejoices God and men ? ' The Aldine and Complutensian editions of the Lxx. read, ton oinon [the Compl. ed., by a singular clerical error, has oikon, 'house'] mou teen euphrosuneen, tou theou kai ton anthropon, 'my wine the joy of God and of men.' Codex A has apheisa ton oinon mou teen euphrosuneen ton para tou theou kai ton anthropon, 'leaving my wine the joy of those with God and men.' The V. has numquid possum desereri vinum meum quod Icetificat Deum et homines, ' how can I forsake my wine, which delights God and men ? ' The Syriac and Arabic versions translate tiros hi, 'my fruit.' Jonathan has 'How should I forsake my wine (khamri), from which the princes make their libations before the Lord, and in which they take delight?" God and MAN] The Hebrew elohim and anahshim are both in the plural, and it has been thought that as Jotham related the parable to idolaters he intended by elohim the gods they worshiped. Others have suggested that by elohim and anahshim a contrast is designed between men of rank and the common people, so that the clause would then read, ' which cheers the high and low.' In this parable, the most ancient on record, the vine is represented as refusing to become king over the other trees ; and, as in the case of the olive and the fig tree, the refusal is based on the impropriety of renouncing its own natural produce and function for the sake of mere supremacy and honor. Better be useful than ambitious, is the moral of this apologue. The vine speaks of what appertains to itself — its tirosh, — just as the olive had spoken of its ' fatness,' and the fig tree of its 'sweetness.' From a Temperance point of view it is im- material whether by tirosh be understood the solid fruit of the vine, or the delicious juice contained in the ripening clusters, — the 'imprisoned wine ' {ho oinos pepedee- menos), as Anacreon styles it. For reasons already assigned, ' vine-fruit ' is the best English equivalent. The vulgar opinion that an intoxicating liquor is spoken of because it is said to ' cheer God and man,' does violence to the passage. God can only be pleased by the fruit of the vine as the work of His power and the gift of His goodness ; and man is cheered, first by the sight, and afterwards by the use of it as a part of his daily food. The supposition that nothing can ' cheer ' except it be of an intoxicating quality is not more sensual than it is absurd. The very word employed in this passage, samaakh, translated ' to cheer,' occurs as a noun in Psa. iv. 7 — "Thou hast put gladness (simkhah) into my heart more than in the time when their corn {deghanam) and their wine {tirosham) increased." This verse at once refutes the alcoholic gloss, and throws light upon the parable itself. The increase of corn and tirosh cheers the husbandman, but the favor of God gives greater cheer to the humble and trustful soul. Chapter IX. Verse 27. And they went out into the fields, and gathered their vineyards, and trode the grapes, and made merry, and went into the house of their god, and did eat and drink, and cursed Abimelech. And gathered their vineyards] Hebrew, vay-yivtzeru eth-karmaihem, ' and cut off (stripped) their vineyards,' i. e. cut off the fruit from the vines. JUDGES, XIII. 2 — 7, 13, 14, 24, 25. 71 And trode the grapes] Hebrew, vay-yidreku, * and they trode ' — the A. V. properly printing the words ' the grapes ' in italics to denote that they are added to complete the sense. And made merry] Hebrew, va-yaasu hillulim, * and they made songs ' (so the margin of the A. V. ), i. e. sang vintage songs. Gesenius suggests ' offered public thanksgivings.' The Lxx. transfers the Hebrew word, kai epoieesan Elloulim, * and they made Elloulim.' The V. has etfactis cantantium ckoris, ' and companies of singers having been formed. ' And did eat and drink, and cursed Abimelech] Hebrew, vay-yokelu vay-yishtu vayqallu eth-Abi?nelek, 'and they ate and drank, and cursed Abimelech.' It is not distinctly intimated that this feasting was conducive to the cursing in which the Shechemites indulged, but the rendering of the V. is peculiar, — et inter epulos et pocula maledicebant Abimelech, 'and between their feastings and cups they cursed Abimelech. ' Probably excited by inebriating liquor, they rioted and boasted with a foolish freedom that cost them dear. Chapter XIII. Verses 2 — 7, 13, 14, 24, 25. 2 And there was a certain man of Zorah, of the family of the Danites, whose name was Manoah; and his wife was barren, and bare not. 3 And the angel of the Lord appeared unto the woman, and said unto her, Behold now, thou art barren, and bearest not : but thou shalt conceive, and bear a son. 4 Now therefore beware, I pray thee, and drink not wine nor strong drink, and eat not any unclean thing : 5 For, lo, thou shalt conceive, and bear a son : and no razor shall come on his head : for the child shall be a Nazarite unto God from the womb : and he shall begin to deliver Israel out of the hand of the Philistines. 6 Then the woman came and told her husband, saying, A man of God came unto me, and his countenance was like the countenance of an angel of God, very terrible: but I asked him not whence he was, neither told he me his name : 7 But he said unto me, Behold, thou shalt conceive, and bear a son ; and now drink no wine nor strong drink, neither eat any unclean thing; for the child shall be a Nazarite to God from the womb to the day of his death. . . . i 3 And the angel of the Lord said unto Manoah, Of all that I said unto the woman let her beware. 14 She may not eat of any thing that cometh of the vine, neither let her drink wine or strong drink, nor eat any unclean thing: all that I com- manded her let her observe. .... 24 And the woman bare a son, and called his name Samson : and the child grew, and the Lord blessed him. 25 And the Spirit of the Lord began to move him at times in the camp of Dan between Zorah and Eshtaol. V. 4. Drink not wine nor strong drink] Hebrew, ve-al-tishti yayin ve-shakar, ' and thou shalt not drink wine and sweet drink. ' So also in verses 7 and 14. The Lxx., Codex A, has oinon kai sikera in each place, but Codex B has oinon kai methusma, 'wine and strong drink.' The Complutensian edition has sikeran. In each place the V. has vinum et siceram. The Targumists, as before, render yaym by ' new wine, ' and shakar by ' old wine. ' 72 JUDGES, XIII. 2—7, 13, 14, 24, 25. V. 14. Of any thing that cometh of the vine] Hebrew, mik-kol asher yatza mig-gephen hay-yayin, ' from all (anything) that comes forth from the vine of the wine,' i. e. the wine-tree. The Lxx. has ex ampelou ton oinou, 'from the vine of the wine.' The V. has simply ex vinea, 'from the vineyard.' Samson] Hebrew, Shimshon, 'sun-like." Josephus incorrectly interprets this name by ischuros, 'strong.' The Lxx. gives Sampson as the spelling, which has been extensively followed. 1. The partial Nazaritism enjoined by the celestial messenger, with so much emphasis and solemnity, upon the mother of Samson, ' Now therefore beware, I pray thee ' (ver. 4) ; 'Of all that I said unto the woman let her beware ' (ver. 13), is exceedingly noteworthy ; for, passing by the other peculiarities of the Nazarite code, the prohibitive injunction was limited to yayin, shakar, and the produce of the vine, and to things unclean. Rejecting the idea of an elaborate whim, can it be doubted that reasons of a. physiological nature dictated this command? Unless on the hypothesis of some benefit to her babe, it is inexplicable that she should have been subjected to the dietetic rule of the Nazarites. Modern medical inquiries have made clear the fact, surmised by some ancient philosophers, of the powerful influence of maternal regimen on the uterine condition and future health of children. It seems, therefore, legitimate to conclude that the mother of Samson was stringently guarded against all possible use of intoxicating liquors in order that her heroic son might gain the full benefit, not of his own abstinence only, but of hers, from the period of his conception to his birth. That indulgence in the use of strong drink by expectant mothers would be injurious to their offspring, was known to the learned and wise among the ancients. Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, etc., have noticed the hereditary transmission of intemperate propensities, and the legislation that imposed abstinence upon women had unquestionably in view the greater vigor of offspring — the mens sana in corpore sano (healthy mind in a healthy body), — one of the choicest inheritances of the human race. Matthew Henry aptly remarks, "Women with child ought conscientiously to avoid whatever they have reason to think will be in any way prejudicial to the health or good constitution of the fruit of their body. And perhaps Samson's mother was to refrain from wine and strong drink, not only because he was designed for a Nazarite, but because he was designed for a man of strength, which his mother's temperance would con- tribute to." 2. The Nazaritism of Samson was to be complete and lifelong. Nor is there reason to doubt his fidelity to this part of his vow. In chapter xv. 18, 19, we have an account of one great triumph at the close of which "he was sore athirst, and called on the Lord," who "clave a hollow place that was in the jaw [or, in Lehi], and there came water thereout; and when he had drunk, his spirit came again and he revived." [See Note upon this verse.] Would that lesser heroes had been content to ' revive their spirits ' as innocently as did this scourge of the Philistines ! It is not pretended by any advocate of Temperance that Samson's abstinence was the cause of his stupendous strength : that was supernatural ; yet it may be legiti- mately inferred that this abstinence would not have been enjoined had intoxicating liquors possessed that invigorating property which has been ascribed to them. The Note in Bagster's 'Treasury Bible' (partially quoted under Numb. vi. 3) has this reference: — "It maybe here observed that when God intended to raise up Samson by his strength of body to scourge the enemies of Israel, He ordered that from his infancy he should drink no wine, but live by the rule of the Nazarites, JUDGES, XIII. 2—7, 13, 14, 24, 25. 73 because that would greatly contribute to make him strong and healthy, intending, after Nature had done her titmost to form this extraordinary instrument of His pro- vidence, to supply her defects by His own supernatural power." It is incredible that the Most High should have deprived His ' chosen vessel ' of the class of articles necessary, or peculiarly conducive, to the highest development of his constitution ; and an intelligent perusal of this passage would have sufficed to nip in the bud that most pestiferous of physical superstitions, which has associated human energy, vitality, and longevity, with some use of alcoholic liquors. Classical literature is not deficient in passages that may compare with the one under consideration. The reader of the 'Iliad' will remember that Homer represents Hecuba as saying to her son Hector, ' to a weary man wine imparts great strength ' — andri de kekmeebti menos mega oinos aexei ; but the hero, wiser on this point than the anxious mother, answers, " Bring me not, honored mother, the wine, sweet as honey to the soul, lest thou shouldst weaken my limbs, and I should be forgetful of both strength and courage," — Mee mot oitwn, aeire meliphrona, potnia meeter, Mee meapoguiosees, menos d'alkees te lathomai. Iliad, Book VI., v. 265-6. Pope's note on these lines is striking : — "This maxim of Hector's concerning wine has a great deal of truth in it. It is a vulgar mistake to imagine the use of wine either rouses the spirits or increases strength. The best physicians agree with Homer on this point, whatever modern soldiers may object to this old heroic regimen. We may take notice that Samson as well as Hector was a water- drinker, for he was a Nazarite by vow, and as such was forbid the use of wine, — to which Milton alludes in his ' Samson Agonistes.' " Pope proceeds to quote the reply of Samson to the chorus ; but it is better to cite the whole of the lines relating to Samson's abstinence, as they appear in Milton's noble drama. Speaking to himself, the hero says, — "Abstemious I grew up, and thrived amain." The chorus speaks : — "Desire of wine, and all delicious drinks, Which many a famous warrior overturns, Thou couldst repress : nor did the dancing ruby Sparkling, outpoured, the flavor, or the smell, Or taste that cheers the hearts of gods and men, Allure thee from the cool crystalline stream." To which Samson replies, — " Wherever fountain or fresh current flowed Against the Eastern ray, translucent, pure, With touch ethereal of heaven's fiery red, I drank, from the clear milky juice allaying Thirst, and refreshed ; nor envied them the grape Whose heads that turbulent liquor fills with fumes." The chorus then responds, — " O madness ! to think use of strongest wines And strongest drinks our chief support of health, When God, with these forbidden, made choice to rear His mighty champion strong above compare, Whose drink was only from the liquid brook." *" 3. On verses 24 and 25 Matthew Henry remarks : — "Strong men think them- selves greatly animated by wine (Psa. lxxviii. 65), but Samson drank no wine, and yet excelled in strength and courage, and everything bold and brave, for he had * Milton used ' liquid ' in the Latin sense of liquidus, clear, limpid. 10 74 judges, xv. 5, 1 8, 19. the Spirit of God moving him ; therefore, ' be not drunk with wine, but be filled with the Spirit,' who will come to those that are sober and temperate." That Samson's life was not perfect in a moral and spiritual sense is apparent from the historic notices preserved to us. This fact, however, gives no support to the popular plea that abstinence is no benefit, since Sepoys, Mohammedans, and other abstainers, are both cruel and impure; for man being so prone to evil from nature (the inference is inevitably suggested), the greater is the reason why he should sedulously guard against further perversion, by renouncing that which, in disturb- ing his brain, augments his depravity. In spite of his abstinence from ' turbulent liquors,' not because of it, Samson was beguiled; and while the value of abstinence is not, on that account, lessened, we have clearly impressed upon us the necessity of divine guidance and personal watchfulness in all things, to the well ordering of the Christian fife and the growth of the ' inner man \ in all the graces and virtues of the Spirit. Chapter XIV. Verse 5. Then went Samson down, and his father and his mother, to Tim- nath, and came to the vineyards of Timnath : and, behold, a young lion roared against him. To the vineyards OF Timnath] Hebrew, ad karmai Thimnathah, ' to the cultivated grounds of Ti mn ath.' Chapter XV. Verse 5. And when he had set the brands on fire, he let them go into the standing corn of the Philistines, and burnt up both the shocks, and also the standing corn, with the vineyards and olives. With the vineyards and olives] Hebrew, ve-ad kerem zaith, 'and to the kerem of the olive tree.' Here kerem is applied, not to a vineyard merely, but generically to ' cultivated land ' ; and the meaning is that the fire kindled by the foxes or jackals sent by Samson into the fields of standing corn, spread beyond the limits of the corn district, and seized upon the plot devoted to the cultivation of the olive. Chapter XV. Verses 18, 19. 18 And he was sore athirst, and called on the Lord, and said, Thou hast given this great deliverance into the hand of thy servant : and now shall I die for thirst, and fall into the hand of the uncircum- cised ? 19 But God clave an hollow place that was in the jaw, and there came water thereout ; and when he had drunk, his spirit came again, and he revived : wherefore he called the name thereof Enhak- kore, which is in Lehi unto this day. It is not necessary to believe that water came from a hollow place made in the ass's jaw. The marginal reading is 'in Lehi ' ; and as the place where the victory was gained was called Lehi \_Lekhi, jaw-bone], the historian intimates that out of a JUDGES, XIX. 19. 75 small rocky hollow God caused a spring to burst forth, by whose pure water the spirit of Israel's 'mighty champion' was revived. Chapter XVI. Verse 4. And it came to pass afterward, that he loved a woman in the valley of Sorek, whose name was Delilah. In the valley of Sorek] Hebrew, benahkal Sorak, 'in the ravine of Sorek.' The margin of A. V. has ' by the brook of Sorek ' ; and, as before noticed, many of the ravines of Palestine, which are dry in summer, become the beds of deep torrents in the rainy season. The ravine of Sorek was situated near the ravine of Eshcol, both famous for the size and luscious quality of their grapes. The fame of this valley is thought to have given a name to some particular kind of wine, or to a wine of special excellence, as early as the days of Jacob. [See Notes on Gen. xlix. 11; Isa. v. 2; Jer. ii. 21.] Chapter XVI. Verse 25. And it came to pass, when their hearts were merry, that they said, Call for Samson, that he may make us sport. And they called for Samson out of the prison house ; and he made them sport : and they set him between the pillars. When their hearts were merry] Hebrew, Wyetov libahm, 'when it was good to their hearts '=when their hearts felt light or cheerful. This is an idiomatic expression, quite different from the phrase used of Joseph and his brethren (Gen. xliii. 34), and from the other used of the Shechemites ( Judg. ix. 27), and rendered 'merry.' That the mirth of the Philistines, however, on the occasion was stimu- lated by indulgence in strong drink is highly probable. They had come ' to offer a great sacrifice to Dagon,' and revelry was the general concomitant of idolatrous rites. The expression here employed is in other places distinctly associated with strong drink and drinking excesses. (See Notes on 1 Sam. xxv. 36; 2 Sam. xiii. 28; Est. i. 10.) Hence Milton may be acquitted of injustice to this Philistian gathering when he puts into the mouth of the messenger the words, — " The feast and noon grew high, and sacrifice Had filled their hearts with mirth, high cheer, and wine, When to their sports they turned." To which the semichorus adds that they were — " Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine." Chapter XIX. Verse 19. Yet there is both straw and provender for our asses ; and there is bread and wine also for me, and for thy handmaid, and for the young man which is with thy servants : there is no want of any thing. 76 JUDGES, XXI. 19 — 21. Bread and wine] Hebrew, lekhem ve-yayin. The Lxx. has artoi kai oinos, 'loaves and wine ' ; the V., panem ac vinum, 'bread and wine.' Chapter XXI. Verses 19 — 21. 19 Then they said, Behold, there is a feast of the Lord in Shiloh yearly in a place which is on the north side of Beth-el, on the east side of the highway that goeth up from Beth-el to Shechem, and on the south of Lebonah. 20 Therefore they commanded the children of Benjamin, saying, Go and lie in wait in the vineyards; 21 And see, and, behold, if the daughters of Shiloh come out to dance in dances, then come ye out of the vineyards, and catch you every man his wife of the daughters of Shiloh, and go to the land of Benjamin. V. 19. A FEAST OF the Lord] Hebrew, khag-Yehovah, 'a festival of Jehovah,' = a festival in honor of Jehovah. This word feast, as distinguished from mishtek, is derived from khahgag, ' to move in a circle,' and signifies the sacred dance per- formed at appointed times. [For the use of khahgag'm reference to excess, see Note on Psa. cvii. 27.] V. 20. In the vineyards] Hebrew, battrahmim, 'in vineyards.' V. 21. Out of the vineyards] Hebrew, min-hak Wahmim, 'from the vine- yards.' Note the use oimin as 'out' or 'from.' THE BOOK OF RUTH. Chapter II. Verses 8, 9. 14. 8 Then said Boaz unto Ruth, Hearest thou not, my daughter ? Go not to glean in another field, neither go from hence, but abide here fast by my maidens : 9 Let thine eyes be on the field that they do reap, and go thou after them: have I not charged the young men that they shall not touch thee? and when thou art athirst, go unto the vessels, and drink of that which the young men have drawn. . . . 14 And Boaz said unto her, At meal-time come thou hither, and eat of the bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. And she sat beside the reapers : and he reached her parched com, and she did eat, and was sufficed, and left. V. 9. Drink of that which the young men have drawn] The Hebrew for 'have drawn ' is yishabun from shahav, ' to draw water.' The Lxx. has kai piesai othen ean hudreuontai ta paidaria, * and drink of that which the youths shall have drawn of water.' The V. is et bibe aquas de quibus et pueri bibunt, ' and drink the waters from which also the youths drink.' This wealthy Bethlehemite supplied his reapers with water, and probably found his harvest work despatched more quickly, and certainly more soberly, than the farmers of England get theirs executed on cider and beer. V. 14. In the vinegar] Hebrew, ba-khometz, 'in the fermented drink' — pro- bably sour wine (vin-aigre = vinegar), similar to theposca served out to the Roman legionaries. The Syriac adds she 'dipped the bread in milk,' and the Arabic has 'she poured milk upon it' (the bread). Dr Gill remarks, "Vinegar was used because of the heat of the season, as Jarchi and Aben Ezra remark, for cooling and refreshment; and such virtues Pliny ascribes to vinegar as being refreshing to the spirits, binding and bracing the nerves, and very corroborating and strengthen- ing ; and it is at this day used in Italy, it is said, in harvest-time, when it is hot, where they also used wine mixed with vinegar and water, as Lavater says ; and who from a learned physician observes, that reapers instead of wine use vinegar mixed with a great deal of water, which they call 'household wine,' allayed with water ; to which if oil and bread be put it makes a cooling meal, good for work- men and travelers in the heat of the sun ; and the Targum calls it pottage boiled in vinegar. The Romans had an embamma or sauce made of vinegar, in which they dipped their food, and Theocritus makes mention of vinegar as used by reapers." 78 RUTH, III. 7. Chapter III. Verse 7. And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, and his heart was merry, he went to lie down at the end of the heap of corn : and she came softly, and uncovered his feet, and laid her down. And his heart was merry] Hebrew, 'and he was good as to his heart.' [See Note on Judg. xvi. 25.] It is not said what Boaz ate and drank, but that he might be merry without partaking of intoxicants is well known to those who have made the experiment. THE FIRST BOOK OF SAMUEL. Chapter I. Verses 9 — 17. 9 So Hannah rose up after they had eaten in Shiloh, and after they had drunk : (now Eli the priest sat upon a seat by a post of the temple of the Lord :) 10 And she was in bitterness of soul, and prayed unto the Lord, and wept sore, u And she vowed a vow, and said, O Lord of hosts, if thou wilt indeed look on the affliction of thine handmaid, and remember me, and not forget thine handmaid, but wilt give unto thine handmaid a man child, then I will give him unto the Lord all the days of his life, and there shall no razor come upon his head. 12 And it came to pass, as she continued praying before the Lord, that Eli marked her mouth. 13 Now Hannah, she spake in her heart; only her lips moved, but her voice was not heard: therefore Eli thought she had been drunken. 14 And Eli said unto her, How long wilt thou be drunken : put away thy wine from thee, is And Hannah answered and said, No, my lord, I am a woman of a sorrowful spirit : I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink, but have poured out my soul before the Lord. 16 Count not thine handmaid for a daughter of Belial : for out of the abundance of my complaint and grief have I spoken hitherto. 17 Then Eli answered and said, Go in peace : and the God of Israel grant thee thy petition that thou hast asked of him. V. 9. After they had drunk] The Lxx. has meta to phagein autous, * after they had eaten,' adding the words, not in our Hebrew text, ' and she stood before the Lord.' Codex A and the Complutensian edition give also, 'and after they had drunk,' and the Complut. ed. omits 'and she stood before the Lord.' The V. has postquam comederat et biberat, 'after she had eaten and drunk.' So reads the Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel. V. II. I WILL GIVE HIM UNTO THE LORD ALL THE DAYS OF HIS LIFE] This was in effect a dedication of her wished-for son to a life-long Nazaritism. The Lxx. has a clause not found in the Hebrew text or V. version — kai oinon kai methusma ou pietai, ' and of wine and strong drink he shall not drink. ' Philo quotes this clause, and pointedly refers to Samuel as ' chief of kings and prophets,' and as a Nazarite for life. V. 13. Therefore Eli thought she had been drunken] Hebrew, leshikorah, ' for a drunken woman. ' So the Lxx., eis methuousan ; and the V., temulentiam (from temetum, the old Latin word for intoxicating wine). 80 I SAMUEL, I. 24. V. 14. How long wilt thou be drunken ?] Hebrew, ad-mathi tishtakkahrin; Lxx., heds pote methustheesee ; V., tisquequb ebria eris? Put away thy wine from thee] Hebrew, hahsiri eth-yaynak maahlaik ; the ~Lxx.,perielou ton oinon sou [Codex A adds apo sou'] kai poreuou ek prosdpou kuriou, ' put away thy wine and depart from the presence of the Lord ' ; the V. has digere paulisper vini qtw mades, 'get rid quickly of the wine in which thou art steeped.' V. 15. I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink] Hebrew, ve-yayin ve-shakar lo shathithi, 'wine and strong drink I have not drunk' ; the Lxx., kai oinon kai methusma ou pepoka, ' and wine and strong drink I have not drunk ' ; the V., vinumque et omne quod inebriare potest non bibi, 'and wine and whatever is able to inebriate I have not drunk. ' The Ts. read, ' new wine and old I have not drunk.' A devout Hebrew matron, sorrowful from want of offspring and the exultation of a rival wife, goes up to the tabernacle to pour out her soul before God. Eli, the high priest, observing that her lips moved, and that she was under deep excite- ment, suspects her of intoxication, a suspicion which he bluntly expresses, jealous no doubt for the honor of the holy place. She respectfully repudiates the charge, and with so much evident sincerity that Eli not only credits her statement, but bestows on her his pontifical benediction. It may be noted, — 1. That the readiness with which Eli concludes as to Hannah's inebriation in- dicates a prevailing corruption of morals, which had taken this peculiar form, and had deeply infected even the female population. 2. That Hannah's disclaimer was associated with a conclusive proof of her inno- cence — 'I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink.' Where this statement can be truly made, drunkenness, in all its degrees, is impossible. The importance of being able to declare this is not small, for the speaker is then sure (as otherwise he may not be) that he is entirely free from alcoholic excitement, which, if short of intoxication, is injurious to body and soul. 'I am not excited by drink,' is a conviction only attainable by abstinence, and not a little consoling under reproach. Hannah, be it noted, did not resort to intoxicating liquor to drive out or drown her sorrows — a striking contrast to the supposed permission in Prov. xxxi. 6, 7. (See Note on that passage.) She sought comfort not in potations, but in prayer, — 'I have poured out my soul unto the Lord,' — and she received her reward. Would that all our women were like her ! 3. When Hannah desired not to be counted ' a daughter of Belial ' — i. e. a daughter of wickedness or destruction — she presented a vivid description of every female drunkard, who is so corrupted by drink as to lose all womanly virtue, and to be prepared for every shameful deed. Drunkenness in women is peculiarly odious and horrible, and when it becomes confirmed is well-nigh incurable, except by forcible deprivation of the raging liquor. In order to arrest the spread of this corrosive vice among the women of Christendom, should Christians esteem absti- nence from its physical cause too great a sacrifice to be volunteered ? Chapter I. Verse 24. And when she had weaned him, she took him up with her, with three bullocks, and one ephah of flour, and a bottle of wine, and brought him unto the house of the Lord in Shiloh : and the child was young. I SAMUEL, XIV. 2. 8 1 And a bottle of wine] Hebrew, ve-nabel yayin, ' and a bottle of wine.' This was as an offering, together with the flour and the three bullocks (or as the Lxx. reads, ' one bullock of three years old ' ). The Lxx. retains the Hebrew word in kai nebel oinou, ' and a nebel of wine. ' The V. has et amphora vini, ' and an amphora of wine.' The Roman amphora was a two-handled jar commonly holding seven English gallons, but the word is here used without any intention of defining the size of the Hebrew nebel. Chapter VIII. Verse 14, 15. 14 And he will take your fields, and your vineyards, and your olive- yards, even the best of them, and give them to his servants. 15 And he will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, and give to his officers, and to his servants. Your vineyards] Hebrew, karmaikem, 'your vineyards.' Chapter X. Verse 3. Then shalt thou go on forward from thence, and thou shalt come to the plain of Tabor, and there shall meet thee three men going up to God to Beth-el, one carrying three kids, and another carrying three loaves of bread, and another carrying a bottle of wine. A bottle of wine] Hebrew, nabel yayin. The Lxx. gives askon oinou, * skin- bag of wine'; the V., lagenam vini, 'flagon of wine.' Chapter XIV. Verse 2. And Saul tarried in the uttermost part of Gibeah under a pome- granate tree which is in Migron : and the people that were with him were about six hundred men. A pomegranate tree] Hebrew, Rimmon. The Lxx. has hupo teen rhoan, 'under the pomegranate'; the V., sub malogranato, 'under the malegranate. ' But by Rimmon in this passage is probably meant a fortified place which had de- rived its name from the growth of the pomegranate. Concerning this tree the 'Treasury Bible' observes, "It is, according to the Linnsean system, a genus of the Icosandria Monogynia class of plants, and is a low tree growing very commonly in Palestine and other parts of the East. It has several small angular boughs, very thick and bushy, covered with a reddish bark, and some of them armed with sharp thorns. Its blossoms are large, of an elegant red color inclining to purple, com- posed of several stalks resembling a rose, in the hollow of the cup ; this cup is oblong, hard, purple, having a figure somewhat like that of a bell. It is chiefly valued for its fruit, which is exceedingly beautiful, of the form and size of a large apple, with a reddish rind, and red within ; being full of small kernels, with red grains, replenished with a generous liquor, of which, Sir John Chardin informs us they still make considerable quantities of wine in the East, particularly in Persia." [See Note on Song of Sol. viii. 2.] 11 82 I SAMUEL, XXV. II, 1 8, 36 — 38. Chapter XVI. Verse 20. And Jesse took an ass laden with bread, and a bottle of wine, and a kid, and sent them by David his son unto Saul. And a bottle of wine] Hebrew, ve-nod yayin, 'and a bottle of wine.' Chapter XXII. Verse 7. Then Saul said unto his servants that stood about him, Hear now, ye Benjamites; will the son of Jesse give every one of you fields and vineyards, and make you all captains of thousands, and captains of hundreds ? And vineyards] Hebrew, u-krahmin, 'and vineyards.' Chapter XXV. Verses ii, 18, 36—38. 11 Shall I then take my bread, and my water, and my flesh that I have killed for my shearers, and give it unto men, whom I know not whence they be? . . . 18 Then Abigail made haste, and took two hundred loaves, and two bottles of wine, and five sheep ready dressed, and five measures of parched earn, and an hundred clusters of raisins, and two hundred cakes of figs, and laid them on asses. ... 36 And Abi- gail came to Nabal ; and, behold, he held a feast in his house, like the feast of a king ; and Nabal's heart was merry within him, for he was very drunken : wherefore she told him nothing, less or more, until the morning light. 37 But it came to pass in the morning, when the wine was gone out of Nabal, and his wife had told him these things, that his heart died within him, and he became as a stone. 38 And it came to pass about ten days after, that the Lord smote Nabal, so that he died. V. 11. And my water] Hebrew, ve-etk-mamai, 'and my waters' — a Hebrew idiom which, the V. preserves, et aquas meas. The Lxx. singularly reads, kai ton oinon mou, ' and my wine.' Did the Lxx. translators think that Nabal, being a sot, ironically or figuratively spoke of wine as ' my water ' ? Aquila gives amphoreis, 'jars.' The T. of Jonathan and the Arabic have ' my drink.' V. 18. Two bottles of wine] Hebrew, ushnaim nivlai yayin. The Lxx. has duo angeia oinou, 'two vases (or vessels) of wine'; the V., duos utres vini, ' two leathern bags of wine.' A hundred clusters of raisins] Hebrew, umaah tzimmuqim, ' and a hun- dred raisin-clusters' — from tzahmaq, 'to dry up.' The Lxx. reads, kai gomor hen staphidon, ' and one homer of raisins ' ; but other copies have kai hekaton endes- mous, 'and a hundred bunches.' The V. gives et centui?i ligaturas uvce passce, ' and a hundred bunches of dried grapes.' V. 36. A feast] Hebrew, miskteh; the Lxx. potos ; the V., convivium. His heart was merry] The Hebrew has the idiomatic ' his heart was good to him.' The Lxx. is literal, agathee, 'good'; the V., jocundum, 'jocund' 'or gay.' I SAMUEL, XXX. II, 12. 83 For he was very drunken] The Hebrew is shikkor ad meod, ' drunken (or drenched) with force ' — i. e. excessively; the Lxx., kai autos methuon heds sphodra, 'and he was being drunk, even exceedingly'; the V., erat enim ebrius nimis, 'for he was drunk very much.' V. 37. When the wine was gone out of Nabal] Hebrew, v'tzath hay- yayin min Nabal, 'in the going out of the wine from Nabal'; Lxx., hos exeneepsen apo tou oinou Nabal, 'when Nabal had become sober from the wine.' The phrase here employed for 'becoming sober' is remarkable; it lite- rally signifies 'becoming as an abstainer'' — as those are who drink not. The word was often used by the Apostles in after times. [See Notes on the New Testa- ment.] The V. has here cum digessisset vinum Nabal, ' when Nabal had digested the wine.' The phrase 'going out' is singularly accurate, for though perhaps merely intended to describe the subsidence of the intoxication produced by the wine, it exactly accords with the most recent discoveries of science, that intoxication passes off because the alcoholic spirit does go out of the body — being expelled from it by all the excretory organs as an intruder into and disturber of the living house which God has 'fearfully and wonderfully made.' Nabal may have been prone to folly by his natural temperament and disposition, but his habits of life made the folly chronic and incurable. Free drinking had not disposed him to generosity or justice, and in the morning, after a debauch, having learnt the danger he had incurred, his nervous system was too enfeebled to recover from the shock it received, and so in ten days he died. Chapter XXVI. Verse ii. The Lord forbid that I should stretch forth mine hand against the Lord's anointed : but, I pray thee, take thou now the spear that is at his bolster, and the cruse of water, and let us go. And the cruse of water] Hebrew, ve-eth-tzappakhath ham-maim, ' and the cruse of the waters ' = the water-skin. The Lxx. has ton phakon tou hudatos, ' the lentil-shaped vase of water.' Aquila has angos, 'a vase'; Symmachus, nuk- topotion, ' a night-drinking vessel ' ; the V., scyphum aquce, ' a goblet of water.' The king of Israel did not disdain to carry with him a water-vessel on this expedition, and the statement (ver. 12) that David took it from Saul's bolster, proves the value attached to it by the royal traveler. Chapter XXX. Verses ii, 12. 11 And they found an Egyptian in the field, and brought him to David, and gave him bread, and he did eat; and they made him drink water ; 12 And they gave him a piece of a cake of figs, and two clusters of raisins : and when he had eaten, his spirit came again to him : for he had eaten no bread, nor drunk any water, three days and three nights. V. 12. And two clusters of raisins] Hebrew, ushnai tzimmuqim, ' and two raisin clusters.' Codex B of the Lxx. omits this clause, but Codex A has k6t\ 84 I SAMUEL, XXX. 1 6. diakosious stapkidas, ' and two hundred raisins.' Aquila gives kai duo stapkidas, 'and two raisins'; Symmachus, endesmous staphidon, 'bunches of raisins'; the V., et duas ligaturas uvce passes, 'and two bunches of dried grapes.' As David's men gave the fainting Egyptian water only, most probably they were themselves provided with no other drink; and upon' it, with bread and fruit, he was soon 'refreshed,' though for a period of almost seventy hours he had been deprived of every kind of sustenance. If inebriating liquors were unknown, many emergencies in which they are deemed essential for safety would be surmounted successfully, nay, more easily without them. Chapter XXX. Verse 16. And when he had brought him down, behold, they were spread abroad upon all the earth, eating, and drinking, and dancing, because of all the great spoil that they had taken out of the land of the Phi- listines, and out of the land of Judah. Eating, and drinking, and dancing] Hebrew, oklim, veshothim, vekhoggim. The Lxx. has esthiontes, kai pinontes, kai heortazontes, ' eating, drinking, and fes- tival-keeping ' ; the V.; comedentes, et bibentes, et quasi festum celebrantus diem, ' eating and drinking, and celebrating as it were a feast day.' These Amalekites were caught much in the same predicament as the troops of the confederate kings when overtaken by Abraham. History has often repeated itself in the surprise and rout of intemperate marauders. THE SECOND BOOK OF SAMUEL. Chapter VI. Verse 19. And he dealt among all the people, even among the whole multi- tude of Israel, as well to the women as men, to every one a cake of bread, and a good piece of flesh, and a flagon of wine. So all the people departed every one to his house. A flagon of wine] Hebrew, ashishah, 'a raisin-cake.' The Lxx. has laga- non apo teeganou, 'a cake-cooked-with-oil from the frying-pan' =a pancake or fricassee. The rendering of the V. is similam frixam oleo, ' and fine flour fried in oil,' this similam being, perhaps, related to simnellus whence the English ' sinnel,' a sweet cake. The T. of Jonathan gives ' one portion ' (manthah khadah). The Syriac has a 'cake.' The English translators, seemingly puzzled with this word, rendered it 'flagon,' a vessel for liquids, but thinking that a dry flagon would be of little use, added in italics, 'of wine.' [On Ashishah see Prel. Dis.] Gesenius, who derives ashisk from an unused root signifying 'to press together,' describes ashishim (the plural) as " liba, cakes, specially- such as were made of grapes, and dried and pressed into a certain form. They are mentioned as dainties, with which those who were wearied with a journey and languid were refreshed. This word differs from tzimmnq, i. e. dried grapes, but not pressed to- gether into a cake. ' ' Elsewhere he speaks of ashish as ' a cake of dried fg-s, ' though in distinguishing it in another place from debalim, cakes of dried figs, he refers to the Mishna as explaining it to be 'cakes made of boiled lentiles.' [See Notes on the parallel passage, I Chron. xvi. 3; and on Song of Sol. ii. 5, and Hos. hi. I.] Chapter XL Verse 13. And when David had called him, he did eat and drink before him ; and he made him drunk: and at even he went out to lie on his bed with the servants of his lord, but went not down to his house. And HE made him drunk] Hebrew, vayshakrahu, ' and he made him drunk ' (or satiated with shakar). The Lxx. reads, kai emethusen auton ; the V., et inebriavit eum, 'and he inebriated him.' No transaction of David's life reflects upon him so much disgrace as the one portrayed in this narrative. When he sent for Uriah, in order to conceal the 86 2 SAMUEL, XVI. I, 2. effect of his sinful intercourse with Bathsheba, he employed the drink that was a mocker to overcome the scruples of his valiant servant. Uriah yielded to the liquor with which he was plied, but failing to do as the king desired, his death was resolved upon, and brought about with great baseness. It is instructive to notice what instrument was employed by the guilty monarch to excite merely animal con- cupiscence in the hardy soldier; nor is it irrelevant to suggest that 'the lust which conceived and brought forth sin' in the sweet singer of Israel may have been stimulated by the same distempering draught. Chapter XIII. Verse 28. Now Absalom had commanded his servants, saying, Mark ye now when Amnon's heart is merry with wine, and when I say unto you, Smite Amnon ; then kill him, fear not : have not I commanded you ? be courageous, and be valiant. When Amnon's heart is merry with wine] Hebrew, ketov lav Amnon bay-yayin, 'when good (is) the heart of Amnon with (or by) wine.' The Lxx. gives idete hds an agathunthee hee kardia Amnon en to oino, ' see when the heart of Amnon shall become good with wine.' The V. has observate cum temulentus fuerit Amnon vino, 'mark when Amnon shall be intoxicated with wine.' Absalom chose for the exaction of his revenge the period when his brother, by means of the wine, was both thrown off his guard and least able to defend himself. That Amnon should have been 'given to wine' is a trait in his character con- sistent with the unbridled licentiousness that was bringing upon him his brother's vengeance. We can hardly suppose the connection of the vices to have been one of simple co-existence, though the silence of the history does not warrant a very positive opinion on the point. Chapter XVI. Verses i, 2. 1 And when David was a little past the top of the hill, behold, Ziba the servant of Mephibosheth met him, with a couple of asses saddled, and upon them two hundred loaves of bread, and an hundred bunches of raisins, and an hundred of summer fruits, and a bottle of wine. 2 And the king said unto Ziba, What meanest thou by these ? And Ziba said, The asses be for the king's household to ride on ; and the bread and summer fruit for the young men to eat ; and the wine, that such as be faint in the wilderness may drink. V. 1. And a hundred bunches of raisins] Hebrew, u-maah tzimmuqim, 'and a hundred raisin-bunches.' The Lxx. has kai hekaton staphides, 'and a hundred raisins ' ; the V., et centum alligaturis uvce passce, 'and with a hundred bunches of dried grapes.' The T. of Jonathan has 'a hundred stalks of grapes ' (with the grapes on). And a bottle of wine] Hebrew, ve-navel yayin. The Lxx. gives kai nebel oinou, ' and a nebel of wine ' ; the V., et utre vini, ' and (laden) with a skin-bag of wine.' V. 2. And the wine] Hebrew, ve-hay-yayin, 'and the wine'; Lxx., oinos ; the V., vinum. 2 SAMUEL, XXIII. 1 5 — 1 7. 87 The solid substances here enumerated were for food, the single bottle of yayin for any who might faint. The wine might or might not be alcoholic. Were intoxi- cating liquors now restricted to contingencies like the one described in this passage, their use, whether necessary or not, would be strictly medicinal, and society would be saved from the ravages of an endemic and ceaseless pest. Chapter XXIII. Verses 15—17. is And David longed, and said, Oh that one would give me drink of the water of the well of Beth-lehem, which is by the gate ! 16 And the three mighty men brake through the host of the Philistines, and drew water out of the well of Beth-lehem, that was by the gate, and took it, and brought it to David : nevertheless he would not drink thereof, but poured it out unto the Lord. 17 And he said, Be it far from me, O Lord, that I should do this : is not this the blood of the men that went in jeopardy of their lives? therefore he would not drink it. These things did these three mighty men. It was natural that David should long for a draught of water from the well of Bethlehem — a well dear to him, no doubt, from many early associations. Often when a shepherd youth had it slaked his thirst and that of the flock he tended, and now he sighs for a beaker of the cool clear beverage. Three of his noblest captains watch the woods, and hasten to realize their monarch's wish. They pierce through the Philistian lines, draw the water, and return. David's eye bespeaks his pleasure and his gratitude, but before the liquid treasure is at his lips he pours it out as a libation to the Lord, with words of dedication that must have solemnly impressed all who stood around him. The bright water, as he looked upon it, seemed to take a scarlet tinge when he thought of the lives that had been risked to fetch it, 'therefore he would not drink it.' It had been obtained by courage and affection inspired of God, and to Him it should be offered. David never was more magnanimous than at this moment. Truly was he now the ' man after God's own heart,' and never dearer than at that time to his mighty men and faithful soldiers. This deed was a psalm, sublime in its significance, and for ever sweet to all loving hearts in its pure simplicity. Is the Christian world prepared to imitate as well as to admire this act of David ? He had before him that which was endeared to him by memory, useful in itself, and very desirable to him under the circumstances ; but he 'would not drink of it,' because life had been risked, not lost, in its pro- curement. Christians have before them drinks which can boast no such innocent reminiscences — which are not necessary — of little or no use — nay, certainly of some injury habitually consumed — which are not procurable without an enormous waste of food and much needless labor on the Lord's day — drinks, the common sale and use of which floods the kingdom with every species of vice, misery, want, sickness, sin, and shame, slaying hecatombs year by year, till the number of victims baffles computation. Shall Christians drink such liquors ? If they will, can they claim moral equality with the king of Israel ? and how do they vindicate their spiritual relationship with David's Son and Lord, who poured out His own blood for the ungodly ? To say the least, how must inferiority and inconsistency be confessed when, in spite of reiterated teaching and appeal, intoxicating beverages are per- sistently used by those who glory that they live under a dispensation greater, be- cause more spiritual, than that which branched forth in the laws of Moses and blossomed in the lyrics of the son of Jesse ! THE FIRST BOOK OF KINGS. Chapter IV. Verse 20. Judah and Israel were many, as the sand which is by the sea in multitude, eating and drinking, and making merry. Eating and drinking, and making merry] Hebrew, oklim ve-shothim usmakhim, 'eating and drinking, and rejoicing.' The confidence and peace inspired by Solomon's government allowed the agricultural wealth of the people to multiply, and with it their means of legitimate enjoyment. Chapter IV. Verse 25. And Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man under his vine and under his fig tree, from Dan even to Beer-sheba, all the days of Solomon. Every man under his own vine] Hebrew, ish takhath gaphno, 'a man under his vine.' This proverbial phrase, 'under his vine and fig tree,' though it cannot be understood to imply that every man, or even every head of a family, had a vine or fig tree as his own, is indicative of the extent to which both the vine and fig tree were cultivated in the Holy Land for purposes of food. These were to the Jewish peasant what his kitchen-garden or ' allotment ' is to the English laborer. Chapter XIII. Verse 7, 8. 7 And the king said unto the man of God, Come home with me, and refresh thyself, and I will give thee a reward. 8 And the man of God said unto the king, If thou wilt give me half thine house, I will not go in with thee, neither will I eat bread nor drink water in this place. "To eat bread and drink water" appears to have been a colloquial phrase, doubtless originating in the universal conviction of their value as the prime necessaries of life. The worth of water is best known, because truly felt, in sultry climes. " Till taught by pain, Men know not what good water's worth." I KINGS, XX. 1 6. 89 Chapter XVI. Verses 8, 9. 8 In the twenty and sixth year of Asa king of Judah began Elah the son of Baasha to reign over Israel in Tirzah, two years. 9 And his servant Zimri, captain of half his chariots, conspired against him, as he was in Tirzah, drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza, steward of his house in Tirzah. V. 9. Drinking himself drunk] Hebrew, shotheh shikhor, * drinking (and) being surcharged,' or shakarized. The Lxx. reads, peinon methuon, 'drinking, being drunk ' ; the V., bibens et temulentus, * drinking and drunk.' Chapter XVII. Verse 6. And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning, and bread and flesh in the evening ; and he drank of the brook. The great prophet of Israel was supplied with food in his seclusion by the special providence of Israel's God, but for his daily drink he was indebted to the running stream, of which he partook gratefully, without envying ' the drunkards of Ephraim.' Bread and flesh were more than hermit's fare ; u-rnm han-nahkal yishteh, ' and from the brook he drank,' that which truly was to him what brandy has been falsely designated, 'the water of life.' Some eminent commentators believe that Elijah was a Nazarite, and it is exceedingly probable that this point of resemblance between him and the forerunner of Christ was not absent. Chapter XIX. Verse 6. And he looked, and, behold, there was a cake baken on the coals, and a cruse of water at his head. And he did eat and drink, and laid him down again. The prophet's 'bread and water' were insured. Twice was the cake and the cruse ready to his hand when needed, and in the strength of what he had eaten and drunk (verse 8) ' he went forty days unto Horeb the mount of God.' Chapter XX. Verse 16. And they went out at noon. But Ben-hadad was drinking himself drunk in the pavilions, he and the kings, the thirty and two kings that helped him. Drinking himself drunk] Hebrew, shotheh shikkor. The Lxx. has peino methuon ; the V. bibebat temulentus. [See Note on xvi. 8, 9.] The Syriac has 'drank old wine.' It is said (ver. 12) that Benhadad was 'drinking' with his thirty-two confederate petty kings or chiefs, and the drinking bout continued till the whole of them were filled to the full. The liquor probably being in some degree intoxicating, he not only neglects the duties of a general, but gives a boastful and ridiculous command to take all the Israelites alive, whether they had sallied out for peace or war ; and hence the besieged and lately despairing soldiers of Ahab obtained an easy victory. 12 90 I KINGS, XXI. I. Chapter XXI. Verse i. And it came to pass after these things, that Naboth the Jezreelite had a vineyard, which was in Jezreel, hard by the palace of Ahab king of Samaria. A vineyard] Hebrew, kerem, an enclosure of land cultivated and set with vines and other plants. Roberts says, "People in England will scarcely be able to appreciate the value which the Orientals place on a garden. The food of most of them consists of vegetables, roots, and fruits; their medicines, also, being indigenous, are mostly produced in their gardens. Here they have their fine fruit- trees, and their constant shade; and here they have their wells and places for bathing." Kerem also occurs, and is translated 'vineyard,' in verses 2, 3, 6, 7, 15, 16, 18. THE SECOND BOOK OF KINGS. Chapter IV. Verse 39. And one went out into the field to gather herbs, and found a wild vine, and gathered thereof wild gourds his lap full, and came and shred them into the pot of pottage : for they knew them not. A wild vine] Hebrew, gephen sahdeh, 'a vine of the field.' The Lxx. has ampelon en to agro, 'a vine in the field.' The V. reads, vitem sylvestrem, 'a vine growing-in-the-woods.' Probably this was a plant resembling a vine, but entirely different in nature. Wild gourds] Hebrew, paqquoth sahdeh, 'wild cucumbers, cucumeres asi- nini,'' says Gesenius. The Lxx. has tolupeen agrian, 'wild gourds'; the V., colocynthides. The fruit of the colocynth is of an attractive appearance, but the taste is nauseous, and the effect very hurtful. Others suggest 'fox-grapes.' 1. The paqquoth, plucked from the 'wild vine,' were put into the pot in ignorance of their nature. Many foolish things are done through ignorance, but as believing ignorance does not alter the quality, neither will it avert the physical consequences, of noxious things. 2. The bitter taste of this pottage excited suspicion, and induced those who had tasted to cry, ' Death is in the pot.' The taste of many poisons, but not of all, is unpleasant. Anhydrous alcohol (alcohol so highly rectified as to be almost free from water) is so acrid and pungent as not to be drinkable ; and articles of any perceptible alcoholic strength are disagreeable to the unvitiated palate. Intoxicating liquors, however, are often so elaborated as to be suggestive of no danger even while exceedingly injurious. An eminent writer says of some highly prized French wines, 'They fall like snow on the palate, but burn like fire in the veins.' When the sentinels of nature are deceived the danger is all the greater. Happy would it be if, warned by the voice of science and the facts of every-day life, our country- men would exclaim, ' There is death in the pot of strong drink ' ; and happier still will be the day when it can be added, ' And they would not drink thereof.' Chapter V. Verse 26. And he said unto him, Went not mine heart with thee, when the man turned again from his chariot to meet thee ? Is it a time to receive money, and to receive garments, and oliveyards, and vine- yards, and sheep, and oxen, and menservants, and maidservants ? And vineyards] Hebrew, ukWahmim, 'vineyards.' 92 2 KINGS, XVIII. 4, 31. Chapter XVI. Verse 13. And he burnt his burnt offering and his meat offering, and poured his drink offering, and sprinkled the blood of his peace offerings, upon the altar. And poured his drink offering] Hebrew, vay-yasak etk-nisko, 'and he poured his pouring ' (libation). So verse 15, ' their drink offerings ' is in the Hebrew niskaikim, ' their libations.' Chapter XVIII. Verse 4. He removed the high places, and brake the images, and cut down the groves, and brake in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses had made : for unto those days the children of Israel did burn incense to it : and he called it Nehushtan. Hezekiah removed the external associations and incentives to idolatry, leaving the spirit of idolatry to be acted upon by the force of tuition and example. He broke in pieces even the brazen serpent, so memorable in the history of the Jews, because it had been made an object of worship. Hence we perceive, I, that even things intrinsically harmless should be abandoned when this is necessary to a work of moral reformation ; 2, that such an abandonment will always be attended with the blessing of God ; 3, that the common objection to abstinence from intoxicating liquors — that the abuse of a thing is no reason against its use — can only be sustained when it is shown (1) that their use is more useful than their abuse is hurtful ; and (2) that the use can be disconnected from the abuse. If not — if the abuse be a thousandfold more hurtful than the use is beneficial, and if no means of separating the social use from the social abuse have been discovered, — if, indeed (as is the case with alcohol), use is physiological abuse in itself, and tends to engender abuses of the gravest character, — then wisdom has but one counsel to give, and prudence and philanthropy have but one practice to pursue. Chapter XVIII. Verse 31. Hearken not to Hezekiah : for thus saith the king of Assyria, Make an agreement with me by a present, and come out to me, and then eat ye every man of his own vine, and every one of his fig tree, and drink ye every one the waters of his cistern. And eat ye every man of his own vine] Hebrew, ve-iklu ish gaphno, ' and eat ye (each) man his vine,'=z. e. the produce of the vine. The Lxx. has pietai aneer teen ampelon autou, '(each) man shall drink his vine' ; the V., et comedet ttnusquisque de vinea sua, 'and every one shall consume of his own vineyard.' The water of his own cistern] Hebrew, mai voro, 'waters of his cistern' or ' pit.' Cisterns are sometimes cut out of stone. The speaker, Rabshakeh (whose name signifies 'chief cup-bearer,' perhaps given to him on account of his office), appeals to the apparent and materialistic interests of the people ; and when he represents his master, the king of Assyria, as 2 KINGS, XVIII. 32. 93 permitting the Jews, if they paid him tribute, to eat of their vines, we may be sure that he adapted his appeal to their recognized mode of life. It is, in truth, a fact now, as it was in the time of Hezekiah (b.c. 712), that the fruit of the vine is much more used and valued as an article of diet than for the manufacture of wine of any sort. The Rev. Smylie Robson, a missionary to the Jews in Syria, says in a letter from Damascus, February, 1845 (published in the Irish Presbyterian Missionary Herald of April and May, 1845), "It is well known that many parts of the mountains of Lebanon are among the most thickly peopled and best cultivated districts of the land. This is the part of the country in which I have traveled most. The food of the inhabitants consists principally of fruit, milk, vegetables, bread made of the flour of wheat and Indian corn. Wheat is everywhere cultivated, and the bread made of it constitutes a large portion of the food of all classes. The most important kinds of fruit are olives and grapes. Olives are eaten either raw or dressed in various ways ; but they are chiefly valuable for the oil extracted from them. At some seasons of the year a great part of the food of the people consists of vegetables cooked in this oil, eaten sometimes with and sometimes without bread. This oil is almost the only substance burnt for light. Olive trees are abundantly cultivated throughout the whole country. The fruit of the vine is the only other kind which can be said to form 'a substantial part of the food of the people.' Grapes come into season in August, and continue in season about four months. During this period they are used constantly, not as an agreeable dessert to stimulate and gratify the appetite after it has been satisfied by a substantial meal, but as a substantial part of the meal itself; so much so, that from August to December, bread and grapes are substantially the food of the people. Very thin cakes of bread made of flour, or of barley meal and flour mixed, and eaten with plenty of grapes, form the meals of the inhabitants of Lebanon morning, noon, and night. I may add that it is perfectly safe to eat grapes constantly to satiety. Here, too, as in Europe, grapes are dried in large quantities, to preserve them as raisins ; and in this form they supply an article of food to be used after the grape season. By pickling and beating a substance called dibs is made out of the grapes. It is puri- fied by means of lime, and is about the consistence of honey, and resembles it in appearance. Bread and dibs is a very common meal in winter and spring. There are two kinds, — one made from grapes, and the other from raisins. During the greater part of the grape season the regular price of the most plentiful kind, purple grapes, was about one farthing per pound, or fourpence per stone of fourteen pounds. This is the kind that I liked best to eat. Another very plentiful kind, the green grape, cost about sixpence per stone. A kind of very large red grapes sold still higher, but they were not common. To a dense population, in a dry and warm climate, the fruit of the vine must have been invaluable." Chapter XVIII. Verse 32. Until I come and take you away to a land like your own land, a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil olive and of honey, that ye may live, and not die : and hearken not unto Hezekiah, when he persuaded you, saying, The Lord will deliver us. A LAND OF CORN AND wine] Hebrew, eretz dahgan ve-tirosh, * a land of corn and vine-fruit.' The Lxx. reads, gee sitou kai oinou, 'a land of corn and wine' ; the V., terram fructiferam et fertilem vini, 'a fruitful land and prolific of wine.' 94 2 KINGS, XIX. 23, 24. The Arabic reads vineyards. The preceding extract from Mr Robson shows how literally accurate is the classification of 'corn, vine-fruit, and orchard-fruit,' for the triad of natural productions. A land OF bread AND vineyards] Hebrew, eretz lekhem ukrahmim, a land of bread (or bread-corn = wheat) and of vineyards.' For this use of lekhem see Isa. xxviii. 28. A land OF OIL OLP7E AND of honey] Hebrew, eretz zaitkyitzkar ud^vash, 'a land of the olive tree (or olive fruit), of orchard fruit, and of honey.' Had Rab- shakeh meant to allude to olive oil he would not have used this construction, but shemen zaiih, 'the oil of the olive.' [See Exod. xxvii. 20; Lev. xxiv. 2.] Zaitk yitzhar seems designed to indicate that the olive was of or belonging to the class of orchard fruits which formed so large a portion of the agricultural wealth, and it may have been specially named as the most distinguished member of the class and proper representative of it. Another admissible interpretation would be to take yitzhar in the sense of brightness or splendor (from tzahar, to shine), and read ' the olive of brightness (or splendor) '= the splendid or superlative olive. [As to devash, see Note on Gen. xliii. 11.] Chapter XIX. Verse 23. By thy messengers thou hast reproached the Lord, and hast said, With the multitude of my chariots I am come up to the height of the mountains, to the sides of Lebanon, and will cut down the tall cedar trees thereof, and the choice fir trees thereof: and I will enter into the lodgings of his borders, and into the forest of his Carmel. The forest of his Carmel] Hebrew, yaar Karmillo, 'the forest of his garden,' = its forest like a garden. So Gesenius, — 'the nursery of trees in the recesses of Lebanon.' Karmel is from kerem, with the addition of el, which gives it a diminutive force, as Gesenius thinks ; but certainly also an intensive force, as in English ' darling '= little dear = very dear. Hence, as kerem signified generic- ally a cultivated or fruitful place, and specifically a vineyard, karmel came to denote also a spot peculiarly fruitful. Geres karmel (grits of the garden) is used in Lev. ii. 14 to signify grits made from the early grain grown in the gardens. In Lev. xxiii. 14, and 2 Kings iv. 42 karmel occurs elliptically for the complete phrase. As a proper name, Karmel is given to the fruitful mountainous promontory overlooking the Mediterranean Sea, and also to a mountain and town in the south of Judea, referred to I Sam. xv. 12; xxv. 5. Chapter XIX. Verse 24. I have digged and drunk strange waters, and with the sole of my feet have I dried up all the rivers of beseiged places. I have DIGGED AND DRUNK STRANGE waters] Hebrew, ani qarti ve-shah thithi maim zahrim, 'I have digged and drunk foreign waters,' — a boast of Sen- nacherib that his incursions and conquests were far extended; but some think that he alludes to the plan, often adopted, of diverting waters intended for the protec- 2 KINGS, XXV. 12. 95 tion of towns into channels dug for their reception. Others explain the words of deep (artesian) wells, dug by his army, whence he took water never found before. The only beverage which his troops required was water. It was on such a drink that the Saracens, in later ages, swept over the East and penetrated Spain ; and so well known was this habit of theirs, that when one body of imperial troops com- plained that they were beaten because they were not allowed wine, their commander caustically asked, " How -comes it, then, that your conquerors drink nothing but water ?" Chapter XIX. Verse 29. And this shall be a sign unto thee, Ye shall eat this year such things as grow of themselves, and in the second year that which springeth of the same ; and in the third year sow ye, and reap, and plant vineyards, and eat the fruits thereof. And plant vineyards, and eat the fruits thereof] Hebrew, ve-nitu kWahmim ve-iklu phirant^ 'and plant vineyards and eat their fruit.' [See Note on xviii. 31.] Chapter XXIII. Verse 9. Nevertheless the priests of the high places came not up to the altar of the Lord in Jerusalem, but they did eat of the unleavened bread among their brethren. Unleavened bread] Hebrew, matzoth, * unfermented cakes. Chapter XXV. Verse 12. But the captain of the guard left of the poor of the land to be vine- dressers and husbandmen. Vinedressers] Hebrew, le-kormim, 'as vinedressers,' from koratn, 'a vineyard- THE FIRST BOOK OF CHRONICLES. Chapter IX. Verse 29. Some of them also were appointed to oversee the vessels, and all the instruments of the sanctuary, and the fine flour, and the wine, and the oil, and the frankincense, and the spices. And the wine] Hebrew, ve-hay-yayin, 'and the wine.' The Lxx. has kai ton oinou, ' and of the wine ' ; the V., et vino, ' and with the wine.' And the oil] Hebrew, ve-hash-shemen. Here yayin and shemen are conjoined as liquids, — as tirosh and yitzhar, in numerous passages, are conjoined as solids. Chapter XII. Verse 40. Moreover they that were nigh them, even unto Issachar and Zebu- lun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on camels, and on mules, and on oxen, and meat, meal, cakes of figs, and bunches of raisins, and wine, and oil, and oxen, and sheep abundantly : for there was joy in Israel. And bunches of raisins] Hebrew, ve-tzimmuqim, 'and raisin-clusters.' The Lxx. has staphidas, 'raisins'; the V., uvam passam, 'dried grapes.' And wine and oil] Hebrew, ve-yayin ve-shemen. The Lxx. has oinon elaion, 'wine, olive-oil'; the V., vinum, oleum, 'wine, oil.' [See Note on ix. 29.] Chapter XVI. Verse 3. And he dealt to every one of Israel, both man and woman, to every one a loaf of bread, and a good piece of flesh, and a flagon of wine. And a flagon of wine] Hebrew, va-ashishah, 'and a raisin-cake.' The Lxx. reads, kai amoriteen, 'and a cake ' ; the V., etfrixam oleo similam, ' and fine flour fried in oil.' [See Note on parallel passage, 2 Sam. vi. 19.] Chapter XXIII. Verse 29. Both for the shewbread, and for the fine flour for meat-offering, and for the unleavened cakes, and for that which is baked in the pan, and for that which is fried, and for all manner of measure and size. I CHRONICLES, XXIX. 21. 97 And for the unleavened cakes] Hebrew, ham-matzoth, ' the unfermented cakes.' Chapter XXVII. Verse 27. And over the vineyards was Shimei the Ramathite: over the increase of the vineyards for the wine cellars was Zabdi the Shiphmite. And over the vineyards] Hebrew, ve al-hak-kWahmim, 'and over the vine- yards.' The Lxx. has kai epi ton chorion, 'and over the fields.' Another reading is kai epi ton ampelonon, and over the vineyards.' The V. is vinearumque ctcltoribus, 'and over the cultivators of the vines.' Over the increase of the vineyards for the wine cellars] Hebrew, ve al shebak' rahmim le-otzroth hay-yayin, ' and over the increase of the vineyards for the stores of the wine. ' The Lxx. has epi ton theesauron ton en tois choriois tou oinou, 'over the treasures of wine in the fields'; the V., cellis vinariis, 'over the wine-cellars.' Chapter XXIX. Verse 21. And they sacrificed sacrifices unto the Lord, and offered burnt- offerings unto the Lord, on the morrow after that day, even a thou- sand bullocks, a thousand rams, and a thousand lambs, with their drink-offerings, and sacrifices in abundance for all Israel. With their drink-offerings] Hebrew, ve-naiskihen, 'and their libations.' So both Lxx. and V. 13 THE SECOND BOOK OF CHRONICLES. Chapter II. Verse io. And, behold, I will give to thy servants, the hewers that cut timber, twenty thousand measures of beaten wheat, and twenty thousand measures of barley, and twenty thousand baths of wine, and twenty thousand baths of oil. And twenty thousand baths of wine] Hebrew, ve-yayin batim esrim eleph ' and wine, baths, thousands twenty. ' The bath, as a fluid measure, corresponded with the ephah as a dry measure, and was equal to seven gallons four pints Eng- lish. The Lxx. has oinou. the V. vini, 'of wine.' Chapter II. Verse 15. Now therefore the wheat and the barley, the oil, and the wine, which my lord hath spoken of, let him send unto his servants. And the wine] Hebrew, hay-yayin, 'the wine.' The Lxx. reads ton oinon; the V., vinitm. Chapter VIII. Verse 13. Even after a certain rate every day, offering according to the com- mandment of Moses, on the sabbaths, and on the new moons, and on the solemn feasts, three times in the year, even in the feast of unleavened bread, and in the feast of weeks, and in the feast of tabernacles. In the feast of unleavened bread] Hebrew, be-khag ham-matzoth, 'in the festival of unleavened cakes.' Chapter XL Verse ii. And he fortified the strongholds, and put captains in them, and store of victual, and of oil and wine. And of oil and wine] Hebrew, ve-shemen ve-yayin, 'and of oil and wine. The Lxx. has kai elaiou kai oinou ; the V., et olei et vini. 2 CHRONICLES, XXX. 1 3. 99 Chapter XIX. Verses 2, 3. 2 And Jehu the son of Hanani the seer went out to meet him, and said to king Jehoshaphat, Shouldst thou help the ungodly, and love them that hate the Lord ? therefore is wrath upon thee from before the Lord. 3 Nevertheless there are good things found in thee. A principle of the broadest kind is here enunciated, which should be applied to the practical life of professed Christians. The vice of Jehoshaphat was that of moral weakness, his virtue that of ready repentance under the perception of truth. A great brewer has truly said that the contest between church and school on the one hand, and that of the beer-shop and gin-palace on the other, is but one development of the war continually waged between heaven and hell. It surely would be wise in all persons of influence — especially ministers, magistrates, and members of Parliament — to put to themselves this question of Jehu the seer, — "Shouldest thou help the ungodly, and love them that hate the Lord?" Were they honestly to do this, should we ever behold the moral anomaly of men in authority presiding over the feasts of publicans, and giving toasts in honor of a deadly and demoralizing trade ? Chapter XXVI. Verse 10. Also he built towers in the desert, and digged many wells : for he had much cattle, both in the low country, and in the plains : husband- men also, and vinedressers in the mountains, and in Carmel : for he loved husbandry. And vinedressers in the mountains, and in Carmel] Hebrew, ve-kormim behahrim uvak-karmel, 'and vinedressers in the mountains and in the fruitful place.' Margin of A. V., 'fruitful field.' [See Note on 2 Kings xix. 23.] Chapter XXIX. Verse 35. And also the burnt offerings were in abundance, with the fat of the peace-offerings, and of the drink-offerings for every burnt-offering. So the service of the house of the Lord was set in order. And of the drink-offerings] Hebrew, uvan-nesakim, 'and with the liba- tions.' The Lxx. has ton spondon, 'of the outpourings'; the V., libamina, 'libations.' Chapter XXX. Verse 13. And there assembled at Jerusalem much people to keep the feast of unleavened bread in the second month, a very great congregation. The feast of unleavened bread] Hebrew, etk-khag ham-matzoth, 'the festival of unfermented cakes.' 100 2 CHRONICLES, XXXII. 28. Chapter XXX. Verse 21. And the children of Israel that were present at Jerusalem kept the feast of unleavened bread seven days with great gladness : and the Levites and the priests praised the Lord day by day, singing with loud instruments unto the Lord. The feast of unleavened bread] Hebrew, eth-khag ham-matzoth, 'the festival of unfermented cakes.' Chapter XXXI. Verse 5. And as soon as the commandment came abroad, the children of Israel brought in abundance the firstfruits of corn, wine, and oil, and honey, and of all the increase of the field ; and the tithe of all brought they in abundantly. The firstfruits of corn, wine, and oil, and honey] Hebrew, rashith, dahgan, tirosh, ve-yitzkar, u-cPvask, ' the firsts of corn, vine-fruit, olive-and-orchard fruit, and honey.' The margin of the A. V. gives ' dates ' as the alternative reading for 'honey,' as it is not probable that the fruit of the palm tree was exempt from this tithing. The Lxx. has aparcheen sitou, kai oinou, kai elaiou, kai mellitos, 'the first of corn, and wine, and oil, and honey.' The V. has primitias frumenti, etvini, et olei, et mellis, 'the firsts of corn, and of wine, and of oil, and of honey.' Chapter XXXII. Verse 28. Storehouses also for the increase of corn, and wine, and oil ; and stalls for all manner of beasts, and cotes for flocks. Of corn, and wine, and oil] Hebrew, dahgan, ve-tirosh, ve-yitzhar, ' (the increase of) corn, and vine-fruit, and olive-and-orchard fruit.' The Lxx. has sitou, oinou, kai elaiou; the V, frumenti, vini, et olei, 'of corn, of wine, and of oil.' THE BOOK OF EZRA, Chapter III. Verse 7. They gave money also unto the masons, and to the carpenters; and meat, and drink, and oil, unto them of Zidon, and to them of Tyre, to bring cedar trees from Lebanon to the sea of Joppa, accord- ing to the grant that they had of Cyrus king of Persia. And meat, and drink, and oil] Hebrew, u-mdakal, u-mishteh, vah-shemen, 'and food, and drink, and oil.' The kind of mishteh is not stated. The Lxx., kai bromaiai kai pota, kai elaion, ' and meats, and drinks, and oil ' ; the V., cibum, etpotum, et oleum, * victuals, and drink, and oil. ' Chapter VI. Verse 9. And that which they have need of, both young bullocks, and rams, and lambs, for the burnt offerings of the God of heaven, wheat, salt, wine, and oil, according to the appointment of the priests which are at Jerusalem, let it be given them day by day without fail. Wine and oil] This verse being part of a decree written in Chaldee, the original is khamar — ' foaming juice,' corresponding to the Hebrew khemer in Deut. xxxii. 14 — u-meshakh, 'oil.' The Lxx. has oinon kai elaion ; the V., vinum et oleum. Chapter VI. Verse 22. And kept the feast of unleavened bread seven days with joy : for the Lord had made them joyful, and turned the heart of the king of Assyria unto them, to strengthen their hands in the work of the house of God, the God of Israel. The feast of unleavened bread] Hebrew, khag matzoth, 'festival of unfer- mented-cakes. ' Chapter VII. Verse 17. That thou mayest buy speedily with this money bullocks, rams, lambs, with their meat-offerings and their drink-offerings, and offer them upon the altar of the house of your God which is in Jerusalem. And their drink-offerings] Hebrew, ve-niskaihon, 'and their libations. 102 EZRA, X. 6. Chapter VII. Verse 22. Unto an hundred talents of silver, and to an hundred measures of wheat, and to an hundred baths of wine, and to an hundred baths of oil, and salt without prescribing how much. And to an hundred baths of wine] Chaldee, ve-ad khamar batin ineah, 'and to wine, baths a hundred.' The Lxx. gives kai heds oinou baton hekaton, * and even to a hundred measures of wine ' ; the V., et usqtte ad vini batos centum, 'and even to a hundred baths of wine.' [See Note on 2 Chron. ii. 10.] Without prescribing how much] Properly, without measure or stint — according to pleasure or convenience. Chapter X. Verse 6. Then Ezra rose up from before the house of God, and went into the chamber of Johanan the son of Eliashib : and when he came thither, he did eat no bread, nor drink water : for he mourned because of the transgression of them that had been carried away. Nor drink water] Hebrew, u-maim lo shahthah, 'and water he drank not.' To abstain willingly from bread and water was Ezra's manner of expressing grief; to be confined to bread and water would be to many persons one of the greatest miseries of life. To control the appetite, not to pamper it, is the surest means of promoting both health and rational enjoyment. Temperance, in fact, is never reached until self-denial begins. THE BOOK OF NEHEMIAH. Chapter I. Verse ii. O Lord, I beseech thee, let now thine ear be attentive to the prayer of thy servant, and to the prayer of thy servants, who desire to fear thy name : and prosper, I pray thee, thy servant this day, and grant him mercy in the sight of this man. For I was the king's cup- bearer. For I WAS THE king's cupbearer] Hebrew, va-ani hah-yithi mashqeh lam- melek, 'and I was cup-bearer to the king.' Mashqeh, the participle of shah-qah 'to drink,' signifies, being in the Hiphil conjugation, 'one who gives drink to another '= a cup-bearer. The Lxx. has oinochoos, 'wine pourer'; the V., pincerna, 'a cup-bearer.' Mashqeh is also translated 'butier ' by the A. V. [See Note on Gen. xl. 9.] Chapter II. Verse i. And it came to pass in the month Nisan, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes the king, that wine was before him : and I took up the wine, and gave it unto the king. Now I had not been beforetime sad in his presence. Wine was before him] Hebrew, yayin le-phahnahv, 'wine (was) before his face.' The Lxx. gives kai een ho oinos enopion emou, ' and the wine was before me' ; the V., et vinum erat ante eum, ' and wine was before him.' And I TOOK up the wine] Hebrew, vah esah eth hay -yayin, ' and I lifted up the wine.' The Lxx. has kai elabon ton oinon, 'and I took the wine'; the V., levavi vinum, ' I raised the wine. ' The office of cup-bearer to an Eastern monarch was one of much importance, from the frequent access it gave to his presence at a time when he would be most inclined to unbend and grant favors ; but the constant dread of treason in which such a despot perpetually lived, rendered him acutely observant of the slightest change of demeanor in this attendant. Artaxerxes would, therefore, notice Nehemiah's sadness, and be anxious as to its cause (chap. ii. 2). It has been sup- posed that in his self-absorption Nehemiah had omitted the indispensable form of pouring a little wine into his own hand and drinking it before presenting the cup to the king; and this omission of the usual protection against poisoning would naturally arouse the monarch's suspicion, and help us to understand why Nehemiah was made ' very sore afraid' by the king's interrogation. 104 NEHEMIAH, V. 3, II, 15, 18. Chapter III. Verse 14. But the dung gate repaired Malchiah the son of Rechab, the ruler of part of Beth-haccerem; he built it, and set up the doors thereof, the locks thereof, and the bars thereof. Beth-haccerem] Hebrew, baith-hak-kahrem, ' the house of the vineyard ' ; also a town referred to in Jer. vi. 1, and situated, according to Jerome, on a mountain between Jerusalem and Tekoa. Chapter V. Verse 3. Some also there were that said, We have mortgaged our lands, vine- yards, and houses, that we might buy corn, because of the dearth. And vineyards] Hebrew, u-k'rahmainu, 'and our vineyards.' See also in verses 4, 5. Chapter V. Verse ii. Restore, I pray you, to them, even this day, their lands, their vine- yards, their oliveyards, and their houses, also the hundredth part of the money, and of the corn, the wine, and the oil, that ye exact of them. Their vineyards] Hebrew, karmaihem, 'their vineyards.' And of the corn, the wine, and the oil] Hebrew, ve-kad-dahgan, hat- tirosh, ve-hay-yitzhar, ' and the corn, the vine-fruit, and the olive-and-orchard fruit,' — obviously enumerated as the solid produce of the 'lands,' 'vineyards,' and ' oliveyards ' just mentioned. The Lxx. has ton siton kai ton oinon kai to elaion, 'the corn, and the wine, and the oil ' ; the V., frumenti, vini, et olei, ' of corn, of wine, and of oil.' The Arabic for tirosh has the usual etzer, ' expressed juice.' Chapter V. Verse 15. But the former governors that had been before me were chargeable unto the people, and had taken of them bread and wine, beside forty shekels of silver; yea, even their servants bare rule over the people; but so did not I, because of the fear of God. Bread and wine] Hebrew, be-lekhem vah-yayin, ' from bread and wine. ' The Lxx. has en artoiskai en oino, 'with loaves and with wine ' ; the V., in pane etvino, 'with bread and wine.' Chapter V. Verse 18. Now that which was prepared for me daily was one ox and six choice sheep ; also fowls were prepared for me, and once in ten days store of all sorts of wine : yet for all this required not I the bread of the governor, because the bondage was heavy upon this people. Store of all sorts of wine] Hebrew, be-kahl yayin le-harba, ' with every (sort of) wine abundantly ' = a copious supply of all kinds of wine. The Lxx. NEHEMIAH, VIII. IO, 12. 105 has en pasin oinos to pleethei, 'wine in all (kinds) in plenty ' ; the V., vina diversa, 'different wines.' , No fact is better established in regard to ancient times than the great diversity of their vinous preparations, — a diversity extending not only to the modes of their manufacture, but to their qualities and effects. Though Pliny cannot be quoted as an illustrator of Oriental customs prevailing five hundred years before, yet when he affirmed that a hundred and ninety-five varieties of wine existed in his time,* and that these would be doubled if lesser differences were included, we may safely conclude that the kahl yayin of Nehemiah is to be liberally construed. Some might be new, some old ; some pure, some mixed ; some fresh from the vat, some boiled ; some watery, some thick ; some sweet as honey, others thin and tart. The modes of manufacture would also differ in almost every district, and probably among neighboring vine-growers. [See Virgil's poetic hyperbole in 'Georgics,' lib. iii. IO3-8; and observation of Sir G. Wilkinson quoted in Note on Gen. xl. 9 — 11.] Chapter VIII. Verse 10. Then he said unto them, Go your way, eat the fat, and drink the sweet, and send portions unto them for whom nothing is prepared : for this day is holy unto our Lord : neither be ye sorry ; for the joy of the Lord is your strength. And drink the sweet] Hebrew, ushthu mamtaqqim, ' and drink the sweet- nesses ' = sweet drinks. The Lxx. has kai piete glukasmata, ' and drink ye sweet things ' ; the V., et bibite mulsum, 'and drink ye the honey-sweet (article).' * Some of the ancient wines were thick and luscious like jellies, and had to be largely diluted before they could be drunk ; others, of the ordinary fluidity, were mixed in the proportion of several measures of water to one of grape-juice, so that even if fermented they were but slightly intoxicating unless consumed in large quantities. The verbal root of mamtiqqim is mathaq, 'to suck,' 'to be sweet 1 ; and, says the Rev. B. Parsons, "it is worthy of remark that the ancient Britons had a sweet wine which the Welsh called meddyglyn, and the English metheglin. The word metheglin comes from metteg or mettek, 'sweet,' and glyn, 'glutinous,' and thus signifies what it really was, a sweet syrupy drink. Every one must here see that metheg in Saxon, meddyg in Welsh, and mettek in Hebrew are the same words. This term among the ancient Britons was applied to a drink made from honey." To the same root may be referred methuo and methusko, ' to fill or drink to the full' of (or with) any sweet thing; but meth in Egyptian also signified ' full,' as in metheris, the mother God. Chapter VIII. Verse 12. And all the people went their way to eat, and to drink, and to send portions, and to make great mirth, because they had understood the words that were declared unto them. * See Appendix ' D ' for his exact words ; and also for description of mulsum. 14 106 NEHEMIAH, X. 37, 39. And to drink] Hebrew, ve-leshtoth, 'and to drink.' The Lxx. has kaipiein, 'and to drink' j the V., et biberet, 'and that (the people) should drink.' Chapter IX. Verse 25. And they took strong cities, and a fat land, and possessed houses full of all goods, wells digged, vineyards, and oliveyards, and fruit trees in abundance; so they did eat, and were filled, and became fat, and delighted themselves in thy great goodness. Vineyards] Hebrew, kerahmim, 'vineyards.' Chapter X. Verse 37. And that we should bring the firstfruits of our dough, and our offerings, and the fruit of all manner of trees, of wine and of oil, unto the priests, to the chambers of the house of our God ; and the tithes of our ground unto the Levites, that the same Levites might have the tithes in all the cities of our tillage. And the fruit op all manner of trees] Hebrew, u-phri kahl atz, 'and the fruit of every (kind of) tree.' The Lxx. reads, kai ton karpon pantos xulou, ' and the fruit of every tree ' ; the V., et poma omnis ligni, ' and fruits of every tree.' Of wine and of oil] Hebrew, tirosh ve-yitzhar, 'vine-fruit and olive and orchard fruit.' The Lxx. has oinou kai elaiou, 'of wine and of oil'; the V., vinde??iice qitoque et olei, 'of vintage fruit also and of oil.' This is the second instance in which the Vulgate does justice to tirosh. [See Note on Deut. vii. 13.] Walton's Polyglot gives musti. Tirosh and yitzhar are plainly mentioned by Nehemiah as representatives of the ' fruit of all manner of trees ' brought to the priests ; and this verse alone is sufficient to establish the meaning of these collective terms, as designating the solid produce of the vineyard and the orchard. Chapter X. Verse 39. For the children of Israel and the children of Levi shall bring the offering of the corn, of the new wine, and the oil, unto the chambers, where are the vessels of the sanctuary, and the priests that minister, and the porters, and the singers : and we will not forsake the house of our God. Of the corn, of the new wine, and the oil] Hebrew, ha-dahgan, hat- tirosh, ve-hay -yitzhar, 'the corn, the vine-fruit, and the olive and orchard fruit.' The Lxx. reads, tou sitou, kai ton oinou, kai ton elaiou, ' of the corn, and of the wine, and of the oil.' The V. has frumenti, vini, et olei, ' of corn, of wine, and of oil,' — so soon had St Jerome unlearnt what he had practised in verse 37, where he translates tirosh as vindemice. The English translators add ' new ' to their usual rendering of tirosh as 'wine.' NEHEMIAH, XIII. 5, 12, 1 5. 107 Chapter XIII. Verse 5. And he had prepared for him a great chamber, where aforetime they laid the meat offerings, the frankincense, and the vessels, and the tithes of the corn, the new wine, and the oil, which was com- manded to be given to the Levites, and the singers, and the porters ; and the offerings of the priests. And the tithes of the corn, the new wine, and the oil] Hebrew, u-mdasar had-dahgan hat-tirosh ve-hay-yitzhar, 'and the tithe of the corn, the vine-fruit, and the orchard fruit.' The Lxx. reads, kai teen dekateen tou sitou, kai tou oinon, kai tou elaiou, * and the tenth of the corn, and of the wine, and of the oil'; the V., et decimatn frumenti, vini, et olei, 'and the tenth of corn, of wine, and of oil.' The English translators again render tiros A by 'new wine,' following, no doubt, the mustum of most Continental versions. Chapter XIII. Verse 12. Then brought all Judah the tithe of the corn and the new wine and the oil unto the treasuries. The tithe of the corn and the new wine and the oil] Hebrew, mdasar had-dahgan, hat-tirosh, v' hay-yitzhar, ' the tithe of the corn, the vine-fruit, and the orchard-fruit.' The Lxx. gives tou purou, kai tou oinou, kai tou elaiou, 'of the wheat, and the wine, and the oil' ; the V.,frumenti, vini, et olei. Chapter XIII. Verse 15. In those days saw I in Judah some treading wine-presses on the sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses; as also wine, grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into Jerusalem on the sabbath day : and I testified against them in the day wherein they sold victuals. Treading wine presses] Hebrew, dorkim gitoth, 'treading the wine-presses.' The Lxx. has patountas leenous ; the V., calcantes torcularia. As also wine, grapes] Hebrew, vl-aph yayin anahvim, 'and also wine, grapes.' The Lxx. has kai oinon kai staphuleen, 'and wine and grapes'; the V., vinum et uvas, 'wine and grapes.' THE BOOK OF ESTHER, Chapter I. Verse 7. And they gave them drink in vessels of gold (the vessels being diverse one from another), and royal wine in abundance, according to the state of the king. The Hebrew is ve-hashqoth biklai zahahv, ve-kalim mikkalim shonim, vZ-yayn malkuth rahv ke-yad ham-melek, 'and they were providing drink in vessels of gold, and the vessels (were) diverse from vessels, and wine of royalty (was) abundant, according to the hand of the king.' The Syriac follows the Hebrew almost word for word. The Lxx. reads, poteeria chrusa kai argura, kai anthrakinon kulikion prokeimenon apo talanton trismurion ; oinos polus kai heedus hon autos ho basileus epinen, ' gold and silver drinking-cups (there were), and a small carbuncle goblet was on view, valued at thirty thousand talents ; the wine (was) plentiful and sweet, such as was drunk by the king himself.' The V. gives bibebant autem qui invitati erant aureis poculis, et aliis vasis cibis inferebantur ; vinum quoque ut magni- ficentia regid dignum erat, abundans, et prczcipuum ponebatur, ' but they that were invited drank in golden cups, and the meats were brought in different sets of vessels ; wine also worthy of the royal magnificence was furnished in abundance, and of the highest quality.' The Targumist tells a strange story, how the vessels brought from Jerusalem turned the king's vessels into the likeness of lead ! — and adds, "And they drank fresh wine (khamar-ahsis), fit for the drinking of a king, of a superior scent and the most delicious flavor; and it was not used sparingly, but with the liberality of a royal hand." This was a splendid entertainment. The drinking-vessels were of gold, and of different patterns, or perhaps variously chased; the wine was 'wine of royalty,' i. [See Note on Isa. xvi. 6.] And upon THY vintage] Hebrew, ve al-betzirak, ' and upon thy cutting ' = the fruit of the vine cut off when ripe. Lxx., epi trugeetais sou, ' upon thy vintage- men'; V., et (super) vindemiam tuam, 'and upon thy vintage-fruit.' V. 33. And I have caused wine to fail from the winepresses] Hebrew, ve-yayin miqavim hishbati, 'and wine from the presses I have made to fail'; Lxx., kai oinos een epi leenois sou, 'and wine was in thy presses '; V., et vinum de tor- cularibus sustuli, 'and I have removed wine from thy presses.' Chapter XLIX. Verse 9. If grapegatherers come to thee, would they not leave some gleaning grapes ? if thieves by night, they will destroy till they have enough. 200 JEREMIAH, LI. 7, 39, 5/. Grapegatherers] Hebrew, botzerim, ' cutters ' = those employed to cut off the grapes at the vintage season; Lxx., trugeetai, 'vintagers'; V., vindemiatores^ 'vintage-men.' Some gleaning grapes] Hebrew, olaloth, 'gleanings'; Lxx., kataleimma, 'a remnant'; V., racemum, 'a cluster.' Chapter XLIX. Verse 12. For thus saith the Lord : Behold, they whose judgment was not to drink of the cup have assuredly drunken ; and art thou he that shall altogether go unpunished? thou shalt not go unpunished, but thou shalt surely drink of it. The figure here, as in chap. xxv. 28, is that of a cup of retribution — intoxicating and prostrating — prepared by God for evil-doers; and which, despite their self- confidence — even where, as in the case of the Jews, they relied upon their Abrahamic relationship — they would be constrained to drink up. Chapter LI. Verse 7. Babylon hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand, that made all the earth drunken : the nations have drunken of her wine ; therefore the nations are mad. That made all the earth drunken] Hebrew, meshakkereth kahl hah- ahretz, 'making drunk all the earth'; Lxx., methuskon ; V., inebrians. Of her wine] Hebrew, miy-yaynah, 'from her wine '; Lxx., apo tou oinou autees ; V., de vino ejus. Are mad] Hebrew, yithholelu, 'were infuriated'; Lxx., esaleutheesan, 'were shaken' (convulsed); V., commote sunt, 'have been perturbed.' The image of an intoxicating potion is again presented, and though the cup is 'golden,' the effects are not less destructive. Chapter LI. Verses 39, 57. 39 In their heat I will make their feasts, and I will make them drunken, that they may rejoice, and sleep a perpetual sleep, and not wake, saith the Lord. . . . 57 And I will make drunk her princes, and her wise men, her captains, and her rulers, and her mighty men : and they shall sleep a perpetual sleep, and not wake, saith the King, whose name is the Lord of hosts. V. 39. In their heat] Hebrew, be-khummahm, ' in their heat ' — the heat, says Gesenius, ' arising from wine.' Lxx., en tee thermasia auton ; V., in calore eorum. And I will make them drunken] Hebrew, ve-hishekkartim, 'and have caused them to be drunk '; Lxx., kai methuso autons ; V., et inebriabo eos. That they may rejoice] Hebrew, ll-maan ya-alozu, ' that they may exult '; Lxx., hopos karothosin, 'that they may be stupefied'; V., ut sopiantur, 'that they may be made senseless.' JEREMIAH, LII. l6. 201 And sleep a perpetual sleep] Hebrew, ve-yashnu shenath olahm, 'and sleep a sleep forever.' V. 57. And I will make drunk] Hebrew, ve-hishekkarti, 'and I will make drunk.' Here God speaks, not as ordaining causes, but as connecting causes with effects. How this prophecy was fulfilled, secular history singularly testifies. [See Note on Dan. v. 1, 30.] Chapter LII. Verse 16. But Nebuzar-adan the captain of the guard left certain of the poor of the land for vinedressers and for husbandmen. For vinedressers] Hebrew, le-koremim, 'for vineyarders.' 26 THE BOOK OF THE LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH. Chapter I. Verse 15. The Lord hath trodden under foot all my mighty men in the midst of me : he hath called an assembly against me to crush my young men : the Lord hath trodden the virgin, the daughter of Judah, as in a winepress. In A winepress] Hebrew, gath, 'the press.'* The marginal reading is, 'the winepress of the virgin.' Others propose, 'the Lord hath trodden the winepress as it respects the virgin.' Lxx. and V. have ' the Lord to the virgin daughter of Judah has trodden the winepress.' Chapter II. Verse 12. They say to their mothers, Where is corn and wine? when they swooned as the wounded in the streets of the city, when their soul was poured out into their mothers' bosom. Where is corn and wine?] Hebrew, ayya dahgan vah-yayin, 'where is corn and wine?' Yayin here seems (as in Jer. xl. 10, 12) to be substituted for tirosh, which in other places is uniformly connected with dahgan. In a country where grapes are an article of daily food it is natural that children should be described as crying out for them in the streets during a time of famine, especially since thirst would be equally allayed by sucking the grapes. Congruity and probability are alike shocked by supposing that little children would cry to their mothers for intoxicating drink because of the want of food and water! Lxx., pou seitos kai oinos, 'where is corn and wine? ' V., ubi est triticum et vinum? 'where is wheat and wine ? ' — the Syriac adds, ' and oil.' Chapter III. Verse 15. He hath filled me with bitterness, he hath made me drunken with wormwood. * It is to be noted, however, that this word is of wider use than 'press.' As Dindorf says, "the Hebrews truly distinguished^^ into two parts; the first they called gath higher, the other gath lower. The first is the place in which the grapes were trodden, the wine {vinum) flowing into a lacus beneath, through a tube." LAMENTATIONS, IV. 7. 203 He hath made me drunken with wormwood] Hebrew, hirvani la-anah, *he hath satiated me with wormwood.' Rahvah here reappears, and answers to hisbiani, * he hath filled me ' (from sahba) in the first member of the sentence. J. G. Kohl, in his 'Travels in Austria,' notices a wine of wormwood in these terms : — " On Mount Badatschon, north of the Platten See, a kind of ' wine- decoction' is made, known as 'Badatschon Wormwood,' and as renowned in Hungary as the Tokay Essence. To make it, the juice is boiled with certain herbs. The same thing is done with the best of the Schomlau grapes, to produce ' Schomlau Wormwood.' "—(P. 374, Lond., 1845.) Chapter IV. Verse 7. Her Nazarites were purer than snow, they were whiter than milk, they were more ruddy in body than rubies, their polishing was of sapphire. A more literal rendering of this verse would be — " Pure have been her Nazarites above snow, white above milk, ruddy in body above corals, (like) sapphire (has been) their form." The Lxx., Codex B, gives ekathariotheesan Naziraioi autees huper chiona, elampsan huper gala, epurotheesan, huper lithou sappheirou to apospasma auton : ' her Nazarites were purer than snow, they shone above milk, they were purified (as) by fire, beyond a sapphire stone was their polish.' Codex A has elampsan, huper gala eturotheesetai htiper lithous sappheirou, ' they shone, they were coagulated (made like cheese) above milk, above stones of sapphire was their polishing.' The V. has candidiores Nazarei ejus nive, nitidiores lacte, rubicundiores ebore antiquo, sapphiro piclchriores, ' whiter (were) her Nazarites above snow, more shining than milk, ruddier than old ivory, more beautiful than the sapphire.' The Syriac reads, ' her Nazarites were purer than snow, and whiter than milk in their pastures ; their bones were brighter than the sardine, and their body than the sapphire.' The Arabic follows the Lxx., but renders the last clause, 'their form (== aspect) was more excellent than a (well-cut) sapphire stone.' The T. of Jonathan reads, ' her Nazarites were whiter than snow, smoother than milk, ruddier in their appearance than flame-colored stones (or metals), and their countenance as the sapphire.' The Hebrew penninim has been variously under- stood, taking the sense of 'stone' or 'stones' in the Lxx., 'admirable things' (periblepta) in the version of Symmachus, 'old ivory' in the V., 'flame-colored things' in the T., 'rubies' in the A. V., and 'corals' as suggested by Gesenius and adopted in our rendering. Whatever object was denoted must have been of a bright red color, or there would have been no force in the comparison that the Nazarites were ' ruddier ' even than it. This glowing description of the Nazarites is a testimony, as unimpeachable as it„ is splendid, to the physical advantages of abstinence from all intoxicating liquors ; and the light emanating from this one text should have been sufficient to prevent the darkness of error as to the nature of strong drink from ever settling down upon the mind of Christendom. Every touch in this picture heightens the effect of the whole as a delineation of perfect health and vigor ; the bright blood mantling through a clear complexion, and the whole frame beaming 204 LAMENTATIONS, IV. 21. and glowing, in lines of beauty, like a precious stone. Dr A. Clarke, who follows Dr Blayney in rendering gizrahtham 'their veining' (instead of 'their polishing,' as in A. V.), remarks upon this metaphorical description: — "Milk will most certainly well apply to the whiteness of the skin ; the beautiful ruby to the ruddiness of the flesh ; and the sapphire, in its clear transcendent purple, to the veins in a fine complexion." It is not pretended that abstinence alone will bring about this corporeal appearance, but the Nazarites were a race typical of the physical qualities to which such temperance always predisposes, and which it will help to produce when associated with a judicious regimen, actively persevered in. It is frequently affected to be despised as 'a mere negative,' but when we remember that it is a complete negative and nullifier of the most common and fashionable source of all kinds and all degrees of disease, mental and bodily, — a negative upon a liquid which fosters general debility by tainting the blood and irritating the nervous system, — it may be truthfully regarded as no inconsiderable friend to human health and length of days. Universally adopted, it would elevate the sanitary level of society, and lower the rate of mortality, in excluding a noxious element, by which the one is seriously depressed and the other correspondingly raised. It was the surest sign of the havoc produced by the desolation of Judah, that the Nazarites, who had been so prominent for their healthy and handsome appearance, should become dark, haggard, and shriveled through hunger and thirst. Historically, this notice of the Nazarites is valuable as showing that Nazaritism, as an institution, continued to flourish down to the period of the captivity (b. c. 588). Chapter IV. Verse 21. Rejoice and be glad, O daughter of Edom, that dwellest in the land of Uz ; the cup also shall pass through unto thee : thou shalt be drunken, and shalt make thyself naked. $* Thou shalt be drunken, and shalt make thyself naked] Hebrew, tishekeri ve-thithahri, 'thou shalt be drunken, and shalt uncover thyself '; Lxx., methustheesee kaiapocheeis, 'thou shalt be drunken and cast down '; V., inebriaberis atque nudaberis, 'thou shalt be made drunk and nude.' What in a sober state is concealed, from modesty or prudence, is, in a state of inebriation, made bare, and the very power of maintaining propriety or self- protection is taken away. Edom, which had rejoiced over Judah' s downfall, should drink of the same cup of calamity, and be despoiled by the enemy, like a drunken man stripped by the robber who had stricken him down. THE BOOK OF THE PROPHET EZEKIEL. [EZEKIEL IS BELIEVED TO HAVE PROPHESIED B. C. 595 — 574.] Chapter VIII. Verse 17. Then he said unto me, Hast thou seen this, O son of man ? Is it a light thing to the house of Judah that they commit the abomina- tions which they commit here? for they have rilled the land with violence, and have returned to provoke me to anger: and, lo, they put the branch to their nose. The branch] Hebrew, haz-zemorah, 'the branch' or 'vine-branch.' [See Note on Numb. xiii. 23; Isa. xvii. 10.] Gesenius thinks the reference is "to the Persian custom of worshipping the rising sun, holding in their left hand a bundle of the twigs of the plant called Barsom." Chapter XII. Verses 18, 19. 18 Son of man, eat thy bread with quaking, and drink thy water with trembling and with carefulness ; 19 And say unto the people of the land, Thus saith the Lord God, of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and of the land of Israel ; They shall eat their bread with carefulness, and drink their water with astonishment, that her land may be desolate from all that is therein, because of the violence of all them that dwell therein. Bread and water are here conjoined as the staple means of sustenance, and for these to be consumed with fear and trembling would be a sign of the devastation and insecurity about to befall the once prosperous and happy land. Chapter XV. Verses 2, 6. 2 Son of man, What is the vine tree more than any tree, or than a branch which is among the trees of the forest ? . . . 6 Therefore thus saith the Lord God ; As the vine tree among the trees of the forest, which I have given to the fire for fuel, so will I give the in- habitants of Jerusalem. V. 2, 6. The vine tree] Hebrew, atz hag-gephen, 'a tree of the vine.' V. 2. A branch] Hebrew, haz-zemorah, 'the branch' = vine-branch. 206 EZEKIEL, XXIII. 3 1 — 34. The vine is chiefly valuable for its fruit, not for its wood, which is used as fuel only. God here declares, therefore, that Jerusalem, having ceased to be a fruitful vine, was now fit for the burning to which He would consign it. Chapter XVII. Verses 6—8. 6 And it grew, and became a spreading vine of low stature, whose branches turned toward him, and the roots thereof were under him : so it became a vine, and brought forth branches, and shot forth sprigs. 7 There was also another great eagle with great wings and many feathers : and, behold, this vine did bend her roots toward him, and shot forth her branches toward him, that he might water it by the furrows of her plantation. 8 It was planted in a good soil by great waters, that it might bring forth branches, and that it might bear fruit, that it might be a goodly vine. V. 6, 7. Vine] Hebrew, gephen. V. 8. A goodly VINE] Hebrew, gephen ad-dahreth, * a vine ample ' ( = wide- spreading). For 'goodly' the Lxx. has megaleen, the V. grandem, 'great.' Chapter XIX. Verse 10. Thy mother is like a vine in thy blood, planted by the waters : she was fruitful and full of branches by reason of many waters. Like a vine in thy blood] Hebrew, kag-gephen be-dahmkah, 'as a vine in thy blood.' The obscurity of this passage has caused some learned commentators to give to dakm the signification of likeness, — 'thy mother is as a vine in thy likeness ' = like thee. Calmet conjectures the true reading to be kag-gephen karmekah, 'as a vine of thy vineyard.' This is not improbable, since b in Hebrew resembles k, and d resembles r; but it is not a conjecture supported by any ancient version, and only by two known Hebrew MSS. The Lxx. has 'thy mother (is) as a vine, as a flower in a pomegranate.' So'the Arabic. The T. of Jonathan has ' Israel was like a vine planted near fountains of waters.' Henderson, following Piscator and Havernick, reads, 'in thy quietude' — from dum, 'to be quiet, — understanding a reference to , the quiet and prosperous times of the Jewish monarchy. Chapter XXIII. Verses 31 — 34. 31 Thou hast walked in the way of thy sister; therefore will I give her cup into thine hand. 32 Thus saith the Lord God; Thou shalt drink of thy sister's cup deep and large : thou shalt be laughed to scorn and had in derision; it containeth much. 33 Thou shalt be filled with drunkenness and sorrow, with the cup of astonishment and desolation, with the cup of thy sister Samaria. 34 Thou shalt even drink it and suck it out, and thou shalt break the sherds thereof, and pluck oft" thine own breasts : for I have spoken it, saith the Lord God. EZEKIEL, XXIII. 42. 207 V. 33. Thou shalt be filled with drunkenness and sorrow] Hebrew, shikkahron ve-yahgon timmalai, 'drunkenness and sorrow shall fill thee.' With the cup of astonishment and desolation] Hebrew, kos shammah ushemahmah, ' the cup of desolation and astonishment.' These two nouns have substantially the same meaning, but if an objective and a subjective sense are to be given them, it is more natural to take first the literal objective sense of 'wasting' or ' desolation,' and then the subjective sense of ' astonishment ' as the result of the desolation beheld. V. 34. Thou shalt even drink it and suck it out] Literally, 'thou shalt drink it and suck it up.' [See Notes on Psa. lxxv. 8, and Isa. li. 17.] The Lxx., "Drink thy sister's cup, a deep and broad one [Codex A adds, 'it shall be for laughter and for scorn '], and filled to the brim, to cause complete drunkenness (metheen), and thou shalt be filled with exhaustion ; and the cup of destruction, the cup of thy sister Samaria, drink thou it ! " The V., " Thou shalt drink thy sister's cup, deep and broad, with derision and scorn — them who are most capacious. Thou shalt be filled with drunkenness and sorrow, with the cup of grief and sadness, with the cup of thy sister Samaria ; and thou shalt drink it, and shalt drink it up even to the dregs, and the fragments of it thou shalt devour" — alluding, say the Douay editors, to the fact that drunkards sometimes bite their cups in their rage. Samaria, the kingdom of Israel, had been punished by sword, famine, and captivity, and such a cup of misery was now to be given to Judah, who would be compelled to drain it as her sister kingdom had done before. Surely the ingredients of such a cup are not identical, as one and the same kind of wine, with the contents of a 'cup of blessing' ! Chapter XXIII. Verse 42. And a voice of a multitude being at ease was with her : and with the men of the common sort were brought Sabeans from the wilder- ness, which put bracelets upon their hands, and beautiful crowns upon their heads. This verse, as it stands in the A. V., is not free from difficulty, and much un- certainty rests upon the meaning of the clause — ' and with the men of the common sort were brought Sabeans from the wilderness.' For 'the common sort' the margin gives 'multitude of men,' and for 'Sabeans ' it has 'or, drunkards.' The word 'Sabeans' has particularly perplexed copyists and translators. The first three Hebrew letters are s v b, and the Masorite pointing gives the whole word the pronunciation of sahv-vah-im ; but the Masorite doctors, not satisfied with the word as thus pointed, suggested a correction which would make the initial letters s b (and not s v b), and so permit the word to be taken as sobaim or sovaim, as if derived from sak-vah, 'to tipple,' 'to drink to excess.' Sahv-vah-im yields no intelligible sense unless taken as a proper name — Sabeans ; yet who were these Sabeans? Not those mentioned by Isaiah, xlv. 14, for they were a people of Ethiopia, whose name is without a v ; and not the Arabian Sabeans, a name of which the initial letter is sh, not s. If the Masorite correction be accepted, reading sovaim or sobaim, we arrive at the sense of 'soakers,' 'tipplers,' or 'bacchanals,' which agrees very well with the context. On reference, however, to the ancient versions, fresh difficulties start up. Codex B of the Lxx. has no equivalent for 'brought,' and reads, heekontas ek tees eremou, 'coming out of the desert' ; and the 208 EZEKIEL, XXVII. 1 8. V., which has adducebantur, 'were brought,' agrees with Codex B in the next clause, et veniebant de deserto, 'and they were coming from the desert.' Lxx., Codex A, however, has oinomenous, 'winebibbers from the desert.' We may conclude that the MSS. followed by the Vulgate read v b ^ y m, and not s v b ^ y my in which case v would be taken for ' and,' and b ^ y m (boim) for 'coming.' It follows, then, that the present initial s was either dropped from those MSS. by mistake, or it was added by mistake to the other MSS. that give the received reading s v b ^ y m. The Masorite doctors propose to retain the s and drop the v, while the Vulgate keeps the v and drops the s. We can, perhaps, more easily account for the erroneous addition of the s than of the v. The final letter of the previous word is m, and when m is the final letter (unelongated) of a Hebrew word, it very closely resembles s. A copyist might repeat this final m by mistake, and the next transcriber, seeing it made no sense, might conclude that it was an error for s, and accordingly put s in his copy, joining it to the next v, thus changing v b ^ y m {ve-boim = ' and those coming ') into sav-bakim, or sahv-bah-im as we now have it. Such an error creeping into a MS. of credit would vitiate all subsequent transcripts, while the transcripts made from correct copies would, of course, continue to represent the other reading. On the other hand, this resemblance between final m and s might lead to the omission of the s by a copyist, and have thus originated the reading of ve-boim followed by the Vulgate ; but the fact that no one can give any intelligible sense to sahv-bah-im is in favor of the Vulgate, unless we carry out the rule that the most difficult reading is always to be preferred. The difference between Codices A and B is a proof that the Hebrew MSS. varied as far back, at least, as the second century of our era. Dr Henderson gives — "And there was the noise of a careless multitude in her, and to men of the common sort drunkards were brought from the desert ; and they put bracelets on their hands, and a splendid crown upon their heads." Aholah (Samaria) and Aholibah (Judah) are represented as lewd women who send for their lovers to a distance ; and the prophet represents a miscellaneous company as coming up from the wilderness (or, as it may be rendered, ' the plain,' or ' pastures ' = the open country), many of whom are attired after the manner of revelers, and all ready to indulge in any intemperance or other excess that may be proposed. This seems to be an account of an idolatrous festival, perhaps that of Bacchus, in which a riotous and drunken multitude assembled, adorned with bracelets and chaplets, accompanied with music, songs, and dances. [See Note on Amos vi. 4 — 6. ] Chapter XXVII. Verse i8. Damascus was thy merchant in the multitude of the wares of thy making, for the multitude of all riches; in the wine of Helbon, and white wool. In the wine of Helbon] Hebrew, be-yayn Khelbon, ' with wine of Helbon ' ; Lxx., oinos ek C helbon y Symmachus, oinos liparos, ' thick (fat) wine '; so the V., in vino pingui, 'with fat (rich) wine,' — taking khelbon not as a proper name, but as an adjective noun = 'wine of fatness.' The Syriac rendering is the same. The T. of Jonathan has bakhamar khailath mevashal, 'with rich wine boiled.' According to Strabo, the wine of Helbon had so great a reputation that it was exported for the use of the kings of Persia. Helbon, which still exists under the EZEKIEL, XLIV. 21. 209 name of Haleb or Aleppo, though almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1822, is not to be confounded with the more celebrated Aleppo of Asia Minor. Under the names of Chalybon and Chalybonium vinum the wine of Helbon was known to the Greeks and Romans, but unless it had been an inspissated wine, thick as treacle or honey, its transportation could not have been easily effected, certainly not with- out a great risk of spoiling a fermented wine. Possibly the name was extensively given to some imitations prepared for the European market. Chapter XXVIII. Verse 26. And they shall dwell safely therein, and shall build houses, and plant vineyards. Vineyards] Hebrew, kerahmim. Chapter XXXIX. Verse 19. And ye shall eat fat till ye be full, and drink blood till ye be drunken, of my sacrifice which I have sacrificed for you. And drink blood till ye be drunken] Hebrew, ushthithem Bahm le- shikkaron, ' and ye have drunk ( = shall drink) blood to drunkenness ' == to repletion ; the sense being that of gorging, to correspond with the first clause of the sentence. Chapter XLIV. Verse 21. Neither shall any priest drink wine, when they enter into the inner court. Wine] Hebrew, yayin ; Lxx., oinon ; V., vinum. Ezekiel, in ver. 17 — 19, refers to the 'linen garments' of the priests when ministering in the inner court; and as the use of linen was designed to insure a cleanliness symbolical of inward purity, the prohibition of wine was obviously a real means to that great moral end. Josephus (Antiq., b. iii., c. 12, s. 2) recognizes this connection : — " Moses enjoined the priests not only to observe purity in their sacred administrations, but in their daily conduct, that it may be unblamable also ; and on this account it is that those who wear the sacerdotal robe are without spot, and concerning all things are pure and abstinent \_kai peri panta katharoi kai neephalioi\ being forbidden to drink wine so long as they are wearing this robe [pinein oinon heds ou teen stoleen echosi kekolumenoi~\." It was, in fact, equal to saying, ' While you are My special servants, wearing My livery, you must do My work on this abstinent plan, or perish; there is no other plan of absolute safety and purity.' On the phrase 'drink wine,' the Assembly of Westminster divines of 1651, in their 'Annotations,' have this comment: — "Occasions of evil to be avoided; specially in sacred things — Lev. x. 9; Psa. xciii. 5 — and by sacred ministers. They of all men must not be given to wine." Does not the question, then, fairly arise, Why not avoid the evil by the adoption of the same plan ? — a plan devised and enforced by the All-wise in regard to His own servants, engaged in His own special work ? Are men wiser than God ? This republication of the Levitical law £Lev. x. 9) is worthy of the careful attention of those who look upon the prophecies of Ezekiel as typical of the 27 210 EZEKIEL, XLV. 1 7, 21. dispensation under which all believers are 'kings and priests unto God.' It cannot be without significance now, that during their most solemn official duties abstinence was enjoined upon the ancient priests. Christianity does not sanction the abolition of safeguards against evil, but renders their adoption more pleasing to God, because inspired by filial reverence and godly fear. Philo, who was con- temporary with the apostles, shows, in his treatise on Monarchy, that he had entered into the moral and catholic spirit of the Levitical ordinance. The passage is very striking, and is as follows: — "God issues additional commandments, and orders Aaron, whenever he approaches the altar and touches the sacrifices at the time when it is appointed for him to perform his sacred ministrations, not to drink wine or any other strong drink, on account of four most important reasons — hesitation, and forgetfulness, and sleep, and folly. For the intemperate man [akrafoSy which Dr Mangey refers not to the drinker but to the drink — unmixed wine, — a sense which the passage will well bear] relaxes the powers of his frame and renders his limbs more slow of motion, and makes his whole body more inclined to hesitation, and compels it by force to become drowsy. And he [or it] also relaxes the energies of his soul, and so becomes the cause to it of forgetfulness and folly. But in the case of abstemious men (neephonton) all the parts of the body are lighter, and, as such, more active and movable, and the outer senses are more pure and unalloyed, and the mind is gifted with a more acute sight, so that it is able to see things beforehand, and never forgets what it has previously seen. In a word, indeed, it must be considered that the use of wine is most unprofitable to the soul for all the purposes of life (sunolds, men oun teen oinou chreesin pasi tois kata ton bion alusiteleotateen einai upoleepteon psuchees), inasmuch as by it the soul is weighed down, the outward senses are dimmed, and the body is enervated. For it does not leave any one of our faculties free and unembarrassed, but is a hindrance to every one of them, so as to impede its attaining that object to which it is by nature fitted. But in sacred ceremonies and holy rites this mischief is most grievous of all, in proportion as it is worse and more intolerable to sin with respect to God than with respect to man, on which account it probably is, that it is commanded to the priests to offer sacrifices without wine (neephaiia), in order to make a difference and distinction between sacred and profane things, and pure and impure things, and lawful and unlawful things." Chapter XLV. Verse 17. And it shall be the prince's part to give burnt offerings, and meat offerings, and drink offerings, in the feasts, and in the new moons, and in the sabbaths, in all solemnities of the house of Israel : he shall prepare the sin offering, and the meat offering, and the burnt offering, and the peace offerings, to make reconciliation for the house of Israel. And drink offerings] Hebrew, ve-kan-nasek, 'and the libation.' Chapter XLV. Verse 21. In the first month, in the fourteenth day of the month, ye shall have the passover, a feast of seven days ; unleavened bread shall be eaten. Unleavened bread shall be eaten] Hebrew, matzotk yaahkal, 'unfermented (things) shall be eaten.' Matzotk here is taken as a collective noun, and joined to a singular verb. It means 'fresh, sweet things.' THE BOOK OF DANIEL. Chapter I. Verse 5. And the king appointed them a daily provision of the king's meat, and of the wine which he drank : so nourishing them three years, that at the end thereof they might stand before the king. Of the king's meat] Hebrew, mip-pathbag ham-melek, * from the food of the king.' Gesenius gives to pathbag the force of ' delicate food,' 'dainties,' and refers it to a Persian origin. Lxx., apo tees trapezees tou basileos, ' from the table of the king.' V., de cibis suis, 'from his victuals.' And of the wine which he drank] Hebrew, umiy-yayin mishtahv, ' and from the wine of his drinking.' Lxx., kai apo tou oinou tou potou autou, 'and from the wine of his own drinking.' V., et de vino unde bibebat ipse, 'and from the wine whence he himself drank. ' Under Nebuchadnezzar the Babylonian empire attained its greatest expansion and glory ; but being founded on mere military supremacy, its decay was as rapid as its rise. Luxury enervated the Babylonian princes and nobles during times of peace ; and while their food was dainty, their drinks were chosen with the view rather of exciting thirst than of allaying it. Chapter I. Verse 8. But Daniel purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself with the portion of the king's meat, nor with the wine which he drank : therefore he requested of the prince of the eunuchs that he might not defile himself. With the wine which he drank] Hebrew, bb-yayin mishtahv, 'with the wine of his (the king's) drinking.' Daniel's scruples may have arisen from his knowledge of idolatrous rites used in connection with the king's provisions, — perhaps their formal dedication to Bel before they were served up for the royal table. Chapter I. Verse 10. And the prince of the eunuchs said unto Daniel, I fear my lord the king, who hath appointed your meat and your drink : for why should. 212 DANIEL, I. II — 16. he see your faces worse liking than the children which are of your sort ? then shall ye make me endanger my head to the king. Your faces worse liking] Hebrew, penaikem zoaphim, 'your faces sad.' Zoaphim is rendered by the Lxx. skuthrdpa, 'melancholy-looking'; by the V., macilentiores, 'leaner.' The prince of the eunuchs reasoned correctly from a right premiss — that the best diet will produce the best effect upon the countenance ; but his minor premiss being fallacious — that the king's diet was the best — his conclusion is at fault. He mistook, as many still do, less excusable after Daniel's refutation of the error, luxurious for strengthening fare, and highly flavored for nourishing food. Chapter I. Verses ii — 16. ii Then said Daniel to Melzar, whom the prince of the eunuchs had set over Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, 12 Prove thy servants, I beseech thee, ten days ; and let them give us pulse to eat, and water to drink. 13 Then let our countenances be looked upon before thee, and the countenance of the children that eat of the portion of the king's meat : and as thou seest, deal with thy servants. 14 So he consented to them in this matter, and proved them ten days. 15 And at the end of ten days their countenances appeared fairer and fatter in flesh than all the children which did eat the portion of the king's meat. 16 Thus Melzar took away the portion of their meat, and the wine that they should drink ; and gave them pulse. V. 11. To Melzar] Hebrew, el-kam-meltzar, 'tothemeltzar.' The Lxx. reads, Amelsad ; the V., Malasar. Some critics regard meltzamot as a proper name, but as the designation of an office. V. 12. Pulse] Hebrew, haz-zaroim. The verb zahra signifies ' to sow,' and zaroi?n may be taken comprehensively as including grain, herbs, and roots. Lxx., ton spermaton, ' of seeds ' ; Codex A adds tees gees, ' of the earth ' ; V., legumina, 'pulse.' V. 15. Their countenances appeared fairer and fatter] Hebrew, nirah maraihem tov uveriai bahsar min-kol-hailahdim, 'their countenances appeared good, and they were fat in flesh above all the (royal) offspring. ' Lxx. has ' their countenances appeared agathai kai ischurai tais sarxin — good and firm in flesh;' but Codex A has 'their countenances appeared good, and they were firm in flesh' — i. e. all over their body. V., apparuerunt vultus eorum tneliores et corpulentiores, ' their faces appeared better and fatter.' The prince of the eunuchs having dismissed his plea, Daniel applied, on behalf of himself and his young friends, to Meltzar — or some subordinate officer designated 'the meltzar,' — and proposed an experiment, which that officer had the good sense to sanction. The period granted, ten days, afforded a reasonable time for solving the question; and it was solved, not more to Daniel's satisfaction than to the officer's surprise. Instead of looking upon lean and melancholy countenances, he saw four pleasant faces with fat and full-rounded cheeks. Having made out so good a case, the Hebrew youths were permitted to continue the dietary for which they had petitioned. Several circumstances call for special notice in this experiment. DANIEL, I. II — 1 6. 2 13 1. The wisdom of Daniel. He had observed that all physical nutriment comes primarily from the produce of the soil, and was not confined to dainty dishes or flesh of animals. Equally discerning was he as to the compatibility of good health without wine of any kind, whether fresh or fermented. The nutritious elements of grape-juice existed, he well knew (as all might know by a little reflection), in other substances, and he was not the slave of the miserable modern superstition, alike deceitful and destructive, which assigns to the process of fermentation the production of some peculiar element of vitality and vigor. From the example of the Nazarites, if not himself one of that noble band of Jewish abstainers, he was well assured that the wine which Solomon had called ' a mocker ' was no necessary ingredient of a wholesome and nutritious diet. 2. Not less notable was the moral courage of the young Hebrew exile. He dared to run counter even to court prejudice and fashion. He scorned scorn where conscience was concerned. Anticipating an apostolic maxim, his example virtually said, In things evil be not conformed to the court. 3. The enlightened spirit of Meltzar, too, calls for eulogy. He did not doggedly set himself against change, and exclude the light of evidence. He did not say, "Daniel must be wrong because the king thinks differently, and venerable Babylonish usage is all the other way;" nor did he use the powers of his office tyrannically, by refusing liberty to his charge in a matter relating to their own comfort and convictions. Some portion of his spirit infused into many British minds would incline them to undertake that personal trial of abstinence for them- selves which Daniel desired leave for himself and his companions to carry out. Some, indeed, who do enter upon this trial, begin with misgivings or longings fitted to insure its failure, while the blame is absurdly cast upon the principle that has been unfairly tried and treated. ' Ten days ' were allowed to Daniel, while some who can choose their own period of experiment shorten it to half the time ; and cases are not unknown where ' ten hours ' have been thought long enough to try it as against 'the other side,' which has been practised for half a lifetime. Experiments of this order prove nothing but the insincerity or trifling disposition of those who enter upon them. 4. Daniel and his friends' success is at once an example, an argument, and an encouragement. It was a visible success — written on the faces of Daniel and his friends ; not an exceptional triumph, a lucky chance, but a result in accordance with Divine natural law, and therefore one capable of being repeated and con- firmed by experience in all ages and civil communities. The success of the experi- ment demonstrates that the use of luxurious fare and intoxicating drinks is not compatible with the utmost perfection of body and brain ; while it allows entire liberty as to particular kinds of food, practically found to be best adapted to nourish the body or gratify an unvitiated taste. The statement of Daniel (x. 3), that he had abstained for a season from wine, and the implication that he after- ward resumed its use, do not in the least qualify the great conclusion of this narrative; even assuming, gratuitously [see Prel. Dis.], that the 'wine' in each case was similar as to intoxicating quality. To assume that Daniel, late in life, used the wine from which he so advantageously abstained in his youth, cannot get rid of results ; nor, therefore, weaken the natural demonstration thus afforded, that abstinence insured (as a negative condition) the most robust health, and even a measure of health superior to that evidenced by those who (in the face of the fact) continued their allotted portion of the king's meat and wine, — a class assuredly not without descendants unto this day. 214 DANIEL, V. I — 4, 30. Chapter V. Verses i — 4, 30. % Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the thousand. 2 Belshazzar, while he tasted the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver vessels which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple which was in Jerusalem; that the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, might drink therein. 3 Then they brought the golden vessels that were taken out of the temple of the house of God which was at Jerusalem ; and the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, drank in them. 4 They drank wine, and praised the gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood, and of stone. 30 In that night was Belshazzar king of the Chaldeans slain. V. 1. A great feast] Chaldee, lekhem rav, ' a feast, a great (one).' Lekhem is the Chaldee for 'food,' and thence is used to represent a large supply of food, a banquet. Lxx., deipnon mega, 'a great feast.' (The Greek deipnon answered to the modern fashionable 'dinner,' both as forming the principal meal of the day, and as being served up in the evening.) V., grande convivhmi, 'a great feast.' And drank wine] Chaldee, ve-lah-qahval alpah khamrah shahtha, 'and to (or before) a thousand he drank wine. ' The Chaldee kha?nrah corresponds to the Hebrew khemer, but its primitive sense of ' foaming ' had merged into a new and pregnant significance, from the practice of adding to the juice of the grape an artificial form and depth of color, the outward sign of qualities holding 'fierce enmity with the blood of man,' yet capable of exercising a fatal witchery over his nervous system. As the king drank, so did his nobles. The Lxx. has ' and over against the thousand, wine.' The V. has ' and he drank to every one according to his age ' — i. 30. 263 Chapter IV. Verse 23. And Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom, and healing all manner of sickness and all manner of disease among the people. In this proceeding we are constrained to admire the union of wisdom, benevo- lence, and power ; power equal to the cure of ' every sickness (pasan nosori) and every disease (kai pasan malakeett) ' ; benevolence that set in motion the wonder- working hand ; and wisdom that made the sensible and acknowledged benefit the introduction to spiritual influences for the removal of moral evil. To this day in the East, the hakim (physician) can gain access where all other persons would be excluded ; and hence the importance of a plan now increasingly recognized by missionary institutions, of uniting, whenever possible, in the same person a knowl- edge of at least the rudiments of medical science with the ability to preach the 'Word of life.' The example of the Saviour is a direct sanction to the use of means for improving the temporal condition of men, with a view to their higher and spiritual good. Both from duty and policy the Christian Church should exert itself for the removal of whatever renders mankind miserable and degraded;* and where every variety of wretchedness and vice is traceable to the diffusion of one particular class of drinks, it seems a perfect infatuation that the Church, as a whole, should not only fail to protest against their diffusion, but by the customs of its members should extend its patronage to them, and promote their circulation. Surely this conduct resembles the propagation rather than the cure of sickness and disease among the people. With abstinence as an instrumentality, honestly and fearlessly applied by the entire Christian Church, wonders, little short of miraculous in their results, might be performed among a population such as ours, where the drink-engendered maladies of body and mind are literally 'legion.' Chapter V. Verses 29, 30. 29 And if thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from thee: for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell. 30 And if thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee : for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell. Offend] Skandalizei is from skandalizein, 'to cause to stumble or fall.' It is related to skandalon, ' a crooked stick on which the bait is fastened, which the animal strikes against, and so springs the trap ' ; hence ' anything which one strikes against ' = a stumblingblock, impediment. In the N. T. the noun and verb are employed in a moral sense only, occasionally with the meaning of 'giving offence,' and ' scandalizing ' others. Ver. 30 is absent from Codex D. The principle embodied in this metaphorical instruction is too plain to be mis- conceived. Anything, however dear, and even of real and great value, is to be renounced as soon as it becomes a cause of evil, just as at sea everything is cast 264 MATTHEW, VI. 1 3. overboard in order to save life ; and the expressions, ' cut it off,' ' pluck it out,' and 'cast it from thee,' are designed to indicate both the resolution required, and the energy that should be exerted, in the execution of this duty. Dean Alford regards ver. 29 as "an admonition, arising out of the truth announced in ver. 28, to with- draw the first springs and occasions of evil desire, even by the sacrifice of what is most useful and dear to us "; and he observes " that our Lord grounds this pre- cept of the most rigid and decisive self-denial on considerations of the truest self- interest — sumpherei soi (it is profitable to thee)." — Greek Test. 5th edit. vol. i. p. 48. None will controvert the fact that, to the inebriate, strong drink comes within the prohibitive scope of this precept, and that he is called upon to dash away from him the liquor which has enthralled and cursed him. The difficulty of compliance with this rule is, however, extremely great, arising from the morbid condition of the drinker, till, in the case of the oinomaniac or dipsomaniac, voluntary compliance with the safeguard becomes impossible. Hence (1) the importance of abstinence from drinking customs and the use of strong drink on the part of the sober and virtuous, so that the victims of intemperance may escape external temptation to drink, and be encouraged in their abstinent practice ; and (2) the equal importance of abstinence to the sober, as a preventive against the fascinating and ruinous influences of intoxicating liquor, from which so few, com- paratively, are ever delivered. [See, on these two latter points, Notes on chap, xviii. 7 — 9; Rom. xiv. 13, etc.] Chapter VI. Verse 13. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil: For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. Amen. Temptation] Peirasmon, 'a state of trial,' especially solicitation to sin. Evil] Touponeerou, 'that which is evil,' or 'the evil-one.' We are taught to pray to God not to lead us, or suffer us to be led, into such circumstances as will tempt and endanger our souls. It is one thing to come into contact with temptation (which is unavoidable), another to be led into it. Such a prayer as this, if put up in a sincere and enlightened spirit, will be answered by the protection of Providence extended to us in our daily walks, and by the diligence we shall evince in shunning whatever we have reason to believe is prejudicial to our moral and spiritual interests. To hundreds of thousands of men alcoholic liquor acts as a temptation to its own use in a manner the most injurious ; and in countless cases it acts, even when short of drunkenness, as an incentive to crime and vice of every description. Who can answer the question, How much strong drink can be taken without its becoming a temptation, or tempting to the com- mission of some folly or sin ? If ' wine is a mocker,' how can its use be consistent with the spirit of this solemn supplication ? On the spiritual affections wine may safely be said to dim where it does not darken ; and Chaucer has wisely warned us against temptation that may begrime where it does not burn.* So also as to the prayer, ' Deliver us from evil,' — it must, in its broadest sense, include the causes of social and moral evil : for to seek the exclusion of evil while patronizing its * " Sotheby a -whit wal although it brenne (burn) not fully by stikyng of a candel, yet is the wal llak (by) the leyte (light)." — Chaucer's Parson's Tale. MATTHEW, IX. 1 7. 265 sources is not to pray so as to be heard ; it is to • pray amiss ' : yet what cause of nearly all kinds of evil is so prolific and universal among us as the use of intoxi- cating drink ? If the translation ' deliver us from the evil-one ' is preferred, we are strongly reminded of the counsel of Peter, — " Be sober," neepsate (be abstinent), "be vigilant; for your adversary the devil goeth about, as a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour " — katapiee, 'swallow down.' [See Note on 1 Pet. v. 8.] Chapter IX. Verse 17. Neither do men put new wine into old bottles; else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish; but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved. Neither do men put] Oude ballousin, 'nor indeed do they \_anthropoi, 'men,' understood] place.' New wine] Oinon neon, 'new wine,' wine fresh from the press. Into old bottles] Eis askous palaious, 'into old bags ' — bags or vessels, askous, generally made out of skins of goats. Else] Ei de meege, 'but if not indeed.' So Codices Aleph, C, and D. Codex B has ei de 7nee, ' but if not.' The bottles break] Rheegnuntai oi askoi, ' the bags burst,' = are rent. So Codices Aleph, B, and C. But Codex D reads, rheessei ho oinos ho neos tous askous, 'the new wine rends the bags.' And the wine runneth out] Kai ho oinos ekecheitai, ' and the wine is poured out.' Codex D has kai ho oinos apollutai, 'and the wine is destroyed ' (or perishes). And the bottles perish] Kai oi askoi apolountai, 'and the bottles are destroyed ' (or perish). So Codex C. Codices Aleph, A, and B have apolluntai. But they put new wine into new bottles] Alia ballousin oinon neon eis askous kainous, 'but they place new wine into new bags.' Codex D reads, bal- lousin de. Codex Aleph has alV oinon neou eis askous kainous bleetion, ' but new wine into new bags is-to-be-put.' And both are preserved] Kai amphotera sunteerountai, ' and both are kept together ' = preserved. Codices Aleph, B, C, and D have amphoteroi, ' both ' (masculine plural), instead of amphotera (neuter plural) ; and Codex D has tee- rountai, 'are kept,' instead of sunteerountai, 'are kept together.' The Vulgate reads, Neque mittunt vinum novum in utres veteres ; alioquin rumpuntur utres, et vinum effunditur, et utres pereunt. Sed vinum novum in utres novos mittunt, et ambo conservantur: " Nor do they place new wine in old leather- bottles ; otherwise the bottles are burst, and the wine is spilled, and the bottles perish. But they place new wine in new bottles, and both are preserved." [See Notes on parallel passages, Mark ii. 22 ; Luke v. 37, 38.] 1. From this verse (and the parallel passages) we learn (i) that it was not customary in our Lord's day to put new wine into old wine-bags, lest the bags should burst and the wine be lost ; and (2) that the opposite practice — that of putting new wine into new wine-bags — was attended with the preservation of both. 2. The usual explanation of this custom — viz., that new skin-bags were used in order to resist the expansive force of the carbonic acid gas generated by fermenta- 34 266 MATTHEW, XL 1 8, 1 9. tion — is erroneous and insufficient ; for it cannot have been customary to put wine during fermentation into any kind of bottles, either new or old, since fermentation, when permitted, was carried on in the wine- vat (Greek, hupoleenion ; Latin, lacus); ' and when, from inadvertence, fermenting wine was poured into skin-bags drawn tight, the destruction of the bag, however new and strong, was the certain conse- quence. [See Note on Job xxxii. 19.] 3. The facts stated by the Saviour are only intelligible in the light of the efforts used by the ancients to prevent grape-juice from fermenting, by straining the juice so as to free it from much of its gluten, and then bottling it with sulphur fumiga- tion; or by subjecting the juice to a boiling heat, which checks all incipient fermentation, and then inclosing it in bags or other vessels made air-tight. It is obvious that, to render these precautions effectual, the wine-bags themselves must have been free from ferment ; and there was no other way of insuring the absence of ferment save by using perfectly new skin-bags. If old bags were used, some of the decayed albuminous matter adhering to their sides must, by the action of air, have become changed into a leaven or ferment (Hebrew, seor) ; or, by long wear and heat, cracks or apertures admitting the air might exist undetected; and the wine, thus set a-fermenting, would in due course burst the skin, and be spilled and ' lost ' ; but if the wine was poured into bags made of skins never before used, no provocative to fermentation would be present, and both the wine and the bags would be preserved, — the wine from fermentation, and the bags from the rupture, otherwise sure to result from the elastic gas generated in fermentation making a violent effort to find a vent. Chapter X. Verse 42. And whosoever shall give to drink unto one of these little ones a cup of cold water only in the name of a disciple, verily I say unto you, he shall in no wise lose his reward. A CUP OF cold water only] Poteerion psuchrou monon, ' a cup only of cold ' — 'water ' being understood. In the parallel place, Mark ix. 41, the phrase is poteerion hudatos, 'a cup of water.' Codex Z has poteerion psuchroun, 'a cold cup'; Codex D, poteerion hudatos psuchrou, 'a cup of cold water.' The A. V.,- * a cup of cold water only,' is calculated to mislead the reader, as if the thing given were of small value — ' a cup of cold water only? ; but by the proper collocation, ' a cup only of cold water,' the true meaning is presented, — that even a small donation of water will not pass without the notice of Him who accepts a kindness done to the obscurest disciple as though done to Himself. Chapter XL Verses 18, 19. , !8 For John came neither eating nor drinking, and they say, He hath a devil. I9 The Son of man came eating and drinking, and they say, Behold a man gluttonous, and a winebibber, a friend of publicans and sinners. But wisdom is justified of her children. V. 18. Neither eating nor drinking] Meete esthion meete pinon, *■ neither eating nor drinking ' ; that is, as the generality of men did, without any peculiarity. MATTHEW, XL 1 8, 1 9. 267 His meat was 'locusts and wild honey,' and his drink was restricted to the water of spring or stream. A devil] Daimonion, 'a demon,' — always in New Testament used of an evil spirit or fallen angel. The demons were supposed to haunt solitary places ; hence the taunt against John. The name diabolos, 'devil,' is never applied to any evil spirit except the chief of fallen angels = Satan = Beelzebub = Apollyon. V. 19. A MAN GLUTTONOUS, AND A WINEBIBBER] AnthrdpOS phagOS kat oinopotees, 'a man (who is) an eater and a wine-drinker.' Wicklif (1380) and Tyndale (1534) translate, ' drynker of wyne.' Beza gives hotno, edax, et vini potor, 'a man, an eater, and a drinker of wine.' In Greek as in English, 'eater' and ' drinker ' (phagos and potees) acquired an intensive force, and came to signify one addicted to a more than customary and respectable use of food and drink. The A. V. pretty accurately marks this sense by the renderings ' gluttonous ' and ' winebibber ' ; but in regard to oinopotees, frequency and love of wine-drinking, not intoxication from wine, was the pith of the charge preferred. Of her children] Ton teknon autees, 'of her children.' Instead of teknon, Codices Aleph and B read, ton ergon autees, 'of her works.' The reports of St Matthew and St Luke (in the translation of the A. V. ) may be placed side by side. Matt. xi. 18, 19. Luke vii. 33 — 35. For John came neither eating nor For John the Baptist came neither drinking, and they say, He hath a eating bread nor drinking wine; and devil. The Son of man came eating ye say, He hath a devil. The Son of and drinking, and they say, Behold a man is come eating and drinking; and man gluttonous, and a winebibber, a ye say, Behold a gluttonous man, and friend of publicans and sinners. But a winebibber, a friend of publicans and wisdom is justified of her children. sinners ! But wisdom is justified of all her children. 1. The diet of John was simple and uniform — such as the wilderness spon- taneously provided ; his dress was rough and hairy ; his residence was away from the haunts of man ; and his manner was austere. The multitude was awe-struck, but the profanely bold said, ' He has a demon, ' an evil spirit that enables him to bear the privations and fatigues of his arduous life. In truth, he was a Nazarite, and more than a Nazarite [see Note on Luke i. 15]; — one who, in the perform- ance of his peculiar mission as the Awakening Prophet and Forerunner of the Messiah, was divinely devoted to do and be that which was best adapted for the success of his great work. 2. Jesus, who would have done precisely as John did, had His office been the same, was anointed to another mission — that of preaching and presenting in His own person the gospel of the kingdom. He therefore did not hold Himself aloof from village, town, and city, nor adopt a singular attire, nor use the monotonous food of the wilderness. He came not so much to awe by His wonders as to woo by His gentleness. His life was eminently social ; therefore, in common parlance, He came 'eating and drinking,' while for both food and drink He was dependent upon the grateful bounty of His friends. As the austerity of John's life led his slanderers to charge him with being possessed by a demon, so the suavity of Jesus led the same vituperators to charge Him with indulgence in sensuous delights, with addiction to 'the pleasures of the table,' with pampering His appetite, and gratifying a taste for 'good living' — with being 'an eater and wine-drinker,' a lover of dainty food and drink ! There was no ground for this charge ; for self- 268 MATTHEW, XII. 26. indulgence, especially in meats and drinks, was opposed to the whole purpose of His advent and redeeming work. He was the grandest example of Self-Denial the world ever beheld ; and whoever wishes for countenance in luxurious tastes and habits must go elsewhere than to Christ, 'the Man of sorrows.' The reasoning that "John drank no wine, while Christ did, therefore we may," overlooks or con- founds the most important distinctions, (i) It ignores the fact that John, as a Nazarite, abstained from all solid produce of the vine, and from all juice of the grape, and that Jesus, not being a Nazarite, was not under the same obligation, and did not so abstain, as we know from the account of the Last Supper; but the inference that therefore Jesus partook of intoxicating liquor (such as Solomon and Habakkuk condemned) is wholly unsupported and unjustified. The contrast was neither universal nor special, but general, and hence the inference is illogical. It is not necessary to assume that Christ drank all kinds of wine — good, bad, or indifferent — because John abstained from all kinds, much less that He drank only intoxicating wine ! No one ever thought of arguing in the same style in regard to the contrast concerning 'eating.' (2) The objection confounds the official life of John and Jesus with their personal character, and virtually assigns to John a superiority in self-denial to the Master. It supposes that Jesus indulged Himself in things which John refrained from under a more rigorous and refined "ideal of temperance ; whereas, as we have remarked, their difference of living was due to their difference of office ; and there is not a particle of evidence for the theory that would assign to John a mortification of fleshly desire which the Saviour did not practise. Men who drink strong* drink ' because they like it ' — from the animal excitement or ' comfort ' it occasions, — and who refuse to deny themselves its use, in spite of all the good they might thereby effect, cannot be permitted to shield themselves by their appeal to the spotless Saviour, 'who pleased not Himself,' and "whose meat and drink it was to do the will of His father, and to finish His work." The real sacrilege of such an appeal is thinly disguised beneath the veil of affected reverence which it puts on. Whatever food or drink the Lord may have partaken of was not for the purpose of gratifying any mere fleshly desire, nor is any one warranted in affirming that the kind of food or drink He consumed was calculated, like the alcoholic liquors now in use, to engender an intemperate appetite, and rob man of his priceless dower of reason and spiritual affection. John the Baptist had not a demon, and Jesus was neither an effeminate nor voracious consumer of food and drink. 3. 'Wisdom is justified of her children.' She is vindicated by the works of goodness and utility to which she gives birth; and as John and his Lord have been so justified, despite the aspersions of their enemies, so every true reform, such as the Temperance movement, illustrates the wisdom out of which it has sprung by the excellence of its effects. ' By their fruits ye shall know them ' is a criterion as applicable to institutions as to men. Chapter XII. Verse 26. And if Satan cast out Satan, he is divided against himself; how shall then his kingdom stand ? When accused of exerting Satanic power for the expulsion of evil spirits, the Redeemer exposes, by this question, the absurdity of the hypothesis. The principle is absolute in the world of morals, — as are effects, so are their causes, and vice versa. If we know the nature of a cause, we may predict the nature of the effect ; and knowing the effect, we can pronounce as to the quality of the cause. Those MATTHEW, XIII. 33. 269 who have slandered the Temperance reform as a work of the devil are confuted by every Temperance society and adherent. A common source of confusion and error lies in a want of discriminating between real and spurious effects. The faults of Temperance advocates and organizations (z. e. the faults of fallible men, taken as we find them) are charged upon the principle of abstinence, which is as unreasonable as it would be to charge all the sins of those who use intoxicating liquor upon the drink. What is plain to the candid observer is, the production of woeful evils by the influence of alcoholic beverages, and the cessation of these evils (except where they have become morbidly chronic) whenever these beverages are renounced.* 'To call evil good, and good evil,' does not alter the constitution of things, but it is a serious offence against the Divine law, and will be followed by a perversion of the moral sense in the offender himself. Chapter XIII. Verse 33. Another parable spake he unto them j The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven, which a woman took, and hid in three measures of meal, till the whole was leavened. To leaven] Zumee, 'to ferment.' Yeast is albumen in a state of decay. The action of leaven in dough converts the saccharine particles into alcohol and car- bonic acid gas, when the effort of the gas to escape (or rise by its levity), gives to the dough the porousness of light bread. But by pumping artificially made gas into the dough, as is now done under Dagleish's patent for aerated bread, the same effect is produced, and the waste of flour (about a twelfth part), always consequent upon the fermenting process, is avoided. This waste, taking into account the quantity of bread annually manufactured, is very great. The alcohol generated in common dough by fermentation is afterward expelled by the heat of baking. An attempt once made to collect the spirit thus evolved, entirely failed as a speculation, owing to the smallness of the quantity and the difficulty and expense of condens- ing the vapor ; otherwise the alcohol might have been economized for scientific purposes. In three measures of meal] Eis aleurou sata tria, 'in three sata of flour' (or meal). The word salon was the Greek form of the Hebrew seah, the third of an ephah, and was equal to 2^ English gallons. Aleuron (from aleo, to grind) denoted the meal of any sort of grain separated from the husks. Till the whole was leavened] Heds ou ezumothee holon, 'until the whole (mass) was fermented.' The Saviour here selects one characteristic of leaven to symbolize the penetrating and assimilating power of His heavenly influence. Such a simile does not modify the striking analogy between ferment and corruption in doctrine or life. When the Lord declared, ' I will come on thee as a thief,' the single point of comparison is never mistaken, as it often is in the text before us, where prejudice and appetite interpose their blinding influence. * The Report of the Committee on Intemperance of the English Ecclesiastical Province of Can- terbury (1869), shows that in 1500 districts where the traffic in drink is suppressed by local power, drunkenness, crime, lunacy and idiotcy are all but nil, while pauperism is at a minimum. An enter- prise which thus empties Satan's kingdom can hardly originate with him. 270 MATTHEW, XV. II, l6 — 20. Chapter XIV. Verses 6, 7. 6 But when Herod's birthday was kept, the daughter of Herodias danced before them, and pleased Herod. 7 Whereupon he promised with an oath to give her whatsoever she would ask. These texts, compared with Mark vi. 20 — 26, make it very evident that during the excitement of a birthday revel Herod had lost his habitual caution, and given a rash and wicked promise to a beautiful but profligate woman, in obedience to which he sacrificed the life of a great preacher of the Reformation, to whom, in his sober senses, he had respectfully and gladly listened. In our comments on various passages of the Old Testament we have already illustrated the relations between intemperance and the unwise and cruel acts of kings and rulers. From the time of Alexander to the present day history is full of terrible examples of the disastrous political influences of drinking, one of the latest of which has been seen in the British Abyssinian war (1867-8), King Theodore, from being a prudent and amiable ruler, having been gradually transformed, by his drinking habits, into a sanguinary and capricious tyrant, altogether unamenable to the power of reason. Chapter XV. Verses ii, 16 — 20. 11 Not that which goeth into the mouth defileth a man ; but that which cometh out of the mouth, this defileth a man. ... 16 And Jesus said, Are ye also yet without understanding ? 17 Do not ye yet understand, that whatsoever entereth in at the mouth goeth into the belly, and is cast out into the draught ? 18 But those things which proceed out of the mouth come forth from the heart ; and they defile the man. 19 For out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornication, thefts, false witness, blasphemies: 20 These are the things which defile a man : but to eat with unwashen hands defileth not a man. This passage (with the corresponding one, Mark vii. 15, 18 — 23) has been strangely cited to prove that intoxicating liquors, as physical agents, cannot defile a man, seeing that all evil is from within, and not from without. 1. Those who reason after this fashion should, by virtue of the same premises, deny that any quantity of intoxicating liquor can defile the user ; and that since no moral or immoral effect is connected with it, whether the quantity consumed be a glass or a gallon, a beaker or a barrel, matters nothing. 2. Were it granted that intemperance is a sin of the heart, like pride, covetous- ness, etc., yet the occasion of the sin being intimately connected with the use of strong-drink, abstinence from the drink may be highly expedient as a means of avoiding the sin. 3. Could it even be proved (contrary to all evidence and experience) that as a mental offence (the desire to get drunk), intemperance would be as frequent as it is now, were all intoxicating liquors banished, — the absence of the actual and overt offence would exempt the world from so much suffering, civil crime, and social calamity, that the exclusion of the drinks would be worthy of every effort to secure it. 4. The scope of the Saviour's teaching in this place is entirely distorted by the attempt to deduce from it the conclusion, that the use of intoxicating liquors is a MATTHEW, XVI. 6, II, 12. 27 1 matter of moral indifference, and that intemperance originates in the heart. (1) The Lord is opposing that superstition of the Pharisees which attached a moral value to the ceremonial purifications and distinctions of food as clean and unclean ; and He asserts, in contradiction to them, that moral evil is of the heart, and cannot depend upon what is eaten, and how it is partaken of — though, of course, either might illustrate the state of the heart in relation to a Divine precept. But certainly, to ignore natural influences by the authority of a text which sets up real as above ceremonial distinctions* is a case of clear perversion. (2) The Lord's remarks had ,no respect to the special nature and effects of intoxicants, such as the articles alcohol and chloroform, or the natural narcotics, opium and bhang ; and it is little short of impiety to adduce His words in contravention of the well-known and indisputable influence of such things to excite a diseased craving [see Note on chap, iv. 7], the indulgence of which is productive of the most criminal results, inflam- ing every evil predisposition, and giving rise to thoughts, passions, blasphemies, and vicious actions, which but for them would have had no existence. It is not true, as every one knows, that it makes no moral difference to the world whether intoxicating liquors are used or disused ; and to represent the Saviour as asserting what is contrary to universal knowledge is a fearful example of wresting the words of holiness and truth. 5. The very opposite conclusion to the one above offered may lawfully be drawn from the Saviour's argument ; for if there be no virtue in mere ceremonialism, nor vice in the absence of it — if the state of the heart is the one matter of paramount importance, — how carefully ought the Christian to guard himself, as well as others, from all indulgence in those seductive drinks, which 'cause the heart to utter perverse things,' — which, unlike ordinary articles of food, act specifically upon the nervous system, and through it upon the whole man as a moral and spiritual being! Even if drink did nothing more than to lay the heart open to Satanic influences, how sedulously ought it to be shunned ! * Chapter XVI. Verses 6, 11, 12. 6 Then Jesus said unto them, Take heed and beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees. . . . n How is it that ye do not understand that I spake it not to you concerning bread, that ye should beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees ? 12 Then understood they how that he bade them not beware of the leaven of bread, but of the doctrine of the Pharisees and of the Sad- ducees. Beware of THE leaven] Prosechete apo tees zumees, ' hold yourselves from the ferment.' Prosecho, 'to have (or hold) to,' is generally used in the sense of applying the mind to a thing ; but when, as in this case, it is followed by apo, ' from, ' the verb expresses the concentration of the mind with a view to avoiding the object, and is then practically synonymous with apecho, ' to hold off from,' 'to abstain.' V. 12. But of the doctrine of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees] A IP apo tees didachees ton Pharisaion kai Saddoukaion, 'but from the teaching of ♦Contrast the hardness and tenacity of many professing Christians on this subject — their insensibility to the circumstances of the case, and consequent duty — with the conscientious de- claration of a late distinguished physician, that the danger attendant upon the use of alcoholics had frequently prevented him from prescribing them, even as medicines. 272 MATTHEW, XVIII. 7 — 9. the Pharisees and Sadducees. ' Didachee (from didasko, to teach) frequently denotes, as here, the thing taught =- the doctrine. Evil doctrine is compared by the Lord to leaven, from its tendency to corrupt the mind, by the false principles injected and the irreligious conduct in which it issues. The Pharisees made rabbinical tradition paramount to the plainest precepts and spirit of the Mosaic law, 'judgment, justice, and mercy' ; and the Sadducees, by their skepticism, struck at the root of all spiritual devotion. Such 'leaven ' could not be too earnestiy and completely excluded if faith and righteousness, acceptable to the holy God, were to nourish and abound. Chapter XVI. Verse 24. Then said Jesus unto his disciples, If any man will come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me. [See also Mark viii. 34, and Luke ix. 23.] Christian self-denial embraces — (1) The denial of all propensities entirely vicious. (2) The denial of all sensuous pleasures which needlessly expose to moral danger. (3) The denial of all gratifications which would disqualify for the adequate per- formance of all Christian duties. These acts are said to be the denial of a man's self, because they are the denial of those appetencies which are strongest in the unrenewed nature. Let it not be supposed, however, that Christian self-denial is self-mortification in the blind ascetic sense, or an effort at self-annihilation in the Buddhist sense. On the contrary, Christian self-denial tolerates an enjoyment of all innocent (and in the best sense natural) sources of pleasure, while it qualifies for a participation in the happiness of the spiritual life. It is, in short, the subjec- tion of the inferior nature in order that the superior nature may be more fully developed ; and any pain and constraint attendant at first on the practice of this self-denial will not only be recompensed by the joy it brings, but will in due time be greatly diminished by the force of habit, and by the spontaneous preference of things that are pure and good. The question whether self-denial should be practised in regard to intoxicating liquors is of vast importance. They are mostly used on account of the sensuous pleasure they impart — a pleasure inevitably associated with more or less of moral peril ; — and their promiscuous use is con- stantly prolific in misery and sin of every description. ' Would the Church and the world be better without them? would my individual state and capacity for usefulness be improved by abstinence ? ' — are inquiries which every professing follower of Christ is under obligation to put to himself; and if, having answered them in the affirmative, he refuses to follow up conscience by a corresponding conduct, he may be said, without a breach of Christian charity, to fall short so far of the standard presented in this passage. The Lord Jesus Christ is the perfect model of self-denial, for He never refused to sacrifice mere taste or liking for the sake of spiritual good, whether of Himself or others ; and therein ' He has left us an example, that we should follow His steps.' Chapter XVIII. Verses 7 — 9. 7 Woe unto the world because of offences ! for it must needs be that offences come; but woe to that man by whom the offence MATTHEW, XXI. 33. 273 cometh ! 8 Wherefore if thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them off, and cast them from thee : it is better for thee to enter into life halt or maimed, rather than having two hands or two feet to be cast into everlasting fire. 9 And if thine eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from thee : it is better for thee to enter into life with one eye, rather than having two eyes to be cast into hell fire. V. 7. Offences] Ta skandala, 'stumbling-blocks '= causes of moral offence or wrong-doing. The two ' woes ' of verse 7 are to be distinguished. There is woe ' to the world,' from or by the causes of stumbling which are in it ; and there is pleen ouai, ' woe besides ' (= ' more woe,' or greater woe) to the man by whom stumbling comes. It is bad for men to stumble ; it is worse for those who cause them to do so. The tempter is not exonerated because the victim was able to resist, nor will he be acquitted by urging (if truly) that he did not tempt for temptation's sake, or out of pure malignity. The application of this solemn passage to the whole system of making, providing, and vending intoxicating liquors must be apparent on reflection. Who is ignorant of the dangerous nature of those drinks ? and who, if cognizant of their nature, cannot but know that by recommending and circulating them he may be at any moment setting a stumbling-block in the way of others ? The traffic in intoxicating liquors is specially open to condemnation, since the direct object of the vender is pecuniary gain ; and his observation must prove to him that their promiscuous sale is attended with woeful consequences to the physical, social, and moral welfare of society. That the State should license him to traffic in such liquors is itself a scandal, but the fact is not a plea which will avail him in the Supreme Court of Justice and Equity. [Verses 8 and 9 are substantially similar to Matt. v. 29, 30, on which see Notes, "j Chapter XXI. Verse 33. Hear another parable : There was a certain householder, which planted a vineyard, and hedged it round about, and digged a wine- press in it, and built a tower, and let it out to husbandmen, and went into a far country. Householder] Oikodespotees, 'house-ruler.' A vineyard] Ampelona, the accusative of ampelbn, 'a vineyard,' from ampe- los, ' a vine ' ; but the derivation of this last is obscure. Very doubtful is that which refers it to em = am, and peelos, 'clay,' also an Ionic equivalent for oinos, ' wine ' ; so that ampelos = ' that which contains wine.' Another conjecture points to ampi (JEolic for amphi), 'round,' and helisso, 'to twirl,' 'to bend'; whence helix, 'a tendril.' This etymology of ampelos would correspond to, that of the Hebrew gephen, 'a twig,' applied to the vine as the principal flexile plant. Hedged it round about] Phragmon auto perietheeke, ' and placed round it an enclosure ' (fence or hedge). And digged a winepress in it] Kai druxen en auto leenon, ' and digged in it a press.' Leenos is supposed to have come from loo, 'to contain'; so that the lecnos (Doric, lanos) was the place which contained the grapes preparatory to treading. [Hence ho Leenaios, 'the Leenian,' was one of the names of Bacchus J 35 274 MATTHEW, XXIV. 38, 48, 49. Leenai = Bacchantes, female votaries of Bacchus ; the Leenaia were the feasts held in honor of Bacchus ; Leenaion was the name of the month when this festival was celebrated ; ho epi Leenaid agon was the contest at the Leensean festival in dramatic poetry; leenaika were things prepared for this festival, such as odes, etc.] And built a tower] Kai okodomeese purgon 'and erected a tower.' Purgos, 'a place of defence,' is thought to be analogous to the Teutonic burg, whence our 'burgh' and 'borough.' To husbandmen] Georgois, ' to workers -of- the-earth '= agriculturists, farmers. Gorgos — from gee, 'earth,' and ergo, 'to work' — signifies one who tills the soil. Agriculture was held in high esteem by the ancients, and not without reason. Adam was charged to dress and keep the garden of Eden ; and in all succeeding periods tillage has necessarily been the first and chief resource of mankind for sustenance. It has been observed that the introduction to this parable more closely resembles a passage in the Old Testament than any other of the Saviour's addresses. [See Notes on Isa. v. I, 2; and Mark. xii. 1.] Chapter XXIV. Verse 38. For as in the days that were before the flood they were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, until the day that Noe entered into the ark. Eating and drinking] Trogontes kai pinontes, 'eating and drinking.' Trogo, ' to grind with the teeth, ' indicates primarily the act of eating food requiring to be ground or cracked ; but in the New Testament usage it bears the general sense of estkio = 'to eat.' ' Eating and drinking ' is here used in the emphatic sense of eating and drinking profusely and luxuriously ; but the terms are too indefinite to warrant the conclu- sion that the antediluvians hardened themselves in sin by the copious use of intoxicating liquors, though the probability, taking all things into account, inclines to that hypothesis. [See Notes on Gen. vi. 5 ; and Luke xvii. 26—28.] Chapter XXIV. Verses 48, 49. 48 But and if that evil servant shall say in his heart, My lord delayeth his coming ; 49 And shall begin to smite Ms fellow-servants, and to eat and drink with the drunken. V. 49. And to eat and drink with the drunken] Esthiein de kai pinein meta ton methuonton, ' also to eat and to drink with those-who-are-gorging.' The structure of this clause shows that the reference is not to intoxication, but to sensual indulgence, — the wicked servant being supposed to eat and to drink in the company of those who are filling themselves to satiety with both food and drink. Codices Aleph, B, C, and D read, esthiee de kai pinee, ' and should eat and drink ' ; the V., manducet autem et bibat cum ebriosis, 'but shall eat and drink with MATTHEW, XXVI. 1 7, 26 — 29. 275 drunkards.' Beza has quinetiam edere et bibere cum ebriis, 'even to eat and to drink with those who are drunk.' In Latin, the ebrius, 'man drunk,' differs from the ebriosus, 'drunkard' = 'man accustomed to get drunk.' Augustine applies this distinction in extenuation of Noah's single and undesigned act of inebriation. [See Note on Luke xii. 45.] Chapter XXV. Verse 35. For I was an hungered, and ye gave me meat : I was thirsty, and ye gave me drink : I was a stranger, and ye took me in. Thirsty, and ye gave me drink] Edipseesa, kai epotisate me, ' I thirsted, and ye gave-drink-to me.' The kindness shown to Christ's poor is kindness shown to Him, and the best kindness is to give in all cases that which is most suitable to relieve the real wants of the suffering. Benevolence, even Christian benevolence, often fails of its object — nay, sometimes defeats itself — by being divorced from sound judgment. In ordinary life how common it is to see intoxicating, thirst-creating drinks given for the removal of thirst ! When alcoholic liquors assuage the sensation of thirst, they do so by narcoticizing the nerves of feeling, and only partially answer the end indicated by thirst, by virtue of the water they contain. They universally, by their action on the blood, increase thirst to the extent of their alcoholic potency, even where they do not occasion that diseased state of the nervous system known as dipsomania, or 'thirst-frenzy,' which is fed by every new supply of the fiery fuel. Chapter XXVI. Verse 17. Now the first day of the feast of unleavened bread the disciples came to Jesus, saying unto him, Where wilt thou that we prepare for thee to eat the passover ? NOW THE FIRST DAY OF THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD] Tee de prdtee ton aziimon, 'now on the first (day) of the unfermented things.' Tyndale's and Cranmer's versions read, 'swete breed.' Chapter XXVI. Verses 26 — 29. 26 And as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed it, and brake it, and gave it to the disciples, and said, Take, eat ; this is my body. 27 And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, Drink ye all of it ; 28 For this is my blood of the new testa- ment, which is shed for many for the remission of sins. 29 But I say unto you, I will not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom. V. 27. The cup] To poterion, 'the drinking- vessel,' 'the cup.' Poteerion (also poteen) — signifying a vessel, cup, or goblet to drink from — is related to 276 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. and potees, ' drink ' ; potos, ' a draught ' ; potizo, ' to give to drink,' — all derived from pino, 'to drink.' Codices Aleph, B, and Z have poteerion, 'a cup,' instead of ho poteerion, 'the cup.' And gave thanks'] Kai eucharisteesas, 'and giving thanks.' The name of 'eucharist' applied to the Lord's Supper as the ordinance of special thanksgiving, is of great antiquity. Justin Martyr, having said that thanks were given for the bread and wine-and-water, adds, "And this very provision is called by us Thanks- giving {kai hee trophee autee kaleitai par 3 hee heemon Eucharistia)." Drink ye all of it] Piete ex autou pantes, ' drink ye of it— all (ye).' Codex D is without pantes, 'all.' V. 28. For this is my blood of the new testament] Codices Aleph and B omit kainees, 'new.' V. 29. I WILL NOT DRINK HENCEFORTH OF THIS FRUIT OF THE VINE] Ou mee pio ap^ arti ek toutou tou genneematos tees ampelou, ' I will not drink from hence out of this, the offspring of the vine.' Genneema is 'that which is born ' or 'pro- duced,' from gennao, ' to beget.' Codices Aleph, A, B, C, and D, all read genee- matos (with one ri). Until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's KINGDOM] Heds tees heemeras ekeinees, hotan auto find meth? humon kainon en tee basileia tou patros mou, ' until that day when I will drink it with you new in the kingdom of my Father.' Papias, who lived just at the close of the apostolic age, and wrote an 'Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord,' gives a legendary account of a prophecy ascribed to the Saviour, and contained in these words, — " The days shall come in which vines shall grow, each bearing ten thousand shoots, and on each shoot ten thousand branches, and on each branch ten thousand twigs, and on each twig ten thousand clusters, and on each cluster ten thousand grapes, and each grape when pressed shall yield five-and-twenty measures of wine (oinos). And when any of the saints shall have taken hold of one of these clusters, another shall cry, 'I am a better cluster, take me, bless the Lord through me.' " The passage is interesting in a critical sense, as showing that the juice as expressed from the grape was called ' wine ' ; otherwise the legend must be classed with similar hyperbolisms preserved in the Talmud and later Targums. It has been supposed, with some probability, that the legend got into circulation as a paraphrase of this 29th verse, and that Papias was induced to record and accept it because it harmonized with his view of a material and millennial reign of Christ upon the earth after the general resurrection. ' The cup ' is used by figure or ellipsis for that which it contained ; and if we inquire, What did the cup contain ? the answer given must be that of the Lord himself, — ' the fruit (or produce) of the vine ' in a liquid state. The further question, Was this juice of the grape fermented? is one which has excited considerable discussion, and is of deep interest in connection with the Temperance reform. The earliest Temperance bonds of union consisted of pledges of abstinence from intoxicating liquors, 'except as a medicine or in a religious ordinance'; the object being to avoid the difficulty that might have arisen had absence from the Lord's Supper, or the rejection of the cup, been required as a condition of Temperance membership. As the Temperance movement also was a practical one, aiming to remove the evils consequent on the use of intoxicating liquors for diet or mere gratification, it was felt that, were they for a time confined strictly to medicinal or sacramental purposes, that practical purpose would not be seriously impaired. But its opponents would not permit this neutrality to exist ; they taunted its friends with inconsistency in MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. 277 using, as the symbol of redemption, that liquor which they condemned unsparingly elsewhere; and such taunts, combined with the scruples of abstainers and the attraction of the subject itself, led to a more careful and exact inquiry into the nature of this Eucharistal emblem. I. Those who hold that the 'cup' contained fermented grape-juice allege — I. That the phrase ' fruit of the vine ' was a periphrastic expression for oinos (wine), and that oinos always designated the fermented juice of the grape. 2. That at the time of the passover, grapes out of which the juice could have been expressed for drinking were not to be procured. 3. That the prediction of the Saviour that He would no more drink of the fruit of the vine till He drank of it new in the heavenly kingdom, implies that He had then partaken of the old wine, commonly used and preferred (Luke v. 39). 4. That it is evident, from the Mishna and the writings of the rabbins, that grape-juice which could intoxicate was used at the passover. 5. That the practice of the modern Jews supports the inference that the wine was intoxicating. 6. That the ancient custom of mingling water with the sacramental wine favors the same conclusion. 7. That the practice of using unfermented grape-juice at the Lord's Supper has been treated as an innovation, and has received ecclesiastical condemnation; as, for example, by the Third Council of Braga, which condemned as heretics "those who used no other wine but what they pressed out of the clusters of the grapes, which were then presented at the Lord's table." — (Bingham's 'Church Antiquities.') 8. That the practice of all the Christian churhes of the East and West, save that of the Abyssinian branch, is opposed to the use of unfermented wine. This is specially urged by Dr Tattam, late Archdeacon of Bedford, and is repeated in two or three Biblical Cyclopaedias of recent date. To these arguments it may be answered, each in order : — I. That the avoidance of the term ' wine ' by the Saviour, and by the apostle Paul in his extended reference to the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. xi), is, at least, remarkable, and cannot fail to suggest to the devout reader the wish of Jesus that the analogy between Himself and the vine, on which He discoursed at this solemn period (John xv. ), should be impressed upon His followers. It is the true 'living vine,' and the fresh unde- composed fruit of it, that are naturally prominent. It rather follows (1) that Jesus did not choose a periphrastic and figurative expression to convey the idea of wine, which the word oinos would have conveyed directly and without circumlocution. But (2) it does not follow, even if ' fruit of the vine ' was used as equivalent to oinos (wine), that the wine must have been fermented. Oinos, like the Hebrew yayin, was a generic name for the expressed juice of the grape in every state, and was certainly applied to the juice within the grape, if not to the grape itself. The Lxx., whose translation of the Old Testament was used by the Saviour, gives it as the equi- valent of yayin and tirosh in passages where the idea of fermentation is necessarily excluded. (See Notes on Judg. ix. 13 ; Jer. xl. 10, 11 ; and Appendix A. ) Recipes for preparing various kinds of wines without fermentation have been preserved by writers of antiquity ; and the common practice of boiling their wines, and also of largely diluting them, showed that the action of fermentation (in producing an intoxicating liquor) was not regarded by the ancients as essential to the existence of oinos. It is, therefore, a false assumption that oinos always denoted fermented grape-juice, or that fermented oinos always continued inebriating; and in no case could the inference be sustained, that by ' offspring of the vine ' the Lord intended to use an expression synonymous with oinos as a fermented and intoxicating drink. 2. The Jewish passover, it is true, was six months after the vintage; but in grape-growing countries nothing is easier than to preserve an abundant supply of 278 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. grapes from one vintage to another. Mr E. C. Delavan, of America, was intro- duced, when in Italy, to one of the largest wine manufacturers, who, he says, " informed me that he had then in his lofts, for the use of his table until the next vintage, a quantity of grapes sufficient to make one hundred gallons of wine ; that grapes could always be had, at any time of the year, to make any desirable quantity ; and that there was nothing in the way of obtaining the fruit of the vine free from fermentation, in wine countries, at any period. A large basket of grapes was sent to my lodgings, which were as delicious, and looked as fresh, as if recently taken from the vines, though they had been picked for months." The merchant was Signor Peppini, of Florence. Niebuhr, in his 'Travels through Arabia,' mentions (Heron's translation, vol. i. p. 406) that ' the Arabs preserve grapes by hanging them up in their cellars and eating them almost through the whole year. ' Swinburne, in his 'Travels,' p. 167, says of the Spaniards, 'They have the secret of preserving grapes, sound and juicy, from one season to another.' Josephus, in his 'Wars of the Jews ' (b. vii. c. 8, s. 4), states, in reference to the fortress of Massada, " There was also wine and oil in abundance, with all kinds of pulse and dates, heaped up together. These fruits, all fresh and full ripe, were in no way inferior to such fruits newly laid in, though they had been there little short of 100 years when the place was taken by the Romans." The objection is, therefore, nugatory, because an abundance of freshly kept grapes could have been procured, and their juice expressed, at this last supper of the Lord. But even had this been impossible, raisin wine, prepared as hereafter described, might at any time have been obtained, such as is now frequently used by Jewish families in the celebration of the passover. 3. It is not probable that the Saviour would associate the words, ' This is the testament in My blood,' with the use of old wine as the representative of His blood about to be shed. The inference that new wine was not used because of His declara- tion that He would no more drink of the fruit of the vine until He drank it new with His disciples in the heavenly kingdom, is only valid on the supposition that He was alluding to different kinds of material wine ; but no such supposition can be entertained for a moment.* The Redeemer did not imply, ' This is old vine- fruit, and I will take no more vine-fruit till I take it new in My Father's kingdom ' ; but having reference to the symbolic nature of the feast, He is to be understood as affirming, that though He was then instituting a new dispensation, and probably with new wine, this economy would, in process of time, yield to another, which should be emphatically ' new,' when the fruit of the vine (that is to say, its spiritual joy) should, in its transcendent purity and sweetness, taste 'new' even to those who had partaken of the fruit of the New Testament dispensation. Bengel, and a train of expositors, take kainon, 'new,' in the sense of 'exceeding all pre- vious experience.' And after all, were we to admit a contrast between a present and literal 'old wine,' and figurative and future 'new wine,' evidence would still be required that a fermented old wine was used on this occasion. Unfermented wines were made and preserved for long periods, and some of the old wines were elaborately treated in order to free them from any intoxicating power. t 4. The ' Mishna,' or ' Misna,' is the text of the Talmud. It signifies ' repetition,' being a collection of traditional Jewish expositions and customs, reduced into order * Were it so, however, the argument would still be the same. For the wine that is alone best when new is the unfermented, made from fresh grapes, as contrasted with old grapes. t " Wines are rendered old and deprived of all their force by filtering." — Pliny. "Wine is rendered old, or feeble in strength, when it is frequently filtered. The strength being thus excluded, the wine neither inflames the brain nor infests the mind and passions, and is much more pleasant to drink." — Plutarch. MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. 279 by Rabbi Yehuda (Judah), surnamed Hakkadosh, 'the holy,' toward the close of the second century of the Christian era. The 'Gemaras,' or commentaries on the Mishna, are two — that of Jerusalem, variously ascribed to the third and fifth centuries, and that of Babylon, compiled in the sixth century. The Babylon Talmud is in most esteem. The Talmud was copiously annotated by Maimonides and Bartenora, celebrated rabbins of the Middle Ages ; and it is from their notes, and not from the text of the Mishna, that references to the intoxicating nature of the passover wine have been extracted. These references will be afterward - examined. According to the Mishna, search for ferment was made by lamplight on the night of the fourteenth day of the month Nisan, this search extending to the cellars ; and among the prohibited drinks are named the cutakh of Babylon, the sheker of the Medes, and the khametz of Idumea — all of them either fermented liquors made from grain or fruit, or liquors so liable to ferment that they were prudently excluded. The poorest Jew is said to be careful to drink four cups of wine during the feast, and permission is given to drink more wine between the first and third cups, but not between the third and fourth cups. A warming-pot, or kettle, is mentioned as being present on the passover board, probably to dilute the wine when too thick or sweet for use as prepared. 5. The practice of the modern Jews is far from being consentaneous in favor of fermented wine ; and those who use it are careful to put away the branded wines of commerce, which are the kind most commonly used in the Christian celebration of the Eucharist. See page 282. 6. The practice of mingling wine with water, both at the passover and Lord's Supper, is undoubtedly very ancient. But the wide-spread custom of boiling wines till the juice was reduced to a syrup or jelly, made the addition of water in large quantities necessary, not to weaken the alcoholic strength, but to render them fit for drinking at all.* In regard to those which were fermented, and retained the alco- hol, the percentage of spirit was not greater than from 6 to 15 ; and when this liquor was diluted with water in the proportion of three to one of bulk, the beverage could not be compared with the ' fortified ' wines now in use. Rabbi Yehuda is expressly said, in the Mishna, to have approved of boiled wine, the use of which at the passover would necessitate the liberal application of water, t The antiquity of wine-and-water in the Christian eucharist is high. Cyprian pleads for it as an apostolic tradition, and mystical reasons very attractive to the Fathers were alleged in its behalf. As the evangelists, however, say nothing about water, all positive assertion on the point must be forborne. If the traditions of the Mishna reflected the general practice of the Jews at the passover, and z/ that practice was adopted by our Lord — then, for some reason unknown, water was mingled with the fruit of the vine at the last supper. What the fact really was must always remain doubt- ful to us ; but whatever it might be, it would altogether fail to support the conjec- ture that the wine was fermented and intoxicating. v 7. The extract from Bingham as to the decree of the local council of Braga proves the existence of a difference in the Western celebration of the sacrament ; * " Rendered thick by the continued action of heat and smoke from the fumarium or drying- kUn, over which they were kept for years ; sometimes even boiled down to a concrete mass ; and often inspissated with foreign matter ; they were, in many cases, reduced to a state of syrup or extract, and so thoroughly seasoned with harsh aromatic bitterness, or even less estimable flavors, that it was perhaps scarcely possible to drink them without dilution." — Quarterly Review, vol. xxxii. p. 232. t Vide the original, cited in ' Works of Dr Lees,' ii. p. 169, from the Mishna, Tr. Terumoth, xi. Bartenora adds, in a Latin note, ' Because people drink less of boiled wine,' which is certainly true, since boiling grape-juice makes it more saccharine and satisfying. 280 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 2Q. and no one acquainted with the ignorance of most of the Fathers of the Western church on many questions of Oriental philology and usage, would appeal to their opinions, or to the decisions of councils under their influence, for testimony as to Jewish manners and customs centuries before their time. But the objection may be more directly met. Bingham, in his 'Antiquities of the Christian Church' (book xv. chap. 2, sect. 7), discusses the practices of some ancient heretics who used only water in the Lord's Supper, and also the custom, widely adopted, of mixing the wine -with water. He then continues, "And the third council of Braga [in Portugal] relates Cyprian's words, correcting several other abuses that were crept into the administration of the sacrament; as of some who offered milk instead of wine ; and others who only dipped the bread into the wine, and so denied the people their complement of the sacrament ; and others who used no other wine but what they pressed out of the cluster of grapes that were then presented at the Lord's table. All which they condemn, and order ■ that nothing but bread, and wine mingled with water, should be offered, according to the determination of the ancient councils.'" The words printed above in italics are Bingham's translation of the words of the council — viz., quosdam etiam expressum vinum in sacramento Doi?iinici calicis offerre, 'some even present wine expressed in the sacrament of the Lord's cup.' Passing by the curious fact that non, 'not,' before expressum is given by some MSS. as the reading of the passage, it is obvious that the objection of the council had not respect to the unfermented nature of the juice distinctly called vinum — 'wine,' — but to the juice of the grape being expressed at the time of the sacrament, when no provision was made for the canonical admixture with water. But Pope Julius, or whoever wrote the Epistle to the Egyptians preserved by Gratian, had long before said, with an eye to this objection, Sed si necesse sit botrus in calice co?nprimatur, et aqua miscatur, 'but if needful let the bunch of grapes be pressed into the cup, and let water be mingled with it.' Thomas Aquinas alludes to this; see Note on p. 285. 8. The objection of the late Archdeacon Tattam, that only the Abyssinian, amongst all the Eastern branches of the Church universal, supports the doctrine of the Abstainer, is the exact contrary of the fact. Hardly any church but the cor- rupted, intolerant, and persecuting churches of the West ever introduced any other practice than that of the Abstainer. [Consult Student's Edition of Dr Nott's 'Lectures on Bible Temperance,' p. 227, Appendix D, in reply to Dr Tattam; 'Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii. pp. 131, 180; and see under II. division, No. 4, farther on.] II. The arguments in favor of the position that the Saviour used the unfer- mented ' fruit of the vine ' may be thus summarized : — I. Obedience to the Mosaic law required the absence of all fermented articles from the passover feast. The law forbade seor — yeast, ferment, whatever could excite fermentation — and khahmatz, whatever had undergone fermentation or been subject to the action of 2, seor. [See Note on Exod. xii. 15, 19.] Fer- mented grape-juice must, therefore, by the necessity of the case, have been equally interdicted with fermented bread. Most noteworthy is it that Maimonides, Barte- nora, and other mediaeval rabbins, in allowing the use of intoxicating wine, defend their permission by supposing that it is not fermented. They say, "It is an hypothesis of the Jews that the water of fruits does not ferment; hence the prohi- bition does not apply to pure water and to wine." In other words, to excuse a violation of the letter of the Divine law, rabbinism sets up a proposition which is a plain contradiction of natural law ! If grape-juice does not ferment, whence did the rabbins suppose its intoxicating power was derived ? It is hardly possible MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. 28 1 to stretch our charity so as to believe that the assertion was ever put forth in good faith. An attempted distinction between the ferment of grain and the ferment of grape-juice is not a whit more defensible; for (1) all ferment was forbidden, and (2) the ferment (yeast) of grain and of grape-juice is chemically identical, both being rotting albumen. Nor can it be pretended that ferment only, and not the spirituous product of ferment, was prohibited ; for the Gemara and rabbins forbade all fermented liquor of grain, however well fined; and, moreover, rum and all distilled spirits which are quite fme from seor have been always rigidly interdicted. Besides, it must have be«n practically impossible for the Jews to retain large quan- tities of fermented wine on their premises without a considerable portion of the ferment remaining attached to skins and casks. We here reach the last pinch of the argument Did the Saviour understand the law, or did He not? Did He observe the law, or break it ? If He used fermented liquor, He must, either ignorantly or intentionally, have broken it ; and reverence for their Master ought surely to lead Christians to the conclusion that the cup He ' blessed ' and gave to His disciples contained nothing which the law of Moses had interdicted. 2. The consistency and beauty of the sacramental symbol demanded the absence of all fermented drink. Leaven had been used by the Great Teacher as an emblem of the doctrine of the Pharisees ; and both among Jews and heathens ferment was a common sign of corruption. The Lord of the dispensation of grace, who was now about to seal the new covenant by His blood, offers the cup as the type and token of that blood : could grape-juice which had been subject to a decaying and fermenting process be fitly and consistently used as its visible symbol? Could that blood, signifying the redemption of man and the cleansing of the conscience, be aptly represented by an intoxicating cup, which, in the Psalms and prophets, had been adopted, on the one hand, as the figure of human depravity, and, on the other, as the emblem of Divine indignation ? 3. If the traditions of the Talmud correctly state that each person at the pass- over was supplied with four cups at least, and had permission to take an extra quantity between; and if the Saviour kept the passover, according to this custom, with His disciples, — unless we assume the absence of fermented liquors, the inference is inevitable, that both the Lord and His followers countenanced and illustrated alcoholic excess! Each cup, says Lightfoot (vol. ix. p. 151), was to contain "not less than the fourth part of a quarter of a hin, besides what water was mingled with it" ; and as the hin contained twelve English pints, the quantity of wine which it was obligatory upon each person to drink would be three pints ; but three pints of alcoholic wine would be sufficient to make any person, save a hardened toper, grossly intoxicated. Even if the Talmud be accused of extrava- gance, and the quantity is reduced one-half, nine out of ten persons who drank it, and all women and children, would be inebriated. Indeed, to suppose any sort of wine to be freely drunk, except an zmfermented species, is to presuppose conse- quences from which the truly pious mind instinctively recoils.* * Hence the confusion of thought evinced in the sentence preceding the quotation (given on p. 139) from the Evangelical Magazine (No. 103, Ne\T Series), — " All Protestants strongly resent the usage of the Church of Rome in denying the cup to the laity; but though we have received and restored to the people the visible symbol which for many centuries had been withheld from them, it is not quite certain that we have permitted ourselves to apprehend its meaning. We still celebrate the Lord's Stepper as if th» wine were forbidden us." This implies that the quantity used is much too small, and that it should be supped, not sipped. But would the writer of this complaint recommend that each communicant should receive the Talmudic allowance of a bottle and a half of intoxicating wine ? Is it not clear, that so long as alcoholic wine is used, the only condition of safety is limiting the amount to a mouthful? and that the wine of the Supper can never be taken copiously and festally till it ceases to be alcoholic and inebriating ? 36 282 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. 4. As subsidiary evidence, we may cite the long-established practice of nearly all the Christian communities of the East, though widely separated from each other. Baron Tavernier, in his ' Persian Travels ' (1652), says of the Christians of St John, whom he found very numerous at ' Balsara ' (Bassorah), " In the eucharist they make use of meal or flour, kneaded up with wine and oil ; for, say they, the body of Christ being composed of two principal parts, flesh and blood, the flour and the wine do perfectly represent them. To make their wine they take grapes dried in the sun — which they call in their language zebibes, — and casting water upon them, let them steep for so long a time. The same wine they use in the consecration of the cup." The Christians of St Thomas, who were found on the coast of Malabar, and claimed to have derived the gospel from St Thomas the apostle, celebrated the Lord's Supper in the juice expressed from raisins 'softened one night in water,' says Odoard Barbosa. 'They use in their sacrifices wine prepared from dried grapes ' {vino et passis uvis confecto in sacrificiis utuntur), states Osorius (De Rebus, 1586). Ainsworth, in his ' Travels in Asia Minor' (London, 1842), notes the administration of the sacrament among the Nestorians, and adds, 'Raisin water supplied the place of wine.' Tischendorf, in his narrative of visits to the Coptic monasteries of Egypt, remarks that at the eucharist the priest took the thick juice of the grape from a glass with a spoon ; and Dr Gobat (the Protestant Bishop of Jerusalem), in his Abyssinian 'Journal,' records the reception of ' some bottles of grape wine. The wine is the juice of dried grapes with water.' It is morally certain that the eucharistical notices of some of the ancient Christian sects, who are represented as denouncing wine and rejecting it from the Lord's Supper, are colored and perverted statements, — pointing simply to a refusal to v&z fermented wine in the sacrament. When so able and acute a theologian as St Augustine charges his old associates, the Manichseans, with inconsistency because they condemned intoxicating wine and yet allowed the use of grapes, it is difficult to estimate the capacity for blundering in lesser minds upon the kindred question of the wine used by the independent sects of antiquity; some of whom may have been very wrong in respect to articles of faith, and very right in points of discipline and practice. 5. In spite of the sophisms of many celebrated doctors, the Jews of the syna- gogue do conform very extensively to the Mosaic injunction to celebrate the pass- over without fermented drinks. Speaking no doubt from his own observation, the Rev. C. F. Frey, a converted Jew and author of several Hebrew works, has said, "Nor dare they (the Jews) drink any liquor made from grain, nor any that has passed through the process of fermentation." The Arbah Turim, a digest of Talmudic law, by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher, in the thirteenth century, says of the four cups, "If needful, he must sell what he has, in order to keep the injunction of the wise men. Let him sell what he has, until he procure yayin ov zimmooqim — wine or raisins." The learned Rabbi Manasseh ben Israel, in his Vindicia yudceorum (Amsterdam, 1656), says of the passover, " Here, at this feast, every confection [ = matzoth] ought to be so pure as not to admit of any ferment, or of anything that will readily fermentate'''' (Sect, i., No. 4). Mr. Noah, a leading Jew of New York, informed Mr Delavan that the use of wine prepared from steeped raisins was general among American Jews. Mr A. C. Isaacs, a teacher of the Jews, among whom he had lived twenty-six years before his conversion, stated in a letter (1844), "All the Jews with whom I have ever been acquainted use wwintoxicating wine at the passover, — a wine made in this country expressly for the occasion, and generally by themselves. Some raisins (dried grapes) are steeped in water for a few days previous to the passover, the vessel being placed MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. 283 near the fire. This liquor is bottled off, and used at the feast of unleavened bread as 'the fruit of the vine.' Sometimes, when time does not permit of steeping, the raisins are boiled on the same day on which the feast is to be celebrated at night ; and when the whole of the saccharine matter is thought to be extracted, the decoc- tion is bottled off and corked; and this is the passover wine." Dr Cunningham, the learned Hebraist, says, "What is now chiefly used by the Jews at the pass- over for wine is a drink made of an infusion of raisins in water, which is either boiled at once or simmered during several days. It is free from alcohol and acidity. It is quite sweet. I have tasted it at the paschal table. No Jew with whom I have conversed, of whatever class or nation, ever used any other kind. But a Mr Jonas informed me that he believed the proper kind of wine is that expressed from the red grape at the time." In Home's 'Introduction to the Scriptures' it is said (voL iii. p. 322, foot-note, Edit. 1846), "The modern Jews, being forbidden to drink any fermented liquor at the passover, drink either pure water, or a wine prepared by themselves from raisins (Allen's ' Modern Judaism,' p. 394; the Truth-Seeker, 1845, p. 78). It is not known when the Jewish custom began of excluding fermented wine from the passover feast. It is, however, very ancient, and is now almost universal among the modern Jews." The late Professor Moses Stuart, in the Bibliotheca Sacra (voi. i.), remarks, "I cannot doubt that khamats, in its widest sense, was excluded from the Jewish passover when the Lord's Supper was first instituted; for I am not able to find evidence to make me doubt that the custom among the Jews, of excluding fermented wine as well as (fermented) bread, is older than the Christian era. . . . That this custom is very ancient; that it is even now almost universal; and that it has been so for time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary, I take to be facts that cannot be fairly controverted." The Encyclopedia Britannica observes, that *' considerable dispute has been raised as to whether the wine used on the occasion was fermented or unfermented — was the ordinary wine, in short, or the pure juice of the grape. Those who hold that it was unfermented, appeal mainly to the expression 'unfermented-things,' which is the true rendering of the word trans- lated 'unleavened bread.' The rabbins would seem to have interpreted the com- mand xespecting ferment as extending to the wine as well as to the bread of the passover. The modern Jews, accordingly, generally use raisin wine, after the injunction of the rabbins " (Art. 'Passover,' 8th Edit.). The Jews may, indeed, differ in their practice, as the rabbins have differed in their opinions; but, un- questionably, multitudes consider that a regard to the Mosaic prescription requires them to exclude fermented liquor of all kinds from their dwellings during the passover, and to celebrate that feast in wine of a perfectly unintoxicating character. It may be inferred from the evangelical history, that, in the time of our Lord, the custom of using ' the fruit of the vine ' at the passover had become general. As it is not named by Moses in his regulations for the observance of that feast, we may presume that it was introduced after his day, perhaps after the captivity. Whenever introduced, however, this 'fruit of the vine' would fall under the general principle prohibiting both the use and presence of ferment during the passover week, from the 14th to the 21st of the month Nisan. The wine thus employed would, therefore, be composed (1) of grape-juice squeezed at the passover feast — perhaps from the grape yielding a red, sweet juice, — and drunk immediately after straining; or (2) of grape-juice previously boiled down, and 284 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 2Q. reconverted into a potable liquid at the table by water, hot or cold (hot is men- tioned in the Mishna) ; or (3) of the juice of raisins which had been kept steeped and simmering in readiness for the occasion. If the order of proceeding described in the Mishna was followed by the Lord and His apostles, the following would be the course of events : — The company being seated, the Lord, acting as master of the feast, took the first cup of wine, and having pronounced a blessing, such as " We thank Thee, O Lord, our heavenly Father, who hast created the fruit of the vine," He drank of the cup, and gave it to the disciples that they might also partake. The hands of all were then washed, and the table was furnished with the paschal lamb roasted whole, with bitter herbs, two unleavened cakes, the remains of the peace offerings presented on the pre- ceding day, and the charoseth or thick-sauce. A piece of salad was then taken and eaten, and a blessing pronounced on the herbs ; * after which, the provisions having been temporarily removed or permitted to remain (as no children or strangers were present), conversation followed upon the origin of the feast; the supper (if removed) was then replaced, and water having been mingled with the second cup of wine, " He saith unto them, With desire have I desired to eat this pascha with you before I suffer ; for I say unto you, I shall no more eat thereof until it be fulfilled in the kingdom of God. And He took the cup, and gave thanks, and said, Take this and divide among you ; I will not henceforth drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God shall come." The 113th and 114th Psalms having been read, the second cup of wine, distributed to each, was drunk. Hands were again washed, an ejaculatory prayer uttered, and one of the unleavened cakes blessed and broken, and a piece offered to each disciple. This was eaten with the bitter herbs, the bread being dipped into the sauce. " And as they were eating, He said, Verily I say unto you, that one of you shall betray Me. And they were very sorry, and began each of them to say unto Him, Lord, is it I ? And He answered and said, He who dippeth his hand with Me in this dish, he will betray Me." Dipping a sop into the dish, the Saviour gave it to Judas. The flesh of the peace-offerings was then eaten, a benediction pronounced, and the paschal lamb served. "And as they were eating, Jesus took the bread (the second unleavened cake), and blessed and brake it, and gave it to His disciples, and said, Take ; this is My body, which is given for you : this do in remembrance of Me." Thanks were offered, hands were again washed, and 'the cup of blessing' prepared, which received a new and exalted significance, for "after the same manner also He took the cup after supper, and having given thanks, gave it to them, saying, Drink all of you out of it ; for this is My blood of the covenant, which is shed for many for the forgiveness of sins. But I say unto you, I shall not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day I drink it new with you in My Father's kingdom." The allusion to God's kingdom touched a chord of ambition in the disciples' breasts, and they discussed who should be the greatest in it. This self-exalting disposition was reproved, and Peter was warned. The wonderful and mysterious discourse re- corded by John was then commenced, and carried on down to the words (chap. xiv. 31), 'Arise, let us go hence.' The fourth cup of wine was then filled, and the grand *The language of the 'blessings' was very precise, nicely distinguishing between natural and manufactured things. For example : — For fruit which grows upon a tree, say, Who ' createst the fruit of the tree ' ; save for wine, whereon the benediction is, ' Who createst the fruit of the vine? For things which derive not their growth immediately from the ground (Psa. civ. 14, 15), say, 'Who gave being to all things.' "—(Mishna, Tr. Berakoth, vi.) Let it be remembered, that though no one would think of calling vinegar the ' fruit of the vine,' it is really more deserving that appellation than any form of alcohol. The former is sometimes found in growing fruit, the latter MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. 285 hallel or hymn of praise — comprehending Psalms cxvi. to cxviii. — having been sung, the disciples drank of ' the fruit of the vine ' ; and the company having passed into the open air and out of Jerusalem, the Saviour resumed His discourse, with an implied reference to what had been last done in the passover chamber ; as if saying, " Ye have been drinking of the fruit of the vine, but reme7nber ! * I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman.' " The principal reasons for a use of unfermented wine in the present day, at the Sacramental communion, may be briefly enumerated: — 1. Unfermented wine, if the preceding arguments are valid, was used by the Lord when instituting the Supper, conformably to a law, the moral significance of which remains the same, and is even greatly enhanced ; for if ferment, the symbol of corruption and insincerity, was out of place at the passover, how much more unsuitable is it at the board of Christian fellowship and joy ! It may be answered that conformity to the old analogy requires the disuse of fermented bread ; and why should the conformity not be complete ? Yet partial conformity is better than total contrariety; and if the conformity must be partial, there are special reasons (afterwards assigned) why the cup should be selected, — not to insist on the fact that in fermented wine the effects of the ferment remain, while in bread they have been expelled by the heat of baking. 2. Unfermented wine is, in literal truth and beyond all question, the only ' fruit of the vine.' That designation it may challenge without fear of contradic- tion. What the vine has made it by vital processes, and what earth, sun, and air have combined to make it by the genial chemistry of absorption, warmth, and nutrition, it has become.* Fermented wine, on the contrary, is, just so far as its fermented and alcoholic character goes, something quite other than the * fruit ' of the vine, — the result of disintegrating forces which do not operate upon the vine, or within the grape, as formed by the Creator.! One practice, therefore, is at least right, while the other may be wrong, since the juice of the grape must be the fruit of the vine, whereas the wine of commerce cannot be so entirely, and may not be so in any degree. Under such circumstances, who can decide in favor of the latter, and against the former, as the substance which Christians are commanded to use in remembrance of their Lord ? 3. Unfermented wine, on account of its innocent and nutritious properties, is a proper symbol of the blood of the Redeemer shed for the remission of sins. But fermented wine is almost destitute of any nutritious property, and, as containing the invisible but potent spirit of mischief, is, in proportion to its alcoholic strength, more fitted to represent moral disease and guilt than pardon and purification. This inversion of all analogy becomes the more serious when almost all the wines sold are charged with brandy, and are otherwise adulterated, so as more to resemble * The schoolmen, with all their acumen, did not dream of denying so plain a fact. The works of Thomas Aquinas are contained entire in Migne's Patrologue Cursus Completus ; and in the 4th book, 74th question, and 5th article, where it is asked, in reference to the Lord's Supper, utrum •vinum vitis sit propria materia kujus sacramenti — ' whether wine of the vine is a proper sub- stance to be used in this sacrament,' — he answers, Mustum autem jam habet speciem vini, 'grape-juice has the specific nature ofwine'; and decides, Ideo de musto potest con/ici hoc sacra- mentum, ' therefore this sacrament can be kept with grape-juice.' He cautions against the use of must just expressed, on account of its turbidness ; but states that, by the decree of Pope Julius, si necesse fuerit botrus in calice comprimatur, ' the cluster may, if necessary, have its juice pressed into the cup.' [See page 280.] t " It is curious," says Professor Brande, in his 'Manual of Chemistry,' "how perfectly the exclusion of air is provided for by the natural texture of the grape, which does not allow its ingress although it admits of the transpiration of aqueous vapor, as is shown by the spontaneous desiccation of the berry." 286 MATTHEW, XXVI. 26 — 29. the dreadful * mixed wine ' of Scripture than the sweet and sanctifying influences of Divine grace in Christ Jesus our Lord. 4. Unfermented wine can be used by all communicants, young or old, without any danger of creating or of reawakening the drunkard's appetite ; while the use of fermented wine at the Lord's Supper has been known to rekindle the flame which abstinence had laid in many reformed inebriates. Surely the Lord's table ought not to be a place of fierce temptation to any Christian ; or a place where, for the soul's sake, one-half of the emblems has to be rejected by any believer — a course that not few reformed drunkards are compelled to follow whenever fermented wine is present at the Eucharist. 5. Unfermented wine may be used by all without any scruples or qualms of conscience, but fermented wine cannot ; and therefore, on the broad principle of 'not casting a stumblingblock in a brother's way,' Christians who might themselves (till otherwise convinced) use alcoholic wine conscientiously, should cheerfully, from a spirit of brotherly affection, commune in elements of which all can partake without danger or offence. The course taken by some Congregational officials, of excluding from membership those who have not been able to use alcoholic wine, is a violation of Christian equity and charity, an arbitrary and cruel act, which is self-condemned. A majority of those who have power to decide not to supply unfermented wine ought, at least, to allow those who desire it to have it provided for their separate use. A contrary course must inevitably produce division.* 6. Unfermented wine is procurable without extending any sanction to the iniquitous traffic in alcoholic liquors. The fearfully injurious influence of that traffic upon national morals is such as to make it eminently desirable that all connection between it and true Christian communities should be avoided. This may be done with ease and satisfaction by exchanging the wine which mocks and deceives for the un corrupted 'fruit of the vine,' on which a blessing may be freely invoked without any sense of incongruity, and without exciting aversion and disgust. At a moderate computation, the quantity of alcohol consumed any year in Great Britain at the Sacramental table cannot fall short of 25,000 gallons, representing five times as many gallons of wine purchased, at a minimum cost of ^"75,000. What God has not joined may be lawfully sundered whenever a laudable purpose is to be attained ; and while no sacred principle binds the table of the Lord to the vender of intoxicating and mostly factitious wines, a separation between them would withdraw from that 'mystery of iniquity,' the Wine Trade, a patronage and implied approval which is simply shocking. Surely it is 'a consummation devoutly to be wished,' that the Church of God, and the sanctuary of a pure and spiritual worship, should be kept as free as possible from every taint of intoxication, and from everything that feeds and fosters the wide-spread intemperance of the nation. * Whether a Christian abstainer should take the Lord's Supper in fermented wine, when he must do so or not commune at all, is a question of conscience which each person must determine for himself. Consistency certainly requires that he should use his legitimate influence to obtain a substitution of pure for alcoholic wine in the communion service of his own church. Failing this, he may claim to be supplied with the only wine of which he can safely or conscientiously partake, or not to have the intoxicating cup forced upon him by the penalty of excision. The recipe for making passover wine is as follows : — " Take a quantity of the best bloom or Muscatel rasins ; cut them into small pieces ; pour on them boiling water in the proportion of a pint to every pound ; let the infusion stand overnight ; then press out the liquor from the fruit, adding two tea-spoonfuls of burnt sugar for coloring. After the whole has settled for a few hours, decant the clear wine by pouring slowly into the vessel to be used, leaving any sediment behind." A sufficient quantity of unfermented grape-juice can thus be produced at a very economical rate. Where a wine more scientifically prepared, and of clear and beautiful appearance, is preferred, the ' passover wine ' of Mr Frank Wright, of Kensington, England, can be recommended; or that of Mr Reynolds, of Ripley, Ohio. It is, undoubtedly, grape-juice pure and wholesome. MATTHEW, XXVII. 34, 48. 287 Chapter XXVII. Verse 34. They gave him vinegar to drink, mingled with gall : and when he had tasted thefeoj \ he would not drink. Vinegar] Oxos y derived from oxus 'sharp,' applied to the edge of tools, and then to the sense of taste; hence oxos, that which tastes sharply = vinegar, sour wine. In Codices C and Z the passage is lost ; but Codices Aleph, B, and D have oinoriy 'wine.' With this reading agrees the V., vinum ; but Beza has acetum, ' vinegar. ' Mark says ' wine. ' The obvious conclusion is, that wine which had undergone both the alcoholic and acetous fermentations was used, agreeably to the prophecy, 'In My thirst they gave Me vinegar (khometz) to drink.' [See Note on Psa. lxix. 20.] Mingled with gall] Meta cholees memigmenon. Cholee is the word by which the Lxx. translates the Hebrew rosh, * gall,' and taanah, ' wormwood.' The literal meaning is bile, gall (from ched ' to pour out ' = that which is poured out of the gall-bladder). It is applicable to any bitter substance, such as the myrrh referred to by Mark, unless by cholee is to be understood some substance associated with the myrrh. [See Note on Mark xv. 23.] The V. and Beza givefelle, 'with gall ' (fel), the Latin equivalent for cholee. This event is described by Matthew and Mark only. Bleeding and fainting, the Saviour had followed the cross, which He was unable to carry, until Golgotha or Calvary was reached; and then He probably exhibited so much exhaustion, and appeared so likely to die before crucifixion, that some pungent draught, composed of sour wine and bitter drugs, was presented to Him. The notion that this mixture was intended to deaden the pain of crucifixion is derived from a foregone conclusion concerning the death-cup given to criminals, but is not warranted by the other circumstances of the transaction, — all testifying to the harshness and brutality of the persons officially acting in it. The prophetic language of the Psalmist also excludes the thought of purposed kindness by the soldiery.* Perhaps, however, a drugged potion, such as was offered, would have somewhat deadened the nervous sensibilities, while it excited muscular action; but no such anodyne or ' support ' was desired by the Redeemer. ' When He had tasted, He would not drink,' says Matthew; while Mark more sententiously records, 'Pie received it not.' He was to drain the cup of suffering, and He would do it in the possession of all his mental powers. What is fit to be done and endured, ought to be so, and may be, without recourse to liquors that stupefy or inflame. Chapter XXVII. Verse 48. And straightway one of them ran, and took a sponge, and filled it with vinegar, and put it on a reed, and gave him to drink. One of them] Eis ex atiton, 'one from among them.' The words ex auton are absent from Codex Aleph. * It is a tradition of the Talmud that a society of ladies existed in Jerusalem who supplied criminals with drugged drink, to allay the fears and pains of execution ; and one scholar has con- nected with this tradition the account of Luke, ' a great company of people and of women ' followed Jesus to Calvary, bewailing and lamenting Him. But there is no reason to ascribe to female sympathy the intoxicating draught offered to the Saviour. 288 MATTHEW, XXVII. 4&. A sponge] Spongon. Latin, sf With vinegar] Oxous. Codex D has oxou. Latin, ace to. Put it on a reed] Peritheis kalamo, * having placed it round a cane, — /. e. round the top of the cane. The calamus was 'a plant with a jointed hollow stalk, growing in wet ground. ' John says the sponge was put upon hyssop ; so that kalamos is here used for the stalk of the hyssop, which sometimes grows to the height of two feet. Some portion of the hyssop may have remained attached to the reed, so that it is spoken of as 'hyssop.' The sponge, after being soaked in vinegar, was raised on the point of the reed to the lips of the crucified One. The accounts of all the evangelists may be here compared with advantage : — Matt, xxvii. 48. Mark xv. 36. Luke xxiii. 36. John xix. 28 — 30. And straightway And one ran and And the soldiers After this, Jesus one of them ran, filled a sponge full also mocked him, . . . saith, I thirst, and took a sponge, of vinegar, and put coming to him, Now there was set and filled it with it on a reed, and and offering him a vessel full of vine- vinegar, and put it gave him to drink, vinegar. gar : and they filled on a reed, and a sponge with vine- gave him to drink, gar, and put it upon hyssop, and put it to his mouth. When Jesus therefore had received the vinegar, he said, It is finished : and he bowed his head, and gave up the ghost. The particulars, as variously presented above, may be thus collectively repro- duced : — At or about the ninth hour, three in the afternoon, the Saviour, in His agony, uttered the awful cry, 'Eli, Eli, lama, sabachthani,' which those who stood by mistook for an appeal to Elias. He then added, 'I thirst.' Someone who heard this ran to 'a vessel,' near at hand, 'full of vinegar ' — posca, the usual drink of the Roman legionaries, — ' and took a sponge, and filled it with vinegar ' ; and then 'the soldiers,' fixing it on a 'reed' of hyssop, held it up to Him with 1 mocking ' words, putting it ' to His mouth to drink ' ; while others, less profane and more curious, cried, ' Let be ' — be still, — ' let us see if Elias will come to save Him.' Jesus 'received the vinegar,' for the saturated sponge cooled His lips and relieved his burning thirst without beclouding his mind; and having cried with a 'loud voice,' saying, ' It is finished,' He added, ' Father, into Thy hands I com- mend My spirit;' then 'He bowed His head,' resigning His life, and His spirit passed from earth into paradise. THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MARK. Chapter II. Verse 22. And no man putteth new wine into old bottles : else the new wine doth burst the bottles, and the wine is spilled, and the bottles will be marred : but new wine must be put into new bottles. And no man putteth new wine into old bottles] Kai oudeis ballei oinon neon eis askous palaious, ' and no one places new wine into old leathern- Else the new wine doth burst the bottles] Ei de mee, rheessei ho oinos ho neos tons askotis, 'but if not (== otherwise), the new wine rends (= bursts) the bags.' All the chief Codices except Codex A read rheexei, 'will burst,' and omit ho neos, ' the new,' having simply ho oinos. ' the wine.' And the wine is spilled] Kai ho oinos ekcheitai, ' and the wine is poured out.' Codex B has kai ho oinos apollutai, ' and the wine is lost ' (destroyed) ; Codex D has only kai ho oinos, 'and the wine.' And the bottles will be marred] Kai oi askoi apolountai, ' and the bags will be lost ' (destroyed). Codex B has only kai oi askoi, ' and the bags.' But new wine must be put into new bottles] Alia oinon neon eis askous kainous bleeteon, ' but new wine should be placed into new bags.' Codex D omits the whole clause. Codices Aleph and B omit bleeteon, ' must be placed ' ; but in Aleph it is supplied by a second hand. The reading of Codex A agrees throughout with the received Greek text; and Codex C does the same, with the exception named above oi rheexei, 'will burst,' for rheessei, 'bursts.' [For Exposition, see Note on Matt. ix. 17.] Chapter IX. Verse 41. For whosoever shall give you a cup of water to drink in my name, because ye belong to Christ, verily I sav unto you, he shall not lose his reward. A cup of water] Potecrion hudatos, 'cup of water.' [See Note on Matt, x. 42.] 37 290 MARK, XIV. 23 — 25. Chapter XII. Verse i. And he began to speak unto them by parables. A certain man planted a vineyard, and set an hedge about it, and digged a place for the winefat, and built a tower, and let it out to husbandmen, and went into a far country. A vineyard] Ampelbna. And set an hedge about it] Kai perietheeke phragmon. And digged a place for the winefat] Kai druxen kupoleenion, 'and digged an under-press.' When used in distinction from leenos, 'press,' the kupo- leenion denoted that part of the structure into which the juice flowed after pressure of the grapes. Here it would seem to designate the entire receptacle for treading the clusters and collecting the 'new wine.' The wine-press was frequently dug out of the rock or soil, — precautions being taken that the liquid should not ooze away. And let it out to husbandmen] Kai exedoto auton georgois, ' and gave it out (i. e. on hire) to cultivators of the earth.' [See Note on Matt. xxi. 33.] Chapter XIV. Verses 23 — 25. 23 And he took the cup, and when he had given thanks, he gave it to them : and they all drank of it. 24 And he said unto them, This is my blood of the new testament, which is shed for many. 25 Verily I say unto you, I will drink no more of the fruit of the vine, until that day that I drink it new in the kingdom of God. V. 23. The cup] To poteerion. All the chief MSS., except A, omit ho, 'the.' And they all drank of it] Kai epion ex auto pantes, ' and all drank of it ' — i. e. of its contents, — in response to the invitation, as recorded by St Matthew, piete ex autou pantes, 'drink ye all of it,' — phraseology which conveys the impres- sion that but one cup was used at this time, of which all the apostles (except, perhaps, Judas) drank in common. V. 24. This is my blood of the new testament] Codices Aleph B, C, and D omit the word kainees, ' (of the) new.' V. 25. I WILL DRINK NO MORE OF THE FRUIT OF THE VINE] Ouketi OU mee pib ek tou genneematos tees ampelou, ' no more, not at all, will I drink of the fruit of the vine.' All the chief MSS. read geneematos (with one n). Codex Aleph omits ouketi, and Codex D has ou mee prosthb pein, ' I will not add to drink.' Until that day that I drink it new in the kingdom of God] Hebs tees heemeras ekeinees, hotan auto pinb kainon en tee basileia tou Theou, ' until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God. ' [For Exposition, see Note on Matt. xxvi. 26 — 29.] MARK, XV. 23, 36. 29I Chapter XV. Verse 23. And they gave him to drink wine mingled with myrrh : but he received it not. To drink] Piein, 'to drink.' This word is absent from Codices Aleph, B, andC. Wine mingled with myrrh] Esmumismenon oinon, * smyrnized wine '= wine prepared or flavored with myrrh. Smurna or myrrha (from the Hebrew tnor) is said, in Robinson's N. Test. Lexicon, to be "a substance distilling in tears (drops), spontaneously or by incisions, from a small thorny tree growing in Arabia, and especially in Abyssinia : these tears soon harden into a bitter aromatic gum, which was highly prized by the ancients, and used as incense and perfume." Very little is known of the myrrh-plant even at the present day. In the Baby- lonian Talmud, Rabbi Chusda is quoted as saying, "He who is led to death has given to him to drink a grain of myrrh (or frankincense) in a cup of wine, that his mind onay be withdrawn from the sense of his situation." But the historical evidence in support of this statement is exceedingly slender and obscure. [See Note on Matt, xxvii. 34. ] Chapter XV. Verse 36. And one ran and filled a sponge full of vinegar, and put it on a reed, and gave him to drink, saying, Let alone j let us see whether Elias will come to take him down. One] Eis, 'one (man).' Codices Aleph and B read tis, 'a certain (man).' Filled a sponge] Gemisas spongon, 'making a sponge full." Codex D has pleesas spongon, 'filling a sponge.' Put it on A reed] Peritheis te kalamo, 'and having placed it round a reed.' Codex D has epilheis, 'having placed it upon.' [See Note on Matt, xxvii. 48.] THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE. Chapter I. Verse 15. For he shall be great in the sight of the Lord, and shall drink neither wine nor strong drink ; and he shall be filled with the Holy Ghost, even from his mother's womb. And shall drink neither wine nor strong drink] Kai oinon kai sikera ou mee piee, 'and wine and strong drink he may not surely drink.' Wiclif (1380) translates, ' and he schal not drynke wyn ne sider ' (cider). The Rheims version (1582) has 'and wine and sicer he shal not drinke.' John the Baptist was to be 'great in the sight of the Lord,' and to be ' filled with the Holy Ghost ' from his birth. Called to a work of extraordinary solemnity, he was through life to be a Nazarite, — the principal feature of whose vow and regimen is quoted by the angel. If, as a matter of physical support, alcohol would have conduced (as nothing else could) to the performance of his onerous labors, it is inconceivable that he should have been deprived of it. [As to the contrast between the Baptist and the Saviour, see Note on Matt. xi. 18, 19; and on the relation of abstinence to spiritual influence, see Note on Ephes. v. 18.] The comparison between John the Baptist, as the harbinger of Christ, and Tem- perance societies, as pioneers of Christian civilization, has often been drawn, and in- volves both a significant truth and an impressive argument, if properly defined. No preparatory work can equal in importance that of making those sober to whom the Gospel is preached, in order that it may be heard by them to purpose. And if this preparatory work does not belong to Christians, upon whom does it devolve ? At the same time it ought to be borne in mind, and always urged, that John's example does not furnish so strong a reason for abstinence as do the benevolent and self-denying principles of Christianity, illustrated by the transcendent pattern of His self-sacrifice whose shoes' latchet John confessed he was not worthy to unloose. [See Note on chap. ix. 23.] Chapter III. Verse i. Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, luke, v. 37—39- 293 and his brother Philip tetrach of Ituraea and of the region of Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene. Tiberius Cesar] This was the Emperor Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero, the step-son and successor of Augustus, who ruled the Roman empire from A.D.14 — 37* Seneca says of him, that he was never drunk but once in his life ; for having once begun to drink, he never ceased drinking till his death. This description is scarcely chargeable with extravagance when compared with the more exact account given of him by Suetonius : — "When a young soldier in the camp, he was re- markable for his excessive inclination to wine. For Tiberius they called him Biberius [bibber], for Claudius, Caldius [hot], and for Nero, Mero [neat (wine)]. And after he succeeded to the empire, and was invested with the office of reforming the morality of the people, he spent the whole night and two days together in feasting and drinking with Pomponius Flaccus and Lucius Piso, to one of whom he immediately gave the province of Syria, and to the other the prefecture of the city, pronouncing them in his letters patent to be ' very pleasant companions and friends, fit for all occasions.' He preferred a very ignoble candidate for the quaestorship before the most noble competitors, simply because he had swallowed an amphora of wine at a draught." This 'amphora' must have been of lesser size than the common sort, which held about eight English gallons. The other vices of Tiberius were in keeping with his chronic inebriation. Chapter V. Verses 37 — 39. 37 And no man putteth new wine into old bottles; else the new wine will burst the bottles, and be spilled, and the bottles shall perish. 38 But new wine must be put into new bottles ; and both are preserved. 39 No man also having drunk old wine straightway desireth new ; for he saith, The old is better. V. 37. And no man putteth new wine into old bottles] Kai oudeis ballei oinon neon eis askous palaious, * and no one places new wine into old bags.' Codex C has epiballei, ' places upon,' an obvious reiteration, by mistake, of epiballei in ver. 36, where it is appropriate. Else the new wine will burst the bottles] Ei de meege, rheexei ho neos oinos tous askous, 'otherwise, the new wine will rend the bag.' Codex C has rkeessei, * rends ' ; Codex Aleph omits neos, reading ' the wine will rend the bags ' ; Codex D repeats the word 'old' — 'the old new-wine will rend the old bags.' And be spilled, and the bottles shall perish] Kai autos ekchutheesetai, kai hoi askoi apolountai, * and it will be poured out ( = spilled), and the bottles will perish.' V. 38. But new wine must be put into new bottles; and both are preserved] Alia oinon neon eis askous kainous bleeteon, kai amphoteroi sunteerountai, ' but (it is fit for) new wine to be placed into new bags, and both are kept together (= preserved).' In Codex Aleph bleeteon is substituted by a second hand for ballousin ; and Codex C, instead of bleeteon, reads ballousin, ' they place ' new wine, etc., and substitutes teerountai, ' they are kept,' for sunteerountai. Codices Aleph and B omit altogether the words kai amphoteroi sunteerountai. 2Q4 LUKE, V. 37—39- V. 39. NO MAN ALSO HAVING DRUNK OLD WINE STRAIGHTWAY DESIRETH NEW] Kai oudeis pion palaion, eutheos thelei neon, ' and no one drinking old immediately wishes new.' The word oinon, 'wine,' is to be understood after both palaion and neon. Codices Aleph and B omit kai, ' and,' and eutheos, 'immediately.' Codex C omits etitheos. For he saith, The old is better] Legei gar ho palaios chreestoteros estin, * for he affirms, The old is better. ' Codices Aleph and B have, instead of chreestoteros, 'better,' chreestos, 'good' — suitable — 'good enough' (Alford). The received Greek text of these three verses agrees verbatim with the text of Codex A. The V. renders chreestoteros by melius, ' better ' ; Beza by utilius, 'more useful.' Verses 37 and 38 agree in the corresponding passages of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark; and for an explanation of them, see Note on Matt. ix. 17. Ver. 39 is peculiar to Luke's Gospel, and is even absent from the text of Luke as presented in Codex D ; but the preponderance of evidence is in favor of its genuineness. The whole passage is part of the Saviour's reply to the question why His disciples did not fast as did the disciples of John and the Pharisees; and is generally interpreted to signify that it was not judicious to impose trials too heavy upon young disciples, but that there must be an adaptation of discipline to ex- perience ; in other words, that the law of congruity must be regarded, as in the case of those who avoided putting new wine into old bottles. But the commentators are puzzled to trace any connection between this exposition and ver. 39, where the drinker of old wine affirms its superiority over new. We may, perhaps, find the link of connection in the idea that new wine, preserved by close confinement in new bottles till it is old, retains in perfection all its original properties, and acquires a lusciousness that enhances its value to the user.* The language may, therefore, be thus paraphrased: — "You ask why My disciples do not act as do the disciples of John and the Pharisees. You forget that the spirit of My dispensation — a spirit of sacred liberty — is essentially different from theirs, and, therefore, that the regulations affecting its subjects must also differ. If put into the bottles of traditional Judaism, it would acquire a fermentative violence that would burst the traditional bands, and endanger its own religious existence, by the change of liberty into license. Such rules as are required for My dispensation must be adapted to its spirit — the bottles must correspond with the contents, — and so both will be preserved, — the spiritual liberty and the conditions under which it is held. Thus preserved from contamination and fermentation, the older it becomes, the sweeter and purer it will be ; and as no one who drinks old wine that has been safely kept desires new wine, because he declares that the old is better, so, the longer the liberty I bring is possessed in conformity with the principles I inculcate, the more assuredly will its excellence be exhibited and approved." (If the old wine of ver. 39 is taken as symbolical of the old form of Judaism, the remark 'No one,' etc., as Alford suggests, is simply declaratory of the self-satisfaction of the rabbinical Jew with his doctrines and rites.) Hence — *Mr Wright's passover wine is found to improve in flavor by keeping, though no chemical change, and certainly no fermentation, occurs. An explanation may be found in the fact that the original aromas of the grape, fine and subtle particles, being, by the act of crushing, mingled with the saccharine and albuminous matters, become less perceptible to the palate ; but, by being kept, they mechanically separate again, and so impart a fuller and distincter flavor by first touchiug the nerves of taste. LUKE, IX. 23. 295 1. The Lord does not introduce incongruous or contradictory metaphors. 2. Nor does He assign to old fermented wine a superiority over new and unfer- mented wine. But, — 3. A consistent sense is elicited by considering the ' new wine ' of ver. 38 iden- tical in nature, and representative of the same Christian blessings, with the • old wine ' of ver. 39 — being the new preserved and improved by age. Historically, it is unquestionable that many of the oldest wines, and such as were most esteemed, acquired a honeyed thickness and sweetness that made their extreme dilution imperative, in order to their being drunk. Aristotle testifies that the wines of Arcadia were so thick that they dried up in the goat-skins, and that it was the practice to scrape them off and dissolve the scrapings in water.* Some of the celebrated Opimian wine mentioned by Pliny had, in his day, two centuries after its production, the consistence of honey.t Professor Donovan says, "In order to preserve their wines to these ages, the Romans concentrated the must or grape- juice, of which they were made, by evaporation, either spontaneous in the air or over a fire, and so much so as to render them thick and syrupy." % Chapter VII. Verses 33 — 35. 33 For John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking wine ; and ye say, He hath a devil. 34 The Son of man is come eating and drinking; and ye say, Behold a gluttonous man, and a wine- bibber, a friend of publicans and sinners ! 35 But wisdom is justified of all her children. V. 33. Neither eating bread nor drinking wine] Meete arton esthion, meete oinon pinon. V. 34. A winebibber] Oinopotees, ' wine-drinker ' ; the V. and Beza, bibens vinum, ' drinking wine. ' Wiclif has ' drynkynge wiyn ' ; Tyndale, ' a drinker of wyne.' V. 35. But wisdom is justified of all her children] Kai edikaiothee hee sophia apo ton teknon hautees panton, ' and wisdom is vindicated (shown to be just) by all her offspring.' Codex Aleph, instead of teknon, has ergon, 'works.' In Codex D, panton, ' all,' is absent. [For Exposition, see Note on the parallel text, Matt. xi. 18, 19.] Chapter IX. Verse 23. And he said to them all, If any man will come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross daily, and follow me. This is one of many texts in which we find a wonderful condensation of the great tests and principles of the Christian life. Self-conquest and self-control are both involved, — the denial of all that is sensual and vicious, the doing of all that is virtuous. In the 'battle of life,' not only must we encounter and overthrow * Meteorolog. iv. 10. f Nat. Hist. xiv. 6. X ' Domestic Economy,' in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia. 296 LUKE, X. 7, 34. every enemy, but we must prove our profession and possession of Christian grace by acts of beneficence and sympathy, — by conduct adapted to the circumstances in which we live, and the necessities of the people around us. How sad it is to see, on the contrary, general professions of Christian zeal and sacrifice, with no con- crete illustrations of their reality ! Whole congregations will sing, with apparent heartiness, but really without any thought at all of the application of these words, — " When I survey the wondrous cross On which the Prince of glory died, My richest gains I count but loss, And pour contempt on all my pride. Were the whole realms of nature mine, That were a present far too small ; Love so amazing, so divine, Demands my soul, my life, my all I " But how many would give up their little glass of ale or wine to accomplish the reclamation of many drunkards, and secure the salvation of many souls ? " Some cursed thing unknown Must surely lurk within ; Some idol which I will not own, Some secret lust or sin." The Christian hope, which looks forward to the possession of a glorious spiritual (or psychical) body, should induce us to adopt abstinence as the means of partially purifying the body we now have, that, as St Augustine says of the resurrection- body, "with perfect and most wondrous facility of obedience it will be subject to the Spirit, so as completely to fulfill the serenely calm volitions of a never-ending life" ('City of God,' lib. xiii. cap. 23). Chapter X. Verse 7. And in the same house remain, eating and drinking such things as they give : for the laborer is worthy of his hire. Go not from house to house. Eating and drinking such things as they give] Esthiontes kai pinontes ta par" auton, 'eating and drinking the (things) from them.' To infer from this command that the Lord's first disciples were required, or that Christians now are bound or permitted, to consume whatever is presented to them, without regard to its fitness as food, is to sacrifice reason to a most absurd literal interpretation of Scripture ; yet even this inference has been drawn, and constructed into an objection to the disuse of intoxicating liquors ! The objectors, however, would never apply it to things they disliked. Chapter X. Verse 34. And went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. LUKE, X. 36, 37. 297 Pouring in oil and wine] Epicheon elaion kai oinon, 'pouring upon (them) oil and wine.' The oil would act as an emollient, the wine as an astringent. When fermented wine was used in such cases, the virtue of the application could not reside in the alcohol present, whose only effect would be to increase the inflam- matory condition of the wounds. Hence, in modern battle-fields, nothing has been found superior to simple lint and cooling water for wounds = wet bandages. It has been conjectured that the reference is to a compound of oil and wine, called by Galen oinelaion, 'wine-oil'; and noticed by Africanus (' Geoponics,' book x. chap. 49) as applied to branches of fig trees after pruning, probably to prevent the effusion of the sap. Pliny, in his ' Natural History ' (book xv. chap. 7), in describing medicated oils and unguents, names the oleum gleucinicm, compounded of sweet wine (gleukos) and oil. Columella's recipe for making this article is given in his 12th book, chap. 51. The passage is translated at length in Tirosh lo Yayin ; * but the sum is — "To about ninety pints of the best must in a barrel, eighty lbs. of oil are to be added, and a small bag of spices sunk to the place where the oil and wine meet ; the oil to be poured off on the ninth day. The spices in the bag are then to be pounded and replaced, filling up the cask with another eighty lbs. of oil; this oil to be drawn off after seven days." This text has been read by some devotees of strong drink as if the oil were designed for the wounds and the wine for the stomach of the wounded traveler ! — much in the same way as ' the brandy-and-salt ' embrocation (once a popular form of quackery) was divided by some Bacchanalians into two parts, — the salt being rubbed upon the surface of the body, the brandy reserved for internal application ! Chapter X. Verses 36, 37. 36 Which now of these three, thinkest thou, was neighbor unto him that fell among the thieves ? 37 And he said, He that showed mercy on him. Then said Jesus unto him, Go, and do thou likewise. The parable of the Good Samaritan has charmed and edified sixty generations of Christian disciples ; and the personal summing up, ' Go thou and do like- wise,' remains, and ever must remain, in universal force. Topographically and outwardly, those are our neighbors, who live round about us ; sympathetically and vitally, we are neighbors — and discharge our obligations as neighbors — to those whom we help according to the measure of their needs and our opportunity. The slaves of strong drink, and the sufferers associated with these victims, abound i'n every quarter, and are seen on every hand ; and if this parable has any bearing on social evils at all, it must be viewed, — First, as condemning — ( 1 ) All measures, whether public or private, by which the love of intoxicating liquor is excited and intensified, and the number of its spoiled and wounded victims increased. (2) Mere simple observation of this evil, mere abstract pity for the sufferers, if unaccompanied by efforts for their relief. Benevolent ' sentiment,' separated from * This treatise is now accessible only in the Appendix to * Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii. 38 298 LUKE, XII. 19, 45. benevolent sense, is branded with the Divine disapprobation ; and not least, but most, where it is evidenced by persons of religious profession and ecclesiastical position — 'the priest and the Levite.' Secondly, as approving — (•1) The adoption of the most direct and effective action for the benefit of those who are overcome by strong drink. And no means can be so direct, certainly none have proved so effective, as those which have sought the exclusion of intoxi- cating liquor from the social sphere. (2) The exhibition of such conduct by men of all classes. It was a Samaritan (not a traditional Jew) whom the Saviour introduced into this parable as the genuine philanthropist and exemplar of practical compassion, — a standing warning to conventional religionists not to decry good things by whomsoever done, and not to point to their own faith, however correct, unless the works of love, resulting from it, attest its sincerity and its success. (3) Of all means that seek the prevention of evils rather than their mitigation, or the partial removal of their bad effects. He is the best of good Samaritans who drives out the robbers and averts their attack on the peaceful traveler. The Temperance reform, which aims at the absolute prevention of intemperance, will secure this greatest of all results just so soon as it is adequately supported by Christians and patriots of every class, who are willing to ' do good ' in this man- ner, as God gives them opportunity. The ' good Samaritan ' did this good at some risk, trouble, and expense; while the benefits imparted by the Temperance movement to the intemperate and their friends, are purchased by no real loss, but secure much personal advantage to those who use its principles for the rescue or preservation of their neighbors. Chapter XII. Verse 19. And I will say to my soul, Soul, thou hast much goods laid up for many years ; take thine ease, eat, drink, and be merry. Eat, drink, and be merry] Phage, pie, euphrainou. Here speaks the undisguised sensualist, whose ' god is his belly.' It should be remembered, more- over, that alcoholic liquor, when used far short of drunken excess, tends princi- pally to intensify the animal appetites, while it hardens the mind against the moral and spiritual influences directed upon it. Chapter XII. Verse 45. But and if that servant say in his heart, My lord delayeth his coming ; and shall begin to beat the men-servants and maidens, and to eat and drink, and to be drunken. And to eat and drink, and to be drunken] Esthiein te kai pinein kai methuskesthai, 'and to eat and drink, and be surcharged.' Codex D has esthibn te kai pinon methuskomenos, 'with eating and drinking, being drunk (or sur- charged).' Methuskesthai is intended to indicate that the eating and drinking LUKE, XXI. 34. 299 would be in such degree as to cause repletion ; whether intoxication resulted would depend on the kind of drinks consumed. Chapter XVII. Verses 26 — 28. 26 And as it was in the days of Noe, so shall it be also in the days of the Son of man. 27 They did eat, they drank, they married wives, they were given in marriage, until the day that Noe entered into the ark, and the flood came, and destroyed them all. 28 Likewise also as it was in the days of Lot : they did eat, they drank, they bought, they sold, they planted, they builded. V. 27. They did eat, they drank] Eestkion, epinon, * they ate, they drank/ Both eating and drinking here carry with them an emphatic meaning, implying not the mere acts of eating and drinking, but excessive addiction. [See Note on Matt, xxiv. 38.] Chapter XX. Verse 9. Then began he to speak to the people this parable : A certain man planted a vineyard, and let it forth to husbandmen, and went into a far country for a long time. A vineyard] Ampelona, 'a vineyard.' [See Notes on Matt. xxi. 33, and Mark xii. I.] Chapter XXI. Verse 34. And take heed to yourselves, lest at any time your hearts be over- charged with surfeiting, and drunkenness, and cares of this life, and so that day come upon you unawares. Be overcharged] Barunthosin, 'be made heavy '= dull, stupid. Codices Aleph, B, and C read bareethdsin, 'be weighed down ' = oppressed. With surfeiting, and drunkenness] En kraipalee kai methee, ' in debauch and drunkenness.' Robinson's Lexicon, under kraipalee, has the following: — " Properly, seizure of the head: hence, intoxication and its consequences, giddiness, headache, etc. Latin, crapula. Luke xxi. 34, en kraipalee kai methee, i. e. in constant revelling, carousing." And so that day come upon you unawares] Aiphnidios, rendered in A. V. * unawares,' is literally 'unforeseen.' Codex Aleph has ephnidios. Addiction to sensuality not only takes off the thoughts from the recompense of evil-doing, but so bedims and even blinds the judgment, that the day of judgment may be strictly said to be 'unforeseen.' 300 LUKE, XXIII. 36. Chapter XXII. Verses 17, 18. 17 And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and said, Take this, and divide it among yourselves : 18 For I say unto you, I will not drink of the fruit of the vine, until the kingdom of God shall come. V. 17. The cup] Poteerion, 'a cup.' Codices A and C read to poteerion, 'the cup.' Take this] Labete touto, 'take this.' In Codex Aleph, touto was omitted by the copyist, but is supplied by another hand. Among yourselves] Heautois, 'among yourselves.' Codices B and C have is heautous, 'for yourselves.' Codex Aleph reads alleelois, 'among one another,' but a second hand has written eis heautous. V. 18. The fruit of the vine] Tou genneematos tees ampelou, 'the offspring of the vine.' All the old MSS. x0.2Ageneem.atos. Codices Aleph, B, and D add the words apo tou nun, ' from the (time) now ' ; and Codices Aleph, B, and C, instead of heos hotou, 'until,' read heos ou. Chapter XXII. Verse 20. Likewise also the cup after supper, saying, This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you. The cup] To poteerion, 'the drinking-cup. ' This verse is absent from Codex D. [See Notes on Matt. xxvi. 27 — 29.] Chapter XXIII. Verse 36. And the soldiers also mocked him, coming to him, and offering him vinegar. Vinegar] Oxos, 'sour wine,' vinos being understood. [See Note on Matt, xxvii. 48.] THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO JOHN. Chapter II. Verses i — n. i And the third day there was a marriage in Cana of Galilee ; and the mother of Jesus was there : 2 And both Jesus was called, and his disciples, to the marriage. 3 And when they wanted wine, the mother of Jesus saith unto him, They have no wine. 4 Jesus saith unto her, Woman, what have I to do with thee ? mine hour is not yet come, s His mother saith unto the servants, Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it. 6 And there were set there six waterpots of -stone, after the manner of the purifying of the Jews, containing two or three firkins apiece. 7 Jesus saith unto them, Fill the waterpots with water. And they filled them up to the brim. 8 And he saith unto them, Draw out now, and bear unto the governor of the feast. And they bare it. 9 When the ruler of the feast had tasted the water that was made wine, and knew not whence it was : (but the servants which drew the water knew ;) the governor of the feast called the bridegroom, 10 And saith unto him, Every man at the beginning doth set forth good wine ; and when men have well drunk, then that which is worse : but thou hast kept the good wine until now. » This beginning of miracles did Jesus in Cana of Galilee, and manifested forth his glory; and his disciples believed on him. V. 1. In Cana] En Kana. Both the situation of this village and the significa- tion of its name have been warmly discussed. Kefr Kenna, about an hour and a half s ride N.E. of Nazareth, has still some advocates, but critical consent is gene- rally given to Dr Robinson's arguments on behalf of Kana-el-Jelil, a village situated about three hours' distance, due north, from Nazareth. The mother of Jesus was there] It is a conjecture, not devoid of plausi- bility, that this was the marriage of some young relative of Mary, so that she ' was there ' not so much by invitation as of right, and could therefore, without obtrusive- ness, address the servants as recorded in ver. 5. V. 2. Was called] Ekleethee, ' called ' == invited. V. 3. And when they wanted wine] Kai hustereesantos oinou, 'and wine running short ' = being deficient. Wiclif, ' and whanne wyne failid. ' So all the old English versions. A later hand has altered Codex Aleph into oinon ouk eichon oti sunetelesthee, ' they had not wine because it was used up. ' The original supply 302 JOHN, II. I — II. may have been too limited, or the guests were more numerous than was at first expected. A marriage party in the East lasted several days, and this deficiency probably occurred upon the last day, soon after the Lord and His disciples had arrived. Incidentally, this notice of a short supply of wine suggests that the wedded persons were not wealthy, else the purchase of a sufficient quantity would have been the first and simplest course to be proposed. They have no wine] Oinon ouk echousi, 'wine they have not.' A later correction in Codex Aleph gives oinos ouk estin, 'wine is not.' V. 4. What have I to do with thee] Ti emoi kai soi, 'what to Me and thee ? ' i. e. ' what is there in common to Me and thee ? ' Mary thought only of supplying the deficiency,* Jesus of showing forth the Father's glory. The concep- tions of the earthly mother and the heavenly Son moved upon different planes. This remarkable expression throws light upon the extent of the miracle itself. V. 6. Six waterpots of stone . . . containing two or three firkins APIECE] Hudriai lithinai hex . . . chorousai ana metreetas duo ee treis, ' six stone water-jars . . . holding each two or three measures.' The Greek metreetees is supposed to have corresponded with the Attic amphora, and to have held about eight gallons English. Reckoning two and a half measures to each water-jar, we may assign to every vessel a quantity of water equal to twenty gallons English, and to the whole six jars a quantity equal to 120 gallons. (Alford reckons the total at 126 gallons.) During a visit to this region, Dr E. D. Clarke saw a number of large massive stone pots "lying about, disregarded by the present inhabitants as antiquities with whose original use they were unacquainted." They would have held from eighteen to twenty-seven gallons of water each. V. 7. Fill the water pots with water. And they filled them up to the brim] The amount of water in each of the jars had probably been reduced by the use made of it for the ablutionary purifications commonly practised; but the command was chiefly given in order that the guests might see that each vessel contained water, and water only; since the infusion of a coloring liquid would have stained the whole quantity in any particular jar. V. 8. Bear unto the governor of the feast] Pherete to architriklino t ' carry (what is drawn) to the architriklino s. ' This was the guest who occupied 'the uppermost seat at a feast,' and exercised a general superintendence over all its proceedings. And they bare it] Kai eenenkan, 'and they carried (it).' V. 9. And knew not whence it was] He did not know from whence the wine had been got. But the servants which drew the water knew] Oi de diakonoi eedeison oi eentleekotes to hudor, 'but the servants knew, who had drawn the water.' This expression is very striking, for it shows that what was drawn from out of the vessel was then water, and that its transmutation into wine was accomplished (not as Lucke, quoted by Alford, intimates, in the interval between ver. 7 and ver. 8, but) while the water was in transit from the water-jar to the governor. The view of •That this is so can hardly be doubted, though men so eminent as Bengel and Calvin have ascribed other motives to Mary, of a totally different kind ; such as a desire that the assembly should be broken up before the scarcity was perceived, or that Jesus should deliver a religious discourse. JOHN, II. I— II. 303 Archbishop Trench, that this ' drawing ' had reference to drawing in order to fill the jars with water, is far-fetched. Nothing can be clearer than that it points back to the command of Jesus, ' Draw now ' (ver. 8), after the vessels were filled to the brim. V. 10. Every man at the beginning doth set forth good wine] Pas anthropos proton ton kalon oinon titheesi, 'every man (2. e. who is a numphios, 'bridegroom,' as thou art) places first the good wine ' — that which is specially good, held in most esteem. And when men have well drunk] Kai hotan methusthosi, ' and when they (the guests) have drunk to the full ' ; Wiclif, ' whanne men ben fulfillid ' ; Tyndale, 1 when men be dronke ' ; so Cranmer. The Geneva V., ' wel droncke ' ; the Rheims, 'wel drunke.' The A. V. is opposed to the assumption that methud and methusko necessarily signify drinking in the sense of intoxication. The governor did not refer to the inebriating effect, but to the large quantity consumed, and this is the primary signification of the word. Then that which is worse] Tote tov elasso, 'then (he places) the inferior.' The governor has been supposed to refer here to the loss of sensibility — to the impaired delicacy of the palate — induced by drinking intoxicating wines, thus enabling hosts to pass off their coarser wines at the fag-end of their entertainments ; but this supposition — redolent of the public-house, and not at all complimentary to the effect of intoxicating liquor upon the nerves of taste — is not required to account for the governor's allusion. The best viands (food as well as liquors) would naturally be produced first, because of a desire to make a good impression at the outset, because guests would then be most critical, and because, where a succession of visitors had been invited, the most important would be the first to arrive. Even where the same persons continued present, when enough of the best viands had been consumed, there would be no inclination for the inferior. As to what was esteemed 'the good wine,' there is ample evidence that the stronger (unmixed) wines were not preferred or drunk except by vicious or intemperate men, and that the sweetest and lightest wines, almost, if not altogether, incapable of intoxicating, were deemed the best by all sober persons. Indeed, the governor's language im- plies that ' the good wine ' usually provided at feasts was of a kind that could be abundantly used without inebriation ; and in one remarkable passage, Philo (who flourished during and after our Lord's life upon earth) describes the votaries of wine proceeding from one kind to another, till they finished up with great draughts of the unmixed and strongest sorts.* But thou hast kept the good wine until now] Su teteereekas ton kalon oinon heds arti, 'thou hast kept back the good wine until now.' This wine of which he had tasted from the cup presented by the servants was so superior in all the finer qualities of wine (such as sweetness, mellowness, and fragrance), that it seemed to the governor as if the usual order of things had been reversed, and that the best wine had been reserved till the last. This opinion was expressed by the president when he had merely ' tasted ' the wine, and could not have been founded, therefore, upon any evidence of its alcoholic strength — its power to inflame the body or disorder the brain. *On Drunkenness, sect. 53. 304 JOHN, II. I — II. I. The nature of the miracle is unfolded in the statement that the * water became wine ' — had acquired all the sensible properties of wine, and, according to the governor's decision, wine of the best kind. The process of the miracle is not explained, for it is not explicable. In the natural world, all that science can observe (and this very imperfectly) is the connection and succession of phenomena; the cause of that connection and succession is among the deep things of God. In the supernatural, the ultimate cause is not more mysterious than in the natural, but the succession of phenomena, if there be succession, is too rapid to admit of dis- crimination. In this beginning of the Lord's miracles we have (i) His two com- mands to the servants, 'Fill up the jars,' 'Draw (from one jar) and bear to the governor ' of the feast; (2) their obedience — they fill up, they draw, and carry the water to the governor ; (3) the exertion of a Divine energy, and the instantaneous metamorphosis of the water into wine. That the water became alcoholic wine is an assumption which opponents of the Temperance movement have first made, and have then put forward as an objection! 'It was wine, they say, 'and that is enough. /or us.' But if it is enough that wine was created, their objection evapo- rates at once ; for unless they can show that fermentation is essential to the nature of wine, they have no right to assume that, besides making the water wine, the Lord also made it wine such as they are enamored with. That it was ' good wine,' the very best that could be provided, is also true, but the taste of English wine-drinkers is no standard of the taste of a Jewish architriklinos, Anno Domini 30. The burden of proof -here rests with the advocate of alcoholic wine ; and it is impossible that the slightest shadow of proof can be advanced in behalf of their hypothesis. Those who uphold it, generally consider that the whole of the water was transformed into wine, but is it credible that 120 gallons of intoxicating liquor should have been provided by Christ for one wedding party, and at the end of the drinking ? What Christian would do so now ? The statement of the governor as to persons having ' well drunk ' was a general reference, and had no special appli- cation to that particular company ; yet it is highly probable that the guests then assembled had already freely partaken of such wine as had been provided. The case for alcoholic wine, therefore, requires it to be assumed that, in addition to a considerable quantity of such wine before consumed, the Lord miraculously pro- duced a much larger quantity for the use of the men and women collected together ! But (1) this assumption is wholly without proof; and (2) it involves a reflection upon the wisdom of the Son of God, which ought to insure its rejection by every reverential mind. Restricting attention, however, for the present to the contents of the cup placed before the governor of the feast, there are many strong reasons for rejecting the opinion that it contained fermented wine. 1. The process of fermentation is one of decay, and it is not probable that it would have been imitated, or its results realized, by the fiat of the Saviour. In all fermentative action, vital growth is arrested, organized matter is disintegrated, and a retrogression ensues. It is a passage from more complex to more elementary form — in fact, from diet to dirt. To produce pure grape-juice, the unfermented fruit of the vine, would, if possible to man, be a closer imitation of the creative plan of Providence than calling a derivative substance into existence. It is by the growth of food that God blesses the world; and though decay is tributary to future growth, it is in and by the growth that we discern the goodness, and glory, and purpose of His power. The end and adaptation of food is to condense power — the power with which we live, and see, and think — by which we realize the Divine works and glory. The whole meaning of our Lord's metaphor, ' I am the vine, and ye are the branches,' rests on this physiological fact. If the water of life JOHN, II. I — II. 305 was first made into that precious juice the blood of the vine, and then transformed into alcohol, the Son did exactly the contrary of that which the Father doeth in each season, when He ' bringeth forth food out of the earth, wine that maketh glad the heart of man. ' But if Jesus did on this occasion that which was creatively highest and best, he did not produce a fermented and intoxicating drink. 2. It is against the principle of scriptural and moral analogy to suppose that the Saviour exerted His supernatural energy to bring into being a kind of wine which had been condemned by Solomon and the prophets as ' a mocker ' and ' defrauder,' and which the Holy Spirit had selected as an emblem of the wrath of the Almighty. 3. A most beautiful and satisfactory hypothesis has been conceived which obviates all resort to the theory of a direct creation of alcoholic wine. It is that in the cup the Lord repeated, but with supernatural rapidity, that marvellous conversion of water into ' the pure blood of the grape ' which takes place annually within the berries of the growing vine. St Augustine was one of the first, if not the first, of the Christian fathers who propounded this hypothesis, saying (in his Tractus 8, Evang. Joannis), Ipse enim fecit vinum illo die in nuptiis in sex Mis hydriis quas impleri aqud precepit qui omni anno facit hoc in vitibus. Sicut enim qaod miserunt ministri in hydrias in vinum conversum est opere Domini, sic et quod nubes fundunt in vinum convertitur ejusdem opere Domini. Illud autem non miramur quia omni anno fit ; assiduitate amisit admiraiionem : " For He on that marriage day made v/ine in the six jars which He ordered to be filled with water — He who now makes it every year in the vines. For as what the servants had poured into the water-jars was turned into wine by the power of the Lord, so also that which the clouds pour forth is turned into wine by the power of the selfsame Lord. But we cease to wonder at what is done every year; its very frequency makes astonishment to fail." So Chrysostom (Homily 22 on John), Nun mentoi deikmis hoti autos estin ho in tais ampelois to hudor metaballon kai ton hueton dia tees rhizees eis oinon trepon, hope* en to phtito dia pollou chronou ginetai touto athroon en to gamo eirgasato: "Now indeed making plain that it is He who changes into wine the water in the vines and the rain drawn up by the roots, He produced instantly at the wedding feast that which is formed in the plant during a long course of time." In sympathy with these expositions, Dr Trench, now Archbishop of Dublin, in his 'Lectures on the Miracles,' remarks (p. 105), "He who each year prepares the wine in the grape, causing it to drink up and swell with the moisture of earth and heaven, to transmute this into its own nobler juices, concentrated all those slower processes now into the act of a single moment, and accomplished in an instant what ordinarily He does not accomplish but in months. This analogy does not, indeed, help us to understand what the Lord at this time did, but yet brings before us that in this He was working in the line of (above, indeed, but not across, or counter to) His more ordinary workings, which we see daily around us, the unnoticed miracles of every-day nature." It does not militate against the fitness and beauty of this exposition that Augustine and Archbishop Trench are afterward inconsistent with themselves, by falsely ascribing to the wine of miracle the properties which are solely generated in the fermenting vat. The venerable Joseph Hall, D.D., Bishop of Norwich (1600), in his 'Contem- plations ' on this miracle, evidently adopts St Augustine's explanation. His words are as follow: — "What doeth He in the ordinary way of nature, but turn the watery juice that arises up from the root into wine ? He will only do this now suddenly, and at once, which He doth usually by sensible degrees." The pious and celebrated Rev. W. Law, M. A., in his reply to Dr Trap (1742), does not 39 r 306 JOHN, II. I — II. notice St Augustine, but gives the same explanation in almost the same words ; only he suggests that the wine formed by the direct operation of the Divine power was "wine very much freed from all that evil, wrath, and curse which is inseparable from the ordinary workings of the present state of nature." ** Simply to state this theory of St Augustine is to secure the adhesion to it of almost every unbiased mind ; yet, if accepted, it disposes entirely of the other theory, which represents the production of an alcoholic wine as necessary to the completeness and grandeur of the miracle. As soon as the grape is formed, it is found to contain a watery fluid, which, in the course of months, under the influence of Divine forces, is transmuted into a luscious juice, food for the healthy and medicine to the sick; and such wine it was which, with miraculous majesty, the Lord produced from the liquid that had been drawn the instant before from the water-jar, 'filled to the brim.' * We regret to see that in the Fifth Edition of his ' Greek Testament,' Dr Alford retains the note that appeared in earlier editions, which, it might have been hoped, reflection would have induced him to expunge. It is as follows, italics and all : — " The large quantity thus created has been cavilled at by unbelievers. We may leave them to their cavils, with just one remark, — that He who creates abundance enough in this earth to 'put temptation in men's way,' acted on this occasion analogously with His known method of dealing. We may answer an error on the other side (if it be on the otlier side) by saying that the Lord here most effectually, and once for all, stamps with His condemnation that false system of moral reformation which would commence by pledges to abstain from intoxicati?ig liquors. He pours out His bounty for all, and He vouch- safes His grace to each for guidance ; and to endeavor to evade the work which He has appointed for each man, by refusing the bounty to save tlie trouble of seeking the grace, is an attempt which must ever end in degradation of the individual motives, and in social demoralization, whatever present apparent effects may follow its first promulgation. One visible sign of this degradation, rn its intellectual form, is the miserable attempt, made by some of the advocates of this movement, to show that the wine here, and in other places of Scripture, is unfermented wine, not possessing the power of intoxication." On this we observe, — i. That Strauss, and other unbelievers, agree with the Dean in believing the evangelist to describe the manufacture of 126 gallons of intoxicating liquor for a company of guests at a village wedding feast; and on this common assumption Strauss founds an objection against the moral character of Jesus. The Dean's reply is exceedingly weak, for it is true that such a supply of an intoxicating drink would have presented a temptation to drunken excess, and it is not true that such a provision would have been analogous to all or to any things in the Divine procedure, for ' God is not tempted of evil, neither tempteth He any man.' *. The sneer as to the ' error on the other side (if it be on the other side)" 1 is unworthy either of the Dean's acumen or candor. To maintain that the wine provided by the Lord was free from that element which makes intoxicating liquor essentially dangerous, is certainly 'on the other side,' so far as relates to any possible implication, or shadow of reproach, upon the character of the blessed Saviour. 3. That the Lord by this miracle has stamped His condemnation on the disuse of intoxicating liquors, or pledges to that end, is not at all evident by the stamping phraseology of the Dean : for he roughly and rudely claims as proved the very point at issue — that the wine produced was intoxi- cating ; and he is guilty of a transparent petitio principii in representing alcoholic liquors, which can spring from the destruction only of good food, as being in themselves the gift of the Divine bounty as directly as the corn of the field and the fruit of the tree ! He further assumes (in oppo- sition to all fact and experience) that there is no difference between intoxicating and unintoxicating substances in their tendency to seduce and deprave mankind ! 4. That abstainers refuse the bounty in order to save themselves the trouble of seeking for the protecting grace, is at once impertinent and slanderous, though a Dean has written the words. Intoxicating liquors are abstained from because they have no claim to be regarded as a true food ; and as offering, by their very action on the frame, a temptation to excess, which it is the distinct office of Christian wisdom to avoid. The grace of God is surely as much displayed in leading men away from needless temptation as in protecting them in it. [See Note on Matt. iv. 7.] 5. The Dean's prophetic forecast of the demoralization to be produced by the Temperance movement has now been many years in print, but remains as far from fulfillment as at first. The facts are against him. Would it not do him more honor to confess his error, or at least withdraw the prophesy from observation, until he can give proof of his inspired mission ? 6. The advocates, whose ' miserable attempt ' excites the Dean's contempt, can afford to smile at his miserable travesty of their object, which is not, as he appears to conceive, to prove all the wines of Scripture to have been unfermented, but to ascertain, by examination and induction, what the testimony of Scripture really is concerning the things to which the name 'wine' is attached in the English version. As to the miracle at Cana, Augustine, Chrysostom, Bishop Hall, Mr Law, and Archbishop Trench, must also be charged with the ' miserable attempt ' of which these Temperance advocates are accused : and in such company they can complacently listen to all that the Dean's ignorance and arrogance may allege against them. 7. The gross inconsistency of the Dean himself will be seen by the extract from his ' Notes • on Rev. viii. 1. The only difference between him and those whom he stoutly abuses is, that they recognise the identity of alcohol in wine with alcohol in ardent spirits, and the Dean does not. JOHN, II. I — II. 307 II. The extent of the miracle next invites our attention. So common is the impression that all the water in all the stone jars was converted into wine, that it is startling to have this traditionary interpretation called in question. It is certain, however, that this common belief is a deduction from the narrative, and is not asserted in any part of it ; nor is too much reliance to be placed on this general consensus of opinion, since the equally general, but probably unjust, identification of Mary Magdalene with the woman who was a sinner, shows how broad a stream of popular persuasion may flow from trifling sources. The impression that all the water was converted into wine was derived, — (1) From the fact of Mary's anxiety for a fresh supply of wine, connected with a notion that Jesus would meet her wishes; and (2) from imagining that the approval of the governor would be followed by a resort to the stone jars for more of the prized and superior beverage. But it must be remembered (1) that the notable words of Jesus addressed to Mary, ' What have I to do with thee ? (rather, What is there between Me and thee?) My hour is not yet come,' seem to point to a difference, and not a similarity, of purpose between Jesus and His mother — she intent on a large supply of wine, and He on some object not yet revealed. (2) That as the servants knew that the change had occurred after the water was drawn, their statement would not induce the company to expect that wine could be drawn from the stone jars, but would directly fix universal attention upon Him by whom the command to draw and carry to the governor was first issued. It is- quite clear that even to supply the wants of the company the conversion of 120 gallons of water into wine was not necessary, and the complete silence of the apostle who was present as to any such general change, or any further transmuta- tion than that of the water in the cup, is exceedingly peculiar, and, in fact, unac- countable, if any more extensive metamorphosis was effected. By contrasting this silence with the full accounts given of the multiplication of loaves and fishes, the argument against the traditional opinion becomes greatly strengthened. None but a very undisciplined judgment will consider the miracle to have been less extraor- dinary if confined to a cup of water instead of comprehending the contents of six water-jars. A miracle is not to be measured by the extent of cubic inches affected by it. Nothing short of a Divine power could have changed the water in one cup into wine, and reason asserts that this power could, if Divine reason had seen fit, have changed into wine not only all the water in the six jars, but in all the wells of Cana, and of Galilee of the Gentiles. III. The primary object of this miracle was to make an incontrovertible manifestation of the ' Spirit of Power ' inherent in Jesus of Nazareth, and so to induce personal confidence in Him as the Sent of God. This object was accom- plished: ephanerosen teen doxan autou. 'He revealed His glory,' and therefore episteusan eis auton oi matheetai autou, ' His disciples put faith in Him. ' Beginning by proving the subjection of matter to His and His Father's will, the Son of God afterward went forth to make proof of His sovereignty over evil disease and evil spirits, and to reduce to voluntary obedience the sons of men, that He might raise them, by spiritual adoption, to the dignity of 'sons of God.'* Some of the Fathers, who were engaged in controversy with the Manichaeans, and with others who asserted the sinfulness of matter and the intrinsic virtue of self-inflicted "» For a full development of the hidden adaptations of this miracle to the heresy of Dualism, see 4 Works of Dr Lees,' vol. iii. The reservation of the record of the first miracle to the latest of the Gospels supports the conception that it was designed to refute the Manichean conceptions which clouded the light of the early Church. 308 John, iv. 5—7. austerities, considered that this miracle was performed in order to set the seal of the Redeemer's disapproval upon such heretical doctrine and practices. That His presence at a marriage feast wa's intended to show His approval of the connubial relation, and the hospitable amenities of social life, may be freely granted, but all other considerations were clearly subservient to the epiphany of His glory, and the prosecution of His Messianic mission. As Mr Law forcibly remarks, " Herein lay the strength, and certainty, and glory of the miracle, that so many witnesses were forced to see and own that by the word of our Lord wine was drawn from pots just filled, and still remaining full to the top, with water. And when this miracle had incontestably manifested itself, the whole affair was over, and the guests were left, not to rejoice over full pots of water turned into wine, but to make sober reflections upon the Divinity of that Person who had put such an astonishing end to their drinking. Great and holy Jesus ! how like Thyself, the Saviour ot the world, hast Thou acted at this feast ! How couldst Thou more sink the value, extinguish the desire, suppress all thoughts of pleasure and indulgence in earthly wine, than by showing the feasters that from the poorest of the elements Thou couldst call forth such wine as no grape could give ? How couldst Thou more effectually take from them their sensual joy, or more powerfully call them to deny themselves and come after Thee, than by thus miraculously showing them that the richest delights of sensual gratification were far short of what Thou couldst give to them that would leave all earthly delights for Thee ? " It would not be difficult to discover in the cup of supernatural new wine, a mystical emblem of the superiority of Christian blessings over those of other dispensations ; but it is better to be satisfied with the evangelist's declaration, ' He showeth forth His glory.' * Chapter IV. Verses 5 — 7. 5 Then cometh he to a city of Samaria, which is called Sychar, near to the parcel of ground that Jacob gave to his son Joseph. 6 Now Jacob's well was there. Jesus therefore, being wearied with his journey, sat thus on the well : and it was about the sixth hour. 7 There cometh a woman of Samaria to draw water : Jesus saith unto her, Give me to drink. V. 5. Sychar] Suchar. This city occupied the site of the ancient Shechem or Sychem, a city of Ephraim, beautifully placed between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim. It survives in the modern Nablous, a native corruption of the Greek word Neapolis, ' New City. ' The name Sychar is supposed to have been given to it in contempt by the Jews, either from shahqer, ' falsehood, ' as being the seat ♦Richard Crashaw's celebrated, though rather fanciful epigram, will be read with interest by all who accept this wondrous sign ; — Unde rubor vestris et non sua purpura lympkis ? Qucz rosa mirantes tarn nova mutat aquas ? Numen, conviva ! pr&sens, cognoscite numen, Nympha pudica Dettm vidit, et erubuit. Whence the strange purple this pale water shows ? What rose so fresh has touched it till it glows? A Power Divine, ye guests, discern ! — be hushed, — The modest maid has seen her God and blushed. JOHN, VI. 12. 309 of the false worship of the Samaritans; or from shikkor, 'drunkard,' in allusion to Isa. xxviii. 17, where the drunkenness of the then inhabitants is vividly portrayed. V. 6. Now Jacob's well was there] Een de ekei peegee ton Iakbb, ' Now a spring of Jacob was there.' Peegee signifies a ' source,' ' spring,' or ' fountain ' ; but in ver. 11 the word for 'well' — 'the well is deep' — is phrear, 'a pit.' The phrear was dug round the peegee, and usually lined with masonry, for the better preservation of the water. Jacob's well still remains ; and though in Maundrell's time it had five feet of water, it is now dry, — most likely because the ancient spring has been choked up by accumulations of rubbish. The well's diameter is about three yards, its depth thirty-five. V. 7. Give me to drink] The Lord was weary and thirsty, and He did not, like many of those who bear His name, despise the best beverage for man. Chapter IV. Verse 10. Jesus answered and said unto her, If thou knewest the gift of God, and who it is that saith to thee, Give me to drink; thou wouldest have asked of him, and he would have given thee living water. Living water] Chrysostom's comment upon this phrase is felicitous: — "The grace of the Holy Spirit. For as the water which descends from heaven nourishes and vivifies, and though it be of one kind, operates in various ways, — is snow- white in the lily, but dark-colored in the narcissus, blushes in the rose, is purple in the violet, is sweet in the fig, but bitter in the wormwood ; so also the Divine Spirit, which descends from heaven, nourishes and vivifies the soul, and though of one kind, exerts its power and efficacy in various ways." Chapter IV. Verse ii. The woman saith unto him, Sir, thou hast nothing to draw with, and the well is deep : from whence then hast thou that living water ? Nothing to draw with] Ouie antleema echeis, 'a bucket thou hast not.' Thevenot says that 'travelers provide themselves with small leathern buckets, because the wells in those parts are furnished with no apparatus for drawing. ' Chapter VI. Verse 12. When they were filled, he said unto his disciples, Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing be lost. Having miraculously illustrated the Divine beneficence, the Lord now inculcates the practice of an economy no less Divine. The fragments of this bountiful feast were not to be wasted. There was need of them elsewhere, therefore they must be preserved. He would have Hrs disciples comply with the principle of His Father's government, under which nothing is lost. And if God is bountiful to mankind now, it is not that they may abuse, but utilize, His manifold gifts. In 310 JOHN, XV. I. the production of strong drink, however, there is a waste of food so prodigious as scarcely to be credible [see Note on Gen. i. 29], and at radical variance with the example and exhortation of the Saviour on this occasion. He increased the supply of aliment, — the manufacture of strong drink decreases it; he commanded that 'nothing be lost,' and an observance of this command would arrest at once the operations of every distillery, brewery, and wine factory, — never to be resumed.* Chapter VII. Verse 37. In the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus stood and cried, saying, If any man thirst, let him come unto me, and drink. That great day of the feast] The eighth day of the Feast of Tabernacles. Let him come unto me, and drink] The 'truth and grace' which pre- eminently came in Jesus Christ was here offered to the people under the figure of water, that peerless physical blessing of a Fatherly providence. The use of the figure on this occasion may have been prompted by a solemnity called ' the pour- ing out of water,' practised by the Jews on this chief day of the feast, when they filled a golden vessel from the pool of Siloam, brought it into the temple with sound of trumpet and other ceremonies, and poured it upon the altar before the Lord with expressions of the liveliest joy. Chapter XV. Verse i. I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman. Under the figure of the real or true vine {hee ampelos hee aleethinee), Jesus indicates the relation which He sustains to all His disciples, the 'branches,' and the character of the works, the 'fruit,' they are expected to bear — and certainly will bear, so long as they retain, in the exercise of their freedom, a vital participation in His grace, the sap by which all fruitfulness is promoted. Those who imagine that abstainers cannot enter into the beauty of this figure because they renounce intoxicating liquors, are ignorant of the reason of this renunciation. It is because they value the fruit of the vine so highly that they object to its degradation into an intoxicating drink. The ripe and luscious grapes are an appropriate and striking emblem of the good works resulting from union with Christ, just as the fermented juice of the grape is an appropriate and striking emblem of the moral corruption which, unless purged away, works only death. ♦The principle has various applications : (1) It forbids the conversion of food into drink, whereby the greater part of grain is destroyed. In 1666 parts of beer, analytical chemistry shows that only one part is left for nourishment. (2) It condemns the expenditure of money — the representative of food — upon intoxicants, as a frightful waste. In the United States of America, according to the Secretary of the Treasury, eight millions of gallons of spirits are annually made out of grain and grapes — not to speak of cider, beer and wine. The annual revenue alone from this source, if fairly paid, would reach sixty millions of dollars. (3) But the end of food is force — bodily power — and every glass of intoxicating liquor drank, by exciting increased vascular action in heart, lungs, etc., robs the voluntary muscles and the brain of an equivalent amount of power designed for the further- ance of the physical, industrial, and mental work of the world. This is the real and most valuable capital of progress, which is for ever lost, and far transcends the mere pecuniary waste. JOHN, XIX. 28 — 30. 311 Chapter XIX. Verses 28 — 30. 28 After this, Jesus knowing that all things were now accomplished, that the scripture might be fulfilled, saith, I thirst. 29 Now there was set a vessel full of vinegar : and they filled a sponge with vinegar, and put it upon hyssop, and put it to his mouth. 30 When Jesus there- fore had received the vinegar, he said, It is finished : and he bowed his head, and gave up the ghost. V. 28. Might be fulfilled] Codex Aleph reads pkerothee, ' might be fulfilled,' instead of teleiothee, 'might be completed.' V. 29. NOW THERE WAS SET A VESSEL FULL OF VINEGAR : AND THEY FILLED A SPONGE WITH VINEGAR, AND PUT IT UPON HYSSOP] SkeUOS OUn ekeito OXOUS meston, oi de pleesantes spongon oxous kai hussopo perithentes, ' a vessel then was set down full of vinegar : now they filling a sponge with vinegar and placing it round hyssop.' Codex Aleph reads, skeuos de ekeito oxous meston : spongon oun meston oxous kai hussopo perithentes, ' now a vessel full of vinegar was set : and having placed round about hyssop a sponge then filled with vinegar.' Codices A and B adopt the same reading, except that they omit the kai, 'and,' before hussopo, 'hyssop.' I For Exposition see Note on Matt, xxvii. 48. ] THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. Chapter II. Verses 13 — 15. 13 Others mocking said, These men are full of new wine. 14 But Peter, standing up with the eleven, lifted up his voice, and said unto them, Ye men of Judaea, and all ye that dwell at Jerusalem, be this known unto you, and hearken to my words: 15 For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day. V. 13. Others mocking said, These men are full of new wine] Heteroi de dia chleuazontes elegon, hoti gleukous memestomenoi eisi, ' but others jeering right out, said that they (the disciples) were filled with gleukos (sweet- wine).' * Wiclif s translation is, 'other scorned and seiden, For these men ben ful oi must. 7 Codices Aleph, A, B, and C, read diachleuazontes, but Bloomfield prefers the reading of some MSS. which omit the dia. Codex D. has diechleuazon legontes, 'jeered right out, saying'; also, houtoi, 'these (men),' before memestomenoi. V. 15. For these are not drunken, as ye suppose] Ou gar hos humeis hupolatnbanete methuousin, ' for these are not surcharged (with gleukos) as you suppose.' Codex C reads, ou . methuosin, 'should not be surcharged' (or drunken). Seeing it is but the third hour of the day] Esti gar hora tritee tees heemeras, ' for it is the third hour of the day ' (nine o'clock a.m.). Codex D reads, ousees horas tritees tees heemeras ge, ' it being the third hour of the day.' Two questions spring from this narrative : — How is the slander of those who mocked to be understood? How is St Peter's rejoinder to be construed? I. The slander undoubtedly insinuated is the intoxication of those who 'spoke with tongues ' ; nor is it necessary to consider whether the jeerers believed their own insinuation. Possibly they did, for Philo, who lived at this time, says, in a striking passage, that the most sober persons, ' abstainers,' when under the influence of a holy inspiration, seem to others to be in a drunken state, and do indeed exhibit some of the external appearances of vinous inebriation. (On Drunk, s. 36.) It is the form of the slander that occasions the difficulty, — 'These men are full of new wine.'' It has been objected to the A. V. translation of gleukos that no new * The following extract from Mr Macgregor's ' Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe ' will sufficiently indicate the popular meaning of the phrase 'new-wine,' and establish the nature and reality of the thing called 'sweet-wine' : — "At one of the great inns on the road, some new-wine was produced on the table. It had been made only the day before, and its color was exactly like that of cold tea, with milk and sugar in it, while its taste was very luscious and sweet. This 'new-wine' is sometimes in request, but especially among the women (Zech. ix. 17)." — P. 215, Second Edit., 1866. THE ACTS, II. 13 — 15. 313 wine could have been obtained at Pentecost, a month or two before the early vintage; and there is force in the objection, since, though grapes could be kept from vintage to vintage for any special purpose, it is not likely that they were extensively used for the production of new wine. Gleukos literally means ' sweet ' {oinos, 'wine,' being understood), and 'sweet wine'— the juice of the grape pre- served in all its original sweetness — could be obtained at any season of the year. That gleukos was a term specially descriptive of the juice of the grape in an unfer- mented state, and answered in Greek to the Latin mustum, is certain [see Prel. Dissert.]. ( 1 ) It is clear that gleukos (from glukus, ' sweet ' ) primarily denoted sweet juice that had not undergone any change such as fermentation, whereby the saccharine matter is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. Suidas, the etymologist, actually defines it as to apostalagma tees staphulees prinpaleethee, ' the droppings of the grapes before they are trodden.' As applied to grape-juice newly expressed, it corre- sponded to the Hebrew ahsis, and in a Hebrew translation of the Greek New Testament it is here rendered by that term. Further, gleukos was applied to wine whose sweetness was conserved by straining the juice, bottling it, and keeping it at a low temperature or by boiling it to a jellied consistence and luscious essence. (2) If, then, as is assumed, gleukos is here applied to wine which, though sweet, was also fermented, we have an example of what is denied by some careless writers, — that the same term can be applied to an intoxicating article as well as to a natural and non-intoxicating substance ; and if a specific term like gleukos could be used thus comprehensively, how confidently may the same be predicated of a generic term like oinos / How then, it may be asked, could the mockers, wishing to charge the disciples with drunkenness, accuse them of being filled with gleukos ? Why did they not use the generic name oinos, which comprehended wine of all sorts, fermented and otherwise ? As to the difficulty proposed, two modes of solution have been suggested. The first considers that gleukos here retains its primary sense of sweet, unfer- mented wine, and that the use of the word in that sense formed part of the mockery connected with the charge. Ironical insinuations are always the most cutting accusations, or at least are intended to be so, and constitute a mode of derision often used by the most refined as well as by the coarsest minds. When, therefore, certain men wished to exhibit their bitter animosity on the day of Pentecost, they did so by the jeering exclamation, ' These men are full of gleukos — sweet wine ! ' — meaning, on the contrary, that they were full, not of gleukos (unfermented wine), but of some more potent drink.* To have said, 'They are drunk,' would have been too blunt and direct a charge to suit the mockers; but to launch it in the ironical shape of taking too much innocuous juice of the grape, gratified alike their malignity and self-conceit. Thus a really wise man may be mocked by being saluted as 'Solomon,' a 'Solon,' a 'second Daniel come to judgment ' ; and the word ' saint ' has often been derisively applied to men of whom ' the world was not worthy.' The second explanation does not extend the mockery to the phraseology, but confines it to the charge of intoxication ; and it accounts for the taunt — ' full of sweet wine ' — by the tendency of gleukos, when carelessly allowed to ferment, rapidly to acquire an inebriating quality. Enough saccharine matter would remain * A French writer, for example, accused Proudhomme of being un buveur d'eau, ' a water-drinker/ really meaning the opposite — namely, ' brandy-tippler.' 40 314 THE ACTS, II. 13 — 15. undecomposed to permit an alcoholic gleukos to preserve its characteristic sweet- ness ; and as this sweetness would tempt to copious consumption, the results may be forecast.* Gleukos would thus answer to the Hebrew shakar, literally, ' sweet drink,' but frequently applied to liquor which would intoxicate if freely consumed. Hence, too, the force of the expression, memestomenoi gleukous, 'filled full of gleukos', implying, first, that, being luscious, a plentiful use of it was probable ; and that, being partially fermented, a copious potation would be needed to insure the inebri- ation of the drinkers. 2. The reply of Peter is a denial of the implicit charge of drunkenness, but the form of his reply — ' These are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day ' — has been adduced as an admission that the apostles were in the habit of using some kind of intoxicating liquor. He did not say, ' We never take strong drink; we are abstainers, or Nazarites,' but he fell back, as a sufficient refutation, upon the period of the day when the false accusation was made. The objection will not stand, for, — (i) The apostle used the only argument adapted to the character of the mockers. Had he said, 'We never drink at all,' the jeering rejoinder might have been, * Except upon the sly ! Men who get drunk are very apt to profess the strictest sobriety.' To have appealed to personal character or habit would have been useless, since both were already called in question ; but the apostle meets them on social grounds ; he retorts by an argumentum ad usu?n, the force of which they could not resist. He replies in effect, " On your own assumption that we drink to excess of gleukos, or something stronger, your inference is unreasonable. It is now but the hour of nine in the morning, and you know that ' they that are drunken are drunken in the night ' ; drunkards begin their debauches at night, and in the morning are fit for nothing; or if they should ever assemble to drink so early, they do not break off at this time of day, but continue till wine inflames them." Such a reply was just what the circumstances required, and more than the insincere mockery deserved. (2) The inference that Peter tacitly admitted that he and his colleagues used intoxicating drink, but not to an intoxicating excess, is wholly assumptive and illogical, {a ) He no more denied that himself and friends drank to excess, than that they drank at all ; he simply showed that if they did, they would not be likely to have done so at that early hour. Did he, then, tacitly acknowledge that the disciples were accustomed to evening debauches ? (<$) The use of the word gleukos by the mockers prevented an absolute denial of all use of wine, except by the Nazarites ; for the most rigid abstainer from intoxicating wine might freely have used innocent, uninebriating gleukos. (c) The conception that Peter and the early disciples used intoxicating liquor as a beverage, is in opposition to the ancient tradition which assigns to Peter and the Lord's brethren a strong sympathy with the regimen of the Nazarites and Rechabites. Eusebius quotes Hegesippus as testifying that St James, the Lord's brother, and author of the General Epistle, 'did not drink wine or sicera ' {pinon kai sikera ouk epien). Traces of this influence are very perceptible in Peter's First Epistle, i. 13; iv. 3, 7; v. 8; and in the Second Epistle, i. 6. [See Notes on those texts.] * In the United States of America there is an every-day illustration of this. The sweet cider is Often kept and used by professed Temperance people, who are not aware that through time, or care- lessness, it runs into a slight fermentation, and becomes slightly intoxicating. THE ACTS, XIX. 23 — 28. 315 Chapter XI. Verse 28. And there stood up one of them named Agabus, and signified by the spirit that there should be great dearth thoughout all the world : which came to pass in the days of Claudius Caesar. This Claudius (who succeeded Caligula) reigned as Emperor of Rome A. D. 41 — 54. He was grossly intemperate. Suetonius says of him that he scarcely ever left the table till he had thoroughly crammed himself and drunk to intoxica- tion, and would then immediately fall asleep, lying upon his back, with his mouth open. Chapter XVII. Verse 29. We ought not to think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or stone, graven by art and man's device. Art' (technee) and 'device' (enthumeesis). This is an apostolic distinction which the modern advocates of drinking frequently strive to ignore. ' All things are from God's power, therefore all things are God's creatures'' ! It is a kind of logic that proves far too much, and will lead to very immoral conclusions. Common sense tells us that idols, instruments of torture, lascivious statues, immoral books, and alcoholic drinks, cannot exist save by derived and Divine power, but conscience equally tells us that as their qualities are the result of their form, and their form the result of ' man's art and device,' man is responsible for their existence as well as their use ; and it is virtual blasphemy to attempt to vindicate either their ' manufac- ture ' or their ' use ' by calling them God's ' creatures.' It is not less an abuse of language and common sense to confound 'matter' with 'form,' 'power' with 'use,' and the products of ' natural growth ' (as sugar) or of ' creation ' (as iron or gold) with the products of art, resulting from the fermentation of the one, or the melting and moulding of the other. [See Note on chap. xix. 23 — 28.] Chapter XVIII. Verse 18. And Paul after this tarried there yet a good while, and then took his leave of the brethren, and sailed thence into Syria, and with him Priscilla and Aquila ; having shorn his head in Cenchrea : for he had a vow. A vow] Eucheen. Some regard this as a Nazarite vow ; others as a civil vow, not unusual among Jews and Gentiles. As to the question, who had taken this vow ? some commentators refer to Aquila, owing to the peculiar order of the words 'Priscilla and Aquila,' but Paul is generally considered to be the person indicated by the historian Luke. Chapter XIX. Verses 23 — 28. 23 And the same time there arose no small stir about that way, 24 For a certain man named Demetrius, a silversmith, which made silver shrines for Diana, brought no small gain unto the craftsmen ; 316 ' THE ACTS, XXI. 23, 24, 26. 25 Whom he called together with the workmen of like occupation, and said, Sirs, ye know that by this craft we have our wealth. 26 More- over ye see and hear, that not alone at Ephesus, but almost through- out all Asia, this Paul hath persuaded and turned away much people, saying that they be no gods, which are made with hands : 27 So that not only this our craft is in danger to be set at naught ; but also that the temple of the great goddess Diana should be despised, and her magnificence should be destroyed, whom all Asia and the world worshippeth. 28 And when they heard these sayings, they were full of wrath, and cried out, saying, Great is Diana of the Ephesians. Demetrius and his fellow-craftsmen, who made * silver shrines ' — i. e. small models of the celebrated temple of Ephesus, — were zealously stirred up against Paul and his Christian doctrine when the prospect of diminished gain was present to their minds. Demetrius admits as much (ver. 25); and though we smile at the devotional gloss which he bestows (ver. 27) on the worldly motive that sways his words and actions, we know that his cant is paralleled in our own day by the mawkish pretences of patriotism, and appeals to Divine bounty and Scripture texts, advanced by the manufacturers and retailers of intoxicating liquor. Were they candid, they would say with Demetrius (ver. 25), ' By this craft we have our wealth,' and leave it there. It may be true that as the Ephesian silversmiths believed in Diana, so British brewers believe in the virtues of strong drink ; but it is not true that they would engage in the ministry of Bacchus except for the profits of the occupation. Chapter XXI. Verses 23, 24, 26. 23 Do therefore this that we say to thee : We have four men which have a vow on them ; 24 Them take, and purify thyself with them, and be at charges with them, that they may shave their heads : and all may know that those things, whereof they were informed concern- ing thee, are nothing ; but that thou thyself also walkest orderly, and keepest the law. ... 26 Then Paul took the men, and the next day purifying himself with them entered into the temple, to signify the accomplishment of the days of purification, until that an offering should be offered for every one of them. That this euchee was a Nazarite 'vow' is the opinion of most expositors. Wetstein has quoted passages from the Rabbins to show that it was customary for the wealthier Jews to assist their more indigent brethren who had taken this vow, by bearing the expense of the sacrifice with which the vow ended ; and those who did this became, for the time being, partners in the vow. That Paul should have acted on the suggestion of the other apostles was in harmony with his great prin- ciple to make himself the servant of all in order that the Gospel might have free course and be glorified. To his large, generous heart, how petty would have seemed the common objections against the practice and promise of total abstinence, because of their supposed ' binding ' character ! To be bound by a sense of duty is honorable in all, and in the service of humanity the enlisted soldier is a volunteer of the noblest order and the highest distinction. THE ACTS, XXIV. 1 6, 25. 317 Chapter XXIV. Verse 16. And herein do I exercise myself, to have always a conscience void of offence toward God, and toward men. The word translated ' exercise ' is asko, ' to work up' — 'to perform with care,' — and hence was used to denote the bodily exercise or training of athletes, and, in a figurative sense, the regulation and direction of the mind. From the noun askeetees came our 'ascetic,' which, by ignorant writers and careless speakers, is applied indiscriminately as a term of reproach against persons who lead a wiser and more careful life than themselves. The early Christian writers applied the term in a pious sense, to those who gave themselves up to spiritual exercises and engagements. St Cyril, of Jerusalem, calls the prophetess Anna, named in Luke ii. 36, 37, ' a most religious ascetic ' {askeetria eulabestatee). Dr Eadie, giving this reference in his 'Ecclesiastical Cyclopaedia,' adds, "In the primitive ages such as pretended to this title were men of active life, living in society, and differing from the rest of mankind only in their exact adherence to the rules of virtue and forbearance inculcated in the Gospel." A false asceticism undoubtedly sprung up early, which has been confounded, by shallow readers, with the still earlier practice. The charge of asceticism (in a bad sense), leveled against the Temperance system, is wholly unfounded, and simply proves the ignorance or prejudice of the accusers. The abstainer from intoxicating liquors does not imitate the false ascetic, who cuts himself off from all physical and social enjoyment ; on the contrary, by his absti- nence he seeks so to exercise himself, in a virtuous and rational self-control, that his possession of all truly good things may be enlarged, and his enjoyment of them intensified and prolonged.* Chapter XXIV. Verse 25. And as he reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and judgment td come, Felix trembled, and answered, Go thy way for this time ; when I have a convenient season, I will call for thee. Of temperance] Enkrateias, 'self-restraint.' Wiclif has 'chastite,' which is followed by the Rheims version, but Tyndale and the other old versions have 'temperaunce.' Enkrateia, from enkrateuomai, 'to have self-command,' denotes the government of the appetites and passions. Xenophon's definition of the enkratees is very happy ('Memorabilia,' iv. 8), — Enkratees de hoste meedepote proaireisthai to heedion anti tou beltionos, ' but he is temperate who on no occasion prefers what is merely pleasant to what is better.' This definition is expanded by Milton in his 'Comus,' where the lady exclaims, — ' That which is not good is not delicious To a well-governed and wise appetite.' * Dr J. S. Howson, in his ' Lectures on the Character of St Paul,' remarks (p. 131) : — "The forma- tion of a Christian character without self-discipline is impossible. No doubt the highest form of virtue is spontaneous habit. Yet who will dare to say that his good habits are built up ? Happy is he who has a comfortable assurance that his bad habits are tottering to their fall. Never was Christianity, in any of its phases of which we have yet had experience, really efficient without the presence of an ascetic element." And in a foot-note he adds, " There seems to me ground for very serious regret that the word ' asceticism ' has not retained with us, as it has in Germany, its old signification of practical Christian self-discipline. In arguing once on this subject with a clergyman (a thoughtful and well-educated man), I found that his opinion was largely influenced by his impression that ascetic was derived from acetum (vinegar)." 318 THE ACTS, XXIV. 25. The temperance which rejects what may be pleasant to the appetite, but not good, brings with it, in due time, an aversion to what was once loved. This reform of the appetite beginning with its restraint, is the crown of physical temper- ance ; self-denial is consummated and absorbed in self-gratification. Temperance and asceticism have a superficial resemblance which has deceived many, but the difference is radical ; for while asceticism seeks the emaciation of the physical nature, temperance aims at its most vigorous development, which can only be realized by the observance of physical laws, including the rejection of all deleterious articles. The English word 'temperance' is derived directly from the Latin temperantia, the root of which, as of temp-us, temp-lum, is found in the Greek temo, temno, tempo, 'to cut off.' Hence temperantia (temperance), as a virtue, is the cutting off that which ought not to be retained, — self-restraint from, not in, the use of whatever is pernicious, useless, or dangerous. This etymology is an adequate vindication of the application of the word ' temperance ' to the practice of abstinence from all intoxicating liquors, as being a cutting-off of those articles of diet that are best put away, and as the swiftest, simplest, and only effectual method of cutting off the intemperance that devastates the land. Prior to the Temperance reform, owing to the growth of drinking, the term ' intemperance ' had acquired a special reference to the lavish use of intoxicating liquors; and the Abstinence principle (first applied to ardent spirits, and afterward extended to all alcoholic liquors) being the direct opposite and antagonist of this intemperance — as well as its sole cure and sure preventive, — was justly entitled to' the Temperance name. The Latin moderatio (from moderor, 'to measure,' 'qualify,' 'temper,' ' rule ') has much the same moral signification as temperantia, for true moderation is such a measurement and tempering of appetite by judgment and conscience, as involves the non-use of what is useless or hurtful, as well as the avoidance of all injurious use of whatever is intrinsically good and useful. In the instance of the text, temperance implied a total abstinence from the evil relationship referred to. Felix, a man addicted to licentious indulgence, was at this time living in adultery with Drusilla;* he was also an unjust governor, and careless of all retribution, except such as might emanate from the reigning Caesar. When he invited Paul to preach concerning the 'faith in Christ,' that bold and sagacious minister did not dwell, as Felix had perhaps expected, on questions of theology, but seized the opportunity to bring Christian truth into direct contact with his heart. The apostle ' reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come ' ; and with such power that the conscience of the sensual worldling was touched, and he trembled as he heard. We learn from this, — 1. That preaching should be practical — and always may be so — even when deal- ing with doctrinal subjects. From truths granted or assumed, appeals — not declamatory, but pungent and searching — should be constructed, that the conscience, enlightened and aroused, may do its salutary work. 2. That temperance, as a part of practical preaching, is not out of place in the pulpit, and does not render preaching chargeable with a neglect of the gospel of God's grace. So, also, as abstinence from intoxicating liquor enters into tem- perance in its broadest sense, its advocacy comes within the legitimate range of pulpit reasoning and Christian exhortation. Circumstances will indicate when specific practical duties may be most suitably enforced, — for we should study to avoid giving offence, even when the whole truth is fearlessly proclaimed. The * The divorced wife of King Azizus. THE ACTS, XXV. 10. 319 hearer must be convinced that it is not himself, but his sins or errors that are assailed, else the gateway of all moral influence — candid attention — will be fast closed. Tact and good temper are never thrown away in conciliating those whose conversion is desired. Chapter XXV. Verse 10. Then said Paul, I stand at Caesar's judgment seat, where I ought to be judged : to the Jews have I done no wrong, as thou very well knowest. The Caesar here referred to, also styled Augustus (chap. xxvi. 21, 25), was the suc- cessor of Claudius, the infamous Nero, who reigned as Roman emperor a.d. 54 — 69. In the early part of his career he was accustomed to visit taverns in disguise, and then ramble about the city as a marauder. Finding this ' sport ' too dangerous, he abandoned it, but his revels lasted, we are told by Suetonius, from mid-day to mid- night. Before him Paul appeared, and describes him as 'the lion ' (2 Tim. iv. 17); and well did he deserve the name, both on account of his savage qualities, and because he was accustomed, dressed up as a wild beast, to act in a vile and abominable manner toward men and women tied to stakes in the arena. THE EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE ROMANS. Chapter VI. Verses 12, 13. 12 Let not sin therefore reign in your mortal body, that ye should obey it in the lusts thereof. 13 Neither yield ye your members as in- struments of unrighteousness unto sin : but yield yourselves unto God, as those that are alive from the dead, and your members as instru- ments of righteousness unto God. The apostle, without giving any countenance to the dogma that identified moral evil with matter, earnestly enjoined a control of the bodily members necessary to hinder them from becoming the ' servants of sin. ' This control, if it is to be effectual, demands the exclusion of whatever tends to convert those members into ' instruments of unrighteousness ' ; but who can name such an agency at all com- parable to intoxicating drink? Comparatively small quantities of these liquors will often exert a distinctly vitiating influence, and their slightest sensible effect is unfavorable to the perfect control of the animal by the spiritual nature. The ordinary social use of alcoholics, as all experience attests, stimulates every irregular and depraved desire. Christian prudence cannot but approve the rejection of such incentives to vice ; and if any one should say that they have not proved so to him- self, he is bound to consider whether he may not have suffered some loss without a perception of it; whether he is justified in risking the many mischiefs that intoxi- cating liquors are capable of inflicting ; and whether he acts advisedly and kindly in sanctioning the use of articles by which so many persons around him are tempted, betrayed, and undone. Chapter XIII. Verses i, 3. 1 Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God : the powers that be are ordained of God. . . . 3 For rulers are not a terror to good works, but to the evil. Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power ? Do that which is good, and thou shalt have praise of the same. Most explicitly is it here affirmed that Civil Government is in its essence a Divine institution, and entrusted by God with powers of prohibition and punishment that ROMANS, XIII. 10, 13. 321 ought not to lie in abeyance where preventible evil is concerned. True, Nero was a monster ; yet the fact that even he was the legal head of the Roman empire did not weaken the apostolic argument; and in whatever degree representative government is superior to arbitrary rule and tyranny, the moral authority of human law becomes the more binding and exalted. But where any government permits and sanctions pursuits that deprave, impoverish, and destroy its subjects by whole- sale, it is neglecting its proper function, and frustrating those great ends of social security and progress for which government, and society itself, exist. In the patronage extended by the British Government to the traffic in strong drink, this social anomaly and contradiction is seen upon a scale of colossal magnitude ; and the enormous revenues (upward of twenty millions of pounds annually) raised from the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors, make it the more needful that this illegitimate connection should be exposed. The very least that should be done under such circumstances is, that legally defined districts should be enabled to determine whether a business so anti-social in its results should be licensed and tolerated. A local veto-power of this kind would permit districts to protest against the national policy, while it would protect them against the consequences of a legislation so caustically described by the poet Cowper : — " Pass where we may, through city or through town, Village, or hamlet, of this merry land, Though lean and beggared, every twentieth pace Conducts the unguarded nose to such a whiff Of stale debauch, as makes temperance reel." Chapter XIII. Verse 10. Love worketh no ill to his neighbor : therefore love is the fulfilling of the law. Love embodied in the Christian, will effectually prevent him ' working ill to his neighbor,' whether by carrying on occupations that seduce and deprave, or by extending his sanction to dangerous and evil customs. On the contrary, * love is the fulfilling of the law,' — viz. of that second department of the law which com- prehends all a man's relations to his fellow-creatures. As love is an ever-active, ever-operative principle, if it does not work evil, it works out the welfare of all within its own reach ; and it does this not least by removing from their path all that can delude and betray. To this love the Temperance cause appeals for aid in the war against the causes of intemperance, whether residing objectively in the properties of strong drink, and in its general circulation and public sale, or sub- jectively in the fallacies and false tastes excited by its consumption as a beverage. Love cannot behold without grief the ravages of intoxicating liquors ; and when enlightened as to the true nature of such drinks, it must prompt to efforts for their exclusion from the home, the place of public concourse, and the Church of Christ. Love will ever do, as well as desire, what is best for the cure and prevention of intemperance Chapter XIII. Verse 13. Let us walk honestly, as in the day ; not in rioting and drunken- ness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying. Honestly] Euscheemonos, ' becomingly ' (from eu, ' 'well,' 'and scheema, 'deport- ment ' or ' condition ')= in a manner well-suited to moral obligation «nd Christian character. 41 322 ROMANS, XIV. 1 3. Not in rioting] Mee komois, 'not in revelries.' Wiclifhas 'not in superflue feestis.' Tyndale and Cranmer have 'not in eatynge;' the Geneva V., 'not in glotonie ' ; the Rheims V., 'not in banketings.' Comus, the god of revelry, is represented as a young man wearing a garland, and with a torch falling from his hand, or burning his side, as he lies in a drunken sleep. The komos was either a festival in his honor, or a private feast, when the revellers were accustomed to sally out after supper, attired as bacchanals, and behaving themselves as such. And drunkenness] Kai methais, 'and in intemperances' — all intemperate indulgences of the appetite, whether in food or drink, whether attended by intoxication or not. A great error is committed by those who regard ' drunken- ness,' in the scriptural sense, as synonymous with mad or helpless intoxication. Philosophy likewise teaches that the sin of drinking is not in the mere physical degree of disturbance, but in the motive — in the relation of the mind of the drinker to the law of God. Another apostle taught that he who breaks one law breaks all, so far as God is concerned; and it is a mere commonplace that the law of honesty is equally violated in stealing a penny as in stealing a pound. Drinking for pleasure, in defiance of need and fitness, is the essence of the vice of drunkenness* Chapter XIV. Verse 13. Let us not therefore judge one another any more : but judge this rather, that no man put a stumbling-block or an occasion to fall in his brother's way. A stumbling-block] Proskomma, ' a stumbling ' = a cause of stumbling. Codex B omits this word, and Codex C, instead of proskomma, reads proskosma. Wiclif has 'hirtynge.' Or an occasion to fall] Ee skandalon, ' or snare ' [see Note on Matt. v. 30]. The meaning of the passage is, that Christians are not hastily to pass judg- ments upon one another, and are to be exceedingly careful not to do aught that may cause a brother to fall or be ensnared. Whether this command has any appli- cation to the drinking customs of our country must depend upon the reply to the question, whether these customs do prove a stumbling-block and snare to Christian brethren. If they do — and he must be strangely ignorant who should deny it, — any sanction of the customs must be at variance with the apostolic precept. Nor is it any excuse to say, f Such customs are not causes of evil to me,' for it is not for his own sake, but for his brother's, that the Christian is here enjoined to be dis- connected from stumbling-blocks and snares. The danger to others is to be as carefully avoided by him as if it were danger to himself. In this, as in all respects, he is to do to others as he would wish them to do to him, were their circumstances mutually reversed. If he is to be willing to 'lay down his life for the brethren,' the least he can do for them is not to bring them, by act of his, into temptation and transgression ; yet, to carry out this negative principle of Christian fraternity, there must be thoughtfulness and intelligence ; for evil, wrought by ignorance and inconsideration, is not wrought without sin to the unintentional doer. If he who will not ' know to do good ' is not innocent, still less is he blameless who does evil because he will not ' learn to do well.' ' * Aristotle's Ethics. "The intemperate man desires all things pleasant, and is led by his mere desire to choose these things." ROMANS, XIV. 14 — 17. 323 Chapter XIV. Verse 14. I know, and am persuaded by the Lord Jesus, that there is nothing unclean of itself: but to him that esteemeth any thing to be unclean, to him // is unclean. The apostle is not discussing the question whether some things are unfit for food. He is proceeding on the supposition that this fitness exists, and then affirms that there is nothing koinon, 'unclean,' of itself: in other words, that ceremonial un- cleanness, however defined, is not identical with moral uncleanness ; consequently, that no moral guilt is contracted by the use of food. Yet he allows that if even food is regarded as unclean by any one, it becomes to him unclean in such a sense that he would contract guilt by using it, seeing that he would be doing what he believed was an unclean action. Chapter XIV. Verse 15. But if thy brother be grieved with thy meat, now walkest thou not charitably. Destroy not him with thy meat, for whom Christ died. The argument of the apostle may be thus paraphrased : — " No food (properly so called) is unclean, but if on account of food (broma)— that is, any particular kind or preparation of food (in the A. V. ' thy ' is aptly supplied) — thy brother is grieved — feels distressed or aggrieved by it as unclean, — now walkest thou not charitably, if thou puttest it in his way and temptest him to eat it. Do not with thy food destroy him for whom Christ died. If he transgresses his conscience, and so falls away through your example, you will be chargeable with his loss, though you never intended it." How affecting is the apostle's appeal! — "Let not your meat be his destruction to whom the Lord has given His body as spiritual meat and His blood as spiritual drink. If Christ died for him, you ought to abstain — in his presence at least — from the meat which to him is unclean." Chapter XIV. Verses 16, 17. 16 Let not then your good be evil spoken of: 17 For the kingdom of God is not meat and drink ; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. You, continues the apostle, may partake of such food with a good conscience, but if your act is liable to be evil spoken of {blaspheemeistho, 'blasphemed '), and is an act not positively required by Christian duty, leave it undone. Your personal benefit is small, the injury to the cause of Christ may be great. "The kingdom of God is not meat and drink {btosis kai posis) ; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost." Neither directly nor indirectly ought 'what shall we eat? ' to be balanced in the scale with what concerns the advancement of the Divine kingdom upon earth. 324 ROMANS, XIV. 1 8 — 21. Chapter XIV. Verses 18—20. 18 For he that in these things serveth Christ is acceptable to God, and approved of men. 19 Let us therefore follow after the things which make for peace, and things wherewith one may edify another. 20 For meat destroy not the work of God. All things indeed are pure ; but it is evil for that man who eateth with offence. Instead of en toutois, 'in these things,' all the chief MSS. read en touto, 'in this.' He who in this manner serves Christ — by making questions of food sub- ordinate to spiritual things — is acceptable {euarestos) — well-pleasing to God, and ' approved ' of men ' (dokimos tois anthropois), — approves himself to men as being what he professes, i. e. spiritually and not carnally minded. Let us then follow (didkomeri) — pursue — 'the things of peace,' the things that promote brotherly peace, ' and the things of edification for one another ' — things by which Christians build one another up in the strength and completeness of the Christian life. The idea of a ' building ' suggests the reiterated appeal, — do not on any account destroy (kataluo, dissolve, or cast down) the work of God — the living workmanship of God's Spirit — in the person of a Christian brother. The apostle then returns to the thought expressed in verse 14, asserting the undeniable truth, that, though a thing is pure {katharori) in itself, it becomes evil {kakori) to the conscience of the man who regards it as such, and yet joins himself to it; so that good food is con- verted into a stumbling (proshomma) — a cause of sin — to him who eats it while he considers it unclean. Chapter XIV. Verse 21. // is good neither to eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor any thing whereby thy brother stumbleth, or is offended, or is made weak. The apostle had been alluding to the case of a Christian who considered meat offered to idols as having become polluted ; and he had been showing that by inadvertently tempting him to eat such food, his fellow-Christians were eating uncharitably, and imperilling his salvation. He now proceeds to state the general principle underlying this case, and all others of the same class. It is good {kalon) — morally beautiful or excellent, calculated to call forth the admiration of all good beings — not to eat flesh (krea), nor to drink wine (oinon), nor "to do any thing hy means of which thy brother stumbles, or offends, or is made weak"; that is, by which his conscience is impaired, as would be the case if its dictates were disobeyed. No text has been more frequently and successfully quoted than this, on behalf of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors; yet many objections to such an application of it have been taken from opposite quarters. Opponents have objected (1) that the apostle's reference was to a particular 'case, and not to the question of abstaining from flesh or wine, as such, under all circumstances. True, but the principle is broad enough to include all circum- stances and occasions, where the main point is involved — the stumbling and sin of a brother. The question is not what particular case St Paul had in his eye, but whether the principle he enunciates is applicable to the use of intoxicating liquors as a beverage. If such use by Christians be a cause of transgression, the evident and essential element of moral comparison is established. ROMANS, XIV. 21. 325 But it is objected (2) that the apostle limits his reference to the case where a person offends his own conscience, and so contracts guilt by doing what he believes to be wrong; whereas those who are led into evil by strong drink are persons generally who use it without moral hesitation or constraint. This plea, if granted, does not cover the numerous cases (a) where abstainers are induced to take strong drink, contrary to their sense of right, by the example (and even persuasion) of others ; and {F) where many, who are doubtful whether it is right to use such liquors, are moved to take them in compliance with surrounding usage, sustained by men with a reputation for religion. Customs are almost omnipotent in their influence over innumerable minds, and not least over those whose sensitive systems are most endangered by strong drink, who, in many cases, would gladly abstain, if not discouraged by the opposite conduct of persons to whom they look up. But the plea will not hold at all in the sense of the objector, for the argument of the apostle is not based on the manner of the offence, but on its existence ; and his conclusion is not limited to the avoidance of sin in one particular way, but extends to its avoidance altogether. The great end is not realized save by abstinence from every thing that causes another to stumble, to do evil, and to become weak. Reduced to its elementary form, the principle is nothing short of this, — Abstain from what will produce or provoke sin in others. It is objected (3) that the apostle restricts his reference to Christian brethren, and does not affirm the duty of abstaining from what is a cause of sin to men in general. Even with this restriction, the duty of general Christian abstinence, for the sake of fellow-Christians who are in danger of being seduced from their integrity by strong drink, is clearly deducible from this passage; but who can doubt that the spirit of the passage, the essence of the principle, is as applicable to Christian behavior in respect to men in general as it is to believers in particular ? The special case before him necessarily restricted the apostle's application of the principle to Christians who had a conscience against eating food offered to idols ; but who that knows how he labored ' to become all things to all men, that he might save some,' can doubt that he would have applied the same principle to the preservation of all men from vice and misery, especially from such diffusive and ever-deepening vice and misery as spring from indulgence in alcoholic liquors ? Indeed, this more extensive application is made by the apostle himself in 1 Cor. x. 32. See Note. It is proper to notice an objection entertained by some Temperance advocates to the common use of this passage as an argument for abstinence. "St Paul," they say, "is confessedly pleading with the Christians of Rome, that they should resign what was good in itself for the sake of the conscientious, though unfounded, scruples of some of their own body; and to make a corresponding appeal to British Christians for abstinence from intoxicating liquors is to admit, what is con- trary to fact, that these drinks are, like those meats, good in themselves, and that abstinence is expedient only on account of the prejudices of abstainers, or because of the weakness of those who cannot use them without going to excess. Neither the advocacy nor practice of abstinence that rests on such a shifting basis of expediency can itself be firm ; while positive error is encouraged by allowing men to imagine that they are sacrificing a valuable article of diet when they are induced, often reluctantly, to abstain out of regard to the welfare of others." There is sufficient plausibility in this statement to make it desirable that the Pauline argu- ment from Christian benevolence should never be employed, except with a distinct intimation that it is advanced without prejudice to the solid argument for absti- nence, grounded on science and experience. Still, within its own limits, the 326 ROMANS, XIV. 22, 23. Pauline plea seems quite legitimate, and very forcible. It is so in relation to the Christian objector to total abstinence, who denies the validity of other arguments in its favor, since it meets him on grounds from which he cannot retreat. It virtually says to him, "Well, if you decline to examine the evidence of physiology, if you refuse to admit all the other arguments on behalf of abstinence, you must admit that the temporal and spiritual benefit of others is good and sufficient reason why articles of even real utility should be cheerfully resigned ; for otherwise the example of the Saviour is a visionary ideal, and all talk of self-denial nothing better than hypocritical 'profession,' or self-deception." In dealing with Christian oppo- nents, then, the Pauline principle is a valuable argumentum ad hominem ; and where the heart appealed to is imbued with a genuine Christian benevolence, such an appeal, if intelligently apprehended, can hardly fail to be successful. Chapter XIV. Verses 22, 23. 22 Hast thou faith ? have it to thyself before God. Happy is he that condemneth not himself in that thing which he alloweth. 23 And he that doubteth is damned if he eat, because he eateth not of faith : for whatsoever is not of faith is sin. The apostle is here addressing himself to one who asserts that he has ' faith ' in the lawfulness of eating what has been or may have been associated with idolatrous rites ; and he advises, ' Have this faith to thyself before God,' for he is happy who does not condemn himself — i. e. is not condemned by his conscience — in the thing that he allows ; but, on the contrary, he who ' doubts ' — he who exercises casuistry {ho diakrinomenos'), fearing evil in what he eats — is ' damned ' — i. e. is condemned* {katakekritai) — in eating, because he has no ' faith ' — or conviction — that what he is doing is right ; ' for whatsoever is not of faith is sin,' — sin to the doer, because it is not done with a good conscience. The apostle does not say that whatever con- science approves is right (for conscience may be perverted or misinformed), but that what conscience does not approve cannot be right to the doer. False notions of ' Christian liberty ' have induced a wide-spread, growing, and most perni- cious fallacy on this subject. In all ages the question What is truth ? seems to have received an unhappy treatment. The claims of Truth are subordinated to the claims of the individual conscience, with all its whims, defects, and narrowness ! People refer constantly to their 'opinions,' as if they did not rest under the ultimate obligation of refer- ring their opinions to the facts and principles which are the only possible evidence of their being true. Even philosophers like Grote go so far as to make Truth into the varying perception of the percipient persons who 'trow' it, as if there were one truth for me and another for my neighbor ! The Universe, however, with its stern laws, vindicates the objective truth by punishing every individual transgressor. It never accommodates itself to the ' opinions ' of man- kind. Certainly, as St Paul argues, a man must follow his own sense of right, but no man has more enforced the solemn obligation of seeking the true Light, lest the fancy of the Individual should be the ignis fatuus of self-deception and of willing defect. The bearing of this principle upon the use of intoxicating liquors is * This word will show the plain reader how very different, because wider, is the ancient use of it compared with the modern. It is like the word ' drunken ' in this respect. ROMANS, XV. I — 3. 327 manifest ; for the light now shed on the nature and effects of such beverages must increase the number of persons who cannot use them without misgiving ; and all such persons should be impressed with the declaration that they cannot be other than ' brought into judgment ' if, while in this state of moral indecision, they par- take of inebriating drinks.* Chapter XV. Verses i — 3. 1 We then that are strong ought to bear the infirmities of the weak, and not to please ourselves. 2 Let every one of us please his neigh- bor for his good to edification. 3 For even Christ pleased not himself; but, as it is written, The reproaches of them that reproached thee fell on me. Most beautiful and Christ-like is the exhortation of ver. 1. Those who cannot partake of any particular kind of food with a good conscience are to abstain, and those who might conscientiously partake are not to do so if their example will be a snare to others, for the strong (diinatoi, 'the able 'fought to bear the infirmities (ta astheneemata, ' the weaknesses ') of the weak (ton adunaton, * of the unable '), and not to please themselves. How emphatically does this principle condemn those who boast that they take intoxicating drink ' because they like it ' ! — ' because they have a right to do what they please ' ! The true Christian's highest pleasure consists in what is most acceptable to Christ and most useful to man ; so ' let every one of us please his neighbor for his good (eis to agathon, for the neighbor's benefit) to edification ' — to the building up of the Christian character and of the Christian brotherhood as a Living Temple, all glorious with the beauty of holiness and lovingkindness. • For even Christ pleased not Himself.' As a man He had appetencies which might have been innocently gratified, considered in themselves, but they were not indulged — they were inflexibly and cheerfully restrained, — in order that the work of human redemption might be triumphantly carried out. How singular and suspicious, that while every day professed Christians are earnestly pleading the example of our Lord for drinking what they like, we never hear of their insisting upon His example of perfect self-denial ! Yet the Lord Jesus is the sublimest and most perfect example of self-denial the world has seen; He pleased not Himself sensuously, because He pleased His Father and Himself spiritually; and in exact proportion as His professed followers are like Him, they will not consult with flesh or fashion, with palate or custom, as to what should be done or left undone. If this standard were honestly applied to the question of using intoxicating liquors, and if no more strong drink were to be henceforward consumed merely to please the lower-self, who can doubt that the habitual use of it would rapidly disappear from the Christian world ? * ' What is a person to do, if he is in as much doubt whether it is lawful to abstain as he is whether it is lawful to drink ? ' Two answers may be given, — (i) that a question as to the lawful- ness of abstinence can hardly arise, except on the score of health, and then the best information must be sought ; and (2) that in a case of balanced doubts, the deciding motive may always be found by estimating the kind of influence most likely to be exerted, by either course, upon domestic, social, and religious life. THE FIRST EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE CORINTHIANS. Chapter V. Verses 6 — 8. 6 Your glorying is not good. Know ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump ? 7 Purge out therefore the old leaven, that ye may be a new lump, as ye are unleavened. For even Christ our passover is sacrificed for us : 8 Therefore let us keep the feast, not with old leaven, neither with the leaven of malice and wicked- ness : but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth. V. 6. A little leaven] Mikra zumee. Zumee, 'ferment,' answers to the Hebrew seor. Wiclif has ' witen ye not that a littl sourdouy apeirith al the goblet ? ' (corrupteth all the lump). V. 7. As YE are unleavened] Kathos este azumoi, 'as ye are unfermented'= uncorrupted. Tyndale's version gives ' swete breed ' ; so Cranmer's and the Geneva versions. For even Christ our passover is sacrificed for us] The words huper heemon, 'for us,' are absent from all the ancient MSS. V. 8. But with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth] AW en azumois eilikrineias kai aleetheias, ' but with the unfermented (things) of sincerity and truth. ' This passage may be appropriately compared with Luke xiii. 21, where the penetrative and diffusive influence of leaven is used as an emblem of heavenly truth in its rapidity of operation; — here, ver. 6, the same qualities are ascribed to spiritual error. But ver. 7, — 'Purge out therefore the old leaven,' etc. — answers to the Saviour's warnings, and is founded on the well-known nature of ferment as the product and producer of corruption. [See Notes on Matt. xvi. 6, 12, and Luke xii. I.] Contact with evil is to be avoided, 'for a little leaven leavens the whole lump,' if allowed to work unchecked ; — probably a proverbial saying, like to the other, — ' Evil communications corrupt good manners.' But as this evil had begun to work in the Corinthian Christians, they were to 'purge it out,' that they might resemble an unleavened lump. Christ our passover (pascha = paschal-lamb) is sacrificed; and as the ancient sacrifice was to be eaten with unfermented cakes and bitter herbs, so must the great spiritual feast, in which the Lamb of God is set forth as the food of the soul, be observed, not with malice and wickedness — the leaven of the heart, — but with simplicity and truthfulness, the unperverted elements of a genuine Christian disposition. I CORINTHIANS, VI. 9 — II. 329 Chapter V. Verse 11. But now I have written unto you not to keep company, if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolater, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner ; with such an one no not to eat. Or a drunkard] Ee methusos, ' or one who fills himself with drink ' = a hard drinker = a drunkard, but not necessarily a drunkard of the English type. The habitual bibber was not to be regarded as a 'brother,' though he might wish to pass as such ; nor was he to be associated with in the festivities of the church. Such persons were sure to be, as Jude afterwards describes, ' spots in their feasts of charity,' and ought to be shunned, lest the contagion of their example should breed a moral pest. Chapter VI. Verses 9 — 11. 9 Know ye not that the unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom of God ? Be not deceived : neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor effeminate, nor abusers of themselves with mankind, 10 Nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor extor- tioners, shall inherit the kingdom of God. » And such were some of you: but ye are washed, but ye are sanctified, but ye are justified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and by the Spirit of our God. V. 10. Nor drunkards] Oute methusoi, 'nor inordinate drinkers.' An excessive addiction to liquors — even such as would not readily, or at all, intoxicate — was a vice of the apostolic age, and one that abounded in Corinth, the most profligate city of Greece. In dissolute Corinth the gospel had become the power of God to the salvation of some who had been steeped in every form of sensuality and impurity. This text has been adduced to show that the gospel, without the intervention of Tem- perance societies, is equal to the reclamation of the intemperate. But it is never wise to set historical allusions against present and patent facts ; and no fact is more completely attested than this, — that for every drunkard reclaimed by the ordinary religious ministrations, direct Temperance efforts have reclaimed hundreds. Not the gospel, however, but the routine of religious instruction has been at fault, and mainly, because (1) the religious teachers have not gone to seek out the intem- perate who would not come to receive instruction ; and because (2) they have not pressed upon the intemperate the gospel principle of separation from the causes of their besetment. Corinthian drunkards, coming under the influence of the Gospel, would be necessarily drawn away from their former companions and associations, and be introduced into a new society, of which the watchword was, ' Let us go on unto perfection.' Where intemperance had been the result of an appetite for alcohol, the Corinthian convert would not be safe unless he put ' the mocker ' away from him altogether. The principle of abstinence from intoxicants, by whomsoever applied, is one recognized by the Gospel as the sine qua non of safety for the drunkard ; and without it there can be no reasonable hope that the appetite for strong drink will be overcome, or the divine life effectually nourished and matured in the once intemperate man. 42 330 ' I CORINTHIANS, VI. 12. Chapter VI. Verse 12. All things are lawful unto me, but all things are not expedient : all things are lawful for me, but I will not be brought under the power of any. All things are lawful unto me] Panta moi exestin, 'all (things) to me are possible ' ; i. e. 'I am able to do (the kind of actions referred to) without scruple as to their moral propriety \ ' These ' all things ' related to the use of meats which some persons regarded as being ceremonially unclean. A provincial divine has wrested this text from its moral association in order to prove the logical universal, that ' all physical things are lawful, and to be received with thanksgiving ' ; and to establish the special inference, ' The?-efore alcohol is lawful, and must not be denounced as a bad article ' ! A moment's reflection would have exhibited the absurdity of construing in a logical and absolute sense the simple and natural words of Paul, which have not the slightest allusion to the physiological qualities of food or drink. No one can believe that St Paul was discussing a question of regimen or health, and asserting his physical invulnerability to the action of poisons (which are included in 'all things '); * or, supposing him to have possessed a miraculous exemption from the operation of divinely appointed physical laws, that his pro- fessed disciples have inherited the privilege ! St Paul was arguing the moral quality of certain actions, and the duty of a given course of life, as his next words demonstrate; and to quote 'all (actions) are lawful for me,' in a universal sense, is not only to ' wrest the Scripture to our own hurt,' but to make the apostle con- tradict and abolish his own argument for the greater suitability and excellence of the conduct which he is explicitly enforcing upon the Corinthian church, and therefore implicitly upon the entire Christian world. But all** things are not expedient] AW ou panta sumpherei, 'but all things do not hold (or fit) together,' = do not edify or adapt themselves to profit — i. e. all things are not suitable. But 1 will not be brought under the power of any] A IP ouk ego exousiastheesomai hupo linos, ' but I will not allow myself to be mastered by any thing,' — i. e. I will not suffer any thing, however enticing, to induce me to act contrary to my conviction of what is best, or contrary to the interests committed to my trust. In the Notes on the Greek Testament, by the Rev. S. T. Bloomfield, D. D., of Sidney College, Cambridge (Fifth Ed. 1843), we find the following: — "Panta moi exestin, etc.] The best Commentators are agreed that these words are supposed (by an ellipsis) to be the words of an Objector, and such as were probably often used by those who wished to indulge in sensuality, and eating meats offered to idols, and who sought to justify it under the pretense of Christian liberty. By ' all things ' are meant all things which the Apostle has here in view ; i. e. all kinds of food. To this the answer is, alV ou panta sumpherei — where the alia has both a concessory and an exceptive force ; q. d. = ' True, all things are given to us to enjoy; but all meats are not expedient to be eaten, because they may throw a stumbling-block in the way of others.' The Apostle then repeats the objection, in order to answer it more effectually. The Commentators suppose a paronamasia with exesti (possible) ; q. d. = ' I have power over all meats, but none of them shall have power over me ' — i. e. so as to make me a slave to my appetites. * See Note on chap. be. 25, for the Vulgate use of omnibus, 'all things.' If the runners in the Grecian games abstained from ''all things' absolutely, then starvation was a preparation for strength ! I CORINTHIANS, VI. 1 9, 20. 33 1 "V. 13. Meats for the belly. ] Esti, i. e. aneekei, 'are meant for.' Here the foregoing sentiment is further illustrated, and an objection anticipated; q. d. 'All aliments are meant for the sustenance of the body, and the body is fitted to the recep- tion and digestion of them.' Or rather it may be regarded, with some, as another argument of the opponent, containing an excuse for an indulgence in sensuality. . . . The words following, to de soma, etc. [now the body is not for fornica- tion. ] There was no direct answer (in the case of the bromata, meats) ; but, in fact, the argument needed none, as it would be like arguing from the use to the abuse of any thing. The Apostle, therefore, saves this, and replies to the apology in the peculiar case for which it was, no doubt, often pleaded — namely, fornication." In his supplemental volume Dr Bloomfield adds : "The first words (all are lawful to me) are those of an Excuser ; the next (but all are not fitting) are the Apostle's in reply. The view taken by Billroth of the purpose of the Apostle in these words is, I apprehend, quite correct, and it is sup- ported by the judgment of Calvin, who ably treats on the subject. There is no doubt that, of the extenuators of luxury and sensuality here alluded to, some went even to the extent of extenuating simple fornication, which was by the heathens regarded as, under certain restrictions [in moderation], lawfid as well as natural. Accordingly, these Corinthian pleaders for vice, maintained that it was to be reckoned among things indifferent; thus making Christian liberty a cloak, or occasion, for licentiousness." It is singular that such a text should ever be selected for preaching the lawful- ness of gratification and pleasure to the world. Yet we have before us a pro-drink sermon preached on this passage — the argument of which is based solely upon that part of the text which contains the motto of the Sensualist to be answered, while it ignores entirely the Apostolic reply, which teaches the unsuitableness and sinfulness of the course attempted to be justified, and its utter antagonism to the ends of the Christian Life. Chapter VI. Verses 19, 20. 19 What ? know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God, and ye are not your own ? 20 For ye are bought with a price : therefore glorify God in your body, and in your spirit, which are God's. The solemn and glorious fact here declared should cause every Christian to exer- cise the utmost care in rejecting whatever may, directly or indirectly, pollute the ' temple of the Holy Spirit ' ; for even the body, by its union with the soul, is con- sidered a fit dwelling-place of God. Nor is such a fact altogether beyond our comprehension, since the reciprocal relation of body and mind is too constant and intimate not to impress us with the importance of guarding the purity of the latter, by excluding from its material tenement whatever may becloud or deprave it. Whatever stimulates animal appetite, and abates the vigor of the intellectual and moral nature, is unsuitable for the Christian's use, because not fitting to his high calling and his consecration as 'a temple of the Holy Ghost.' How can he wisely, or even complacently, consume the wine and strong drink which the Aaronic priests were forbidden to use, and introduce into the temple of the Holy Spirit that which the Spirit himself has branded as a 'mocker ' and ' seducer' ? However limited in quantity, the use can serve no sanctifying purpose, and may gradually create for alcoholic liquors (as it has done in innumerable instances) a taste morbid in its physical character, and pestiferous to every attribute of the rational and spiritual being. 332 I CORINTHIANS. Chapter VIII. Verses 4 — 13. 4 As concerning therefore the eating of those things that are offered in sacrifice unto idols, we know that an idol is nothing in the world, and that there is none other God but one. 5 For though there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth, (as there be gods many, and lords many,) 6 But to us there is but one God, the Father, of whom are all things, and we in him ; and one Lord Jesus Christ, by whom are all things, and we by him. 7 Howbeit there is not in every man that knowledge : for some with conscience of the idol unto this hour eat it as a thing offered unto an idol ; and their conscience being weak is defiled. 8 But meat commendeth us not to God : for neither, if we eat, are we the better ; neither, if we eat not, are we the worse. 9 But take heed lest by any means this liberty of yours become a stumbling-block to them that are weak. 10 For if any man see thee which hast knowledge sit at meat in the idol's temple, shall not the conscience of him which is weak be emboldened to eat those things which are offered to idols; u And through thy knowl- edge shall the weak brother perish, for whom Christ died ? 12 But when ye sin so against the brethren, and wound their weak conscience, ye sin against Christ. 13 Wherefore, if meat make my brother to offend, I will eat no flesh while the world standeth, lest I make my brother to offend. In these paragraphs the apostle deals with a question on which he had evidently been consulted. The question consisted of two parts, — Was it right to eat of food that had been devoted to idols ? Was it right to set an example of eating it to those who believed that to eat was to contract defilement ? The first part of the question the apostle answers in the affirmative, the second in the negative. The use of the terms ' lawful ' and ' expedient ' by the English translators has very much confused St Paul's reasoning to the common mind, and conveyed a wholly fallacious notion of lawfulness as distinct from expediency, — the utter absurdity that what is not expedient to be done may still be lawfully done ! Such a con- struction runs counter to the apostle's clear intention to distinguish between certain acts so far as they regard the doer, and so far as they regard others. He asserts, what is quite plain, that there are many acts which, so far as they relate to the doer, are not intrinsically wrong or in any way injurious, and therefore are per- missible ; but which may exert an injurious influence upon others, and therefore are not permissible under the Christian law of love. To infer that these actions are 'lawful,' though 'inexpedient,' nullifies all that the apostle teaches; for if 'inex- pedient,' i. e. unprofitable and unsuitable in a Christian sense, they cease to be lawful to Christian men. /irrespective of circumstances they would be innocent, but circumstantially they are attended with harm, and therefore must not be done. The words used by the apostle to express this difference are exesti, ' what is per- missible ' in a j^-regarding sense ; on sumpherei, ' what is not advantageous ' in respect to others. His conclusion on the particular question submitted to him was, that a Christian might eat food offered to idols without committing sin in the simple act; but that it was not to be eaten when calculated to lead fellow-Christians to violate their consciences by eating it. This would be to convert personal liberty into a stumbling-block to the weak ones {asthenousin) — i. e. those who had not strength of mind to discern that an idol was nothing. But to cast such a I CORINTHIANS, IX. 7, 1 9, 2$. 333 stumbling-block in a brother's way was to sin against him, and hence to sin against Christ ! — so completety was the apostle incapable of recognising the lawfulness of acts unprofitable and injurious to his brethren in the Lord. His conclusion (ver. 13) is the inevitable issue of all that he has affirmed: — "Wherefore, if meat (broma, food) make my brother to offend {skandalizei, ensnares him), I will eat no flesh {krea) while the world standeth (eis ton aidna, during the age, the whole Christian dispensation), lest I make my brother to offend (hina mee ton adelphon mou skan- daliso, so that I should not cause my brother to be ensnared)." [For the apostolic argument, in its application to the Temperance reform, see Notes on chap. x. 22 — 30; Rom. xiv. 13 — 23; xv. I — 3.] Chapter IX. Verse 7. Who goeth a warfare any time at his own charges ? who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof? o r who feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock ? A vineyard] Ampelona, 'a vineyard.' The inquiry of the apostle is a partial quotation from Deut. xx. 6. As to ' eating of the fruit ' of the vineyard, see Note on 2 Kings xviii. 31. Chapter IX. Verse 19. For though I be free from all men, yet have I made myself servant unto all, that I might gain the more. If the apostle could honestly say this of himself, how confidently may we suppose that he would, were he living among us, eagerly avail himself of the Temperance reform as a means of ' gaining ' the multitudes of our people who are the slaves of appetite, and who need to be delivered from that bondage before they can pass onward to the land of everlasting promise ! He who daily made himself the servant — rather, 'slave' — of all ('I have enslaved myself to all,' pasin emauton edoulosa), that he might win over some to the benign service of his Master, would not have thought it a hard trial of appetite or patience to renounce the fiery and heady beverages of Britain, that the drink-possessed ones, restored to their right mind, might sit in grateful devotion at the Saviour's feet. Chapter IX. Verse 25. And every man that striveth for the mastery is temperate in all things. Now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown ; but we an incorruptible. Wiclif has « absteyneth hym fro alle thingis,' in which he is followed by Tyndale, Cranmer, and the Geneva version. The Rheims V. has ' refraineth himself from all things.' The Vulgate has omnis autem qui in agora cofttendit, ab omnibus se abstinet, 'but every one who strives in the agora holds himself back from all things ' — i. e. all things hurtful. And every man that striveth for the mastery] Pas de ho agonizomenos, 'and every one who is a combatant,' the allusion being to the competitors in the Isthmian games celebrated at Corinth. 334 I CORINTHIANS, IX. 25. Is temperate IN ALL things] Panta enkrateuetai, ' in all things (or wholly) controls himself.' Dr Whitby, in his Notes, renders this clause, 'observing a strict abstinence.' 'Extreme temperance, and even abstinence, was required,' says Dr Bloomfield. Dr A. Clarke, "This was a regimen for both quantity and quality, and they carefully abstained from all things that might render them less able for the combat; whence the apostle says they were ' temperate in all things.' " The commentators give abundant illustrative references to various ancient authors, but two must here suffice. Epictetus (a. D. 100), in his Enckeiridion, chap. 35, remarks, " Do you wish to gain a prize in the Olympic games ? Consider the requisite preparations and the consequences. You must observe a strict regimen, must live on food which you dislike ; you must abstain from all delicacies ; must exercise yourself at the necessary and prescribed times both in heat and in cold ; you must not drink what is cold, nor wine as was your custom {mee oinon hos etuchen) ; in a word you must put yourself under the directions of a pugilist as you would under those of a physician, and afterward enter the lists." Horace, in his Ars Poetica, has the well-known lines, — " Qui studet optatam cursu contingere tnetam, Multa tulitfecitquepuer; sudavit et alsit I Abstinuit Venere et Baccho." Translated by Dr Francis as follows : " The youth who hopes the Olympic prize to gain, All arts must try, and every toil sustain ; The extremes of heat and cold must often prove, And shun the weakening joys of wine and love." Horace's terse expression is, ' He abstains from Venus and Bacchus,' using the names of the heathen deities to personify the indulgences they were supposed to patronize. The training practised by modern runners, pugilists, etc., conforms in many points to the ancient customs, not least in the disuse or extremely sparing use of the weakest fermented liquors. The training school is free from the popular fallacy which confounds strong liquor with strengthening drink.* 1. It is singular that precisely the verse in the Bible which lends whatever sanc- tion it involves to abstinence from intoxicating liquors, is the one that ignorant readers most commonly allege in favor of using them ; and this abuse of Scripture is usually associated with the further error of turning a simple reference to a well- known fact into an apostolic command, as if the passage had read, 'Ye shall be temperate in all things ' ! It is to be regretted that the A. V. should, in this instance, have needlessly departed from the more explicit rendering of all the older versions, thereby sanctioning a popular fallacy pregnant with evil to the world, and fostering the pleasing delusion that the use of intoxicating liquor is indispensable to the exercise of the virtue of temperance ! 2. The apostle has often been described as a strong opponent of the asceticism taught in Colosse and other parts of Asia Minor (Col. ii. 20 — 23); and if we accept this view, so much the more impressive becomes the comparison here instituted between the candidate in the Grecian games and the Christian convert. St Paul affirms that the physical athletes ' do it ' — i. e. are ' temperate in all things ' — in order ' to obtain a corruptible crown ' — a perishing wreath of leaves ; but that sary " The best trainers entirely prohibit the use of beer, wine, and spirits during the trainin for the prize-fighter." — Buckmaster's ' Elements of Physiology,' p. 161 (London, 1866). training neces- x. 4, 7, 12—14. 335 'we,' the Christian candidates, do it for 'an incorruptible crown' — a glorious wreath ' that fadeth not away. ' Applying this principle of self-restraint to himself, how affecting are his admonitory words ! — "/therefore so run, not uncertainly (adeelds, irresolutely) ; so fight I, not as one that beateth the air : but I keep under my body (alP hupopiazo mou to soma, ' but I press my body under ' : the hupo- piazo is said to have been a technical phrase for striking under the eye = punishing severely), and bring it into subjection (doulagogo, lead it as a slave), lest having preached to others I myself should be a castaway (adokimos genomai, should be- come a 'disapproved' one — i. e. a rejected candidate)." 3. It is not a just principle of interpretation to carry mere illustration into every detail. We must not, in this case, insist upon a literal correspondence of the regimen required. The essential points are these: — (1) The Christian (like the Grecian competitor) is called upon to exercise appropriate physical discipline — not to consult bodily ease, but bodily service. (2) This must be done in order that fleshly appetites may be subjected to the dictates of reason and of the spiritual nature ; because (3) on the fact of this subjection depends the successful termination of the Christian's course, be he private member, public pastor, or even apostle! If, then, intoxicating liquors are not profitable to the body — as the illustration of the apostle supposes, and as experience proves ; if, moreover, they are a provocative to the sensual affections, and expose even the most careful user to some peril which might be shunned, how can abstinence from them be wisely excluded from the conditions under which the Christian race is to be run, and the Christian victory achieved ? Chapter X. Verse 4. 4 And did all drink the same spiritual drink : for they drank of that spiritual Rock that followed them : and that Rock was Christ. The historical event on which the apostle founds this sublime spiritual allegory is described in Exod. xvii. I — 7, and Numb. xx. I — 13. So inestimable was the boon conferred by the stream which burst from the rock of Horeb, that it might well typify the blessings of Christ's redemption. The apostle's statement that the Rock followed them — that is, the water from the Rock — completes the similitude so far as it relates to the continual affluence of Christ's grace throughout our mortal pilgrimage. [V. 7. See Note on Exod. xxxii. 6, under Additional Notes, p. 249.] Chapter X. Verses 12 — 14. 12 Wherefore let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall. 13 There hath no temptation taken you but such as is common to man : but God is faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted above that ye are able ; but will with the temptation also make a way to escape, that ye may be able to bear it h Wherefore, my dearly beloved, flee from idolatry. 336 I CORINTHIANS, X. 23 — 30. It is not enough to think or know we are ' standing ' ; continual care must be observed, or a fall may follow ; and such needfulness is never more properly displayed than by the avoidance of that which has caused priest and prophet, the wise and the good alike, to stumble and err. Only where this watchfulness exists can any ' temptation ' or trial from without, that God permits, become endurable, resistible, and therefore promotive of spiritual advancement. Instead of this consideration engendering vain confidence (as when persons boast of their security in the use of strong drink), it is a reason for fleeing all idolatry, and all incentives to it, whether it be the idolatry of ' dumb idols,' or of ' fleshly lusts that war against the soul.' Chapter X. Verses 23 — 30. 23 All things are lawful for me, but all things are not expedient : all things are lawful for me, but all things edify not. 24 Let no man seek his own, but every man another's wealth. 25 Whatsoever is sold in the shambles, that eat, asking no question for conscience sake : 26 For the earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof. 27 If any of them that believe not bid you to a feast, and ye be disposed to go ; what- soever is set before you, eat, asking no question for conscience sake. 28 But if any man say unto you, This is offered in sacrifice unto idols, eat not for his sake that shewed it, and for conscience sake : for the earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof: 29 Conscience, I say, not thine own, but of the other : for why is my liberty judged of another man's conscience ? 30 For if I by grace be a partaker, why am I evil spoken of for that for which! give thanks ? V. 29. Conscience, I say, not thine own, but of the other] That is, not only of thine own, but also of thy brother. We must respect the moral sense of our neighbor as well as our own sense of right ; and especially must we forego acting upon a negative conviction where it would be likely to induce a discord between opinion and practice in another. Through obedience to his own conviction the Christian will learn to reverence the conscientious dictates of others, for his own sensibility to the claims of duty will become the measure of his respect for his neighbors. It must be recollected, however, that no apology for pleasure and self-gratification can ever be elevated into the sphere of ' conscience ' ; it is but an elaborate self-deception for a slaveholder or a drinker to plead a ' conscientious conviction ' in favor of slavery and sensuality. F. D. Huntington, D. D., well observes that "consent to a general statement of a principle is one thing, while a courageous loyalty to its personal requirements is another. There may be a wide gap between the storehouse where we keep a supply of respectable abstract notions, loosely laid away for quotation — something between the earnestness of conviction and the inconvenient disrepute of scepticism, — on the one hand, and the living embodiment of these notions in a self-denying practice on the other. It is easy enough to agree that we ought not to weaken and damage and degrade other men's consciences; but to give up the gratification, the amusement, the pleasant and otherwise harmless habit which will certainly damage and mislead them, is not always very easy. Besides, there are some questions of right, how far, in particular cases, this ought to be done. These questions may really complete the matter to honest minds, or they may only furnish a subterfuge for cowardly and evasive I CORINTHIANS, XL I. 337 natures to escape a disagreeable sacrifice, without at the same time losing all self- respect by abandoning the general principle. The New Testament takes pains to provide directions for a settlement of both these classes of difficulties. Whether it will be of any use to appeal to that source of instruction will depend on another point — viz., whether we have determined to make the spirit and word of the New Testament, when we have found them out, the law of our lives, let them cut in upon whatever comfort or indulgence they may. The Christian faith is eminently a social principle. . . . If it declares, in one breath, that ' every man shall bear his own burden,' in the next it says, 'Bear ye one another's burdens.' It predicts an infinite misery for them that tempt, betray, misguide, deprave one another, — for them that form companies, clubs, societies, to make each other frivolous, pro- fligate, dissolute. It treats with terrible severity any one that presumes to reply, when called to reckon for such outrages, ' Am I my brother's keeper ? ' — virtually rejoining, 'Yes, you are, all men are each other's keepers, educators, helpers or hinderers, saviours or seducers.' It requires all to give, not only food, clothes, and money, but the ministry of encouraging words, patient endurance, honest living, aspiring thoughts. So, negatively, it forbids theft and killing ; and if we study the whole religion through and through, we shall see that this means the robbery of any particle of virtue, honor, temperance, truth, the killing of the spiritual and immortal part, quite as much as the theft of a garment, or the murder of the body it covers. In fact, all the pages of our Book of Faith are marked with these earnest counsels and expostulations about caring for other souls. It is always adjuring us to work for, to suffer for, and to that end to love, other people. Such is the compass of its charity. Whether it commands or forbids, its intent is the same. Prohibitions and injunctions run into each other, and are only the two sides of one bright truth, the positive and the negative being only measurements in opposite directions of the universal law of affection and service. The lives of the apostles were, throughout, consecrated, abstemious, self-sacrificing labors for the souls of their fellow-men. . . . The silent decree within will reaffirm the living oracles of the evangelists. Together they will pronounce him to be the only truly conscientious man who is ever applying the discriminations of his sense of right to new regions, new connections, new questions of conduct, and will pronounce that it must be a very limited conscience indeed which only inquires, of a course of action, how it will affect the individual performing it." — ('Christian Believing and Living,' Sermon xxii.) Chapter X, Verses 31 — 33. 31 Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God. 32 Give none offence, neither to the Jews, nor to the Gentiles, nor to the church of God : 33 Even as I please all men in all things, not seeking mine own profit, but the. profit of many, that they may be saved. Chapter XL Verse i. Be ye followers of me, even as I also am of Christ. The ' glory of God ' should be the great end of all rational action, eating and drinking among the rest ; that is to say, all that is done by the creature should have a tendency to show forth, and to carry out, the beneficent design of the 43 338 I CORINTHIANS, XI. 20 — 22, 33, 34. Creator ; for the glory of God is His goodness — that ' goodness ' which comprehends all that is just and true and gracious in the essential harmony of the Divine Attri- butes. Unless, then, the use of intoxicating liquors, and the traffic in them, can be proved to conform to this supreme rule of all right action, they are put under the ban of the highest law ; nor is it enough for any one person to conclude that his use of strong drink is compatible with the Divine glory. The tendencies of actions, as developed in general experience, are ' fruits ' by which we are to judge them; and strangely constituted must he be who can perceive any connection between the drinking habits of this country and the glory of God, save a connection of opposition and defiance. One important method of doing what is possible for the glory of God is explained, chap. x. 32, " Give none offence (aproskopoi ginesthe, be causes of stumbling), neither to the Jews, nor to the Gentiles, nor to the church of God " — a triumphant repudiation and refutation of the pretence that Paul limits his principle (not to eat or drink what is an occasion of stumbling) to the case of Christian brethren.* [See Note on Rom. xiv. 21.] In ver. 34 the apostle declares that in carrying out this principle he would not merely resign any abstract liberty he might claim, but would sacrifice even his own profit, seeking not his own advantage (to etnautou sumpkeron), but that of 'the many,' so that they might be saved. Then follows the grand practical application injudiciously severed from chap, x., and made the commencement of chap. xi. = * Be ye followers (mimeetai, imitators) of me, as also I am of Christ.' The apostle could advise the Corin- thians to look to the profit of all, not only because he had himself done it, but because it had been done by one greater than Paul, even by their Lord and his Lord, who had exemplified to the uttermost the spirit of self-denial for the benefit of man and the glory of God. Chapter XI. Verses 20 — 22, 33, 34. 20 When ye come together therefore into one place, this is not to eat the Lord's supper. 21 For in eating every one taketh before other his own supper : and one is hungry, and another is drunken. 22 What ? have ye not houses to eat and to drink in ? or despise ye the church of God, and shame them that have not ? What shall I say to you ? shall I praise you in this ? I praise you not 33 Wherefore, my brethren, when ye come together to eat, tarry one for another. 34 And if any man hunger, let him eat at home; that ye come not together unto condemnation. And the rest will I set in order when I come. * The history of European intercourse with uncivilized tribes, like the North American Indians and New Zealanders, and with peculiarly civilized nations, such as Hindoos and Chinese, is replete with rank and noisome offences against the apostolic rule of practice— a rule as obligatory on nations as on individuals. Every British Christian must blush for his country when he reads what was said by the venerable Bishop Selwyn at a public meeting in England (1867):— "The people of the New Zealand race stood out for many years against the temptations to intoxication. In the statistical statement published in the town of Wellington, many years after the settlement was formed, after describing a number of convictions for various offences, including the offence of drunkenness, there was a foot-note added to the effect that intoxication was almost unknown among the native people. I cannot say it is so now. But if the native people of New Zealand have given way to the sin of intoxication, from whom would God require an account of their sin ? It was not a sift of native growth ; it was an imported, an exotic sin. They stood against it for a time, but as their faith failed, they gave way to the temptation forced ufon them by their English brethren." I CORINTHIANS, XI. 20 — 22, 33, 34. 339 V. 20. Into one place] Epi to auto, ' to the same (place) ' = the place of public assembly, and, as the reference implies, upon the first day of the week. This is not to eat the Lord's supper] Ouk estl Kuriakon deipnon phagein, 'it is not to eat the supper pertaining-to-the-Lord.' Kuriakon (from kurios, 'lord') is here used to define the character of our deipnon, as distinct from an ordinary meal, and as consecrated to the memory of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. The word occurs in only one other place in the New Testament, and with the same application (Rev. i. 10, 'I was in the Spirit on the Lord's day' — en tee kuriakee heemera, 'in the day of the Lord,' i. e. the day consecrated to the memory of His resurrection, as the Kuriakon deipnon was consecrated to the memory of His last supper). Deipnon, ' supper,' among the Orientals, was the principal meal of the day, answering to the English ' dinner ' ; and, like it, was generally taken either at noon or in the afternoon, but among the more fashionable classes in the evening of the day. St Paul, in anticipation of the complaint he is about to make, states that, though the professed object of the Corinthians' assembling was the celebration of the Lord's supper, the abuses connected with that sacred feast had made it something wholly different in a spiritual sense. V. 21. For in eating every one taketh before other his own supper] Hekastos gar to idion deipnon prolambanei en to phagein, 'for in eating {en to phagein = in the act of eating) each one takes-before-another (i. e. snatches up) his own supper-provision.' Codex A reads pros lam banei, 'take to himself; Codex D has epi to phagein, 'at the (time of) eating.' Deipnon, 'supper,' is figuratively used for the materials composing it. As described by Xenophon (Memorabilia, iii. 14) and other authors, meetings called eranoi (club-feasts) were common among the Greeks, when each person brought his own food ; and as these meetings were designed to express and promote a friendly sentiment, the poorer members would often have their scanty supplies increased out of the abundance of the richer. Sometimes these eranoi took the form of benefit clubs, and the meetings would then resemble those of our friendly societies on club nights, — save that tippling ' for the good of the house ' was unknown. Later on, these social church gather- ings were known as agapai (Latin, agapce), 'love-feasts,' and were too frequently the occasion of great abuses.* In the early Corinthian church the social eranos had become mixed up with the Christian eucharist, and in such a way as to call for apostolic reprehension and correction. Instead of the members waiting till all had arrived, and till the meal was devotionally commenced, those who arrived first spread their provisions and began to eat them up, and in an eager, selfish manner, as if afraid they might be called upon to part with any for the accommodation of the less sumptuously provided. Thus good order and decency were disregarded, while the solemnity of the occasion and the spirit of brotherly affection were com- pletely outraged. Nor was this all. To disorder, irreverence, and illiberality, was joined, on the part of some at least, an excessive indulgence in the food that ought to have been generally shared with others. And one is hungry, and another is drunken] Kai hos men peina, hos de methuei, ' and one, indeed, is hungry, but another is over-filled ' = gorged. The wealthier members having consumed their provisions, those who came in afterward, or had but little at first, remained hungry, while the others were surcharged. This explanation has been adopted by the whole body of expositors, ancient and modern. Webster and Wilkinson, however, in their 'New Testament with Notes,' suggest * St Jude (a. d. 66), referring to the ' men who had crept in unawares,' describes them (ver. 12) as • spots in your feasts of charity ' — en tats agapais humon spilades ; and St Peter (2 Ep. ii. 13) plainly alludes to the same licentious intruders. 340 I CORINTHIANS, XI. 20—22, 33, 34. that peina is here used in the sense of ravenous over food, — L e. gluttonous, — the meaning then being, ' one, indeed, is voracious (over the meat), and another goes to excess (over the drink). ' As supporting this notion, they quote ver. 34, ei de tis peina, ' and if any man hunger, let him eat at home,' where the hunger is evidently not the hunger of poverty, but eagerness for food. This conjecture is ingenious, and the argument plausible; and it is no valid reply that the whole host of theologians must have been in error if these critics are right. That the whole body of critics should have been mistaken on such a point of translation is, no doubt, very improbable, yet not impossible. We feel, however, compelled to dissent from these novel interpreters, for several reasons. (1) They adduce no passage, from any other author, where peina bears the peculiar sense of 'hungry indulgence in food,' as distinguished from methuei, 'indulgence in drink.' Had such a distinction been intended by St Paul, he could hardly have failed to use some other and less ambiguous word, such as empipleemi, answering to the Hebrew sahva. (2) The construction of the sentence clearly implies a distinction of persons between ' the one ' who was peina, and ' the other ' who was methuei, — yet, on Messrs Webster and Wilkinson's hypothesis, one and the same person would, in many cases, have been both; for those who ate their food to excess, would hardly be the parties likely to use the drink they had brought, with less eagerness and immoderation. (3) The tis peina, 'one that is hungry,' — referred to in ver. 34 — who is told to eat at home, is not necessarily the same man as he who is said to be 'hungry' in ver. 20. The tis peina of ver. 34 might fitly refer (and, as it seems to us, does refer) to the one who, being hungry at first, had snatched up his food and greedily devoured it; whereas the hos peina of ver. 20 was plainly one who remained 'hungry' after the meal was finished. There seems, therefore, no sufficient reason for departing from the ordinary understanding of this phrase, which yields an excellent and harmonious sense, in favor of an interpretation neither demanded by the context, nor justified by the usage of language. Assuming, then, that the correct translation of hos peina is, ' one is hungry,' what is the exact sense of methuei, translated ' drunken ' ? The answer is invested with special interest, because the passage has often been alleged in support of the use of intoxicating wine at the Lord's Supper in the present day. " Such wine," it is said, "was used by the Corinthians without apostolic correction, and may, therefore, be used by us." But (1) if the Corinthians deviated from the original custom, their conduct is no precedent for us, and the generally supposed result of that departure is more of a warning than an example. (2) Nor can it be concluded that the apostle must have condemned their deviation from the primitive pattern, for he says nothing concerning their use of fermented bread, which was probably the kind used at their ordinary eranoi, and certainly was not the kind used at the institution of the Lord's Supper. (3) Nor is it to be hastily inferred that the same kind of bread and wine was used, both at the eranos, or common meal, and at the celebration of the Supper ; and it was concerning the first, and not the second, that the phrase hos de methuei, ' and another is drunken,' is used by the apostle. As to the sense borne by methuei in this place, we remark, — 1. The exposition which imputes 'drunkenness' (in our sense) to the Corinthian Christians at their social meal, implies that many of the members were guilty of the awful sin of celebrating the Lord's Supper (which followed that meal) while in an I CORINTHIANS, XL 20 — 22, 33, 34. 341 inebriated condition, — an imputation highly improbable in itself, and tacitly con- tradicted by the language of the apostle, who does not proceed to condemn (as we should suppose he would have condemned) in strong language, so foul an insult to the eucharist, while he simply inquires (ver. 21) whether they had not houses to eat and to drink in ; and (ver. 34) bids them satisfy their hunger at home, in order to avoid both the indecorum that had been exhibited, and the condemna- tion to which it had exposed them. 2. Methuei being used as antithetical to peina, 'hungry,' requires to be under- stood in the generic sense of 'satiated,' and not in the restricted and emphatic sense of ' intoxicated. ' That St Paul should have thus employed it is in harmony with the fact that he was familiar with the Lxx. translation of the Old Testament, where such a use of the word repeatedly occurs.* Such a double use of the word has its exact parallel in the Scottish dialect. Walter Scott quotes the proverb, ' It's hard to stand between a, fou man and z. fasting* — where 'fou' means full, though it would be easy to cite many examples of ' fou ' having the secondary sense of 'drunken.' The 'over-filled' man forms the precise contrast to the 'hungry' one, while a schoolboy can perceive that no proper contrast is offered by the state- ment that one was 'hungry' and another 'drunken.' 3. The great majority of expositors join in ascribing to the apostle's words a charge of selfish repletion, but not of intoxication. Clement of Alexandria ren- ders methuei as ' full ' {Peed. ii. ). Chrysostom views it as comprehending both eating and drinking, and as more emphatically contrasting the state of the poorer with that of the richer classes at the feast. Bengel sententiously puts the case, Alter plus justo habet sibi, alter minus, ' one has for himself more than is his due, another less.' Dr Hammond, in his paraphrase, explains methuei', 'feeds to the full.' Dr Gill's note runs thus — "He that came late had nothing to eat, and so was hungry; while he that was first, either ate and drank to excess, or at least very plentifully, so that he was very cheerful, and more disposed to carnal mirth, than in a serious and solemn manner to partake of the Lord's Supper." Dr Lightfoot is of opinion " that by him that was drunken is meant the Jew that ate the Paschal Supper, of which he ate and drank freely ; and by him that was hungry, the Gen- tile who was so, not out of poverty and necessity, but because he refused and avoided eating of the ante-supper, as savoring of Judaism, and so here was a schism and a division among them." Dr Macknight renders methuei, 'is plen- tifully fed.' Archbishop Newcome, in his 'Revised Translation' (1796), says: — "And the poor man scarcely satisfied his hunger, while the rich indulged to excess. The word methuei does not necessarily import drunkenness." Dr A. Clarke, in his Commentary, states, "Some ate to excess, others had scarcely enough to suffice nature. Methuei, was filled to the full ; this is the sense of the word in many places * We subjoin seven testimonies from a large number before us : Gen. xliii. 34, And Joseph's brethren ' were merry with him ' {emethustlieesan mef auton). Psa. xxii. 7, ' And thy cup runneth over' — is full to the brim (methuskon). Psa. xxxvi. 8, 'They shall be abundantly satisfied (methustheesontai) with the fatness of Thy house.' Psa. Ixv. 10, ' Saturate {metkusonS her furrows.' Jer. xxxi. 14, ' I will satiate (met/iuso) the soul of my priests with fatness.' Cant. v. 1, ' Drink and be satiated ' {piete kai methustheete). Prov. v. 19, ' Let her breasts satisfy thee ' {methusketdsan). Version of Aquila, a.d. 160. A large collection of such texts, illustrating the usage of metkuo, will be found in the ' Works of Dr Lees,' vol. ii., showing its application to food, to milk, to water, to blood, and to oil, as well as to wine. 342 I CORINTHIANS, XI. 20 — 22, 33, 34. of Scripture." Dr Bloomfield, in his Notes, remarks, "The sense is literally, 'he is well soaked with drink,' a sense of methuei also occurring in John ii. 10. See Note on this passage.* That drunkenness, however, is not here meant is plain from what is said in the next words, ' Have ye not all houses to eat and to drink (not get drunk) in ? '" Dr Halley, in his work on the Sacraments, gives this excel- lent reversed interpretation : — * While the rich feasted, others, and especially the poor, were hungry ' (i. p. 46). Meyer, followed by Alford, inclines to give to methuei the darkest shade of which it is susceptible. Dean Stanley more cautiously says, "The use of this word in John ii. 10 shows that it need not be always taken of intoxication, but this is its natural meaning in most passages," and he refers to passages of the N. T., in some of which the unforced meaning is simply that of excessive indulgence of the appetite. The apostle's complaint against a portion, and apparently not a small portion, of the Corinthian church, maybe thus paraphrased in modern language: — "When you assemble in your accustomed place of meeting on the Lord's day, you do so avowedly to partake of the Lord's Supper, but in reality you do not celebrate it in a manner deserving the name. . For those who arrive first, having produced their provisions, begin to eat as at a common meal; so eagerly and selfishly that, while one member of the church remains hungry and unsatisfied, and has his poverty exposed, another is filled to absolute satiety. Now have you not houses in which eating and drinking can be carried on ? Why convert the house of worship, dedicated to 'brotherly love,' into a place of selfish and sensual feasting ? Can it be that you despise the church of God, and wish to put to shame your less affluent brethren, who have not your means of satisfying their physical appetites ? What shall I say to you? Shall I commend you for such conduct? I do not commend you." [Having described the institution of the Lord's Supper in order to impress the Corinthians with the solemnity proper to its observance, he returns to their ill- behavior, ver. 33, 34.] "Let it therefore, my brethren, be your practice in future, when you come together to partake of the Lord's Supper, to wait for one another before you enter upon the sacred service. If any one is hungry, let him eat to satisfy his appetite in his own house, either before or after this Christian com- munion, so that he will not be tempted to withhold his surplus from the common stock, and be involved in a common condemnation ; and as to the rest of your irregularities " — whether including the use of the common elements of the love-feast, instead of the proper and carefully prepared bread and wine of the passover, — ' those I will set in order on my personal arrival amongst you.' " We learn from this passage, — I. That the Christians had unwisely mixed up a social meal (yet eaten unsocially by not a few) with the proper celebration of the Lord's Supper ; but whether this eranos had actually been substituted for a distinct celebration of the Supper, or had * That Note is as follows : — "Methttein, from methu (probably derived from the Northern tned or metJi) signifies 'to moisten'; methusthai, 'to be moistened with liquor,' and in a figurative sense, like the Latin madere vino, 'to be filled with wine.' In classical use it generally, but not always,t implies intoxication: in the Hellenistic, however, as Josephus, Philo, and the Lxx., it, like the Hebrew shakar in Gen. xliii. 34, seldom denotes more than to drink freely and to hilarity, which is, probably, the sense here." t Homer, for example, in the Iliad, xvii. 390, says of the hides of oxen, methuousan aloiphee, ' were soaked in grease.' When Anacreon, in his forty-seventh Ode, says, hopds methudn choerusd, he does not mean that he will dance when ' intoxicated,' but when satiated with the cups of wine he has ordered to be brought. Hippocrates (De Ratione Victus, lib. iii.) expressly uses the word not for excess — 'drink freely {methustkeenai) — but not beyond measure (hyperbolehn).' The earliest form of this word meth is to be found in methuer, the ancient Coptic title of the Mother Goddess, so named, as Plutarch says (in his ' Isis et Osiris'), "because methu signifies 'full,' and er, 'cause,' for matter \sfulloi the (Divine) order {tou kosmoti). I CORINTHIANS, XI. 23 — 26. 343 marred its devout observance by introducing into it a spirit of irreverence and dis- content, cannot now be decided. 2. That this association of common eating and drinking with religious worship was disapproved in general by the apostle, on account both of the abuses incident to it, and of the want of accordance between it and the design of spiritual com- munion — elements of defect not at all to be lessened by the introduction of intoxi- cating agents. 3. That this association was peremptorily forbidden, so that the offices of the Lord's day and Lord's house might be suitably discharged, including, as they then did, a weekly celebration of the Lord's Supper. The Corinthians, we may hope and conclude, rendered obedience to the apostle's directions ; but ecclesiastical history makes it evident that the abuses censured in this epistle long continued in other places. It became customary, however, to celebrate the agapce (love-feasts) after the Lord's Supper, and in course of time they became separated from the Lord's day worship altogether. Chapter XL Verses 23 — 26. 23 For I have received of the Lord that which also I delivered unto you, That the Lord Jesus the same night in which he was betrayed took bread : 24 And when he had given thanks, he brake it, and said, Take, eat : this is my body, which is broken for you : this do in remembrance of me. 25 After the same manner also he took the cup, when he had supped, saying, This cup is the new testament in my blood : this do ye, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance of me. 26 For as often as ye eat this bread, and drink this cup, ye do shew the Lord's death till he come. V. 23. I DELIVERED TO YOU] Paredoka humin. In which he was betrayed] Hee paredidoto. This striking difference of meaning within one verse in a double use of the same word patadidomi, is a lesson to those who insist that a word like yayin or oinos could bear but a single significa- tion — ' fermented juice of the grape ' ! It is also useful as showing that too much stress is not to be laid on an identity of meaning between peina in ver. 21 and peina in ver. 34. Hence the invaluable rule of taking the context into consideration is sure to misguide rather than to instruct, if a cast-iron identity of sense between similar words (or of the same words in different relations) is obstinately assumed. V. 24. Take, eat] Labete, phagete. Absent from all the most ancient MSS. V. 25. This cup] Touto to poteerion, * this the cup ' = ' this cup which I now give to you.' This do ye as often as ye drink it] Touto poieite hosakis an pineete, 'this do ye as often as ye may drink it.' Codex A stops at poieite, 'do ye.' Dean Stanley remarks, " 'Not only at the original feast, but at all your feasts.' These words are emphatically introduced, as the thought conveyed in them is carried on to the next verse, in order to indicate the continuance and identity of the original meal with its subsequent celebration. ' Not only on that one occasion, but on all public occasions.* There may also be the further object of showing that in the original * This institution, in feet, is a Divine and human pledge conjointly : when the faithful disciple truly observes it, he receives renewals of grace from its Author, to whose service he pledges himself afresh ; while, on the human side, he shows forth the great truth of sacrifice to the world. People who loosely talk against pledges should ' think upon these things? — Eds. 344 I CORINTHIANS, XV. 32. institution the intention was that they should commemorate the Lord's death, not only on stated occasions, but at all their meals, whenever they ate bread and drank wine." — (Notes on Ep. Cor., vol. ii. 243.) Yet it seems somewhat strained and superfluous to apply the hosakis, 'as often,' to any other occasions than the social assemblies, when believers came together to call upon the name of their Lord, and celebrate His sacrificial love ; and it is, moreover, not consistent with the Pauline distinction of eating at home and eating in the church* If we accept the exegesis thrown out by Dean Stanley, but not absolutely approved by him, it would involve a distinct recognition of the Saviour's self-sacrifice whenever and wherever bread and wine are socially partaken of by believers. It does not, however, appear to us that more can be fairly deduced from the recited injunction than the duty of using the bread and the cup in devout and grateful remembrance of the Lord ' as often ' as they are introduced into the assemblies of His people. Chapter XV. Verse 32. If after the manner of men I have fought with beasts at Ephesus, what advantageth it me, if the dead rise not ? let us eat and drink ; for to-morrow we die. This sensual sentiment had long passed into a proverb. [See Note on Isa. xxii. 13.] The classical writers offer illustrations too numerous to quote. Anacreon, in his Fourth Ode 'To Himself,' has " Stretched on tender myrtles and upon lotus herbage, I wish to drink to my friends. And let Cupid, having bound his vest above his neck with papyrus, serve me with sweet drink (methu). For like a chariot's wheel life runs, being rolled along; and we, our bones dissolved, shall lie reduced to a little dust," etc. So in the Fourteenth Ode, 'On being devoid of Envy,' he exclaims, " To-day concerns me ; but who knows to-morrow ? Whilst, "therefore, it is fair weather, both drink and throw dice, and pour out libations of Bacchus ; lest, if disease should come along, it should say, It is not for thee to drink!" The same sentiment is expressed in Odes 24, 25, 35, 39, and 40. Herodotus (book ii. chap. 78) says it was customary among the Egyptians of his day to produce at all their feasts a wooden effigy of a dead person in a coffin, which was shown to all the guests, each of whom was addressed in these words, — ' Look- ing upon this, both drink and enjoy thyself; for thou shalt be such as this is when thou art dead ! ' * While Dean Stanley suggests the common use of the symbols of salvation, a clerical friend of the Temperance cause argues, that since grape-juice was consecrated as the symbol of atonement, it has become unlawful for common use, as was the blood of animals under the old dispensation. But it is obvious (from Gen. ix. 4) that the use of blood was forbidden in ancient times simply because of its being the ultimate seat of animal life, a reason not applicable to grape-juice ; also that the prohibition extended to the use of blood in the flesh as much as to extracted blood, whereas only grape-juice expressed, and not grapes themselves with their contained wine, are supposed to be now forbidden. Neither does analogy require that because blood, as a symbol of atonement, was forbidden to the Jews, therefore grape-juice, which is simply an emblem of Christ's blood — itself the true and specific symbol of His atonement, — should be equally interdicted. Again, the eucharistic bread, equally with the wine, is a representation of the mysteries of redemption, and should, for the same reason as the fruit of the vine, be excluded as ordinary food. That the Saviour's own words do not clearly forbid all common use of 'the fruit of the vine,' and that they were not so understood by the eleven, or by St Paul, is manifest from the novelty of the theory, and from the absence of any single reference to it in the apostolic epistles. It is evident, on the contrary, from the Circular Letter of the Council at Jerusalem, and from numerous passages in the Pauline Epistles, that such a construction of our Lord's words never occurred to those to whom the Holy Spirit was given, expressly that He should lead them into ' all the truth ' necessary to the preaching of the gospel and the observance of its laws. I CORINTHIANS, XV. 33, 34. 345 Chapter XV. Verse 33. Be not deceived : evil communications corrupt good manners. The words ' evil communications corrupt good manners ' are found in one of Menander's dramas, but it may have passed into a proverb in the Apostle's days, and have been cited by him as such. The statement itself is confirmed by daily experience, and evinces the wisdom of reducing our necessary contact with evil within the narrowest possible limits, that the personal and social corruption they are calculated to produce may be restrained. That drinking fashions and tippling resorts are vehicles of such corruption, in its most contagious and injurious forms, cannot be doubted by those who have carefully inquired into their influence on domestic and public life. Hence the demand for earnest and persistent effort to place the one under the stigma of a moral public opinion, and the other under the ban of civil law. Chapter XV. Verse 34. Awake to righteousness, and sin not; for some have not the knowledge of God : I speak this to your shame. Awake to righteousness] Ekneepsate, dikaios, 'be sober again, righteously.' The present imperative is employed to mark that the change should be immediate. Ek, prefixed to neepsate, indicates a return to sobriety, neepsis, from an opposite condition. In the Lxx. the phrase is used in the sense of awakening out of a drunken sleep,— in reference to Noah, Nabal, and the drunkards of Israel. [See Notes on Gen. ix. 24; 1 Sam. xxv. 37; Joel i. 5.] Commentators differ on the question whether the word here has a literal or figurative application, — whether the apostle calls upon the Corinthians to become literally 'sober,' or whether he com- pares their spiritual state to one of intoxicating stupor, and invokes them to shake themselves free of it. [As to neepho, see Note on I Thess. v. 7. ] The exact force of the adverb dikaios is also disputed. Some take it in the modal sense of 'fully,' 'perfectly,' ' effectually '= 'become sober again, thoroughly. ' Others prefer the moral sense of 'justly' or ' righteously '= 'become sober again, as it is right.' Others agree with the A. Vt, in giving to ekneepsate dikaios a causal connection and righteous result = 'become sober again, and so enter on a righteous career.' Conybeare and Howson, in their ' Life and Letters of St Paul,' paraphrase the verse thus : — "Change your drunken revellings into the sobriety of righteousness, and live no more in sin." However it may be read, it must be understood as antagonistic to every degree of sensualizing influence. 44 THE SECOND EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE CORINTHIANS. Chapter V. Verse 16. Wherefore henceforth know we no man after the flesh : yea, though we have known Christ after the flesh, yet now henceforth know we him no more. By knowing Christ 'after the flesh' {kata sarkos) the apostle alludes to the external events of the Saviour's life separated from their spiritual significance. With such a knowledge of Christ he declares he would not be satisfied, since it was wholly devoid of that transforming and assimilating power which belongs to a spiritual discernment of Christ, and that alone. May not this passage be justly applied to those who think they find a sanction to their use of intoxicating drinks in the example of the Redeemer ? If, as they suppose — and suppose without any warrant from the Gospel history, — the Lord made and used inebriating wine, their plea is at best grounded in a knowledge of Him after the flesh, — such a knowledge, in fact, as they would never dream of putting to a similar use by conforming to His style of dress, manner of traveling, and outward life in general. On the contrary, to know Him ' after the spirit ' is to understand, appreciate, and imitate Him in the spiritual principles by which He was actuated. If we have not His spirit, * we are none of His,' and the paramount question for every Christian to consider and answer for himself is, whether a resemblance to that spirit, so loving and self- denying, is not exhibited in abstinence from alcoholic beverages, rather than in their most limited but self-indulgent use ? Beyond all dispute, if abstinence is vastly more conducive to the good of society than drinking, a perception of this truth will lead those who know ' Christ after the spirit ' to abstain with all readiness and cheerfulness. If any man say that he honestly believes drinking to be, on the whole, more useful to society and to the cause of religion than abstinence would be, it is not for us to judge our brother, but we may affectionately urge him not to rest in such a condition without a full, careful, and unbiased examination of all the evidence within his reach. Chapter VII. Verse i. Having therefore these promises, dearly beloved, let us cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God. 2 CORINTHIANS, VII. I. 347 Great was the anxiety of the apostle that his children in Christ should keep themselves unspotted from the world, and that they and he should purify themselves from "every defilement {pantos molusmou-^-m I Cor. viii. 7 the verb is rendered in A. V. 'defiled ') of flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness {epitelountes agiosuneen — completing the work of holiness in all its parts) in the fear of God." Such a desire after exemption from all stain of sin would, if universal and deep-seated, go far to secure its own realization, for it would instinctively lead to the avoidance of all things that expose the Christian to the dreaded contamination. It is remarkable that the defilement is spoken of as pertaining to ' flesh and spirit ' ; and whether the allusion is to the flesh and spirit as the sources of the defilement, or as the recipients of it, the caution conveyed ought to make believers shun intoxicating liquor, because that is adapted, more than any other external agency, to stimulate those lusts of the flesh and impurities of the spirit that bring the soul into deadly peril. Most true it is, that so long as the Christian is in the world, he will be exposed, more or less, to its evil ; but this consideration, instead of diminishing, ought to increase his aversion to alcoholic beverages, as a wholly superfluous and artificially superinduced element of danger, and (as experience proves) of destruc- tion, to innumerable souls. THE EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE GALATIANS. Chapter V. Verses 13, 14. 13 For, brethren, ye have been called unto liberty; only use not liberty for an occasion to the flesh, but by love serve one another. 14 For all the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this ; Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Instead of alia dia tees agapees, 'but by love,' Codex D has alia tee agapeetou Pneumatos, ' but in (or by) the beloved Spirit. ' And after the words ho gar pas nomos, 'for the whole law,' the same Codex reads in humon, 'in you.' Christians are called ' unto liberty ' {ep J eleutheria), — liberty from the condemna- tion and power of sin, and liberty from the yoke of ceremonial observances ; but this liberty is conditioned by the proviso that it is not to be used ' for an occasion to the flesh' (eis aphormeen tec sarki). It is a liberty that is to be made no excuse for indulging and pampering fleshly appetites ; but using love as its instru- mental and efficient power, it is to be exercised and manifested in acts of service by Christians to one another. For the whole moral law, as it relates to our human duties, is summed up in the precept to love our neighbor as ourself. To what extent, even among professing Christians, the use of alcoholic liquors is made an ' occasion of the flesh,' we need not conjecture; but it may be affirmed with confidence, that a general resolution by Christians to prefer the good of others to the gratification of a merely sensuous taste, would result in an avoidance of strong drink more extended, a discouragement of drinking customs more effectual, than Christendom has ever yet beheld. Those who plead that they ' are at liberty to drink,' cannot vindicate such a liberty on any Christian principle till they have shown that it is not claimed for mere self-indulgence, and is consistent with the utmost usefulness in the sphere assigned them by a gracious Providence. Chapter V. Verses 19 — 21. 19 Now the works of the flesh are manifest, which are these; Adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, 20 Idolatry, witch- craft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, heresies, 21 Envyings, murders, drunkenness, revellings, and such like : of the which I tell you before, as I have also X.o\&you in time past, that they which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God. GALATIANS, V. 1 9 — 21. 349 V. 21. Drunkenness] Metkai, 'intemperances ' — copious indulgences in drinks, some of which would have the power of inebriating, though intoxication is not the essence, but only the extreme of the vice condemned by the apostle. The essential of the vice is, that men drink for pleasure, regardless of the law of God or the claims of man. Revellings] Komoi, ' revelries ' — the acts of disorder and profligacy attendant on the metkai previously named. Concerning the corruption of morals engendered by this conduct, and the degree in which it abounded, both Pliny and Philo, con- temporaries of St Paul, have left pictures of the gross sensuality of that age. Pliny writes (book xiv. c. 28), " If any one will take the trouble duly to consider the matter, he will find that upon no one operation is the industry of man kept more constantly on the alert than upon the making of wine, as if nature had not given us water as a beverage, — the one, in fact, of which all other animals make use. We, on the other hand, even go so far as to make our very beasts of burden drink wine! — so vast are our efforts, so vast our labors, and so boundless the cost which we thus lavish upon a liquid which deprives man of his reason, and drives him to frenzy and to the commission of a thousand crimes. So great, how- ever, are its attractions, that a great part of mankind are of opinion that there is nothing else in life worth living for. Nay, what is even more than this, that we may be enabled to swallow all the more, we have adopted the plan of diminishing its strength by pressing it through filters of cloth, and have devised numerous inventions whereby to create an artificial thirst. To promote drinking we find that even poisonous mixtures have been invented, and some even are known to take a dose of hemlock before they begin to drink, that they may have the fear of death before them to make them take their wine.* Others, again, take powdered pumice for the same purpose ; and various other mixtures, which I should feel quite ashamed any further to enlarge upon. We see the more prudent among those who are given to this habit, have themselves parboiled in hot baths, from whence they are carried away half dead. Others, again, cannot wait till they have got to the banqueting couch — no, not so much as till they have got their shirt on, — but, all naked and panting as they are, the instant they leave the bath they seize hold of large vessels filled with wine, to show off, as it were, their mighty powers, and so gulp down the whole of the contents, only to vomit them up again the very next moment. This they will repeat, too, a second and even a third time. And then, too, what vessels are employed for holding wine ! — carved all over with the representations of adulterous intrigues, as if, in fact, drunkenness itself was not sufficiently capable of teaching us lessons of lustfulness." Philo, in his treatise on 'Drunkenness,' refers to " the contrivances displayed in the preparation of different kinds of wine to produce some the effects of which shall speedily go off, and which shall not produce headache ; but, on the contrary, shall be devoid of any tendency to heat the blood, and shall be very fragrant, admitting either a copious or a scanty admixture with water, according as the object is to have a strong and powerful draught or a gentle and imperceptible one." And describing those who are 'insatiably fond of wine,' he states, "After they have drunk they are still thirsty, and they begin drinking at first out of small cups ; then, as they proceed, they tell their servants to bring them wine in larger goblets ; and when they are pretty full and getting riotous, being no longer able to restrain themselves, they take bowls and goblets of all the largest sizes that they can get, and drink the wine unmixed in huge draughts, until they are either over- * Wine was believed to be the only antidote to the poison of hemlock. 350 GALATIANS, VI. 7, 8. come by deep sleep, or till what they have poured into themselves is vomited out again through repletion."* It may not be easy to decide whether the apostle had any motive in bringing up the rear of all the sins enumerated with ' drunkenness ' and ' revellings ' ; but it is incontrovertible that to them may be traced, as to a fountain, many of the other evils, or at least their prevalence. Very solemn is the declaration that, equally with these transgressions and crimes, will drunkenness and revelling exclude their subjects from the kingdom of God. How can it be otherwise? — for what more than they grieves the Holy Spirit, and effectually excludes the possible existence of that state of mind and heart which can alone render heaven a place of enjoy- ment to the human soul ? Chapter V. Verses 22 — 24. 22 But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentle- ness, goodness, faith, 23 Meekness, temperance : against such there is no law. 24 And they that are Christ's have crucified the flesh with the affections and lusts. V. 23. Temperance] Enkrateia, 'self-restraint.' Conybeare and Howson render by 'self-denial.' This fruit of the Spirit — the one last named— stands in opposition to the associated vices named in ver. 21. [See Note on Acts xxiv. 25.] Against such virtues and graces there is no law, for they are the evidences of that spiritual decalogue which Christ writes upon all hearts that He makes His own. Those who are Christ's — who belong to Him by a regenerating influence — ' have crucified the flesh with its affections and lusts ' ; they no longer do what is pleasing to the flesh because it is so, but what is pleasing to Christ, who loved them and gave Himself for them. Chapter VI. Verses 7, 8. 7 Be not deceived; God is not mocked: for whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. 8 For he that soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption; but he that soweth to the Spirit »shall of the Spirit reap life everlasting. As the seed, so the produce ; as the sowing, so the reaping. The correspondence is invariably preserved. So in the fable, when dragon's teeth were sown, armed men sprang up. As true Science, therefore, consists in tracing effects to their causes, so true Wisdom lies in avoiding the causes of evil, and seeking to substitute the causes of happiness and goodness. To foster the causes and expect different consequences is the extreme of irrationality, and must bring with it perpetual dis- appointment. Of such unreason, however, the world is guilty when it clings to strong drink and drinking fashions, and all the while hopes and expects that intemperance will cease ! On a visitation of cholera or typhus to a locality, the development of the seeds of the pestilence in any particular individual cannot be predicted, but there can be little uncertainty as to the fact that it will be developed amongst some persons most recipient of its influence. So the connection of drinking * Hence the need of warning, in that day, against being ' given to much wine ' — whether inebriat- ing, or not. GALATIANS, VI. 9, 10. 35 1 with drunkenness cannot be asserted of any particular person who begins to drink, but may be positively affirmed of some in any moderate aggregation of such beginners. The legitimate conclusion is — the rejection of strong drink, not the fatalistic, pseudo-philosophical dogma that drunkenness must necessarily exist. If a nation will create and cultivate a taste for alcoholic liquors — will foster it by fashion and feed it by license, — the curse of intemperance must surely visit it, whatever is then done to avert it. The nexus cannot be broken, but the artificial appetite and habit may. Chapter VI. Verse 9. And let us not be weary in well doing : for in due season we shall reap, if we faint not. Well-doing is sowing good seed ; such seed will spring up. The sower, if he do not faint, will reap the fruit; therefore let him not be weary in 'well doing.' 'Whatsoever ye sow, of that,' not of some other kind ',' 'ye will reap.' Good as certainly results from good as evil from evil. Convinced that we have what is good, let us then plentifully sow it, in confidence of a fruitful harvest in reserve. This promise will, as a rule, be fulfilled in a measure even upon earth ; and what this world does not yield, 'the world to come' will unfailingly supplement and supply. The well-doing spoken of is not restricted to direct Christian teaching, and the Temperance Reform has produced some of the most striking illustrations of this great providential law which modern times have witnessed. Let all who desire the weal of humanity engage in this sphere of well-doing, and the land will be covered with the precious harvest of their labors. Chapter VI. Verse 10. As we have therefore opportunity, let us do good unto all men, especially unto them who are of the household of faith. Opportunity] ICairon, 'season.' This is the condition of active usefulness. 'Let us do good,' ergazometha to agathon, 'let us work what is good' to all, primarily to those who are of the household of the faith. No principle of benevo- lent action can be wider than this — every opportunity, every kind of good, every class of person. If, therefore, abstinence affords an opportunity of service to our fellow-creatures, it is a means of ' working good,' not to be despised or neglected without a clear violation of this law of Christian conduct. To say, ' I don't believe abstinence would supply such a means of good,' is no justification of indifference unless we have first given it a fair and careful trial. THE EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE EPHESIANS. Chapter V. Verse 18. And be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess ; but be filled with the Spirti. And be not drunk with wine] Kai mee methuskesthe oino, 'and be not surcharged with wine.' Drinking immense quantities of wine was common among the Greeks, and (strange as it may appear to modern bibbers) the intoxicating liquors used were largely diluted, with the express intention of making the potations both deep and prolonged. Public sentiment in Athens, in the time of Plato, did not go beyond condemning drunkenness — and not always that, for at the festivals of Dionysius (Bacchus) 'the giver of wine,' an abnegation of sobriety was almost universal ! In which] En ho, 'in which.' The subject of this 'which' may be the previous word 'wine,' or the whole of the preceding clause; that is, it may signify 'in which wine,' or 'in which state of vinous intemperance.' Bengel's note is emphatic, — En ho, in quo vino scilicet quatenus immoderate hauritur, ' in which wine, evidently, since it is immoderately swallowed.' Doddridge takes the same view, and regards this construction as a beautiful figure. Having before him the Lxx. rendering of Prov. xx. I — akolaston oinos, 'wine is an incorrigible thing,' — : the apostle might readily affirm that ' in ' wine, estin asotia, ' there is unsavableness.' Nor would such an affirmation be purely figurative, seeing that the alcoholic element is the active producer of that appetite and that sensuality which plunge multitudes into perdition. Is excess] Estin asotia, 'is unsavableness ' = utter depravity and dissoluteness. The word asotia is compounded of a and sotia, and literally signifies the absence of salvation — a state of hopeless moral disintegration and ruin. Clement of Alex- andria, in his ' Psedagogue,' b. ii., says: — "I admire those who desire no other beverage than water, the medicine of a wise temperance, avoiding wine as they would fire. It is desirable young men and maidens should forego this medicament altogether, for . . . hence arise irregular desires and licentious conduct ; . . . the whole body is excited before its time by the action of wine on the system. The body inflames the soul. . . . Well, then, has the apostle said, ' Be not surcharged with wine, in which is asotia, a shameful licentiousness.'' He seems to signify the impos- sibility of salvation (soteeria) to drunkards, for the word asoteia, in Greek, means equally ' luxury,' and an incapacity for salvation." — (A. D. 200. ) Similarly the French word roue, ' one broken on the wheel,' is also applied to an utter profligate. The rendering ' excess ' is very tame ; and, being a mere repetition of the idea EPHESIANS, V. 1 8. 353 contained in ' drunk,' is a platitude unworthy of inspiration. More to the point is Wiclif 's version, 'And nyle ye be drunken of wyne, in whiche is leecherie.' The Rheims V. has 'wherein is riotousnes.' The Vulgate has luxuria, 'luxuriousness,' akin to the word which it supplies in Prov. xx. I, — luxuriosa res vinum est. Beza has luxus, ' wantonness ' or ' extravagance. ' Calvin says, In quo nomine intelligo lascivias omne genus et dissolutiones, ' by which term I understand all kind of impurities and dissipations.' The epithet as an adverb occurs in the parable of the prodigal son (Luke xv. 13), where the words ren- dered in A. V. ' in riotous living ' are zon asdtos, ' living ruinously. ' But BE FILLED WITH THE Spirit] Alia pleerousthe en Pneumati, 'but be ye filled in spirit,' or 'with the Spirit.' Either "be not filled-full of wine as to your body, as the heathen are, but be ye filled in your spirit with all holy influences " ; or, "let your fulness be not that of wine, but of the Spirit which you have received by faith in Christ." The first interpretation is favored by the absence of the article to (the) before Pneumati (Spirit), but the other is generally adopted, and the signification is not different ; for if, as all commentators agree, the mee methus- kesthe of the first clause is in apposition with the pleerousthe of the second, the oinos of the one requires an expressed or implied agent to correspond, which can be no other than the Holy Spirit, given to those that believe. Dr Eadie, in his Com- mentary, rejects the opinion that the apostle alludes, as in I Cor. xi., to any abuse of the old love-feasts, or of the Lord's Supper; and he contrasts the vain attempt of men of the world to keep full of the wine whose fumes and stimulation are evanescent, with the Christian's full possession by the influences of the Spirit, which 'are not only powerful, but replete with satisfaction to the heart of man.' Conybeare and Howson give the following as the sense of the whole passage : "When you meet, let your enjoyment consist not in fulness of wine, but fulness of the Spirit; let your songs be not the drinking-songs of heathen feasts, but psalms and hymns ; and their accompaniment not the music of the lyre, but the melody of the heart ; while you sing them to the praise, not of Bacchus or Venus, but of the Lord Jesus Christ." Obs. 1. The apostle's Divine philosophy at once goes to causes. He presents in this verse a practical antithesis between fulness of wine and fulness of the Divine Spirit; not an antithesis between one state of fulness and another — mere effects, — but an antithesis pointing to an intrinsic contrariety of nature and operation between the sources of such fulness — viz., inebriating wine and the Holy Spirit. This contrast will be better understood by quoting the preceding words, ' Where- fore be ye not unwise ' (aphrones, without reason) = not forgetting how antagonistic to the full possession and exercise of your mind the use of wine comes to be, taken in quantities that some may not call excessive. 2. Whether the asotia, 'dissoluteness,' be referred to wine as its germinal and active principle, or to ' drunkenness ' as the state of body and mind which brings the profligacy into play, the fact of connection is affirmed, and is to be solemnly taken into account in all Christian enterprises and efforts of reformation. When intoxicating liquor exerts its specific effects it places the subject in astoia, which is not merely a state in which he cannot be saved, but is synonymous with a condition of moral corruption quite inimical to the reception of saving truth. Alcohol deranges the functions of the brain — the medium of mental action, — and tends to bring about organic disease, so that its influence on mind and morals is entirely different in character from the influence of such evil inclinations and habits as leave the brain in healthy rapport with the intellectual powers. Hence the renunciation 45 354 EPHESIANS, V. 1 8. of inebriating drinks is generally a pre-requisite for the acceptance of the Holy Spirit, and has been found a positive and direct means of preparation for spiritual impressions by thousands of once prodigal drunkards. 3. The objection, that since the apostle says, 'Be not drunk with wine,' he virtually sanctions a use of wine short of drunkenness, is one of those superficial inferences in which uneducated or prejudiced minds delight. It is surely possible in our day for a Christian missionary to condemn and forbid intemperance by opium, without approving of the use of that drug in any degree. If the words 'in which is dissoluteness ' are joined to the word 'wine,' a powerful warning is given in respect to wine itself; and however the clauses may be construed, the passage in its entirety neither recommends intoxicating drink nor implies that its use, in the smallest measure, is either salutary or safe. The soul ' filled with the Spirit ' is not supposed to crave after strong drink, but is more likely to resemble the wise man of whom Philo (Paul's contemporary) observes, that 'he will never voluntarily make use of unmixed wine, or of any drug of folly ' (akraton kai pan aphrosunees pharmakon hekon oupote). Expositors, not themselves abstainers, illustrate this text by a reference to Luke i. 14, where the promise that John should be 'filled with the Holy Spirit,' even from his birth, was connected with the heavenly prohibition, 'wine and strong drink he shall not drink.' Thus Olshausen, in his comment on this verse, writes, "Man feels the want of a strengthening through spiritual influences from without; instead of seeking for these in the Holy Spirit, he in his blindness has recourse to the 'natural' spirit, that is, to wine and strong drinks. Therefore, according to the point of view of the Law, the Old Testament recommends abstinence from wine and strong drinks, in order to preserve the soul free from all merely natural influences, and by that means to make it more susceptible of the operations of the Holy Spirit." THE EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE PHILIPPIANS. Chapter IV. Verse 5. Let your moderation be known unto all men. The Lord is at hand. Moderation] Epieikees, 'seemliness,' or 'gentleness.' The Vulgate has modestia, which the Rheims version converts into 'modestie.' Wiclif gives 'be youre pacience known to alle men ' ; Tyndale and Cranmer, ' softness ' ; the Geneva V. 'patient mynde.' Had the A. V. read 'moderation-of-mind,' the ignorant perversion of this text into an objection to the Temperance movement — as if the apostle were recommending ' moderation-in -liquors ' — would have been avoided. The reference is either to that propriety and consistency of conduct which Christians should ever exhibit, or to that gentleness and equanimity of soul which should ever be manifested to all, even to persecutors; for 'the Lord is at hand,' — at hand to reward His people and judge their oppressors. So far as this text can have any bearing on the use of strong drinks, it would be impossible to show that Christian moderation of disposition — whether decorum or serenity — is ever increased by the use of the smallest quantity of the wine which is a mocker ; while there is lamentable evidence of breaches of propriety and good temper provoked by its influence on professing Christians of every name. Cowper, who was a good Greek scholar, very well rebukes the prevalent perversion of this text in favor of sensuality : — ' The selfsame word that bids our lusts obey, Is misapplied to sanctify their sway.' Chapter IV. Verse 8. Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report ; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things. This comprehensive principle is an answer to the objection that abstinence is not commanded in the Scriptures ; since, if it be included under any of the ' what- soever ' of this verse, it is as really affirmed and stamped with apostolic authority as if distinctly* pointed out. Nowhere do the sacred writers profess to give an exhaustive enumeration of all varieties of virtuous conduct. In the application of 356 PHILIPPIANS, IV. 8. this catholic course of Christian morals, all that is necessary is to ascertain whether any particular act or line of conduct comes under the rule laid down ; if it does, the scriptural application of it comes out as clearly and conclusively as, in logic, the conclusion of a properly constructed syllogism issues from its premises. This apostolic description aptly and singularly unites the two elements contained respec- tively in the definition of morality given by Socrates and Plato. The former defines virtue as that which is done with ' perception ' — i. e. of truth and suitability ; the latter, as an action in resistance of appetite, manifesting moral strength, or the control of the fleshly by the spiritual nature.* "The Christian has had to deal with a thousand things against which no Divine [verbal] intimation could have been quoted, but the evil of which conscience [enlightened by fact] would have taught him. Men practically ignore their conscience in this matter." — (A. Purey-Cust, M. A.) * The ancients laid due stress upon knowledge, and ascribed nearly all evil to ignorance. In the Neo-platonic book ascribed to Hermes (of which Arabic and Greek copies exist), there occurs the following curious passage : — " Whither are you carried, O men, drunken with drinkitig up the unmixed wine {akraton) of Ignorance ? which seeing you cannot bear, why do you not (as with wine) vomit it up again ? "Stand, drink not {neepsa?ites), and look up with the eyes of your heart. " For the malice of Ignorance overrunneth the Earth, and corrupteth the Soul. Seek where the clear light is, that is pure from darkness, where not one is drunken (methuei), but all are abstinent, sober " {neephousin). — The Pcemander, lib. vii. THE EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE COLOSSIANS. Chapter II. Verse 16. Let no man therefore judge you in meat, or in drink, or in respect of an holyday, or of the new moon, or of the sabbath days. Or in drink] Ee en posei, 'or in drink.' Codex B has kai en posei, 'and in drink. » The apostle is not alluding to a distinction of drinks as intrinsically wholesome or unwholesome, dangerous or safe, but to certain arbitrary and ceremonial fancies founded on Jewish ideas of 'clean ' and 'unclean.' Some expositors suppose the existence at Colosse of a strong pseudo-ascetic party, such as afterward developed into the Gnostic sect, which affirmed that hulee, 'matter,' was 'inherently evil' ; and if this conjecture be correct, the caution of St Paul is intelligible, and in perfect harmony with the Temperance doctrine that whatever God provides for the food of man is 'very good.' The text, observe, has a dual reading, — for if I am not to judge my neighbor in eating or drinking, neither must my neighbor judge me in abstaining from meat or drink. If people would first consider what this text does not mean, they would more accurately comprehend what is its true scope and purport. For instance, it cannot be supposed that it forbids that exercise of reason concerning the quality and consequences of action which the apostle himself is enforcing. He is bringing a certain wilful self-regarding conduct before the church for judgment. He cannot, then, mean that the Christian is not to judge in such matters, for he is himself judging, and has elsewhere, on this very case, come to a conclusion which he puts as an interrogatory — ' How then walk you charitably, if you do these things ? ' Still less can the apostle be understood to affirm that we are to exercise no discrimination as to the qualities of food or drink, for that would be equal to saying that the laws of physiology are abolished to the Christian ! Nor can ' the liberty ' so often pleaded for be sustained by this text as being ' the power to act, or not to act, according to one's own pleasure.' True 'liberty' — Christian 'liberty' — has no such test as 'pleasure' or wilfulness. It must be based upon 'the ought,'' and be guided by the reasonable and the imperative — the imperative because the reasonable. The will must be the servant of the reason, not the slave of the passions. In a Christian sense, we are only 'free to act rightly,' or, as it is poetically and proverbially expressed, — ' He is the freeman whom the Truth makes free.' 358 COLOSSIANS, II. 20 — 22. Obey conscience first, for it is God's proximate organ of truth; but, beyond and above all, seek the truth which gives authority to conscience and direction to the will. " Looking upon my neighbor's conviction, I say, If you esteem such a course best (not pleasantest) and right (not comfortable merely), you will do well to pursue it; but as for me, the truth seems the highest obligation, and therefore I follow it, whether it be pleasant or painful." Chapter II. Verse 20 — 22. 20 Wherefore if ye be dead with Christ from the rudiments of the world, why, as though living in the world, are ye subject to ordinances, 21 (Touch not ; taste not ; handle not ; 22 Which all are to perish with the using;) after the commandments and doctrines of men? This passage has been foolishly quoted as condemnatory of the Temperance reform, as thus: — "The language of ver. 22 is at times applied to strong drink; but St Paul quotes it to condemn it ; ergo he condemns the modern application " ! Can anything be more puerile ? By parity of zmreason, if the words were applied to the common use of laudanum, St Paul would become, logically, ranged on the side of the opium-eater ! It is said that Temperance advocates, like the persons censured by St Paul, insist upon self-mortification and compliance with absurd ordinances of restraint ; but,— (1) No one can be more emphatic himself than St Paul (i Cor. ix.) in exhort- ing Christians to self-mastery and subjugation of mere animal desire ; and no one dealt more copiously than he in the spirit and language of prohibition ; does he therefore come under his own rebuke ? (2) It is altogether contrary to truth to affirm that the abstinence principle is based on the theory of neglecting or emaciating the body ; the opposite is the fact ; abstinence is expressly founded on the injurious nature of alcohol. Correctly construed, the passage is favorable to the Temperance reform, for the apostle repudiates ordinances springing from the theory of a moral or immoral quality in things themselves, irrespective of their actual effects, — putting super- stitious fancies in the place of observed results ; whereas the Temperance principle ascribes Tightness and wrongness solely to responsible agents, and proscribes intoxicating drinks as unfit for use on the ground of a want of physical appro- priateness, and their injurious influences upon the body, and only through it upon the mental and moral nature. Hence the apostle's argument is, that as material things are perishable, to identify religion with material observances is to degrade it, with all its immortal treasures ; — an excellent reason, so far as it goes, against that blind attachment to intoxicating liquors which is the only religion that many persons acknowledge, while over many men, who profess better things, these drinks exert a witchery that Christianity fails to command. Truly, 'extremes meet'; and the superstitious rejection of good or neutral things is well matched by the senseless and sensual esteem in which bad and dangerous things are held. colossians. 359 Chapter II. Verse 23. Which things have indeed a show of wisdom. This text has sometimes been oddly quoted against the practice of abstinence from alcoholic liquors, to which it has no relation whatever. An enlightened Temperance man does not abstain from wine, 'the mocker,' because he believes it is a good creature, which will strenghten the body, but because he knows it is a bad article, that will weaken and deprave it. It is a physiological truth, that to weaken the body is to weaken the brain, the organ of the mind, and thereby to increase the power of many morbid and depraved feelings. On the other hand, to keep the body pure, as commanded in the sequel (chap. iii. 4, 5), is the rational method of aiding the suppression of ' shameful appetites and unnatural desires.' Hence the propriety of not looking, with desire, upon ' the wine which is red,' 'lest thine eyes look upon strange women, and thine heart dictate perverse things.' Christianity, far from discarding either the wisdom of the past, or the science of the present, should collect and concentrate around its own lofty principles of action the light of all ages, to induce at once a broader and a truer mode of individual and social life. Hence alone can the Christian be ' thoroughly furnished unto all good works.' THE FIRST EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO THE THESSALONIANS. Chapter V. Verse 6 — 9. 6 Therefore let us not sleep, as do others ; but let us watch and be sober. 7 For they that sleep, sleep in the night ; and they that be drunken are drunken in the night. 8 But let us, who are of the day, be sober, putting on the breastplate of faith and love ; and for an helmet, the hope of salvation. 9 For God hath not appointed us to wrath, but to obtain salvation by our Lord Jesus Christ. V. 6. Let us watch] Greegoromen, ' let us be wakeful ' ; in apposition to the 'let us not sleep ' of the preceding clause. And be sober] Kai neephomen, 'let us be abstinent.' V. 7. And they that be drunken are drunken in the night] Kai oi methuskomenoi nuktos methuousin, 'and those that are making themselves drunk, drink deep in the night.' A partial reform had been effected since the days of Isaiah, when men rose up early in the morning to follow strong drink. V. 8. But let us, who are of the day, be sober] Heemeis de heemeras ontes neephomen, ' but let us who are of the day be abstinent. ' Day and night, light and darkness, have been immemorial symbols of truth and error, holiness and sin. In speaking of the coming of ' the day of Christ ' — the day of revelation and destiny — the apostle reminds the Thessalonians (ver. 4) that they were not ' in darkness ' — in a state of depravity, — so that that day should overtake them ' as a thief.' [Some MSS. read hos kleptas, 'as thieves,' instead of hos kleptees, ' as a thief. ' ] As children of the day, then, it was fitting that they should not sleep, as others did, wh» were children of the night — i. e. that they should not be in a state of insensibility and moral unpreparedness for the advent of the ' great day of the Lord ' ; rather that they should be ever ' wakeful ' and ' sober,' free from all intoxicating influences and delusions. The use of the word neephomen seems to have suggested to St Paul another descriptive metaphor — that of drinkers carousing, which in his age was wholly carried on in the night season, except by the outrageously intemperate. As those who sleep are insensible of what is passing and impending, so sinners are insensible of approaching judgment — this is one comparison. But also, as lovers of strong drink fill themselves in the night, so do sinners fill and intoxicate themselves with delusive pleasures — those of drink among CRITICAL REMARKS ON ' NEEPHO,' ETC. 36 1 the rest, — in contrast to whom the Christian, 'who is of the day,' is both wake- ful and abstinent, even as those who in the day time go about their business and keep themselves free from inebriating drinks in order that they may be able to discharge their duties aright. That the apostle wishes neephomen to be taken literally as well as spiritually may be inferred from the well-known connection of sobriety with wakefulness, both of the senses and of the mind ; as if he had said, 'The children of the day are to be wakeful; and in order that they may be wakeful, let them also be sober.' The influence of even small portions of alcoholic liquor in producing drowsiness is well known, and not a few persons who do not always abstain, yet abstain during the day in order that they may be the better qualified for the business of life. The military metaphor which the apostle pro- ceeds to introduce — ' putting on the breastplate of righteousness ' — supports the view that he uses neepho in its primary sense, for the Roman soldier on duty was bound over to the most stringent sobriety, and no other drink but posca, an acidulous liquor, was supplied to him. Xenophon, in his Cyropcedia (vii. 5), represents Cyrus the Great as addressing his chiefs, and reminding them that their soldiers were all wakeful and sober {egreegoratas apantas kai neephontas~), while many of the Babylonians were asleep, and many of them drunken (methuousi). Plutarch says of Epaminondas, that on one occasion ' he went the round of the defences and walls, telling the men not to sleep nor to drink {agrupnein kai neephein), so that the others might have license to sleep and to sot {methuein).' To the Christian soldier, physical sobriety is as needful as to the literal warrior when on service, nor can he wisely dispense with the one infallible security of that state — abstinence from all that can intoxicate. Critical Remarks on 'Neepho,' etc. I. Since this Greek word and its derivatives henceforth occur repeatedly in the Apostolic epistles, we will here cite the whole of the eleven passages, with the renderings of the A. V. , and then proceed to consider their meaning. I Cor. xv. 34. Ekneepsate dikaids, i awake to righteousness.' I Thess. v. 6. Greegoromen, 'let us watch,' kai neephomen, 'and be sober.' I Thess. v. 8. Heemeis neephomen, ' let us be sober. ' 1 Tim. hi. 2. (Of a bishop,) let him be neephaleon, 'vigilant,' sophrona, 'sober.' 1 Tim. hi. n. (Of deacons' wives,) let them be neephaleous, 'sober.' 2 Tim. ii. 26. Ananeepsosin, 'they may recover themselves.' 2 Tim. iv. 5. Su de neephe, 'but watch thou,' in pasi, 'in all things.' Titus ii. 2. (Of aged men,) neephalious, ' sober. .' I Pet. 1. 13. Neephontes, 'he sober.' I Pet. iv. 7. Sophroneesate oun, 'be ye therefore sober,' kai neepsate, 'and watch,' eis tas pros euc has, 'unto prayers.' I Fet. v. 8. Neepsate, 'be sober,' greegoreesate, 'be vigilant.' In the Lxx. version of the Old Testament neither the verb neepho nor the adjective neephalios occurs, except in combination in the following places : — Gen. ix. 24. And Noah exeneepse, ' became sober ' = awoke, apo tou oinou (autoii), ' from his wine. ' I Sam. xxv. 37. Nabal exeneepsen, 'became sober '= awoke, apo tou oinou, 'from the wine.' The Hebrew reads, 'in the going out of the wine from Nabal.' Joel i. 5. Ekneepsate, ' become sober '= awake. Hab. ii. 1. Ekneepson, 'awake!' Hab. ii. 7. Ekneepsousin, ' shall awake. ' Ekneepsin occurs in Lament, ii. 8 and (in some MSS.) in hi. 48. 46 362 CRITICAL REMARKS ON ' NEEPHO,' ETC. In Homer, neither neepho nor any of its derivatives or combinations occur, to our knowledge. 2. That the original signification of neepho implies abstinence from intoxicating liquors, maybe safely inferred (1) from its etymon, or derivation, and from the definitions of lexicographers ; (2) from its use by ancient authors ; (3) from its use in connection with ana and ek, to denote the entire cessation of the vinous influence, and the restoration of the body to its normal and naturally abstinent condition ; (4) from its figurative employment to denote perfect and natural watchfulness of mind, only possible when one abstains from narcotics. (1) No derivation of neepho is given in the great works of Pollux, Suidas, Scapula, Stephanus, or in several of the principal modern lexicons. But Apollonius and Hesychius refer it to neipho = nipho, 'to snow,' which would give neepho the sense of 'to be cold,' i.e. exempt from the heating or exciting'influence of wine. Scheidius refers it to a supposed nubo, ' to cover ' = numpho ; whence numphee, *a veiled maiden,' or a protected woman =a bride. Springing from such a root, neepho would imply ' to protect one's self from danger by avoiding the intoxicating cup. Schleusner, however, who is followed by some other lexicographers, derives it from nee, 'not,' and pino (=pio or pod), 'to drink'; a derivation far preferable to those above named. F. Valpy, M. A., Cantab., has suggested another deriva- tion, which comes to the same sense : — " Possibly from nee and heepha (perfect of apto, * to set on fire ' ), 'not to inflame.'" — ('Fundamental Words of the Greek Language,' 1826.) Passing from derivation to definition, Pollux, in his 'Ono- masticon,' vi. 26, has, " For they say that neephaliuein is to sacrifice neephalia, which is to offer wineless sacrifices (thusiais aoinois) ; those of a different kind being described as oinospondous (connected with libations of wine)." Hesychius defines neephalioi as neephontes, mee pepokotes, ' those who abstain, who have not been drinking.' He defines neephalismenon as hudati ouk oino heegnismenon, 'consecrated with water, and not with wine.' Suidas describes neephalio thusiai as ' sacrifices in which wine is not presented, but water mixed with honey.' In Stephanus's Thesaurus the neephalios is said to be ho apechon oinon, ' he who abstains from wine ' ; and neephalia xula are ' pieces of wood which were burnt in wineless sacrifices.' Schleusner thus defines neepho: — Sobrius sum, abstineo ab o?nni ant immoderato vini et omnis potus inebriantis usu, ' I am sober, I abstain from all, or from an immoderate use of, wine and every inebriating drink. ' Excluding the words aut immoderato, this definition would form a very appropriate Temperance declaration. Schrevelius (Dr Major's ed., 1844) gives neepso, 'to be sober, abstain, be vigilant.' Bretschneider defines neepho, ' sobrius sum, vino abstineo' (I am sober, I abstain from wine); and neephalios ' sobrius, vino abstinens : (sober, abstaining from wine). In the Greek Dictionary of Byzantius, published at Athens in 1839, neephalios is defined ho mee pinon oinon, enkratees, ' one who does not drink wine, an encratite. Neephalia is defined as 'sacrificial oblations without wine.' And in the Greek- French Lexicon of the same author, neephaliotees is explained by abstinence de vin, sobriete, ' abstinence from wine, sobriety.' Liddell and Scott's Lexicon defines neepho, ' to be sober, to live soberly, especially to drink no wine'' ; Maltby's, 'sobrius sum, to abstain from wine ' ; Dunbar's, ' to abstain from wine ' ; Donnegan's, 'to live abstemiously, to abstain from wine'; Robinson's New Testament Lexicon, 'to be sober, tem- perate, abstinent, especially in respect to wine.' Under 'abstemius,' Younge's English and Greek Lexicon gives ' neephon, without wine, aoinos, neephalios ' / and under 'without wine,' both aoinos (wine-less) and neephalios are given as equivalents. CRITICAL REMARKS ON ' NEEPHO,' ETC. 363 (2) The reader will now be prepared for illustrative citations from Greek and Jewish writers. ^Eschylus, in his 'Eumenides,' v. 108, refers to choas S aoinous, neephalia meiligmata, * wineless oblations, abstemious gratifications.' Paley, in his Notes on ^schylus, remarks, * The reason, probably, was that wine infuriates, and leads to the commission of those very crimes which arouse the dread goddesses.' Sophocles, in his 'GEdipus at Colonos ' (v. 101), describes CEdipus as stating to the Eumenides that he had come to them neephon, aoinois, ' I abstemious, to you wineless,' where the force of neephon cannot be mistaken. And because their sacrifices must be neephalioi, the chorus informs him that he must propitiate those awful powers by oblations of honey and water; adding (v. 481), mee de prospherein metfiu, 'be sure not to offer to them inebriating drink.' Aristophanes (Lysist. line 1228) introduces an Athenian lover of drink as saying, ' When we (Athenians) drink not {neephontes), we are not in a healthy state,' *. e. are good for nothing; a character and sentiment which have their parallels in many modern tap-rooms. Herodotus (book i. s. 133) states concerning the Persians, that they review, when free from drink {neephousi), what they have decided when in liquor ; and, similarly, that what they have decided when not drinking (neephontes), they review when in their cups. Plato, in his 'Philebus' (61), has the following striking passage: — "And now to us, as it were to butlers, stand two founts ; the one of pleasure, and a person might guess it to be of honey ; but that of the intellect, hard and healthful, he might guess to be sober and wineless {neephontikeen kai aoinon)." In his ' Laws ' (b. vi. 733) he remarks, " It is easy to understand that a city ought not to be mixed like a cup in which the maddened wine {mainomenos oinos) effervesces when poured forth; but like one that, being subject to the abstemious other deity {hupo tou neephontos heterou theou), produces a good and moderate drink, after a beautiful commingling." He here represents Bacchus as combined with another deity, which he calls neephon theos, an abstemious god ; and Longinus remarks that this 'other deity' is nothing else than Water, which it was the custom to mix with wine. In his ' Banquet,' Plato represents Alcibiades as reproaching the guests, "You seem to me to be not-drinking (neephein =to be teetotalizing) : this must not be allowed; but you must drink, for so you have agreed, and I will elect myself the chairman of the banquet until you have drunk enough." In his Epistles (vii. 330) Plato refers to the lover of wisdom as making use of that food for the day which may " make him specially quick to learn and of good memory, and able to reason in himself by being an abstainer {neephonta)." Burgess' trans- lation renders neephonta here, 'abstaining from wine.' Plutarch {Conviv. Quest, iv. 2) states that the Greeks offer sacrifices which are abstemious {neephalia), and with oblations of honey, in distinction from others where the honey is accompanied with wine.* Elsewhere {De San. Prcecep.) he remarks that "we often present to Bacchus himself abstemious oblations {neephalia), being very properly not habituated always to seek unmixed wine." In his ' Life of Romulus ' he mentions a goddess called Rumalia, the protectress of children, to whom sober sacrifices {neephalia) were made, and on whose altars libations of milk were poured out. More interesting, however, than all the rest, and more apt and conclusive, is the use of neepho and its derivatives by two of St Paul's Jewish contemporaries — Josephus and Philo. Josephus employs the word *" Among the Greeks," says Athenaeus, "those who sacrifice to the Sun make their libations of honey, as they never bring wine to the altars of the gods, saying it is proper that the god who keeps the whole universe in order, regulating everything, and always going round and superin- tending the whole, should in no manner be connected with drunkenness" (lib. xv. c. 48;. 364 CRITICAL REMARKS ON ' NEEPHO,' ETC. three times — once figuratively {Wars, b. ii. c. 12, s. 1), and twice literally, in reference to the priests (Antiq. b. iii. c. 12, s. 2) : — " They are in all respects pure and abstinent {neephaliot), being forbidden to drink wine while they wear the priestly robe" — i. e. when officially on duty, doing God's work. So (Wars, b. v. c. 5, s. i), in referring to the temple, when restored by Herod, he states that the priests who were permitted to go up into the inner temple (naos) were without bodily blemish, and were clothed in linen, and "especially were abstainers from unmixed wine {apo akratou neephontes), so that they might not at all trans- gress in their ministerial service." Philo is equally explicit in his treatise on 'Drunkenness' (sec. 32). "The truly wise man," he says, "aims to offer abstemious sacrifices, steadfastly set- ting himself, in the firmness of his mind, against wine and every cause of folly {neephalia thuein, oinou kai pantos tou herein aitou bebaioteeti dianoiari)." In section 37 he refers to the regenerate soul as denying "that it has made use of wine and strong drink, boasting that it abstains {neephein) continually and during the whole of its life." He goes on further to speak of such a soul as "sur- charged with unmixed sobriety (neepseos akratou emphoreetheuta), and both being in itself, and poured out as, an undivided libation to God." (3) The texts cited from the Lxx. establish the abstinent meaning of neepho in combination with ek. (4) There are numerous passages in the classical authors where neepho and its derivatives are used in contrast with a state of drunkenness ; some of these are cited in a note;* but they are chiefly valuable as showing that when an antithesis to heavy drinking was desired, it was found in the word already in use to designate the absence of intoxicating fluids. A further use of neepho occurs in ancient authors as indicating the cool, self-possessed state of a person who has not been drinkingjt and such a figurative usage is obviously dependent for all its propriety and force upon the primary and radical signification of the word as separation from wine. 3. The foregoing excursus will cast light upon the apostolic use of neepho and neephalios. It cannot be supposed that St Paul and St Peter employed these specific terms without a knowledge of their primary sense ; and it devolves upon the wine-drinker to show, if he is able, that as used by the sacred writers these terms mean something short of abstinence from intoxicating liquors. Dean Alford takes up the position, as a last resort, that, in the apostles' days, the proper etymological sense of the words neepho and neephalios had become obsolete ! But it is demonstrated above that this statement is very far from the truth. The exact contrary is the case. Professor Jowett, and literary history itself, have been cited to prove that, from the times of Daniel and Pythagoras to that of the Essenes and Therapeutae, the practice and opinion expressed by the word had become more pervading and popular, and more closely associated with conceptions * Theognis, in his Maxims (1. 478), has ' I am neither quite sober {neepho) nor yet very drunk ' (lieen methuo). In 1. 482, he alludes to scandalous words which to the sober {neephosi) are disgraceful : and in 1. 627 he affirms it 'disgraceful for the tippler (metkuonta) to be among sober men {neephosin), and for the sober man to be among tipplers.' Plutarch quotes the proverb that what is in the heart of the sober man {neephontos) is on the tongue of the tippler {metlniontos) . Plato, in his 'Laws' (books i. ii.), discusses the question whether drinking-parties might not be regulated to advantage if put under the control of wise and sober men. Carystius is cited by Athenseus for a saying of Philip of Macedon, — ' Let us drink ; it's enough for Antipatrus to be sober ' {neephein). In the Anthology an epigram is preserved to the effect that while Okindunos, among all the tipplers, wished to be sober {neephein), he was the only one who seemed to the others to be drunk. t Epicharmus's epigram is famous, naphe kai memtias' apistein, ' be cool, and don't believe too fast.' Longinus describes a writer who exercises great restraint in the midst of much ardor — en bakcheumasi neephein. Nero, when urging himself to suicide, exclaimed, Neephein dei er tois toiautois, ' it behooves thee to be self-possessed in these critical circumstances. ' I THESSALONIANS, V. 21. 365 of moral purity and religious duty. The extraordinary and philological position of the Dean, therefore is, that as the fact and faith expressed by the words became more definite and distinct to the mind, the phrases grew more lax and vague in their signification ! In other words, it is gravely contended, that when known Greek abstainers used the very words which ' no doubt primarily referred ' to absti- nence, those words failed to express the fact ! ' The force of prejudice can no farther go.' Long after the apostles' days, excellent Greek writers used the word in the primary and proper sense of abstinence. For example, Porphyry (De Abst. i. 27) has to de neephaleon men kai aoinon to poton, 'but to be sober, and drink no wine.' The Latin paraphrast translates, ' But sobriety will be needful to one who has to keep much awake, potus sine vino, a drink without wine. ' Even Dean Alford does not deny the facts, for he concedes that 'the words neephon, neephaleos, etc., primarily refer, no doubt, to abstinence from wine.'* Were it even granted that they bear in the New Testament the sense of strict sobriety and perfect self-possession, the apostolic meaning would be, ' Be as sober and self-possessed as those who do not touch wine ' — a distinguished compliment to total abstinence. It will then remain for those who profess to be doers of the word in its spirit as well as letter, to explain how they can be said to take heed to such counsel, if they regularly consume alcoholic liquors of a potency entirely unknown in apostolic times. The practice of the modern abstainer does not exceed the legitimate import of these ancient words. He is a neephalist, whoever else is not, and is, in consequence, fully prepared to realize all the moral advantages with which the habit of abstinence has been associated, in all ages and climes. As a Christian, he has good reason to expect that his neephalism will increase his ability to appropriate all the blessings of the Christian dispensation, while he works out his salvation with fear and trembling, but without any vinous hindrance to the effectual co-operation of the Holy Spirit of God. Chapter V. Verse 21. Prove all things ; hold fast that which is good. Prove all things] Panta dokimazete, 'make proof of all things.' Here is a warning against prejudiced and hasty rejection of what is novel or opposed to previous sentiment and practice. All things should be proved — can- didly, fairly, freely ; and the method of proof must be adapted to the thing under examination. If experimental proof be possible, to rest content with theoretical reasoning is exceedingly unwise : hence the importance of giving total abstinence a trial rather than arguing about it, and nothing more, as so many do. The prin- ciple reduced to practice becomes its own most powerful advocate, whenever its practice is adopted in good faith and for a sufficiently long term. The trial should also be judicious, — not associated, for example, with other changes of diet which may prove injurious, and bring discredit on the disuse of intoxicating drinks. Had abstinence been impartially tried, and held fast when found to be good, it would long ere this have superseded those drinking habits and usages by which * The Dean, in the same controversial letter, says, ' Dr Lees is bound to prove that abstinence means total abstinence ' ! Now the abstainer is no more bound to prove that neepfto means a little drinking than that neestis, 'fasting,' means 'a little eating '(Matt. xv. 32). 366 I THESSALONIANS, V. 22. the most enlightened nations of the world are at once corrupted, scourged, and enslaved. Chapter V. Verse 22. Abstain from all appearance of evil. The Greek reads, apo pantos eidous poneerou apechesthe, * from every aspect of evil hold yourselves aloof.' This precept is commonly quoted as if by ' appearance ' {eidos) were meant the semblance of evil as well as the reality, — the sense being ' abstain from everything that not only is evil, but that looks like evil.' Dean Alford has strongly con- demned this construction ; but Webster and Wilkinson, in their Greek edition of the Testament, remark, "Eidos in New Test, has its primary signification, 'that which is an object of sight,' 'visible,' 'appearance,' — 'keep aloof from everything that has an evil appearance,' that looks like evil, 'from all suspicious things' (Tyndale). The primary object of the injunction probably is to restrain any unseemly or suspicious exhibitions at the public services of the church, in doctrine and precept, and in the mode of delivering both ; and hence, of course, in their practice generally, they are to avoid everything that might bring a reproach upon the name of Christ." It may be allowed that the apostle is not referring to apparent evil as opposed to actual evil, yet he evidently means more than evil generically considered, else he might have omitted eidos altogether. He conceives of evil as having many forms or aspects, — some gross and repellant, others subtle and seductive; and he enjoins upon Christians that they should hold off from evil, whatever guise it may assume. Satan may clothe himself as an angel of light, but he is none the less to be shunned as the prince of darkness. Owing to the tendency of men to mistake evil for good, the exhortation is never out of season "to prove all things, hold fast the good, and to hold aloof from every form of evil, however little of evil that form may directly express." Possibly some things that look like evil are not so, and therefore should not be avoided ; yet it is safest to exercise extreme caution in avoiding what seems evil, rather than rashly to assume that evil is really absent where it is apparently present. In morals this adage is pertinent, — 'Where there's smoke there's fire.' Of persons we should judge charitably and hope the best, but of habits we cannot be too suspicious and circumspect. It is an unquestionable Christian duty to avoid not only every form of evil, but even whatever is a cause of evil to ourselves or others, wherever its avoidance is consistent with the claims and purposes of life. Scientific experiment proves that alcoholic liquor is evil as a beverage, and universal experience shows that, as a cause of evil — physical, moral, and religious, domestic, social, and national, — it is altogether unequalled by any other instrument of mischief ever known to man. It is an article all the more to be dreaded, because, while generally impressing mankind with confidence in its virtue, in its potency as a formative element of evil it can be compared to nothing short of the mysterious and terrible agency ascribed to ' the powers of the air ' and ' spiritual wickednesses in high places. ' Is it possible, then, to keep aloof from it too remotely and too persistently ? THE FIRST EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO TIMOTHY. Chapter III. Verses 2, 3. 2 A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, vigilant, sober, of good behavior, given to hospitality, apt to teach; 3 Not given to wine, no striker, not greedy of filthy lucre ; but patient, not a brawler, not covetous. V. 2. Vigilant] Neephaleon, ' abstinent ' ; Wiclif and Tyndale have ' sober ' } the Vulgate has sobrium. There can be no reason to give to neephaleon here a figurative sense; and if such a sense were supposed, it would be more suitably expressed by 'self-collected' than by 'vigilant.' Codices Aleph, A, and D read neephalion (i instead of e), a mere orthographic difference. Sober] Sophrona, ' of sound mind ' = sober-minded. The order of terms is instructive. The Christian overseer is to be neephaleon, ' abstinent ' — strictly sober in body, in order that he may be sober in mind. Wiclif has ' prudent ' ; Tyndale ' discrete ' ; the Vulgate has prudentem. V. 3. Not given to wine] Mee paroinon, ' not near wine ' == a banqueter. The composition of this word is para, 'near,' and oinos, 'wine'; and the ancient paroinos was a man accustomed to attend drinking-parties, and, as a consequence, to become intimately associated with strong drink. As the Christian bishop ( = overseer) had been previously enjoined to be neephalion, it is probable that the apostle intended by this word paroinos not so much the absence of personal inso- briety, as absence from convivial entertainments where drinking was systematically practiced, frequently terminating in quarrels and blows. The Christian minister must not only be himself sober, but he must withhold his presence and sanction from places and associations dangerous to the sobriety of himself and others. Section 54 of the 'Law Book of the Ante-Nicene Church' has the following canon : — " If any one of the clergy be taken (even) eating in a tavern, let him be suspended, unless he is forced to bait at an inn upon the road." £See Note on parallel passage, Titus i. 7, 8.] Chapter III. Verse 8. Likewise must the deacons be grave, not double-tongued, not given to much wine, not greedy of filthy lucre. 368 I TIMOTHY, III. 8. Not given to much wine] Mee oino polio pvsechontas, ' not addicted to much wine.' The previous Note on ver. 3 will show that the apparent distinction in the counsel to bishops 'not given to wine,' and to deacons 'not given to much wine,' has no foundation in the terms of the original. The inference that some use of intoxicating liquor is sanctioned by this interdic- tion of ' much wine ' will be found, on examination, premature and illusive. 1. Excessive drinking, even of uninebriating drinks, was a vice prevalent in the days of St Paul, and corresponded to gluttony, also common, — the excessive use of food, but not of an intoxicating kind. Prizes were often offered with the object, not of producing inebriation, but of testing the powers of incontinent imbibition to the utmost. Not a few of the early officers of Christian churches were, probably, selected from men who had been notorious for such practices (called methusoi, 'topers,' by St Paul in writing to the Corinthians, 1st Epistle, vi. 10, 'and such were some of you,' ver. Il); and the apostle here reminds them that such conduct is inconsistent with their ' high calling ' as faithful servants of the Lord Jesus. He is directing his exhortation against a common vice, and is not pronouncing any opinion upon the nature of intoxicating liquors. 2. To argue that by forbidding ' much wine ' St Paul approves some use of wine of any and every sort, is to adopt a mode of interpretation exceedingly dangerous, and wholly inconsistent with common usage. (1) It is highly dangerous; for once lay it down that what is not forbidden is approved, and the Bible becomes a book of the wildest license : ' Thou shalt do no murder ' becomes a permission to do violence short of murder ; and ' Let not the sun go down upon thy wrath ' is a reason for indulging in anger of any kind from sunrise to sunset ! (2) It is incon- sistent with usage. When the apostle Peter says that the enemies of Christ won- dered that believers did not go to ' the same excess of riot ' as themselves, he did not mean that Christians might indulge in any minor excess. The next clause in this verse illustrates the same point, — mee aischrokerdeis, ' not greedy-of-filthy-lucre,' or 'not meanly-avaricious,' says the apostle, but without any intention of justifying avarice or trade craftiness in the smallest degree. So in the present day a Christian may condemn some excess, without implying that a less indulgence would be commendable ; nay, times without number, teetotalers have blamed men for going ' so much ' to the public-house, without signifying any approval of occasional visits. Besides, it is morally impossible that St Paul could have intended to approve of some use of all sorts of wine then made and used. Many wines were drugged ; did he recommend these ? In his day, also, even sober heathens disapproved of the use of fermented wine unless considerably diluted with water, — was the Chris- tian moralist less indifferent than pagans to sobriety ? Various wines, too, were so nauseous to a modern taste, that no apostolic patronage, however explicit, would have induced English wine-drinkers to swallow them. 3. If it is asked why St Paul did not directly forbid all use of wine ? — both a special and a general answer may be returned. (1) The particular answer is, that the term oinos (wine) included a great variety of drinks made from the juice of the grape ; and as many of these were free from an intoxicating quality, and others were so weakened by water as to be practically non-inebriating unless voraciously consumed, a universal proscription would have ignored important distinctions that were well known to exist. (2) The general answer is, that, for wisest ends, the apostle refrained from condemning by name much which the development of Christian light and the operation of Christian love would hereafter show to be inconsistent with the principles of the Christian system; and which, therefore, would be renounced by true and enlightened disciples. Slave-holding, arbitrary I TIMOTHY, IV. 3 — 5. 369 government, bigamy and polygamy, lots and gambling, were not prohibited. Numerous objectionable customs of ancient times were not forbidden in express terms. The apostles, it is clear, trusted to the effectual working of that Spirit of truth and grace which dwelt in the Church, for the gradual elevation of human character, and the progressive extinction of institutions and habits that were in any degree discordant with the Divine principles of the Gospel. To obey the Father in all things ; to be like the Son in purity ; to love as brethren ; to do good at all sacrifices, as we have opportunity ; to suffer, rather than inflict wrong ; to resist unavoidable temptation, and shun what we can; to make earth spiritually one with heaven, — these were first principles which, conscientiously lived out, would cover and comprehend all circumstances, and, in the long run, banish evil from the world. Detailed and specific prohibitions, as under the Jewish theocracy, are not of the genius of Christianity ; at any rate, we know they were not given ; and what is most needed now, is an honest wish to apply the unchangeable canons of Christian morality to every case of conscience as it arises, making such use of the Old Testament as may enable us to perceive more clearly what is most practically advantageous to us in this glorious endeavor. Actuated by this spirit, the ques- tion will be — not whether intoxicating wine is prohibited by name in the New Testament, but whether Scripture and Experience afford us such a knowledge of its nature and results as, on Christian principles, binds us to renounce and dis- countenance its use ? Chapter III. Verse ii. Even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things. Sober] Neephalious, ' abstinent.' The A. V. here renders by ' sober ' the same word rendered ' vigilant ' in ver. 2. Among the Romans the use of intoxicating wine (anciently called temetum) was rigorously forbidden to all women, who, on this account, were termed abstemice (from ads, 'from,' and temetum, 'wine'). The first inhabitants of the seven-hilled City attached more importance to female sobriety than is done by some professedly Christian nations. In Rome the primi- tive temperance and chastity were, in lapse of time, superseded by luxurious indul- gence and intemperance, — so that it was not without cause that in the apostle's days women were enjoined to practice the strictest sobriety. Not satisfied with the use of passum, a sweet raisin-wine, which had been anciently permitted, fashionable ladies had come to rival men in drinking-orgies ; and Juvenal draws a disgusting picture of the zest with which they made even innocent must to pander to their debauched and morbid tastes. In Austria to this day, the ancient law of female abstinence has been fostered, with the happiest result : so that, in the whole kingdom, probably, there are not to be found as many female drunkards as exist in an English town or an American village. Chapter IV. Verses 3 — 5. 3 Forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats, which God hath created to be received with thanksgiving of them which believe and know the truth. 4 For every creature of God is good, and nothing to be refused, if it be received with thanksgiving : 5 For it is sanctified by the word of God and prayer. 47 370 I TIMOTHY, IV. 3 — 5. The 'meats ' (dromata) referred to by the apostle, include the fruits of the earth, and whatever is fit to be eaten ; but to quote this text, as some have done, in opposition to the temperance cause, is a lamentable perversion of Divine truth. (i) Intoxicating liquors are not 'meats,' the amount of nourishment in them being infinitesimally small.* (2) In their manufacture a great destruction of good food inevitably occurs. (3) By their consumption, the means of procuring suitable and sufficient food are denied to tens of thousands of families in our country alone. (4) Abstinence from them would at once stimulate the demand and supply of food to an extent hitherto unknown. Every ' creature of God ' {ktisma, created thing) ' is good ' in the place where He has placed it, and for the purpose for which He has designed it; nor is any- thing He has fitted for food to be refused — cast away — churlishly or super- stitiously ; but to be accepted with thanksgiving, being sanctified to the user by the Word of God and by prayer. The fundamental idea of this passage is, that the brbma or ktisma is innocuous, safe, and adapted to the human organism by the Creator. In regard to intoxicating drink, this idea is not only not realized, but is essentially reversed. There is an expressive proverb that drinkers well know, but are very apt to forgot — " God sends us food, and the devil sends us cooks." This evinces that the common mind quite understands the difference between God's work and brewers' work — between nature and art — between that which demon- strates the Divine wisdom, and that which simply proves human perversity and depravity. Who would tolerate the language made explicit, which, by an abuse of the words of this passage, makes God not only a ' Creator,' but a brewer and a gin-spinner? Stripped of its varnished pretence of piety, this is virtually what the objector contends for, when he foolishly asserts that " alcohol is a creature, and therefore to be received with thanksgiving." The analyses and experiments of science prove, beyond all reasonable doubt, that alcohol is not 'meat' or food; and not less so that Nature, in her laboratory, abstains from producing this special article and seductive poison. "Nature," said Count Chaptal, the great French chemist, half a century ago, "never forms spirituous liquors; she rots the grape upon the branch, but it is art which converts the juice into [alcoholic] wine." Pro- fessor Turner, in his 'Chemistry,' also affirms the non-natural character of alcohol. " It does not exist ready formed in plants, but is a product of the vinous fermen- tation " — a process which must be initiated, superintended, and, at a certain state, arrested by art. The term ' sanctified ' shows that the apostle is here writing against those who attached a ceremonial uncleanness to certain meats, or against the early Gnostics, who asci-ibed all moral evil to material things. In opposition to both theories, Paul teaches that nothing which is intrinsically adapted for food is 'unclean' or 'evil,' and that it becomes, on the contrary, 'sanctified,' set apart to a sacred use, if its reception is accompanied by devotion and praise. In this teaching everything is in beautiful accordance with the Temperance principle, but entirely out of harmony with the drinking system in all its parts ; for alcohol is not * In an Analytical Report on Wines, published in the Lancet of October 26, 1867, it is said, " In every 1,000 gram measures of the clarets and burgundies tested, the mean amount of albuminous matter present was only 1% grain, while in 1,000 grains by weight of raw beef there are no less than 207 grains of such matter ; that is, the quantities being equal, beefsteak is 156 times more nutritious than wine. These figures clearly demonstrate the fact that the nutritive properties of the wines referred to are exceedingly small, and the same statement applies equally to the Hungarian and Greek wines analyzed : and, doubtless also, though not quite to the same extent, to the heavier and richer wines, the ports and sherries." We find even so interested a witness as the great wine- importing firm of Gilbey conceding in their annual circular dated October, 1867, that the fermen- tation of grape-juice "throws off much of the body and richness of the fruit, so much so, indeed, that it must be admitted the similarity of the juice of the grape before and after fermentation is scarcely discernible " ! I TIMOTHY, V. 22, 23. 37 1 a food, is not a creature of God (in the sense here intended), its acceptance has never been Divinely commanded, and its tendency to disturb and to destroy the temple of man's body is not diminished by any thankfulness with which it is mistakenly received.* Chapter V. Verse 22. Lay hands suddenly on no man, neither be partaker of other men's sins: keep thyself pure. That we may not partake of other men's sins, we must not place in their path, but remove from it, all occasions of transgression. An acquaintance with human nature and social life will not leave us ignorant upon this point ; and who does not know that the great bulk of the sins and crimes and sorrows of our nation originate in the use of intoxicating liquors, and the temptations to that use every- where diffused by fashion and law ? In the vigilant and earnest effort to keep our- selves 'pure,' we must give a personal application to the knowledge we acquire of human infirmities, and the sources of human error and failure. Self-confidence must be repressed, and every impulse towards self-security, where others have fallen. How often has the Christian professor exclaimed, in regard to intem- perance, ' Is thy servant a dog that he should do this thing ? ' — And yet he has done it, and done it because 'wine is a mocker and strong drink is raging.' Personal purity cannot, prudently, dispense with any available guard ; and it is an office of Divine grace to indicate what these precautions are, and to incite to their employment. Hence a knowledge -of the deceitful influence of strong drink and the havoc it has wrought should suffice for its exclusion, by way of negative protection to that pureness of heart and life which is above all price. Especially in regard to sexual impurity is the avoidance of alcoholic drink a defence that can- not be too highly esteemed. Gross licentiousness could hardly be publicly visible were its alliance with the fiery spirit of the vat dissolved. Chapter V. Verse 23. Drink no longer water, but use a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often infirmities. Drink no longer water] Meeketi ktidropdtei, ' no longer drink water ' = no longer be ' a drinker of water as thy only beverage.' ' To drink water,' and ' to be a water drinker,' had a special signification among the Greeks, as among ourselves, that of not using inebriating drinks. But use a little wine] Air oino oligo chro, 'but make use of a little wine,' probably, as suggested by some commentators, wine mixed with water — the only way in which sober pagans took even fermented liquors ; at a time, too, when such * " They thereby [not being content with his Creature] insult the Creator, who hath bestowed on man the powers and faculties of innocent enjoyment. EpegnOkosi teen aleethian — meaning, ' those who have fully known the truth concerning meats ' : a knowledge, as Macknight says, necessary to render the eating lawful. " For every creature of God.] These words serve to explain the preceding, ' who know the truth ' ; containing, as Hyperius observes, an argtimentum a causa finali; q. d., 'who well know, I say, that everything created and supplied by God [for meat] is good and fit to be eaten.' Compare Gen. i 31 "—(which was quite antecedent to brewing).— Dr S. T. Bloomfield's Annotations. 372 I TIMOTHY, V. 23. liquors could not be ' fortified ' with ardent spirit, as is now done with nearly all the wines consumed in this country. For thy stomach's sake and thine often infirmities] Dia ton stomachon sou kai tas puknas sou asiheneias, * on account of thy stomach and thy frequent weaknesses.' Codices Aleph, A, and D, omit the latter sou, 'thine.' Wiclif's version runs, — "Nyle thou yit drynke water, but use a littel wyne for the stomak and for the ofte fallynge in firmytees." Tyndale has 'thyne often diseases,' which is followed by Cranmer's and the Geneva version. The reader will peruse with interest the thoughts of some eminent divines upon this much abused text : — Chrysostom. — "Why did not Paul restore strength to his stomach? Not because he could not — for he whose garment had raised the dead was clearly able to do this too, — but because he had a design of importance in withholding such aid. What, then, was his purpose? That even now, if we see great and virtuous men afflicted with infirmities, we may not be offended ; for this was a profitable visitation. If, indeed, to Paul a messenger of Satan was sent, that he should not be exalted above measure, much more might it be so with Timothy, since the miracles he wrought were enough to make him arrogant. For this reason he is kept subjected to the rules of medicine, that he may be humbled and others may not be offended, but may learn that they who performed such excellent actions were men of the same nature as themselves. In other respects also Timothy seems to have been exposed to disease, as implied by that expression, 'thine often infirmities,' as well of other parts as of the stomach. He does not, however, allow him to indulge freely in wine, but as much as was for health and not for luxury." Calvin. — " What is said amounts to this : that Timothy should accustom himself to drink a little wine for the sake of preserving his health ; for he does not absolutely forbid him to drink water, but to use it as his ordinary beverage ; and that is the meaning of the Greek hydropotein. But why does he not simply advise him to drink wine? for when he adds 'a little' he appears to guard against intemperance, which there was no reason to dread in Timothy. I reply, this was rather expressed in order to meet the slanders of wicked men, who would otherwise have been ready to mock at his advice, on this or some such pretext: — 'What sort of philosophy is this which encourages to drink wine ? Is that the road by which we rise to heaven ? ' In order to meet jeers of this kind he declares that he provides only for a case of necessity, and at the same time he recommends moderation. How few are there at the present day who need to be forbidden the use of water ; or rather, how many are there that need to be exhorted to drink wine soberly ! It is also evident how necessary it is for us, even when we are desirous to act rightly, to ask from the Lord the spirit of prudence, that He may teach us moderation." Dr Gill. — " Some by ' a little wine,' understand not the quantity but the quality of the wine; a thin, small, weak wine, or wine mixed with water; and so the Ethiopic version renders the words, " drink no more simple water (or water only), but mix a little wine." Not as though there was any danger of Timothy's running into an excess of drinking, but for the sake of others, lest they should choose such a direction to indulge themselves in an excessive way ; and chiefly to prevent the scoffs of profane persons, who otherwise would have insinuated that the apostle indulged in intemperance and excess ; whereas this advice to the use of wine was I TIMOTHY, V. 23. 373 not for pleasure and for the satisfying of the flesh, but for health, — 'for thy stomach's sake,' to help digestion, and to remove the disorders which might attend it. The Ethiopic version renders it, ' for the pain of thy liver and for thy perpetual disease ' ; which last might be a pain in his head, arising from the disorder of his stomach. The last clause we render, 'and thine often infirmities,' or weaknesses of body, occasioned by hard studies, frequent ministrations, and indefatigable pains and labors endured in spreading the gospel of Christ." Dr Hammond, in his learned 'Annotations' (1653). — " Use a little wine. This may be safely done by thee without incurring that danger of pollution, (ver. 22). Without this way of setting it, it will not be conceivable how that which immediately follows (ver. 23), should come in, * Drink no longer water.' Yet this I say, not to inderdict thee the medicinal use of wine." Dr Wordsworth, Canon of Westminster (Introduction and Notes to Greek New Testament). — " ' Be no longer an hydropotecs, ' a water drinker,' showing that hitherto Timothy had been such. Thus St Paul bears testimony, and (as this epistie was read in the church) a public testimony, to the temperance of the bishop of Ephesus. Observe the prudent caution of the apostle's language. He does not say meeketi hudor pine (no longer drink water), but meeketi kudropotei (be no longer a water-drinker) ; nor does he say, oinon pine {drink wine), but oino oligo chro (use a little wine) ; nor does he say dia teen gasteera (on account of thy belly), but dia ton stomachon sou (on account of thy stomach)." Obs. 1. The commentators have not got the true key to the passage, and hence their conjectures and variations. ' Wine is a mocker ' to the judgment as well as to the hope. The apparent abruptness in the introduction of this verse has induced in some expositors a suspicion of its genuineness, and has led others (as Calvin and Doddridge) to suggest that it may have formed at first a private marginal remark, and been transferred by some transcriber to its present place. The difficulty of allocation may be removed by supposing that when the apostle had written the words, ' Keep thyself pure,' he remembered that, for this object, Timothy had con- formed to the Nazarites' rule of abstinence, and calling to mind Timothy's state of ill-health, he added, 'Drink no longer water,' etc., the connection of thought being of this kind: — "Keep thyself pure — do so by all means, but let not thy laudable anxiety for this end hinder thee using such wine t in small quantities, as will diminish thy stomachic and frequent disorders." 2. The advice of St Paul is to be regarded as an expression of his paternal kindness, and not as a peremptory and dictatorial mandate. St Paul did not so much order his beloved son in the gospel to drink wine as give him permission to do so, using a persuasiveness without which he doubtless knew Timothy would not swerve from his rule of life. Timothy was between thirty and forty years of age, and had probably adhered to this regimen from his earliest youth. Nor is it fanciful to suppose that the habit had been formed beneath the eye, and aided by the precept and example of his mother Lois and his grandmother Eunice. Under their training he had ' known the Scriptures from a child ' ; and those passages which describe the seductive influence of wine and strong drink had not been overlooked by the youthful student and his maternal instructors. 3. The apostle does not ground his advice upon those objections to abstinence so common with opponents of the Temperance Reform. He says not a word about asceticism, about rejecting the bounties of Providence, about the duty of encouraging temptation, or the intrinsic virtue of 'moderation,' etc. ; nor does he 374 I TIMOTHY, V. 23. reflect on the motives of Timothy's abstinence, or insinuate that it was unfitted for him in health or for men in general ; but his language seems specially intended to guard against any encouragement to a common use of vinous liquors — against, in fact, the very treatment it has received from the advocates of tippling. 4. Nothing is plainer about this advice than that it was meant for Timothy alone, and for reasons personal to him — his stomach affection and frequent maladies. St Paul did not set up for physician-general to the Christian world in all ages, nor did he prescribe wine as a panacea for all the diseases that flesh is heir to. If the advice was given * by commandment,' and not as an individual opinion, all its value was derived from particular knowledge of the case. Of such knowledge, however, modern drinkers are entirely destitute. They can only guess at the nature of the disease, and wish for the special remedy to be such wine as they like. But he who, for himself or others, prescribes a generic remedy for a generic disease — or, in plain English, makes an unknown complaint, and an unknown remedy recorded in antiquity, the ground of a modern prescription for a specific ailment, is rather a fool than a physician. 5. The advice itself would be received with filial respect by Timothy, and acted upon with an enlightened spirit. (1) He would use ' a little wine,' and as seldom as needs be ; not for gratification, but for medicinal service. (2) He would have regard to the end, and not conclude that a medicine once prescribed was to be continued after it had answered its designed effect. (3) As oinos was the word used, he would feel at liberty to take oinos (wine) of any species that was most salutary, preferring, we may be sure, those kinds that were least exciting, and that ministered least to sensualism and public vice. It is by no means certain that he would even use an intoxicating sort of wine at all, for Pliny's account of wines (book xiv.) shows that some sorts in good repute were not fermented; and of adunamon ('without strength'), one of the artificial vina (wines), he expressly declares that it was given to invalids when the ordinary wines were deemed likely to be injurious. In book xxiii. chap. 26 he frankly remarks, that "to treat of the medicinal properties of each particular kind of wine would be labor without end, and quite inexhaustible ; and the more so as the opinions of medical men are so entirely at variance upon the subject." Athenseus also speaks of the 'mild Chian' and the 'sweet Bibline.' He says, " The sweet wine (gluhus), which among the Sicilians is called Pollian, may be the same as the biblinos oinos" (lib. i. chap. 56). Of the sweet Lesbian he says, " Let him take glukus, either mixed with water or warmed, especially that called protropos, as being very good for the stomach " (lib. ii. chap. 24).* 6. The bearing of this text upon the Temperance Reform can now be distinctly perceived: — (1 ) It does not condemn or discountenance abstinence from intoxi- cating liquor as a rule of life in health, or for the sake of health, much less where it is practiced from motives of benevolence and piety. (2) It does not sanction the use, of intoxicating liquor by men in general, or by any class or individual in par- ticular. It marks an exception to a rule ; and since that exception had respect to * The Materia Medica of Dr A. Todd Thomson, London, has the following, as to the conditions for prescribing wine : — " The quantity to be given, and the proper period of exhibiting it, require to be regulated with much judgment. The quantity to be given depends entirely on the nature of the disease, and the intentio?ts for which it is administered " (p. 715). " Where health abounds, wine is altogether unnecessary" (p. 716). " In Syria, the juice of ripe grapes inspissated, is used in great quantities in diseases." It may be observed, that in infirmities dependent either upon excessive wear and tear, or upon some defective supply of the salts of the blood, pure wine {i. e. the juice of grapes, unfermented) is the very best restorer, since it is rich in digestible albumen, and in phosphoric acid and the alkaline carbonates. Dr Curchod, of the wein-cur at Vevey, also says that it restores diges- tion and acts beneficially in bilious affections. I TIMOTHY, VI. 10. 375 a lifelong abstainer, it is applicable very indirectly, if at all, to others. As to habitual wine-drinkers, the law of parallelism would indicate that when they are ill, they should try abstinence from the liquor which at least has not preserved them from disease. If wine is good as a medicine, then, like other medicine, it must prove most beneficial to those who are least accustomed to it when in health. (3) As Timothy had abstained from wines of all kinds, fermented and unfermented, boiled and unboiled, diluted and neat, he may have complied with the apostolic prescription without consuming a drop of alcoholic liquor. Even if he partook of some weak alcoholic wine, and derived benefit, no general conclusion in favor of using alcohol even in disease — much less in health — could be philosophically deduced ; and recent investigations have shown a great decrease in mortality where alcoholic liquors have been discarded from the treatment of the very diseases sup- posed to be best affected by their administration. Allowing — what is beyond proof — that St Paul advised an abstainer to use a little alcoholic liquor as a medicine, the records of sophistry can hardly produce a match to the monstrous conclusion — " Therefore, alcoholic liquors of all sorts are fit to be habitually taken, by persons of all conditions, whether they are well or whether they are ill"!! Chapter VI. Verse 10. For the love of money is the root of all evil : which while some coveted after, they have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves through with many sorrows. 1. This passage has been strangely cited in opposition to the statement that strong drink is the source of much of the evil which afflicts and demoralizes Society. But no text of Scripture can disprove a fact open to universal observa- tion ; and it is doing dishonor to the Bible to bring it into even apparent collision with the experience of mankind. 2. There is a further misapplication of this verse in quoting it as if * money ' were referred to as the root of all evil, and not the love -of -money, which is expressed by one word in the original— -philarguria. Hence there is no true parallel between money — which is the passive object of undue desire and abuse — and strong drink, the physical action of which on the nerves and brain begets that craving and appetite for itself which is at once a taint to the body and a tyranny to the soul. 3. It may be strongly doubted whether the apostle intended to assert what the A. V. ascribes to him — that love of money (the amor sceleratus habendi of Ovid) is really the root of all evil. (Dr Hammond paraphrases — 'what a deal of mis- chief.') Covetousness is certainly not the root of all moral evil, nor is all, or a major part of, human misery attributable to it. St Paul's words are — rhiza gar panton ton kakon, ' for covetousness is a root of all the evils ' — i. e. of all the evils just mentioned in the previous verse, — but not the exclusive root of even these ; a much more moderate proposition, and one confirmed by universal observation. 4. Not the least glaring illustration of the accursed love of mammon is painfully exhibited by the colossal and retail traders in alcohol. Except for this philarguria, that traffic would not exist. The retailers ' go into ' the ' public house ' trade to make a profit; many expect (to their disappointment) to gain a fortune; and the same inducement is the mainspring of the wholesale manufacturers and dealers. They may not intend to do harm, but though they see the infinite mischief inflicted, they 376 I TIMOTHY, VI. 10. continue to trade in the waters of death. The effect upon themselves and their families is frequently deplorable. John Wesley said of the drink-dealers of his time, "All who sell spirituous liquors in the common way to any that will buy, are poisoners-general. They murder His [God's] subjects by wholesale, neither does their eye pity or spare. They drive them to hell like sheep ; and what is their gain ? Is it not the blood of these men ? Who, then, would envy their large estates and sumptuous palaces ? A curse is in the midst of them. Blood, blood is there ; the foundation, the floor, the walls, the roof are stained with blood. And canst thou hope, O thou man of blood ! though thou art clothed in scarlet and fine linen, and farest sumptuously every day — canst thou hope to deliver down the fields of blood to the third generation ? Not so ; for there is a God in heaven ; therefore, thy name shall be rooted out, like as those whom thou hast destroyed, body and soul ; thy memorial shall perish with thee." ( Works, vol. vi. 129.) THE EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO TITUS. Chapter I. Verses 7, 8. 7 For a bishop must be blameless, as the steward of God ; not selfwilled, not soon angry, not given to wine, no striker, not given to filthy lucre ; 8 But a lover of hospitality, a lover of good men, sober, just, holy, temperate. V. 7. Not given to wine] Mee paroinon, 'not near wine ' = not a banqueter. [See Note on I Tim. iii. 3.] V. 8. Sober] Sdphrona, 'sober-minded.' Temperate] Enkratee, 'temperate' = self-restraining (as to the appetites) == abstinent. This word seems to answer to neephaleon in I Tim. iii. 3. [See Note on 1 Cor. ix. 25.] Chapter II. Verse 2. That the aged men be sober, grave, temperate, sound in faith, in charity, in patience. Sober] Necphaleous, 'abstinent' [See Note on 1 Thess. v. 6.] Temperate] Sophronas, 'sober-minded.' These variations of translation in the English version are much to be regretted, since they hide the nice and just distinctions of the original, which point at once to a more comprehensive and more specific form of temperance than the world is willing to practice. These are, ( I ) the general virtue of temperance as self-restraint ; (2) that moderation of the soul called ' patience,' or ' gentleness ' ; (3) that subjective virtue called sound-mindedness, compounded of right seeing and right willing ; (4) the personal and specific practice of abstinence from things evil; and, therefore (5) r the discountenancing of drinking-fashions and feasts. To confound all these under the vague and modern meaning of * temperance,' is as absurd in criticism as it is injurious in morals. Chapter II. Verses 3 — 6. 3 The aged women likewise, that they be in behavior as becometh holiness, not false accusers, not given to much wine, teachers of good things ; 4 That they may teach the young women to be sober, to love 48 378 TITUS, II. II, 12. their husbands, to love their children, $ To be discreet, chaste, keepers at home, good, obedient to their own husbands, that the word of God be not blasphemed. 6 Young men likewise exhort to be sober minded. V. 3. Not given to much wine] Mee oino polio dedoulomenas, * not addicted to much wine.' W. H. Rule, D.D., in his ' Brief Inquiry,' admits — " Grape-juice was chiefly known in antiquity as the casual drink of the peasantry ; when carefully preserved, as the choice beverage of epicures. The Roman ladies were so fond of it that they would first fill their stomachs with it, then throw it off by emetics, and repeat the draught" (Wetstein in Acts ii. 13). We have referred to Lucian for ourselves, and find the following illustration: — "I came, by Jove, as those who drink gleukos, swelling out their stomach, require an emetic " (Philops. 39). [See Note on 1 Tim. iii. 8.] V. 4. That they may teach the young women to be sober] Hina sophronizosi tas neas, ' in order that they may cause the young women to be sober- minded. ' V. 5. To be discreet] Sophronas, 'sober-minded.' V. 6. To be sober minded] Sophronein, ' to be sober-minded. Chapter II. Verses ii — 12. 11 For the grace of God that bringeth salvation hath appeared to all men, 12 Teaching us that, denying ungodliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and godly, in this present world. Soberly] Sophronois, ' sobermindedly. ' The apostle most appropriately and expressively connects the denial or sup- pression of wordly lusts with the design of living ' sober-mindedly, righteously, and devoutly in the present age.' The connection of intoxicating liquor with such worldly lusts and the absence of sober-mindedness, rectitude, and piety, is too prevalent and flagrant to be denied. The grace of God — the Divine favor embodied in the Divine precepts, and impressing their holy dictates on the heart — is beautifully said to be ' teaching us ' the denial of those lusts. Yet ' teaching ' is too weak a rendering of paideuousa, which signifies 'training' or 'disciplining.' The office of Divine grace is not to sanction unsafe indulgence, and then prevent the natural consequences, but to train the soul to the avoidance of all illicit desires and fleshly tastes, and in short, of whatever is found in practice to interfere with the highest development of the Christian life. Though gross drunkenness never be exhibited, yet an appetite for alcohol may exist, pernicious to both body and soul. The lust for a little may be as truly sinful as the lust for a larger quantity. THE EPISTLE OF ST PAUL TO PHILEMON. Verses 12, 16. Whom I have sent again . . . receive .... Not now as a servant [slave]. In the United States, a few years ago, this text was a favorite argument for the toleration of slavery ; and the criticism employed might be exactly paralleled by the arguments of English divines in favor of strong drink. The claim for grati- tude and obedience made by God upon His people — and allowed in their triumphant songs — was for deliverance from slavery — deliverance from the house of bondage ; and the mission of our Lord was announced as that of opening the prison-doors that the oppressed might go free. Is it credible that the Christian apostle could mean to approve the institution of slavery ? Is it a correct inference that, because, in the then state of the world, when the people had no political power to wield, — when it would have been sheer madness to attempt to disturb the social frame- work of political despotism, — therefore Paul held that people, under constituted governments of their own, ought not to abate an infamous and inhuman system ? He was preaching another Gospel, which, however, held seminally in its principle the doom of all slaveries ; and even then, in the exhortation to Onesimus to exercise patience, Paul does not forget to teach Philemon that, in the light of Christianity, fraternity and fetters are incompatible. The principle is applicable to the question of drinking. No amount of historical permission can ever make the use of alcoholic liquor right. Every tree is known by its fruit, and the fruitage of drinking is evil, and that continually. THE GENERAL EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. Chapter XIII. Verse 16. But to do good and to communicate forget not: for with such sacrifices God is well pleased. God is well-pleased with well-doing and almsgiving because He is Himself ever doing good and communicating blessings to his creatures; and in imitation of Him we should not forget to present Him with such sacrifices, — the most grateful and becoming that can be offered. We may conclude from this passage, that wise efforts — such as the Temperance Reform really is, for the prevention of poverty and suffering, — are well-pleasing to the Most High; for they seek the welfare of body, mind, and spirit, and they never fail to realize their ends whenever they are permitted to operate. In the offering of such sacrifices, all Christian churches and Christian professors would be most consistently engaged ; and if so employed, how immensely would the well-being of the human family be promoted ! John Wesley, in January, 1763, preached a sermon before the revived Society for the Reformation of Manners, in which he says, " For this end a few persons in London, toward the close of the last century, united together, and incredible good was done by them for near forty years. But then, most of the original members being gone to their reward, those who succeeded them grew faint in their mind and departed from the work, so that, a few years ago, the society ceased." As the formation of this society manifested true Christian zeal and virtue, and the falling away from its support evinced unfaithfulness and coldness; so to refuse to do almost ' incredible good ' in the cause of Temperance is to incur the condemnation of the text : " He who knowelh to do good, and doeth it not, to him it is sin." THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF ST JAMES, Chapter I. Verses 13 — 15. 13 Let no man say when he is tempted, I am tempted of God : for God cannot be tempted with evil, neither tempteth he any man: 14 But every man is tempted, when he is drawn away of his own lust, and enticed. 15 Then when lust hath conceived, it bringeth forth sin : and sin, when it is finished, bringeth forth death. Obs. 1. As God cannot tempt men to evil, we may be fully assured that He cannot approve the use of that which is intrinsically an insidious temptation to evil, involving the ruin of millions of our species. Dr Thomas Reid, Professor of Moral Philosophy, nearly a century ago, pointed out the true causation of the drinker's lust and the drunkard's appetite: — "Besides the appetites which Nature hath given us, for useful and necessary purposes, we may create appetites which Nature never gave. The frequent use of things which stimulate the nervous system pro- duces a languor when their effect is gone off, and a desire to repeat them. By this means a desire of a certain object is created, accompanied by an uneasy sensation. Both are removed for a time by [the use of] the object desired; but they return after a certain interval. Such are the appetites which some men acquire for the use of tobacco, for opiates, and for intoxicating liquors " {Works, Hamilton's Ed., P- 553)- God creates no deceitful meats or drinks. 2. As subjective temptation lies in human lust (i. e. illicit or ill-regulated desire of any degree), it becomes our plain and positive duty to avoid whatever stimulates this lust ; but who can name a stimulus to the chief vices of mankind comparable to intoxicating drink ? 3. The craving for drink is most prolific in bringing forth sin, and of sin the issue is death, physical and moral, temporal and eternal. Strong drink is a deceitful but ceaseless destroyer ; and as every lust of the flesh finds in it its appro- priate fuel and fire, its aggregate influence on human seduction and ruin baffles alike calculation and conception. Chapter III. Verse 8. But the tongue can no man tame; it is an unruly evil, full of deadly poison. An unruly evil] Akatascheton kakon, an 'uncoercible evil.' Codices Aleph, A, and B reads akatastaton kakon, 'a disorderly (or seditious) evil.' 382 JAMES, IV. 17. It has been argued that "as the tongue is not to be cut out or unused, although it is so strongly denounced, therefore wine, though styled ' a mocker,' is not to be renounced." The reply is twofold: — 1. That St James uses the word 'tongue' figuratively, and as the mere organ of that evil disposition which he describes as 'a deadly poison.' A child can perceive that the tongue — the physical instrument — is not meant, and that were it cut out the evil disposition would remain, and find expression another way. But when it is said 'wine is a mocker,' the figure does not lie in the 'wine' but in the word 'mocker,' the force of the figure consisting in the fact that wine itself, actually and directly, exerts an effect upon the drinker entitling it to the name of • mocker ' ; so that by the removal of the wine the whole of this effect must cease, and so much of sin and misery be spared. If instead of ' wine ' we should say 'the cup is a mocker,' we should have a figure corresponding to the one in this text, as ' cup ' would stand in the same relation to ' wine ' which ' tongue ' holds to the 'evil heart,' whose venom it gives forth. Hence, — 2. This text, rightly understood, carries with it a conclusion directly opposite to that of the objector; for as the 'poison ' complained of is not to be tolerated or tampered with, so neither is the wine whose quality is described in analogous terms. Get rid of the real moral agent — the bad disposition — and the tongue will become pure ; so get rid of the real physical agent — the wine — and the cup that contained it will be harmless. Chapter IV. Verse 17. Therefore to him that knoweth to do good, and doeth it not, to him it is sin. The original word translated ' good ' is kalon, ' beautiful ' = excellent ; and to him who knows what is suitable to be done, and does it not, the omission is counted as sin. (1) No positive act of evil is required— simply the neglect of what is good. The first and worst neglect of Men is the neglect of the Truth ; and it is now, as in the days of the Redeemer, the great condemnation, that though truth has come into the world, men love darkness rather than light. The first duty of man is truth-seeking, the second truth-doing. (2) No positive command is required, Divine or social ; it is enough that the act would have been excellent or useful to render the neglect, sin to the neglecter. (3) Knowledge is, of course, presupposed, for he who does not know what is kalon, cannot consciously do it ; but men are responsible for the possession of this knowledge, especially where it is easily attain- able. St Paul had said that "whatever is not of faith," i. e. is not done from a sense of right, "is sin"; and St James here presents the counterpart truth, that it is also sin to know what is morally loveable and not to do it. This principle effectually disposes of the objectors who refuse to recognize the duty of abstinence, unless an explicit and universal command can be shown for it! Others fondly think that so long as they do not ' admit ' the duty of abstinence, it is no duty to them! — as if idle 'opinions' could overrule the law of God! St James affirms a doctrine quite different from this. According to him, a perception of the excellence of abstinence— its suitableness and utility— constitutes a rule of duty which cannot be neglected without guilt. Much care and charity is called for in applying this rule to others, but « 33> 34> 35> the daughters of Lot inducing their father to drink it. 27. 25, offered to Isaac by Jacob. 49. 11, 12, named in the blessing on Ju- dah, as equivalent to the ' blood of grapes,' and as coloring the eyes. Exodus. 29. 40, commanded as a ' drink-offering, ' — i. e. a libation. Leviticus. 10. 9, prohibited to the priests while ministering. 23. 13, described as a libation. Numbers. 6. 3 (twice), 4, prohibited to the Naza- rites. 6. 20, permitted to one ceasing to be a Nazarite. 5, 7, 14, 10, > mentioned as a libation. Deuteronomy. 14. 26, permitted to be purchased in lieu of tiros h. 28. 39, its absence threatened as a punishment. 29. 6, referred to as not provided in the wilderness. 32. 33, compared to the inflaming poison of dragons. 32. 38, said, figuratively, to be drunk by heathen gods. Joshua. 9. 4, 13, used by the Gibeonites. Judges. 13. 4, 7, 14 (twice), prohibited to Sam- son's mother. APPENDIX B. 413 19. 19, included by a Levite among his traveling stores. 1 Samuel. I. 14, 15, its use charged upon Hannah, and repudiated by her. 1. 24, comprised among Hannah's offer- ings. 10. 3, carried by an Israelite. 16. 20, sent by Jesse to Saul. 25. 18, presented by Abigail to David. 25. 37, described as ' having gone out ' of Nabal. 2 Samuel. 13. 28, drunk by Amnon. 16. 1, 2, sent to David by Mephibosheth. 1 Chronicles. 9. 29, in the charge of the Levites. 12. 40, presented at a feast. 27. 27, enumerated among David's stores. 2 Chronicles. 2. 10, 15, promised to Hiram by Solo- mon, and accepted by him. 11. II, classed among Rehoboam's stores. Nehemiah. 2. 1 (twice), presented by Nehemiah to Artaxerxes. 5. 15, received by governors as tribute. 5. 18, ' all sorts ' of. forwarded to Ne- hemiah.* 13. 15, an article of merchandise. Esther. I. 7> provided by Ahasuerus. I. 10, making Ahasuerus merry. 32 > presented at a banquet. 6; 2, 7, Q, ) Job. 13, 18, drunk by Job's sons and daughters. , 19, bursting new bottles. Psalms. wine of astonishment ' (or trem- 60. 3 bling). 75. 8, 'red' (or foaming). 78. 65, associated with (or dispossessed from) a mighty man. 104. 15, gladdening man's heart. Proverbs. 4. 17, procured by violence, 9. 2, 5, mingled and offered by Wisdom. 20. 1, designated ' a mocker' (or scorner). 21. 17, the lover of, not getting rich. 23. 20, bibbers of, proscribed. 23. 30, tarrying at, condemned. 23. 31, forbidden to be desired when red. 31.4, not to be drunk by kings. 31.6, used by the bitter-hearted to pro- duce oblivion. ECCLESIASTES. 2. 3, drunk in pursuit of ' good.' 9. 7, to be consumed with a merry heart. 10. 19, making merry. Canticles. 1. 2, 4, not equal to virtuous love. 2. 4, 'the house of wine.' [A. V., 'ban- queting-house.'] 4. 10, not equal to virtuous love. 5. I, drunk with milk. 7. 9, delicious to the taste. 8. 2, spiced and given to be drunk. Isaiah. 5. II, inflaming men. 5. 12, associated with a feast. 5. 22, those mighty to drink it con- demned. 16. 10, absent from the presses. 22. 13, joined with ' eating flesh.' 24. 9, not drunk with a song. 24. II, clamored for in the streets. 28. 1, overcoming men. 28. 7 (twice), causing to err, swallowing up the priest and prophet. 29. 9, ^drunkenness present without 51. 21, 5 it. 55. 1, invitation to buy it. 56. 12, drunk to excess. Jeremiah. 13. 12, (twice), bottles of, filled. 2 3- 9, overcoming a man. 25. 15, drunk out of a cup. 35. 2, 5 (twice), 6 (twice), 8, 14, pre- sented to the Rechabites,and refused. 40. 10, 12, gathered with summer fruits. 48. 33, absent from the wine-presses. 51. 7, making the nations mad. Lamentations. 2. 12, asked for by children. Ezekiel. 27. 18, 'wine of Helbon.' 44. 21, forbidden to officiating priests. Daniel. 1. 5, part of the king's provisions. 1. 8, declined by Daniel and his friends. I. 16, taken away from Daniel and his friends. 10. 3, not used by Daniel for three weeks. Hosea. 4. II, 'taking away' the heart. 7. 5, making the princes ' sick.' 9. 4, not offered to the Lord. 14. 7, ' wine of Lebanon. ' Joel. I. 5, drinkers of, called upon to howl because of its scarcity. 3. 3, bought in exchange for a girl. * Presumably ' good ' — not ' the wine of reeling. 4H APPENDIX B. Amos. 2. 8, belonging to those condemned (or fined). 2. 12, wickedly given to the Nazarites. withheld as a punishment. 6. 6, drunk in bowls. g. 14, promised to Israel. MlCAH. 2. II, untruly promised by false prophets. 6. 15, withheld as a punishment. Habakkuk. 2. 5 j described as' causing transgression ' (or as a defrauder). Zephaniah. 1. 13, withheld as a punishment. Haggai. 2. 12, named along with bread, etc. Zechariah. 9. 15, named as causing a noise. 10. 7, said to gladden the heart. Chaldee. — The Targumists almost uniformly render yayin by khamar or khamrah, the generic Chaldee word for wine. When yayin is connected with shakar, however, yayin is distinguished as khamar khadath, 'new wine.' In Esth. 1. 7, yayin is rendered by khamar ahsis, 'fresh wine,' and in Job 32. 19 by khamrah khadath, 'new wine.' Greek. — All the versions translate yayin by oinos, but in Job 32. 19 the Lxx. reads gleukos, 'sweet wine,' and Symmachus neos oinos, ' new wine. ' In Esth. I. 10 oinos is absent, and also in chap. 5. 6, 7. 2, and 7. 7, where 'ban- quet of wine ' is rendered by sumpo- sios or potos. In Job I. 18, oinos is omitted, and only peinonton, 'drinking,' given. In Prov. 23. 20, oinopotees, 'a wine-drinker,' is the rendering of sovai yayin. In Prov. 23. 30, 31, the plural oinois is given. Latin. — The Vulgate renders yayin by vinum, but in Esth. I. 19 it has merum, ' neat (undiluted) wine,' and in Job 32. 19 mustum, ' fresh grape-juice ' = new wine. In Josh. 9. 4 it renders ' bags of yayin ' by uires vinarios ; and in I Chron. 27. 27, ' for the cellars (or stores) of yayin,'' by cellis vinariis, 'over the wine-cellars.' In Esth. 5. 6, and 7. 7, ' banquet of yayin ' is rendered locum convivii, ' place of feasting '; and in chap. 7. 2, ' after the banquet of wine ' is ren- der edpostauam incalueratvino, 'after he was heated with wine.' In Prov. 23. 20 the V. has in conviviis potatorum, ' among feasts of drinkers. ' In Cant. 2. 4, ' house of wine' [A. V., 'banqueting-house'] is rendered cellam vinariam, ' wine-cellar.' In Jer. 40. 10 yayin is rendered vindemia, 'vintage-fruit,' but in ver. 12 vinum. 2. Tirosh (pronounced teerosh) is a collective name for the natural produce of the vine. It is generally associated with dahgan, 'corn,' and yitzhar, the fruit of the olive and the orchard. Both ancient and modern versions have strangely mis- conceived the true nature of this famous triad of blessings by regarding tirosh and yitzhar as liquids; the first as 'wine,' or 'new wine,' and the latter as 'oil.' By a comparison of texts and contexts the English reader may judge for himself between the traditional rendering and the one adopted in this work. Tirosh occurs thirty-eight times in the Hebrew Bible. Genesis. 27. 28, joined with corn as promised to Jacob. 27. 37, joined with corn as above. Numbers. 18. 12, joined with yitzhar and corn as firstfruits. Deuteronomy. 7. 13, joined with corn and yitzhar as the fruit of the land. 11. 14, gathered along with corn and yitzhar. 12. 17, to be eaten as tithes with corn and yitzha?. 14. 23, the same. 18. 4, joined with corn and yitzhar as firstfruits. 28. 51, joined with corn and yitzhar as destroyed by the invader. 33. 28, joined with corn as the produce of the land. Judges. 9. 13, which the vine claims as its own, and refuses to leave. 2 Kings. 18. 32, joined with corn as the produce of the land. 2 Chronicles. 31. 5, joined with corn, yitzhar, and honey (or dates) as firstfruits. APPENDIX B. 415 32. 28, joined with corn and yitzhar as kept in storehouses. Nehemiah. 5. 11, joined with corn and yitzhar as tribute in kind. 10. 37, joined with the fruit of all manner of trees. 10. 39, joined with corn and yitzhar. 13. 5, 12, joined with corn and yitzhar as tithes. Psalms. 4. 7, joined with corn as causing joy by its increase. Proverbs. 3. 10, described as ' bursting ' or filling the presses, in association with crowded barns. Isaiah. 24. 7, described as mourning while the vine languished. 36. 17, joined with corn as produce of the land. 62, 8, described as not to be drunk (z. e. its juice) by strangers, but to be brought together and drunk by the Jews, like as corn was to be gathered and eaten. 65. 8, described as 'found in a cluster.' Jeremiah. 31. 12, joined with corn and yitzhar as part of the goodness of the Lord. Hosea. 2. 8, joined with corn and yitzhar as given by God. 2. 9, joined with corn as taken away by God. 2. 22, joined with corn and yitzhar as ' heard ' by their mother earth. 4. II, joined with whoredom and wine {yayhi) as ' taking away ' the heart. 7. 14, joined with corn as the cause of heathen assemblies. 9. 2, described as failing from the press in connection with the corn-floor. Joel. 1. 10, described as 'dried up,' as the corn is 'wasted,' and the yitzhar 'languisheth.' 2. 19, promised by God along with corn and yitzhar. 2. 24, said to 'overflow* (or abound in) the press, together with yitzhar, as the floors are full of 'wheat.' Micah. 6. 15, said when trodden to produce yayin, as olives, when trodden, yield shemen (oil). Haggai. 1. 11, joined with corn and yitzhar as suffering from drought. Zechariah. 9. 17, said to make the virgins cheerful (or to grow), as corn the young men. % Obs. I. Tiros h is connected with corn and yitzhar nineteen times, with corn alone eleven times, with the vine three times, and is otherwise named five times ; in all thirty-eight times. Obs. 2. Tirosh is translated in the A. V. twenty-six times by 'wine,' eleven times by new wine (Neh. 10. 39; 13. 5, 12; Prov. 3. 10; Isa. 24. 7; 65. 8; Hos. 4. 11; 9. 2; Joel 1. 10; Hag. I. II; Zech. 9. 17), and once (Micah 6. 15) by 'sweet wine,' where the mar- gin has ' new wine. ' Chaldee. — The general rendering of tirosh in the Targum is by khamar, or hamrah, thus making no distinction between yayin and tirosh. But in ' Numb. 18. 12, Jonathan's rendering, kha- mar inbah, ' wine of the grape, ' indi- cates a perception of the relation of tirosh to the grape while ungathered and un- expressed. The Targum on Hos. 4. 1 1 interprets tirosh by ravyethah, ' drunk- enness,' or 'satiation,' but in Joel I. 10 by 'vines.' Greek. — The Lxx. renders tirosh in every case but twice by oinos, the generic name for yayin ; the exceptions being Isa. 65. 8, where rhox, 'grape-stone,' is given, and Hos. 4. 1 1, where the ren- dering is methusma, 'strong drink.' Aquila's version in Deut. 7. 13 has opotismon, 'autumnal fruit,' and in Isa. 26. 7, pardris7iios, ' fruit out of season ' ; but very possibly paror is a transcriber's error for apor, the reading in Deut. 7- 13- Latin. — The Vulgate, though as a rule translating tirosh by vimim, ' wine,' has some exceptions : — Deut. 7. 13, vin- demia, ' vintage-fruit ' ; Neh. 10. 37, vindemia ; Isa. 24. 7, vindemia ; Isa. 65. 8, granum, ' a grain, '=young grape ; Hos. 4. II, ebrietas, 'drunkenness.' 3. Khemer (Hebrew, kh-m-r, pronounced khemer) is a word descriptive of the foaming appearance of the juice of the grape newly expressed, or when undergoing 4i6 APPENDIX B. fermentation. It occurs but nine times in all — including once as a verb, and six times in its Chaldee form of kkamar or khamrah. Deuteronomy. 32. 14, applied to the 'blood of the grape, ' rendered in A. V. ' pure. ' Ezra. 6. 9, ) occurs in Chaldee decrees of 7. 22, ) Cyrus and Artaxerxes. Psalms. 75. 8, ' the wine is red,' khamar (foams). Isaiah. 27. 2, 'a vineyard of khemer,' rendered in A. V. ' red wine,' but the Hebrew text is doubtful. Daniel. 5. I, 2, 4, 23, named in a Chaldee de- scription of Belshazzar's feast. Chaldee. — In Deut. 32, 14, Jonathan has khamor sumaq, ' red wine. ' In Psa. 75. 8, the Targum has khamar ashin, ' strong wine.' In Isa. 27. 2, the Tar- gumists read khemed (fruitful or beauti- ful), not khemer. Greek. — In Deut. 32. 14, the Lxx. has oinon. Aquila gives attsteeron, 'rough.' In Psa. 75. 8, the Lxx. has oinos akratos, '(the wine is) pure,' i. e. undiluted. In Isa. 27. 2, the Lxx. has kalos, 'beautiful,' following the reading of khemed. In the other places oinos is given. Latin. — In Deut. 32. 14, the V. has meracissimum, 'purest.' In Psa. 75. 8, and Isa. 27. 2, merum, 'pure (wine).' In the other passages vinum is used, or the Hebrew word is not definitely trans- lated. 4. AHSIS (sometimes written ausis, asis, osis) is specifically applied to the juice of the newly-trodden grapes or other fruit. It occurs five times. Chaldee. — In Cant. 8. 2, no equiva- lent to ahsis is given ; but in the other passages the rendering is khamar mariih (or maratli), 'pure wine.' Greek. — In Cant. 8. 2, the Lxx. has nama, ' spring ' (or juice) ; in Isa. 49. 26, oinos neos, 'new wine'; in Joel 1. 5, it seems to paraphrase ahsis by euphrosunee hni /-h/wri < nrl o rl r» *=> c c onrl ir\iT ' * CJnn in Canticles. 8. 2, applied to ' the juice ' of the pome- granate. Isaiah. 49. 26, compared to blood; rendered ' sweet wine ' (A. V.). Joel. I. 5, represented as cut off; rendered ' new wine ' (A. V. ). 3. 18, mountains said to drop ahsis; rendered ' new wine ' (A. V. ). Amos. 9. 13, the same ; ' sweet wine ' (A. V. ). Joel 2. 18, and Amos 9. 13, the rendering is glukasmon, ' sweetness.' Latin. — In Cant. 8. 2, and Isa. 49. 26, the Vulgate has mustum, and in the other passages dulcido, 'sweetness.' 5. Soveh (sometimes written sobe, sobhe) denotes a luscious, and probably boiled wine (Latin, sapd). It occurs three times. Isaiah. 1. 22, diluted with water ; ' win (A. V.). Hosea. 4. 18, turned sour; 'drink' (A. V.). Nahum. I. 10, drink to excess; 'drunken' (A.V.). Chaldee. — Isa. 1. 22, khamar, ' wine ' ; Hos. 4. 18, ' feastings ' ; Nah. I. 10, 'wine.' Greek. — Isa. 1. 22, the Lxx. and Symmachus, oinos ; Aquila, sumposion, ' drinking-feast ' ; in Hos. 4. 18, and Nah. I. 10, the Lxx. has a different reading of the Hebrew text. Latin. — Isa. 1. 22, vinum, 'wine'; Hos. 4. 18, and Nah. I. 10, convivium, 'feast.' 6. Mesek (sometimes written mesecJi) is used with its related forms mezeg and mimsak to denote some liquid compounded of various ingredients. These words occur as nouns four times, in a verbal shape five times. APPENDIX B. 417 Psalms. 75. 8, applied to the cup of Divine wrath ; full of mesek, 'mixture ' (A. V.). Proverbs. 23. 30, referring to them who seek mim- sak, ' mixed wine ' (A. V. ). Canticles. 7. 2, meseg, 'mixture' (A.V.). Isaiah. 65. II, mimsak, 'drink-offering' (A. V.). The verbal form occurs — Proverbs. 9. 2, 5, wisdom has ' mingled ' her wine. Isaiah. 5. 22, men mighty to ' mingle ' strong drink. Also in Psa. 102. 9; Isa. 19. 14. Chaldee.— In Psa. 75. 8, the Targum reads mezagath merarthah, 'a mixture of bitterness ' ; in Prov. 23. 30, 7nimsak is paraphrased baith mizgah, ' a house of mixture ' — i. e. a house where a mixed drink is provided ; in Cant. 7. 2, mezeg is lost in a cloud of allegory; in Isa. 65. II, the T. has ' who have mixed for their gods a goblet.' In Prov. 9. 2, 5, the verbal form is mezagath, ' mixed ' ; and in Isa. 5. 22, le-aithrevath, to make drunk (or drench) themselves.' Greek. — Psa. 75. 8, the Lxx. has keras?na, ' mixture ' ; Symmachus has ekchutheis 'poured out.' Prov. 23. 30, the Lxx. has potoi, ' drinkings ' ; Theo- dotion has kerasmata, ' mixtures.' Cant. 7. 2, the Lxx. krama, ' mixed-liquor ' ; Isa. 65. II, kerasma, 'mixture.' In Prov. 9. 2, 5, and Isa. 5. 22, the Lxx. uses inflections of the verb kerannumi, ' to mingle. ' Latin. — Psa. 75. 8, the V. has 7nixtu.n1 ; Prov. 23. 30, calices ; and Cant. 7. 2, pocula, 'cups'; Isa. 65. 1 1, libatis, 'have made libations.' In Prov. 9. 25, and Isa. 5. 22, the verb miscuo, 'to mix,' is used. 7. Ashishah (sometimes written eshishah) signifies some kind of fruit-cake, probably a cake of pressed grapes or raisins. It occurs four times, and in each case is associated by the A. V. with some kind of drink. 2 Samuel. 16. 3 3- h 19, a part of a public donative; *a flagon of wine ' (A. V.) — ' of wine ' in italics. 1 Chronicles. same as above. Canticles. stay me with flagons ' (A. V. ). Hosea. flagons of wine' (A. V.); but in the margin ' grapes ' is substituted for ' wine ' ; the Hebrew being ashi- shah anahvim, ' pressed-cakes of grapes.' Chaldee. — In the first two passages the Targum has manthah, ' a portion ' ; and in the other two places the para- phrase does not follow the text. Greek. — In 2 Sam. 6. 19, the Lxx. has legation apo leeganou, 'a cake-cooked- with-oil from the frying-pan ' = a pan- cake or fricasse. In 1 Chron. 16. 3, amoriteen, ' a cake ' ; in Cant. 2. 5, mu- rois, ' with perfumes ' ; Symmachus, anthei, ' on a flower ' ; Aquila, oinanthon 'with vine-flowers.' In Hos. 3. 1, the Lxx. \vas pemmata meta staphidos (Codex A, staphidon), ' cakes made with raisins. ' Latin.— In 2 Sam. 6. 19, and 2 Chron. 16. 3, the Vulgate has similam frixam oleo, 'a cake-of-fine-flour fried in oil.' In Cant. 2. 5, floribus, 'with flowers.' In Hos. 3. 1, vinacea uvarum, 'husks of grapes.' 8. Shemarim (pronounced shemahri??i) is derived from shamar, 'to preserve,' and has the general signification of things preserved. It occurs five times. In Exod. 12. 42, the same word, differently pointed, is twice translated as signifying to be kept (observed). Psalms. parts of the mixture preserved from 75. 8, said to be sucked up by the solution = the insoluble dregs or wicked; ' dregs ' (A. V.), rather the j drugs. 53 4i8 APPENDIX B. Isaiah. 25. 6 (twice), joined with shemahnim, 'fat things,' as the provisions of a banquet, and indicating dainties, answering to our English 'pre- serves ' or confections. Jeremiah. 48. II, the dregs of wine, 'preserved' by falling to the bottom of the cask; 'lees '(A. V.). Zephaniah. 1. 12, the same; 'lees' (A. V.). Chaldee. — In Psa. 75. 8, the T. has 'dregs and refuse'; in Isa. 25. 6, the paraphrase retains the sense of ' dregs ' by representing that though the nations expect a luxurious banquet, they will be doomed to mortification, ignominy, etc. ; in Jer. 48. 11, a cognate word, shenah- raib, 'his dregs,' is given; in Zeph. 1. 12, 'lees' is paraphrased by 'riches.' Greek.— Psa. 75. 8, the Lxx. has trugias, 'dregs.' Isa. 25. 6, piontai oinon, ' they shall drink wine ' ; Sym- machus, poton trugion, 'a feast of lees.' Jer. 48. 11, doxee, 'glory'; evidently another reading of the text or a para- phrase. Zeph. 1. 12, another reading of the text is followed. Latin. — The Vulgate, in Psa. 75. 8, hasyfex, 'feculence'; in Isa. 25. 6, vin~ demia, 'vintage produce'; in Jer. 48. 11, fcecibus, 'in his dregs'; Zeph. 1. 12, fcecibus. 9. Mamtaqqim is derived from m.ahthaq, 'to suck,' and denotes 'sweetnesses. It is applied to the mouth (Cant. 5. 16) as full of sweet things. In Neh. 8. 10, it is said, ' Go your way, eat the fat, and drink the sweet ' — mamtaqqim, ' sweetnesses '=sweet drinks. The Lxx. has glukasmata, 'sweet things,' and the V. mulsum, ' drink sweet as honey. ' [Mathaq is most probably allied to the Saxon metheg and metheglin, liquid pre- parations from honey. ] 10. Shakar (sometimes written shechar, shekar) signifies 'sweet drink,' ex- pressed from fruits other than the grape, and drunk in an unfermented or fermented state. It occurs in the Old Testament twenty-three times. Leviticus. 10. 9, forbidden along with yayin to the priests while officiating. Numbers. 6. 3, forbidden to the Nazarites. 6. 3, vinegar of, forbidden to Nazarites. 28. 7, to be offered as a libation to the Lord (apparently here denoting the sweet juice of the grape). Deuteronomy. 14. 26, to be bought (probably in lieu of yitzhar, orchard-fruit). 29. 6, not drunk in the wilderness. Judges. 13. 4, 7, 14, forbidden to Samson's mother. 1 Samuel. I. 15, its use disclaimed by Hannah. Psalms. 69. 12, the drinkers of it (A. V., 'drunkards ') mocked the Psalmist. Proverbs. 20. I, pronounced 'raging.' 31. 4, forbidden to princes. 31. 6, the use of, by those ready to perish, causing forgetfulness of their misery. Isaiah. 5. 11, woe to those following after it. 5. 22, woe to those mingling it. 24. 9, becoming bitter to the drinker. 28. 7 (thrice), causing the priest and prophet to err and stray. 29. 9, staggering in the absence of it. 56. 12, the impious filling themselves with it. MlCAH. 2. II, the subject of false prophesying. Shakar is, uniformly translated ' strong drink' in the A. V., except in Numb. 28. 7, where it is rendered ' strong wine '; and in Psa. 69. 12, where instead of 'drinkers of shakar,' the A. V. reads 'drunkards.' Chaldee. — In the Targum shakar is usually rendered khamar attiq, 'old wine, ' a rendering indubitably erroneous; but other renderings are as follows : — Marvai, 'strong drink,' in Lev. 10. 9; Psa. 69. 12. Khamar bekhir, Jerusalem APPENDIX B. 419 Targum of Numb. 28. 7, where On- kelos and Jonathan have khamar attiq. Marath, 'pure,' or 'neat,' Jonathan's rendering in Deut. 29. 6 ; and sikrah, in Prov. 20. I. Greek. — The Lxx. gives shakar the Greek garb of sikera (except in Judg. 13. 4, where Codex B, metkusma, ' strong drink): metkusma, I Sam. I. 15 ; Micah 2. II : oinon, 'wine,' Psa. 69. 12; Prov. 31. 4 : methee, ' strong liquor, ' or ' drunk- enness,' Prov. 20. 1; 31. 6; Isa. 27. 8 (once, but Codex A has sikera thrice). Of other Greek versions preserved, the usual renderings are metkusma, 'strong drink,' except Theodotion, Isa. 28. 7; metkee (once), 56. 12 [a verse absent from the Lxx. version] Latin. — The common rendering of the Vulgate is sicera, an adaptation from the Hebrew or Greek, except omne quod inebriare potest, ' whatever is able to inebriate,' in Lev. 10. 9; Numb. 6. 3; I Sam. 1. 15 : qualibet alia potio, 'any other drink,' in Numb. 6. 3 (second clause): potio, 'drink,' in Isa. 24. 9: vinum, 'wine,' in Numb. 28. 7; Psa. 69. 12: ebrietas, 'drunkenness,' in Prov. 20. 1; 31. 4; Isa. 5. 11; 5. 12; 28. 7 (thrice); 29. 9; 56. 12. II. Hebrew Words descriptive of Vineyard, Vine, etc. [Vineyard] Kerem (pi. Kerah- MIM). — A term applied at first to culti- vated land appropriated to the growth of fruit-bearing plants, and at length spe- cifically to ground set apart for the cul- ture of the vine, though probably down to a late period the more general meaning was not absent from the word. It is translated ' vineyard ' in the A. V. in Gen. 9. 20; Exod. 22. 5 (twice); 23. II ; Lev. 19. 10 (twice); 25. 3; 25. 4; Numb. 16. 14 [Heb. sing, 'vineyard']; 20. 17 [Heb. sing, 'vineyard']; 21. 22 [Heb. sing. ' vineyard ' ] ; 22. 24 ; Deut. 6. 1 1 ; 20. 6; 22. 9 (twice); 23. 24; 24. 21; 28. 30; 28. 39; Josh. 24. 13; Judg. 9. 27; "• 335 14- 5 5 15- 5; 21. 20; 21. 21; I Sam. 8. 14; 8. 15; 22. 7; 1 Kings 21 ; I; 21. 2 (twice); 21. 6 (twice); 21. 7; 21. 15; 21. 16; 21. 18; 2 Kings 5. 26; 18. 32; 19. 29; 1 Chron. 27. 27 (twice); Neh. 5.3; 5.4; 5. 5; 5. 11; 9. 25; Job 24. 6 (rendered 'vintage ' in A. V.) ; 24. 18; Psa. 107. 37; Prov. 24. 30; 31. 16; Eccles. 2. 4; Cant. 1. 6 (twice); 1. 14; 2. 15 (twice, and both times 'vines' in the A. V.); 7. 12; 8. 11 (twice); 8. 12; Isa. I. 8; 3. 14; 5. I (twice); 5. 3; 5- 4; 5- 5; 5- 7; 5- 10; 16. 10; 27. 2; 36. 17; 37. 30; 65. 21; Jer. 12; 10; 31. 5; 32. 15; 35. 7; 35. 9; 39. 10; Ezek. 28. 26; Hos. 2. 15; Amos 4. 9; 5. 11; 5. 17; 9. 14; Micah 1. 6; Zeph. 1. 13. [See Shedamoth and Kannah.] The A. V. includes kerem as part of a proper name in Neh. 3. 14, Beth-haccerem ; Jer. 6. 1, Beth-haccerem [literally, baith-hak- kerem, ' a house of the vineyard']. From Kerem comes — [ Vineyard-man] Koram (pi. Ko- ramim), ' a vineyarder,' a man employed about a vineyard. In the A. V. trans- lated 'vinedresser' in 1 Kings 25. 12; 2 Chron. 26. 10; Isa. 61. 15; Jer. 52. 16; Joel 1. 11. [Vine-field] Shedamoth, used ap- parently to designate fields planted with vines, in Deut. 32. 32; Isa. 16. 8; Hab. 3.17. Kannah is translated 'vineyard' in Psa. 80. 15, but probably signifies ' a plant.' Gesenius translates it 'protect thou.' [Vine] Gephen (pi. Gephanim) strictly signifies ' a twig,' from gapknan, 'to be bent,' and hence applied to the vine as the most valuable of flexile plants. It is so applied in the A. V. as follows : — Gen. 40. 9; 40. 10; 49. 11 ; Numb. 6. 4 ; 20. 5 [Hebrew, ' the vine ' ] ; Deut 8. 8 [Hebrew, ' the vine '] ; 32. 32 (twice); Judg. 9. 12; 9. 13; 13. 14; I Kings 4. 25 ; 2 Kings 4. 39 \_gephen sadeh, ' a vine of the field '=a wild vine]; 18. 31; Job 15. 33; Psa. 78 47; 80.8; 80. 14; 105. S3; 128. 3; Cant. 2. 13; 6. 11; 7. 8; 7. 12; Isa. 7. 23; 16. 8; 16. 9; 24. 7; 32. 12; 34. 4; 36. 16; Jer. 2. 21 ; 5. 17; 6. 9; 8. 13; 48. 32; Ezek. 15. 2; 15.6; 17. 6(twice); 17. 7; 17.8; 19. 10; Hos. 2. 12; 10. I; 14. 7; Joel I. 7; 1. 12; 2. 22; Micah 4. 4; Hab. 3. 17; Hag. 2. 19; Zech. 3. 10; 8. 12; Mai. 3. 11. [See also Soraq and Zemorah.] 'Vine' is superadded in the A. V. in Lev. 25. 5, 11. Soraq is supposed to be derived from saraq, 'to interweave'; hence soraq, a 420 APPENDIX B. collection of shoots and tendrils. Some regard it as applied to a peculiar and pre-eminent species of vine. It occurs Gen. 49. 11, ' choice vine' ; Judg. 16. 4, 'Sorek,' the name of a 'valley' or ra- vine; Isa. 5. 2, ' the choicest vine ' ; 16. 8, ' the principal plants ' ; Jer. 2. 21, 'a noble vine.' [Vine-branch] Zemorah, derived from zamar, 'to pluck' or 'prune,' is supposed to denote a vine-branch In Numb. 13, 23, 'a branch'; Isa. 17. 10, 'strange slips'; but in Ezek. 8. 17 and 15. 2 no definite kind of branch seems intended. From zamar also comes — [Vine-knife] Mazmorah, the sharp instrument used for detaching the ripe grapes from the vine, translated 'pruning- hook,'Isa. 2. 4; 18. 5; Joel 3. 10; Micah 4-3- Maggol (from nagal, 'to cut') is translated 'sickle' in Jer. 50. 16 ; Joel 3. 13. [Vine-blossom] SemadarIs rendered 'tender grape' in the A. V., but may, perhaps, be more properly rendered 'vine-blossom.' It occurs Cant. 2. 13; 2. 15; 7. 12. Natz, 'flower,' applied to the vine, Gen. 40. 12, and rendered ' its blossoms flourished.' Parakh, 'to bud,' applied to the vine, Gen. 40. 12, 'budded'; Cant. 6. II; 7. 12, 'flourish'; Hos. 14. 7, 'grow.' [A GRAPE-BERRY] GARGAR OCCUrs Isa. 17. 6. [Grape] Anab (pi. ANABIM — accord- ing to the Masorite pointing anahv, pi. anakvim) is derived from a root ' to bind together ' ; hence the anab or anahv de- noted a number of grape-berries joined together = a little bunch. In the He- brew Bible the singular form occurs but once (and then in a collective sense), Deut. 32. 14, and the A. V. uniformly renders anabim by ' grapes ' : — Gen. 40. 10; 40. 11; 49. 11; Lev. 25. 5; Numb. 6. 3 (twice); 13. 20; 13. 23; Deut. 23. 24; 32. 14; 32. 32 (twice); Neh. 13. 15; Isa. 5. 2; 5. 4; Jer. 8. 13; Hos. 3. I; 9. 10; Amos 9. 13. In Hos. 3. I anabim is translated 'wine,' but the margin gives correctly 'grapes.' In the following passages the word ' grape ' or ' grapes ' is supplied by the English translators, but does not occur in the Hebrew: — Judg. 8. 2; 9 17; Lev. 19. 10 ; 25 11; Deut. 24. 31 ; 28. 30 ; 28. 39; Job 15. 33; Cant. 7. 7; Isa. 5. 2; 5. 4 [after 'wild']; 17. 6; 18.5; Jer. 25. 30; 31. 29, 30; 49. 9; Ezek. 19. 12; Obad 5. [Cluster] Eshkol (pi. Eshkoloth) primarily denoted a stalk of grapes, and thence 'a cluster, ' i. e. an accumulation of the smaller bunches, anakvim. The A. V. translates eshkol, eshkoloth, 'cluster,' ' clusters,' in Gen 40. 10 ; Numb. 13. 23 ; 13. 24; Deut. 32. 32; Cant. 1. 14, 'a cluster of camphire ' (cypress); 7. 7; 7. 8; Isa. 65, 8; Micah 7. 1. In 1 Sam. 25. 18 and 30. 12 the word ' clusters ' is supplied by the English translators. Eshkol is retained as a proper name, 'Eshcol,' in Gen. 14. 13, 24; Numb. 13. 23; 13. 24; 32. 9; Deut. 1. 24. [Unripe-Grapes] Boser and Baser are used to designate a collection of grapes still unripe, though fully formed. The A. V. rendering is once 'unripe grape,' and otherwise 'sour grape,' — Job. 15. 33; Isa. 18 5; Jer. 31. 29, 30; Ezek. 18.2. [Vine-fruit] Tirosh, the natural fruit of the vine, taken collectively. In the order of growth came the budding, perakh ; then the blossom, zemadar ; next the unripe fruit, boser ; and lastly the fully formed fruit, tirosh. In the order of qiiantity came the single berries, gargarim ; the grape-bunches, anabi?n ; the grape-clusters (composed of bunches), eshkoloth ; and the collective produce of the vine, tirosh. Tirosh, erroneously translated 'wine' and 'new wine' in the A. V., occurs thirty-eight times, for which see page 414. [Raisins, dried grapes] Tzimmu- qim, from tzamaq, 'to dry up,' signi- fies, literally, dried things, and is trans- lated 'clusters of raisins' in I Sam. 25. 18 ; 30 12; and 'bunches of raisins' in 2 Sam. 16. I ; I Chron. 12. 40. [Cakes, made of pressed grapes or raisins] Ashishah (pi. Ashishoth), incorrectly translated in the A. V. 'flagon' and 'flagon of wine,' occurs 2 Sam 6. 19; I Chron 16. 3; Cant. 2. 5; Hos. 3. 1. See page 417. [The Vintage] Batzir, from bahtzar, 'to cut off,' signified the act or time of gathering grapes, which was usually per- formed by cutting them from the vine. The word occurs and is rendered ' vint- age ' in the A. V Lev. 26. 5 (twice); Judg. 8. 2; Isa. 24 13; 32. 10; Jer. 48. 32; Micah 7. I; Zech. II. 2. [In Isa. 16. 10 the word 'vintage' is supplied by the translators. In Job 24 6 ' vintage ' is the rendering, not of batzir, but of kerem.~\ The verb bahlzer, applied to the vint- APPENDIX B. 421 age, occurs also in Lev. 25. 5; 25. II; Deut 24. II ; Judg. 9. 27. Qatzir, generally translated 'harvest' in A. V., is applied to the vintage in Joel 3. 13 (probably also Joel I. 11). [Vintager, grape-gatherer] Botzar (pi. Botzerim) was a cutter (z. e. gath- erer) of grapes at the time of the vintage, batzir. The A. V. translates by ' grape-gatherer ' in Jer. 6. 9 ; 49. 9 ; Obad. 5. [Grape-gleaning] Ollaloth, used of the vintage season, Judg. 8. 2 ; Isa. 1 7. 6; Jer. 49. 9; Obad. 5, where the A.V. has ' some grapes, ' but ' gleanings ' in the margin. The verbal form occurs Lev. 19. 10; Deut. 24. 21 ; Jer. 6. 9 (twice). The verb lahqash is found Job 24. 6, and is translated 'they gather,' but some pre- fer ' they glean. ' [Wine-press] Yeqeb (or Yeqev), the general name for cavity, coop, or 'hollow place' where the grapes were first brought together, then trodden, and their juice collected. The A. V. renders it press, wine-press, and wine-vat, and once 'wine,' Deut. 16. 13. It occurs Numb. 18. 27; 18. 30; Deut. 15. 14; 16. 13; Judg. 7. 25; 2 Kings 6. 27; Job 24. II; Prov. 3. 10; Isa. 5. 2; 16. 10; Jer. 48. ss; Hos. 9. 2; Joel 2. 24; 3. 13; Hag. 2. 16; Zech. 14. 10. Gath, ' a place of pleasure ' = where grapes and olives are trodden, Judg. 6. 1 1 ; Neh. 13. 15; Isa. 63. 2; Lam. 1. 15; Joel 3. 13. [See also Purah and Yeqeb.] As the name of a Philistine city, 'Gath,' it occurs Josh. 13. 3; 1 Sam. 6. 17; 21. 11; 1 Kings 2. 39, 40. As included in the names of three Hebrew towns, — (1) Gath-hepher (wine-press of the well), Josh. 10. 13, where Jonah was born; (2) Gath-rimmon (press of the pomegranate), Josh. 19. 45 ; and (3) Githaim (two wine-presses), Neh. 11.33. Purah, from the root, 'to break,' occurs Isa. 63. 3, A. V. 'winepress'; Hag. 2. 16, A. V, 'press,' where some regard it as a denomination of measure. [Grape-treader] Dorak, from dah- rak, to tread, signifies 'a treader,' and is applied to the treader of grapes in the wine-press, Neh. 13. 15 ; Isa. 16. 10 (where the A. V. reads ' treaders ' in- stead of 'treader'); Jer. 25, 30. The verb is used in reference to tread- ing grapes in Judg. 9. 27; Job 24. 11 ; Isa. 63. 2, 3; Jer. 48. 33; Lam. I. 15; Micah 6. 15. III. Hebrew Words for Leaven (ferment), things Leavened (fermented), Vinegar, and Unleavened (unfermented) things. 1. Seor, derived from a root 'to boil up,' 'to ferment,' denotes a substance fermenting, or capable of producing fer- mentation. In the A. V. it is trans- lated 'leaven' in Exod. 12. 15; 12. 19; 13. 7 ; Lev. 2. 1 1 ; and ' leavened bread ' in Deut. 16. 4. 2. Khamatz, both noun and verb, denoting whatever is undergoing or has undergone the fermenting process. The A. V. translates by 'leavened bread' in Exod. 12. 15; 13. 3; 13. 7; 23. 18; Deut. 16. 3 ; by ' that which is leavened' in Exod. 12. 19; by 'leavened' in Exod. 12. 20; 12. 34; 12. 39; Lev. 7. 13 [where the Hebrew is lekhem khamatz, * bread leavened ' ]; Hos. 7. 4 ; by ' leaven' in Exod. 34. 25 ; Lev. 2. 11 ; 6. 17; 23. 17; Amos 4. 5 ; by ' was grieved ' in Psa. 73. 21. Analogous words (with a different pointing) are khamotz, translated ' op- pressed ' in Isa. 1. 17; khomatz, 'cruel,' in Psa. 71. 4; khamatz, ' dyed,' in Isa. 63. 1 ; and khamitz, 'clean,' in Isa. 30. 24, where something pungent is indicated. 3. Khometz, 'fermented drink,' is applied to what has undergone the acetous fermentation, and in the A. V. is trans- lated ' vinegar ' in Numb. 6. 3 (twice) ; Ruth 2. 4; Psa. 69. 21; Prov. 10. 26; 25. 20. 4. Matzah, pi. Matzoth, signifies ' that which is sweet,' and is contrastively used to distinguish unleavened articles from those that have undergone fer- mentation. In the A. V. it is translated ' unleavened bread ' (though the Hebrew has the plural form) in Gen. 19. 3; Exod. 12. 8; 12. 15; 12. 17; 12. 18; 12.20; 13. 6; 13. 7; 23. 15 (twice); 29. 23; 34. 18 (twice); Lev. 6. 16; 8. 2; 8. 26; 23. 6 (twice); Numb. 6. 15 (twice); 6. 17; 9. 11 ; 28. 17; Deut. 16. 3; 16. 8; 16. 16; 1 Sam. 28. 24; 422 APPENDIX B. 2 Kings 23. 9; 2 Chron. 8. 13; 30. 13; 30. 21 ; Ezra 6. 22 ; Ezek. 45. 21. It is translated ' unleavened cake ' or ' cakes ' in Numb. 6. 19; Josh. 5. 11 ; Judg. 6. 19; 6. 20; 6. 21 (twice). It is trans- lated ' unleavened ' in connection with other Hebrew words translated 'cakes,' 'bread,' 'wafers,' or 'fine flour,' in Exod. 12. 39; 29. 2 (thrice); Lev. 2. 4; 2. 5; 7. 12 (twice); 8. 26; Numb. 6. 19; I Chron. 23. 29. It is translated 'without leaven ' in Lev. 10. 12. IV. Hebrew Words translated Drunken, Drunkenness, and Drunkard. 1. Shakrah, 'fulness,' occurs in Hag. 1. 6, ain le-shakrah, rendered in the A. V. ' ye are not filled with drink ' ; literally, 'not to fulness' (or reple- tion). 2. Shahkar — connected as root or derivative with shakar, ' sweet drink ' — strictly implies, as Gesenius states, 'to drink to the full,' generally with an im- plied sweetness of the article consumed, whether the sweet juice of the grape or other fruits. Whenever the juice had fermented, or had become intoxicating by drugs, this plentiful use would lead to intoxication, and give to the verb the secondary sense of inebriation in the drinker. Inebriation, however, must not be inferred unless the context suggests such a condition. It is translated 'drunk,' 'drunken,' 'drunken man,' or 'drunkard,' in the A. V. in Gen. 9. 21 ; Deut. 32. 42; 1 Sam. 1. 14; 25. 36; 2 Sam. II. 13; Job 12. 25 ; Psa. 107. 27; Prov. 26. 9; Isa. 19. 14; 24. 20; 28. 1; 28. 3; 29. 9; 49. 26; 51. 21; 63. 6; Jer. 23. 9; 25. 27; 48. 26; 51. 7; 51. 39; 51. 57; Lam. 4. 21; Joel 1. 5; Nah. 3. 11 ; Hab. 2. 15. It is translated 'were merry ' in Gen. 43. 34; 'drink abundantly ' in Cant. 5. I. [In Psa. 69. 12, where the A. V. gives 'drunkards,' the Hebrew is 'drinkers of shakar. , ~\ 3. Shikkor (fern, shikkorah, 'drunk,' occurs in I Sam. I. 13; I Kings 16. 9; 20. l6. 4. Shikkahron, or Shikkron, 'drunkenness,' occurs Jer. 13. 13; Ezek. 2 3« 33 ; 39- J 9 [where the A. V. has ' till ye be drunken ' — literally, ' to drunken- ness ']. In Josh. 15. II, Shikron appears as the name of a town, ' Shicron.' 5. Rahvah signifies ' to drink largely,' 'to be filled with drink,' without the reference contained in shahkar to the sweetness of the liquid imbibed. In the A. V. it is rendered ' made drunk ' in Jer. 46. 10 and Lam. 3. 15 ; but other renderings, expressive of simple abund- ance, are given in Psa. 23. 5 ; 36. 8; 65. 10 ['abundantly']; 66. 12 ['wealthy ']; Prov. 5. 19 ['satisfy']; 7. 18; 1 1. 15 (twice); Isa. 16. 9; 34. 5 ['bathed']; 34. 7; 43- 2 4; 55- !o; J er - 3 1 - w> 31. 2 5- 6. Rahveh. — This adjective is ren- dered ' drunkenness ' — margin, ' the drunken' — in Deut. 29 19,= drink-hard; 'watered' in Isa. 58. 11 ; Jer. 31. 12. 7. Ri (an abbreviation of Revi) is rendered 'watering ' in Job 37. II. 8. Sahvah (connected with Soveh) signifies 'to suck up,' 'to soak.' In the A. V. it is rendered 'drunkard,' Deut. 21. 20; 'bibbers,' Prov. 23. 10 ['wine- bibbers ' — soz'ai-yayin, ' soakers - of - wine ' ] ; ' drunkard,' Prov. 23. 21 ; 'we will fill ourselves with,' Isa. 56. 12; ' Sabeans' — margin, 'drunkards,' — Ezek 23. 42; 'drunken' and 'drunkards' in Nah. I. 10. . 9. Shethi (from shahthah, 'to drink') is translated ' drunkenness ' in Eccles. 10. 17, where the sense seems to require some general term, such as ' carousing ' or 'revelry.' V. Hebrew Words descriptive of the Nature and Effects of Intoxicat- ing Drink. 2. 5, 'he transgresseth by wine,' — rather, 'wine is a defrauder.' Dahlaq, to burn, inflame. Isa. 5. II, Avoi, sorrow. Prov. 23. 29, 'who hath sorrow ? ' Bahla, to swallow down. Isa. 28. 7, 'they are swallowed up of wine.' Bogad, deceiving, defrauding. Hab. wine inflames them. Hahmah, to rage. Prov. 20. 1, strong APPENDIX B. 423 drink is raging' ; Zech. 9. 15, 'and they shall make a noise as through wine,' — better, ' they shall rage as wine.' Gahash, to shake, reel. Jer. 25. 16, ' and they shall be moved.' Halal, to trill, sing, shout, rave. Jer. 25, 16, ' and they shall be mad ' ; Jer. 51. 7, ' the nations are mad.' Khahgag, * to be giddy.' Psa. 107. 27, • they reel to and fro.' Khallah, to be sick (ill). Hos. 7. 5, 'the princes have made him sick.' See below. Khaklihith, redness, lividness. Prov. 23. 29, 'who hath redness of eyes?' (livid circles round the eyes). Khamah, inflaming heat, such as is produced by poison, and symbolical of rage, fury. Deut. 32. 33, 'their wine is the poison of dragons'; Isa. 51. 17, 'the cup of his fury '/ Isa. 51.22, 'the cup of my fury* ; Isa. 63. 6, 'I will make them drunk with my anger ' / Jer. 25. 15, ' take the winecup of this fury ' ; Jer. 51. 39, 'in their heat'' ; Hos. 7. 5, 'the princes have made him sick with bottles of wine' (should be 'with in- flaming-heat of wine'); Hab. 2. 15, ' that puttest thy bottle to him ' (should be ' pouring out thy inflaming-drink 1 ). \_Kha7nah occurs in the following other places: — Deut. 32. 24, 'the poison of serpents of the dust ' ; Job 6. 4, ' the poison drinketh up my spirit ' ; Psa. 58. 4, ' their poison is like the poison of a serpent ' ; Psa. 140. 3, ' the poison of adders is under their lips.'] Latz, a mocker, scorner. Prov. 20. I, ' wine is a mocker,' or ' scorner.' Midrahmim, contentions, strifes. Prov. 23, 29, ' who hath contentions ? ' Nakhash, serpent. Prov. 23. 32, ' it biteth like a serpent.' Nua, to sway to and fro, to stag- ger. Psa. 107. 27, ' and stagger ' ; Isa. 24. 20, 'reel to and fro ' (lit. 'reeling,' ' shall reel ') ; Isa. 29. 9, ' they stagger, but not with strong drink.' Oi and hoi, woe, lamentation. Prov. 23. 29; Isa. 5. 11; Isa. 5. 22; Isa. 28. I ; Hab. 2. 15. Petzahim, wounds. Prov. 23. 29, ' who hath wounds without cause ? ' Phahrash, to pierce. Prov. 23. 32, 'and stingcth (pierceth) like an adder.' Raal, trembling. Zech. 12. 2, 'a cup of trembling. ' [See taralah.~\ Posh, gall, poppy* Deut. 32. 32, ' grapes of gall ' ; Deut. 32. 32, ' venom (gall) of serpents'; Psa. 69. 21, 'they gave me also gall for my meat.' Shahgag, to go astray, to trans- gress. Prov. 20. 1, ' and whosoever is deceived by it is not wise ' ; Isa. 28. 7, ' they have erred through wine ; . . . the priest and the prophet have erred through strong drink ; they err in vision.' Shammah, desolation ; Shemahmah, astonishment. Ezek. 23. 33, 'the cup of desolation and astonishment.' Shuk, to bite. Prov. 23. 32, ' at the last it biteth like a serpent.' Siakh, brawling, babbling. Prov. 23. 29, ' who hath babbling ? ' Tahah, to wander, to stray. Job 21. 25, 'he maketh them to stagger like a drunken man'; Isa. 19. 14, 'they have caused Egypt to err, ... as a drunken man staggereth in his vomit ' ; Isa. 28. 7, 'through strong drink they are out of the way; . . . they are out of the way.' Taralah, reeling, trembling. Psa. 60. 3, ' wine of astonishment ' ; Isa. 51. 17, 22, 'the cup of trembling.' Tziphoni, a viper. Prov. 23. 32, ' it stingeth like an adder (viper).' Yahgon, sorrow. Ezek. 32. 33, 'thou shalt be filled with drunkenness and sorrow.' VI. Other Hebrew Words explained in the Notes. [The figures refer to the pages of the Commentary. ] Agganoth, bowls, 165. Ahdam, to be red, 136, 180. Ahiph, languishing, 114. Ahlaz, to exult, 200. Ahmah, weariness, sorrow, 143. Ahmal, to languish, 165, 226. Ahrah, to be naked, 204. Ahsaph, to scrape together, to gather, 52, 56, 198. Ahval, to hang down=to mourn, 165. Ahvar, to cross over, to overwhelm, 187. Ain, eye or fountain, 22, 65, 136, 137. Anah, wormwood, 203. Anus him, fined ones, 229. 424 APPENDIX B. Ateretk, crown, wreath, 169. Avah, to desire, 54, 142. Bahsar (or vahsar), flesh, 135, 147, 212. Bakhurim, young men, 246. Bar, fine corn, 227. Bari, fat, 212. Bashal, to ripen, 17. Bath, a measure equal to *]% gallons English, 98, 102, 159. Beer (or baar), a well, 48, 87, 130. Belen, belly, 1 15. Berakhah (or verakhali), blessing, 182. Bethuloth, maidens, 240. Betishim, wild or vile (grapes), 158. Bikurim, firsts = first-ripe, 45. Bitam, taste, counsel, decree, 214. Borek, pit, cistern, I, 130. Dahgan, corn, 15, 52, 53, 56, 93, 100, IO4, I06, 107, II4, 117, I32, 189, 202, 217, 2l8, 222, 227, 244, 246. Dahm, blood, 22, 33, 61, 64, 65, 1 18, 176, 198, 206, 209. Debash (or devash), honey, whether of bees or made from grape-juice, 20, 26, 34, 46, 52, 94, 100, 140, 141, 152. Dema, a tear, liquor, 31, 161. Devalah, a cake of figs, 83, 96. Din, judgment, 142. Dodim, loves, 131, 150, 152. Gan, a garden, 1 78. Gavath, pride, 169. Geber, a strong man, 124, 160. Goren, the corn-floor, 223. Gur, to carry, to assemble, 222. Hahlam, to smite, 169. Hahrim, mountains, 228, 232. Haidad, exaltation, vintage-shouting, 162. Hillulim, songs at vintage-time, 71. Hin, a measure equal to 12 pints English, 32, 46, 49- Kabod, glory, 141. Karmel, Carmel, garden, 94, 99, 162. Keli, vessel, 108, 165. Keseph, silver, 161. Khag, a sacred dance = a feast, xviii, 56, 76, 98, 99, 100. 101. Khak, the palate, 153. Khaklili, red, livid, or purple, 22, 136. Khakmah, wisdom, 127, 131, 147. Khalab (or khahlahv), milk, 21, 26, 46, 61, 68, 152, 177, 203. Khamas, violence, 130. Khameth, a bottle, 14. [In Genesis only.] Khinnahm, for nothing, 136. Khisvomoth, inventions, devices, 148. Khoakh, a thorn, 142. Kohan, priest, 170, 209. Kopher, cypress shrub, 150. Kos, a cup, 17, 118, 119, 122, 137, 176, 186, 188, 207, 241. Lekhem, bread, 11, 14, 76, 81, 82, 83, 86, 88, 94, 96, 102, 104, 114, 126, 130, 148, 149, 164, 174, 214, 244. Lua, to swallow down, 233. Maasar, tithe, 107. Mahal, to cut off, to dilute, 156. Mahshak, to draw, to continue, 147. Maim, water, 14, 26, 29, 48, 51, 52, 74, 82, 83, 87, 88, 89, 94, 102, 114, 119, 140, 141, 156, 157, 164, 234. Maishahrim, in straight lines, straightly, 137, 154 Masqeh,one who offers drink to another= a cup-bearer, 'butler,' 16, 103. Matzah, to suck up, 123, 176, 207. Mekhaqqaq, decree, 142 Melaah, fulness, firstfruits, 31, 47, 58. Melek, king, 89, 103, 108, 109, no, in, 112, 142, 221, 234. Meni, fortune, 182. Merorim, bitter herbs, 45. Migdol, watch-tower, 158. Mishroth, maceration, 'liquor,' 40. Mishteh, time or place of drinking, a feast, drink, 12, 82, 101, no,- in, 112, 113, 160, 167, 186. Misraq, vessel, bowl, 231, 245. Mood, appointed time, season, 217. Nahshak, to bite, 137. Nahta, to plant, 8, 51, 59, 67, 124, 232, 242. Nahtaph, to drop down, to prophesy, 228, 232, 235. Nahvi, a prophet, 170. Nahzir, a Nazarite, 41, 43, 71, 79, 229. Nakhal, a ravine, and in time of rain a watercourse, 45, 46, 50, 51, 52, 75, 89, 127. Nasak and Nesek, drink poured out as an act of worship (translated in A. V. 'drink-offering'), 16, 32, 43, 49, 64, 92, 97, 99, 101, 118, 182, 186, 190, 210, 223, 226, 227. Nather, nitre, i e. potash, 140. Nebel (or nevel\ bottle, skin-bag, 80, 81, 82, 86, 165, 185. Nod, bottle, skin-bag, 66, 68, 82. Nozlim, streams, 130. Nub (or ntiv), to cause to grow, to thrive, 206. Ob (or ov), bottle, 115. Oni, affliction, 142. Ovad, perishing one, 143. Pahthaakh, vent, 1 15. Paqqtwth, gourds, cucumbers, 91. Pathbag, meat, dainties, 211. Pennanim, corals, ' rubies ' ? 203. Peri, fruit, 51, 60, 95, 106, 183, 245, 247. Phahratz, to break down, to abound with, 129 [not 'overflow']. Qahbatz, to collect, to gather, 180. APPENDIX B. 425 Qaklal, to curse, 71. Qahphah, to draw up, to coagulate, 242. Qubaath, lowest contents, dregs, 176, 177. Raa, friend, neighbor, 240. Raduph, to pursue, 159. Rahah, to look, to desire, 136, 137. Rahpad, to refresh, 151. Raiakh, smell, odor, 151. Rashish, firsts = firstfruits, 100. Reqakh, spice, 154. Rimmon, the pomegranate, 52, 81, 154. Risk, poverty, 143. Rozenim, weighty men = princes, 142. Run, to overcome, 124. Sahbah, to soak, to tope, 178. Sahdeh, a plain, field, 62, 140, 146, 173, 247. Sahkar, wages, reward, 145 (foot-note), 163. Sahr (sour), leaven, 220. Samaakh, to be joyful, to make glad, to cheer, 69, 125, 149, 247. Saph, a bowl, 247. Sarim, princes, 221. Shahkol, to bereave, to be sterile, 248. Shahqat, to rest, to settle, 199. Shahihah, to drink, 9, 15, 21, 41, 43, 59, 60, 61, 64, 68, 70, 71, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, S^, 85, 87, 88, 89, 94, 104, 106, in, 113, 114, 120, 122, 127, 131, 140, 142, 143, 148, 152, 160, 164, 165, 179, 188, 191, 192, 207, 211, 228, 229, 231, 232, 236, 240, 241, 242, 243, 245, 248. Shemen, oil, 96, 98, 101, 102, 106, 125, 244. Shenath, sleep, 200. Shethiah, the drinking, 100. Shinnaim, teeth, 132. Shiqqui, drinking, 217. Shir, a song, 165. Shuahlim, foxes, jackals, 152. Shuq, abound [not to overflow], 227. Simkhah, gladness, pleasure, 96, 1 1 7, 134, 148, 164. Sukkoth, booths, xvii, 156. Tahmar, palm tree, 153. Tankhiwiim, consolations, 186. Tapukhim, apples, 151. Tapickoth, perverse things, deceits, 137. Theanah, a fig, fig tree, 52, 92, 107, 126, 151, 184, 241. Tivuah, produce (translated ' increase '), 47, 100. Tov.. good, spoken of the heart when excited and pleased, 75, 78, 82, 86, no, 148. Tzemed, pair, yoke, acre, 159. Tzenmaah, thirsty one, 61, 121. Tzevahkah, outcry, 160. Yahbask, to be dried up=to perish, 226. Yahshar, straight, upright, 108. Yevul, produce, 241. Yitzhar, olive-and-orchard-fruit (trans- lated 'oil'), 52, 53, 56, 94, 100, 104, 106, 107, 189, 217, 218, 227, 244. Zahakv, gold, 108. Zahroth, strange woman, 137. Zaith, olive, oliveyard, 31, 52, 67, 74, 81, 91, 94, 114, 128, 241. Zaker, memorial, 224. Zarorim, pulse, 212. Zenuth, fornication, 219. Zoaphim, sad, 'worse liking,' 212. Zolal, spendthrift, waster, glutton, 57, 135- THE NEW TESTAMENT. I. Greek Words translated Wine, Strong Drink, and Vinegar. Gleukos, sweet- wine. It occurs once : being 'full of it.' Oinos, wine = the juice of the grape. It Matthew. 9. 17 (thrice), new wine {oinos neos) not to be put into old, closed skin-bags, but into new ones. [27. 34, the received Greek text has oxos, mingled with gall, as offered to Christ on the cross, and rejected ; but several ancient codices read oinos. ] Mark. 2. 22 £four times), new wine not to be put into old, closed skin -bags, but into new ones. 54 — Acts 2. 13, the disciples charged with occurs thirty- two times. 15. 23, myrrhed wine offered to Christ on the cross, but rejected, Luke. 1. 15, prediction that John the Baptist should drink neither wine nor strong drink. 5. 37, 38 (thrice), new wine not to be put into old skin-bags, but into new ones. 7. 33, John came drinking no wine. 10. 34, the good Samaritan poured into the wounds of the half-killed trav- eler oil and wine. 426 APPENDIX B. John. 2. 3, wine deficient at the marriage feast at Can a. 2. 9, the ruler of the feast tasted the wine made from water. 2. io, the practice of presenting choice wine {oinos kalos) first. 1. io, the bridegroom charged with keep- ing the choice wine till the last. 4. 46, a reference to the place where the water was made wine. Romans. 14. 21, good not to drink wine when it causes a brother to stumble. Ephesians. 5. 18, not to be drunk (surcharged) with wine, in which is dissoluteness. 1 Timothy. 3, 8, deacons not to be given to much wine (oino polio) 5. 23, Timothy to use a little wine (pligo oino) medicinally. Titus. 2. 3, the older women not to be given to much wine. Revelation. 6. 6, the growing wine. 14. 8, Babylon's wine of the wrath (heat) of her fornication. 14. 10, the wine of the wrath of God. 16 19, the cup of the wine of the Divine wrath. 2, Babylon making the people drunk with the wine of her fornication. 3, Babylon's wine of the wrath (heat) of her fornication. 13, with food and luxuries. 15, the wine-press. [In various texts oinos is understood, though not actually written. This is noticeably the case in Luke 5. 39, where it is thrice implied in conjunction with the adjectives 'old' and 'new.'] Of compounds into which the word OINOS enters we have the following : — Oinopotees, a wine-drinker, one ad- dicted to wine, Matt. II. 19, and Luke 7- 34- Paroinos, near to wine, a wine-guest, present at wine-parties, I Tim. 3. 3, and Titus I. 7. Oinophlugiais, 'to excesses of wine,' not indulged in by Christians, I Pet. 4. 2. SiKERA, strong drink, occurs once — Luke I. 25, in the angel's prediction con- cerning John the Baptist's abstinence from wine and strong drink. Oxos, sour wine {oinos, 'wine,' understood) = vinegar, occurs Matt. 27. 28; Mark 15. 36; Luke 23. 36; John 19. 29, 30, — all referring to the vinegar presented to Jesus on the cross, and received by Him because unmixed with any stupefying wine or other drug. II. Greek Words translated Vine, Vineyard, Fruit of the Vine, Grapes, and Clusters. 1. Ampelos, vine, occurs in the following connections : — Matthew. 26. 29, ' fruit of the vine.' Mark. 14. 25, ' fruit of the vine.' Luke. 22. 18, ' fruit of the vine.' John. 15. 1, 'I am the true vine.' 15. 4, 'abide in the vine.' James. 3. 12, 'can a vine bear figs ? ' Revelation. 14. 8, 'clusters of the vine of the earth.' 2. Ampelona, vineyard, occurs in these texts- Matthew. 20. 14, 17, 'laborers into his vineyard.' 21. 28, ' go work to-day in my vineyard.' 21. 33, 'a certain man planted a vine- yard. ' Mark. 12. 1, 'a certain man planted a vine- yard.' Luke. 13. 6, ' a fig tree planted in his vineyard.' 20. 9, 'a certain man planted a vine- yard.' 1 Corinthians. 9. 7, 'who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not the fruit of it ? ' [Ampelourgos, vine- worker, occurs Luke 13. 7, and is translated ' the dresser of his vineyard.'] APPENDIX B. 427 3. To geneemata tees ampelou, ' the offspring of the vine,' occurs Matt. 26. 29; Mark 14. 25; Luke 22. 18, and is in each place translated 'the fruit of the vine.' 4. Staphulee, ' grapes,' used as a collective term, and translated ' grapes ' in — Matthew. 6. 16, * neither do men gather grapes from thorns.' Revelation. the grapes are fully ripe ' (pi. staphulai). Luke. 6. 44, 'nor of a bramble-bush do they gather grapes.' 14. 18, 5. Botrus, 'a cluster,' occurs Rev. 14. 8, 'gather the clusters' (botruos). III. Greek Words translated Leaven, Unleavened Bread, Drunkenness, Drunkard, Drink, Temperance, Sober. I. Zumee, leaven, that which causes fermentation. It occurs nine times. 1 Corinthians. 5. 6, a little leaven leavens the whole lump. 5. 7, the old leaven to be purged out. 5. 8, the Lord's Supper to be kept, not with the old leaven, the leaven of malice and wickedness. Matthew. 13. 13, the kingdom of heaven compared to leaven. 16. 6, the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees to be avoided. 16. I2 V the false teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees compared to leaven. Mark. 8. 15, the leaven of the Pharisees and Herodians to be shunned. Luke. 12. 1, the leaven of the Pharisees de- scribed as hypocrisy. 13. 21, the kingdom of heaven like to hidden leaven. Galatians. 5. 9, a little leaven leavens the whole lump. The verbal form of this word appears in Matt. 13. 33; Luke 13. 21 ; 1 Cor. 5. 6; and Gal. 5. 9. 2. Azuma, translated 'unleavened bread,' properly 'unleavened things,' occurs in — Matthew. 26. 1 7, ' the feast of unleavened bread ' (things). Mark. 14. 21, the first day of unleavened bread (things). Luke. 22. 7, the day of unleavened bread (things). Acts. 20. 6, the days of unleavened bread (things). 1 Corinthians. 5. 8, the unleavened bread (things) of sincerity and truth. 'Unleavened,' as a verb, occurs I Cor. 5-7- 3. Methee, drunkenness, strictly signifies fulness of drink, and only implies inebriation when connected with the use of an intoxicating article. It occurs in Luke 21. 33 (plural); Gal. 5. 21 (plural). 4. Methuon, one drunk, or filled full, occurs Matt. 24. 49 (plural). 5. Methuosos, drunkard, a hard and deep drinker, occurs 1 Cor. 5. 11, and 6. 10 (plural). 6. Methuo,* to be drunk, or filled to the full; and Methusko, to make drunk, or 'surcharged,' occur — * In many languages, words originally signifying fulness acquired a secondary sense. Surenne's French Dictionary (1867) affords this illustration : — Soul, e. adj. satiated, cloyed, drunk ; full. Saul, s. one's fill, one's belly-full. Souler, va. to fill, to satiate ; to fuddle. 428 APPENDIX B. Luke. 12 45, 'and to be drunken' (methusko- metws). John. 2. io, ' and when men have well drunk ' (jnethusthosi). Acts. 2 15, ' these are not drunken ' (inethu- onsiti). 1 Corinthians. II 12, 'and another is drunken' (me- thuei, filled-out). 1 Thessalonians. 5.7,' they that be drunken (methus- komenoi) are drunken {methuousiri) in the night.' Revelation. 1 7, 2, ' and the inhabitants of the earth have been made drunk' (emethus- theesari). 17. 6, ' drunken {methuousan = gorged) with the blood of the saints.' 7. Enkrateia, temperance, self-restraint of the passions. Acts. 24. 25, ' and as he reasoned of righteous- ness, temperance.' Galatians. 5. 22, 23, ' but the fruit of the Spirit is . . . temperance.' 2 Peter. 1. 6, 'and to knowledge (add) tem- perance.' [The verbal form, enkrateuomai, oc- curs I Cor. 9. 25, 'and every man that striveth for the mastery is temperate (restrains himself) in all things.' The adjective enkratee is rendered 'sober ' in Titus I. 8. 8. Neepho, sober (abstinent). 1 Thessalonians. 5. 6. 'let us watch and be sober.' 5. 8, ' let us who are of the day be sober. ' 1 Timothy. 3. 2, let him (the bishop) be vigilant (abstinent). 3. 11, let them (deacons' wives) be sober. 2 Timothy. 4. 5, 'but watch thou.' Titus. 2. 2 (of aged men), ' sober.' 1 Peter. I. 13, 'be sober.' 4. 7, 'be ye therefore sober (sober- minded), and watch unto prayer.' 5. 8, 'be sober.' [The word sophron and its connections signifying ' sober-minded,' are translated 'sober,' 'soberly,' in the following pas- sages : — Acts 26. 25 ; Rom. 12. 3 ; 2 Cor. 5. 13; I Tim. 2. 9; 1 Tim. 2. 15; I Tim. 3. 2; Titus 2. 4, 12; 1 Peter 4. 7. In Titus 2. 2, the translation is 'temperate,' and in ver. 8 it is 'sober- minded' — the form that should have been uniformly employed.] IV. Other New Testament Greek Terms explained in the Notes. Adeelos, immediately, 334. Adokimos, unapproved, rejected, 334. Adunatos, one who is unable, 327. Agapee, love, love-feast, 339, 348. Agonizomai, to struggle, to contend, 333. Aiphnidios, unforeseen, 299. Aischrokerdees, eager for unjust gain, 368. Akataschetos, uncoercible, 381. Aleetheia, truth, 328. Aleeihinos, true, real, 310. Alenron, fine meal, flour, 269. Amphoteros, both, 265, 293. Anthropos, a man, 267, 303, 324. Antleema, a bucket, 309. Antleo, to draw out, 302. Apecho, to hold off, to abstain, 366. Aphormee, a means, occasion, 348. Apollumi, to destroy, 265, 289. Aproskopos, not a cause of stumbling, 337. Architriklinos, the chief guest, president, 302. Artos, bread, a loaf, 295. Asked, to work up, to exercise, 317. Askos, a skin-bag, a bottle, 265, 289, 293. Asotia, dissoluteness, 352. Astheneema, weakness, scruple, 317. Astheneia, weakness, 372. Ballo,X.o place, to put, to cast, 265,289,293. APPENDIX B. 429 Bared, to be weighty {passive, weighed down), 299. Baruno, to be heavy or dull, 299. Brdma, food, 323, 370. Brosis, food, 323 Cholee, gall, 287. Chorea, to give place, to hold, 302. Chraomai, to use, 371 {chrb). Chreestoteros, better, 294. Daimonion, a demon, 267. Deipnon, chief meal, supper, 338. Diachleuazo, to jeer outright, 312. Diakonos, a servant, 302. Diakrino, to discriminate, to be in doubt of, 326. Didachee, teaching, what is taught, 272. Dikaioo, to treat as righteous, to show to be righteous, 295. Dikaids, righteously, 345. Dibkb, to follow after, to pursue, 324. Dipsab, to thirst, 275. Dokimos, approved, accepted, 324. Doulagogeb, to lead as a slave is led, 334. Douleub, to enslave, 332. Douloo, to be enslaved to, devoted to, 378. Duo, two, 302. Echo, to have, to hold, 302, 309. Eidb, to see, to know, 302. Eidos, form, aspect, 366. Eilikrineia, sincerity, 328. Ekched, to pour out, to spill, 265, 289, 293- Ekneepho, to return to a sober state, to awake, 345. Ekpeirab, strongly to tempt, 261. Elaion, oil, 297. Elassbn, inferior, worse, 303. Eletctheria, liberty, 348. Enthusneesis, device, 315. Epieikes, gentleness, forbearance, 355. Epiteleb, to complete, to perfect, 347. Esthib, to eat, 266, 274, 295, 296, 299, 298 {phage), 338 {phagein). Etiarestos, well pleasing, acceptable, 324. Eucharisteb, to give thanks, 276. Euchee, a vow, 315, 316. Euphrainb, to make glad, 298. Euscheemenos, becomingly, 322. Exesti, is possible (in a moral sense), what it is possible to do with a good conscience, 330. Exousiazb, to have power over {passive, to be subject to), 330. Georgos, a worker of the ground, agricul- turist, 274, 290. Greegoreb, to be wakeful, to watch, 360. Hagibsunee, holiness, 347. Heemera, day, 276, 312, 360. Hekastos, each one, 338. Hora, hour, 372. Hosakis, as often, 343. Hudor, water, 266, 289, 302. Hudrios, of water, 302. Hudropeied, to be a water drinker, 302. Hupodeigma, a pattern, 384. Htipogrammos, a writing-copy, example, 384- Hupolambanb, to take up, to imagine, 312. Hupopiazb, to press or strike under, 334. Hussbpos, hyssop, 311. Hustereb, to fail, to run short, 301. Iakbb, Jacob, 309. Idios, one's own, 338. ICainos, new, superior, 276. Kakos, evil, 324, 375, 381. Kalamos, a cane, a reed, 288, 291. Kaleb, to call, to invite, 301. Kalos, beautiful, good, choice, 303, 382. Kana, Cana, 301. Katakrino, to condemn, 326. Katahib, to dissolve, to demolish, 342. Katharos, pure, 324. Keiomai, to lie {passive, to be placed), 3". Kleptees, a thief, 360. Kbmos, revelry, 322, 349. Kraipalee, seizure, debauch, 299. Kreas, flesh (dead), 324. Ktisis, creature, ordinance, 383. Ktisma, created thing, 370. Kuriakos, of the Lord, 338. Lambano, to take, 300. Leenos, (wine-) press, 273. Lego, to say, to speak, 312. Lithinos, of stone, 302. Malakee, malady, illness, 263. Mestob, to fill, 312. Metreetees, a measure, 302. Mignumi, to mix, to mingle, 287. Mikros, little, 328. Molusmos, defilement, 347. Monos, alone, only, 266. Neos, new, young, 265, 289, 293, 378 {fleas'). Nomos, law, 348. Nosos, sickness, disease, 263. Nux, night, 360 {nuktos). Oikodespotees, master of the house, 273. Oligos, little, 371. Oiideis, no one, 294. Paideud, to train up, to discipline, 378. Palaios, old, 265, 289, 293, 294. Paradidomi, to deliver, to betray, 343. Pas, all, 290, 295, 303, 330, 332, 333, 347, 348, 366, 375- Pateer, father, 276. Peegee, a spring, 309. Peinab, to hunger, 339. Peirasmon, state of trial, temptation, 264. Perititheemi, to place round, 291, 311. Phagos, an eater, a glutton, 267. 430 APPENDIX B. Phero, to bear, to carry, 302 (eenenkan). Philarguria, love of money, 375. Phragmos, inclosure, fence, 273, 290. Phreear, a well, 309. Pimplee?ni, to fill, 311 {pleesantes). Pino, to drink, 266, 274, 276, 290, 291, 292, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 343. Pleeroo, to fill up, 353. Pneuma, spirit, 353. Poieo, to do, 343. Polus, much, 368, 378. Poneeros, evil, 264, 366. Posis, drink, 357. Poteerion, a drinking- vessel, a cup, 266, 275, 289, 290, 300, 343. Polis, drink, 323. Potizo, to give to drink, 275. Prolambano, to take first, to snatch up, 338. Prosecho, to give to, be addicted to, 368. Proskomma, a stumbling, a cause of stumbling, 322, 324. Psuchros, cold, 266. Puknos, frequent, 372. Purgos, a tower, 274. Rheegnumi, to rend, to burst, 265, 289, 293- Rhiza, a root, 375. Sarx, flesh, 346, 348. Saton (pi. sata), a measure = "1% Eng- lish gallons, 267. Skandalizo, to ensnare, to cause to trans- gress, 263. Skandalon, a snare, a means of trans- gression, 273, 322. Skeuos, a vessel, 311. Smumizo, to mingle with myrrh, 291. Soma, body, 334. Sophia, wisdom, 295. Spongon, 2l sponge, 288, 291, 31 1. Stomachon, stomach, 372. Suchar, Sychar, 308. Sumpkero, to hold together, to be of advantage, 330. Sumpheron, advantage, benefit. Sitnteereo, to watch over, to hold together, to preserve, 265, 293. Technee, art, 315. Technon, child, 295. Peered, to watch over, to preserve, 303. Teleioo, to fulfill, 311. Thelo, to wish, 294. Theos, God, 290. Tis, a certain one, 339. Titheemi, to place, to set, 303. Treis, three, 302. Tritos, third, 312. Trogo, to craunch, to eat, 274. APPENDIX C. The application of 'Yayin' and • Oinos' to the unfermented juice of the grape. Those who are eager to array the Scriptures in opposition to the Temperance cause, either avowedly or tacitly reason thus: — "The juice of the grape when called wine was always fermented, and being fermented, was always intoxicating." This can only mean that the Hebrew yayin and the Greek oinos were always used to designate the juice of grape in a fermented state ; and that being so, it was of necessity possessed of an alcoholic and intoxicating quality. But to sustain these assumptions it would be requisite for their authors to offer a body of evidence more voluminous than they have ever attempted to collect, and utterly beyond their power to adduce. They would need to make it probable (at least) that wherever these terms occur, in all ancient literature, a fermented and intoxicating substance is denoted ; and no such probability could be established, even were the stupendous research demanded for the undertaking to be forthcoming. On the contrary, both members of the proposition can be disproved, and a single example in disproof would suffice to destroy the theory, which needs for its special purpose a rule without an exception. 1. Taking the second assumption first, it is demonstrable that even if all the ancient wines were fermented, they were not all intoxicating. To suppose that a fermented article must be intoxicating is an obvious fallacy, in sight of the* familiar fact that though nearly all the bread we eat is fermented not a particle is inebriating, and that the greatest bread-eater is never known to be in the slightest degree drunk. The explanation is simple : the alcohol formed in the dough (by the action of the yeast on the sugar of the flour) is expelled in the baking ; and when it is known that a large class of ancient wines were boiled and reduced to a jelly state, the conclusion in regard to their non-alcoholic state is clear to any but the most prejudiced mind. When it is also known that the custom of filtering away the gluten of grape-juice was common, in order to break its strength, and that wine was mixed with two, three, and even four times its own bulk of water, the result of fermentation must have been to provide (as in ginger beer) a liquid practically unlike what is conceived of when mention is made of an ' intoxicating drink.' It is, therefore, a hasty and entirely erroneous conclusion, that even fermented grape-juice must always have been consumed in the form of an alcoholic and inebriating fluid. 2. But it is no less rash and fallacious to maintain that the Hebrew yayin and oinos were employed to distinguish fermented grape-juice from the grape-juice in an unfermented state. (i) This hypothesis is invested with much antecedent unlikelihood, from the absence of any corresponding term, either Hebrew or Greek, for unfermented grape-juice. The Hebrew, it is true, has ahsis, and the Greek gleukos ; but ahsis is first applied to the juice of pomegranates, and seems to be a poetical expression for the juice of fruit newly expressed, and doubtless unfermented, but not distin- guished as such by the name bestowed on it. (See Prel. Dis., xxiii; Notes, 154, 228, 232 ; and Appendix B, 416.) Gleukos is properly an adjective signifying ' sweet,' 432 APPENDIX C. and oinos is always implied, so that gleukos is oinos in a certain condition, — one of great sweetness, frequently but not necessarily free from fermentation. (See PreL. Dis., xxiii, xxxvi; Notes 116, 312 — 314, 378; and Appendix B.) (2) If appeal is made to etymology, the balance of evidence as to yayin strongly supports the view that that term was applied to grape-juice, without any reference, direct or indirect, to the process of fermentation. As to oinos — its derivation from yayin, the most probable of all the conjectures on that head, would disengage it in a similar manner from any necessary connection with the fermentative action and its results. (3) When we inquire into the actual usage of these words we shall see how unfounded is the theory that limits the sense of both terms to the fermented juice of the grape. (a) Yayin. — Though yayin occurs 141 times in the Old Testament, the context, in a great majority of cases, does not furnish an indication as to its condition, whether fermented or otherwise. The first time the name occurs (Gen. ix. 21) it is applied to grape-juice which had fermented; but it is most probable that Noah was ignorant of the fact ; and who supposes that whatever appellation he gave the expressed juice would have respect to its inebriating quality? In the case where Jacob brings wine to Isaac, the nature of the yayin is not hinted at, but the Jewish commentator refers to it as wine that had been ' reserved in its grapes ' since the Creation — a proof that he did not consider either yayin, or the Chaldee equivalent, khamar, limited to a fermented liquid. The same usage recurs in the Targum paraphrase of Cant. viii. 2, where the righteous are promised the blessing of ' drinking old wine stored up in its grapes ' since the commencement of the Creation or present dispensation. Baal Hatturim refers to ' wine in the grapes ' at Pentecost; and on Deut. xxii. 14, 'the pure blood of the grape,' the Targumists dwell on the quantity of red wine which should be drawn out from one grape- cluster. ■ In the prophecy of Jacob, Gen. xlix. 1 1, we have — " He shall wash his garments in wine, And (shall wash) his clothes in the blood of grapes " ; where the genius of Hebrew poetry requires that ' wine ' {yayin) in the first line shall be considered to answer in sense to ' blood of grapes ' in the second line. In Deut. xxviii. 39, ' thou shalt plant vineyards, and dress (them), but the yayin thou shalt not drink, and shalt not gather,' the allusion to 'gathering,' is most probable to yayin as wine in the grapes, and hence as used collectively for the grapes ; and in Jer. xl. 10, 12, gathering yayin is, beyond all doubt, spoken of the grapes in which, as in natural bottles, the yayin is contained. In Isa. xvi. 10, 'the treaders shall tread (out) no wine in their presses ' ; and Jer. xlviii. 33, ' I have caused wine to fail from the winepresses: none shall tread with shouting,' the only question in doubt can be whether the reference is to the grapes holding the wine, or to the wine as flowing from the grapes : no one can pretend that the term is applied to the fermented juice of the grape. In Psa. civ. 15, the yayin which 'makes glad the heart of man ' is classed with products of the earth, to whose natural properties the Psalmist alludes as indicating the grace and power of the Creator. The con- nection of yayin with milk (Cant. v. I ; Isa. lv. 1) brings before the mind a rural image of fresh-pressed juice drunk with fresh-drawn milk; and in Lam. ii. 12, the plaint of the children — ' where is corn and wine ? ' — is most naturally construed as pointing to a famine of the fruits of the earth, including the fruit of the vine in its vintage state. (b) Oinos.— As the Greek translations of the Hebrew Bible nearly uniformly render yayin by oinos, all the above considerations in favor of yayin as embracing APPENDIX C. 433 unfermented grape-juice apply also to oinos. In Deut. xxxii. 14, also, the Lxx. renders ' the pure (foaming) blood of the grape ' by ' and the blood of the grape he drank — wine.' The peculiar use of y ay in for the grape, as containing vine- juice, is paralleled by the words of Nymphodorus, who speaks of Drimacus as 'taking wine from the fields.' (See p. 198 of the Notes.) Among other argu- ments against identifying oinos with fermented grape-juice (beyond those of its derivation from yayin, and the undoubted use of gleukos to signify unfermented wine), the following may be stated: — (i.) The intimate relation between oinos and words used for describing the vine and its appurtenances. The most ancient name for 'vine' was oinee or oina ; and long after ampelos had become the common name for vine, oina retained its place in poetry. Euripides has both oina (vine) and oinantha (vine-shoot or blossom). To this category belong oinopedee (vineyard), oinaron (vine-leaf), oinaris (vine-tendril or branch), oinophutos (planted with the vine), oinotrop (vine-prop), and many others. That there is a common etymological relation between these words and oin-os cannot be doubted; and the fact of that relation is subversive of the theory that oinos implies the idea of the ' fermenting ' process. (ii.) There are a great variety of passages in which wine is spoken of as produced within the grape and the cluster. Pindar describes wine as the ' child of the vine ' {ampelou pais). iEschylus (' Agam.', 970) describes Zeus as bringing wine (oinon) 'from the green grape,' which F. A. Paley (in his admirable edition of that poet) notices as an allusion to the divine action in bringing the grape-juice to maturity at the vintage. Euripides ('Phoenix,' 230) refers to a particular vine which distilled 'daily nectar — a fruitful cluster ' ; and the learned editor illustrates this by the tradition that a cluster of this vine ripened every day, and supplied the daily libation of wine for Bacchus. Anacreon (Ode 49) speaks of the oinos as 'offspring of the vine' {gonon ampelou), and as ' imprisoned {pepedeemenon) in fruit upon the branches ' ; and he sings (Ode 51) of the treaders 'letting loose the wine,' — where the poetical imagery refers not, as some one has said, to the grape-juice as only figuratively wine, but to literal wine, as first imprisoned, and then gaining its freedom ; — else the whole beauty of the figure disappears. Nonnos, in his 'Bacchanal Songs,' refers (xii. 42) to the grape-bunch (botrus) as the wine-producer (pinotokori) ; and he describes the vineyard as flushing with the wine to which it thus gives birth. (iii.) The juice of the grape at the time of pressure is distinctly denominated oinos. Papias, a Christian bishop who lived at the close of the apostolic age, relates an extravagant current prediction of a time when the vine should grow to a won- drous size; and each grape should yield, when pressed, twenty-five measures of wine — oinon. (See Notes, p. 276.) Proclus, the Platonist philosopher, who lived in the fifth century, and annotated the 'Works and Days' of Hesiod, has a note on line 611, the purport of which is to explain that after the grape-bunches have been exposed ten days to the sun, and then kept ten days in the shade, the third process was to tread them and squeeze out the wine — kai triton outos epitoun ekthlibontes ton oinon. A careful search through classical literature would, no doubt, bring to light numerous passages where oinos was applied to the juice of the grape before its fermentation was possible ; but the foregoing remarks will be sufficient to indicate the fallacy of the contrary assumption. The extract from Proclus it in itself perfectly conclusive. 55 APPENDIX D. Wines, Ancient and Modern. That intoxicating wines, both fermented and drugged, were in extensive use in ancient times, is what no one disputes. It would be rank folly to do so. On the other hand, it is equal folly to affirm, — what multitudes nevertheless constantly do, — that zmintoxicating wines were unknown in antiquity, or regarded with little favor by the wise and good. To set this matter at rest, we have prepared a series of extracts and translations from ancient and modern authors, showing that the class of substances known under the name of Wine, in various ages and countries, com- prehended, not only fully fermented wines and drugged potions, the 'poison of dragons,' but a large variety of drinks from the grape-juice, carefully prepared so as to keep fermentation at its minimum, to pure or boiled grape-juice absolutely free from all taint of fermentation or alcohol. In our Preliminary Dissertation and Appendix C, the mere word question is settled by induction — here we have only to do with things — things practically and theoretically quite contrasted with port, sherry, and tent. To deal alike with wines so varied and different, would be a case of unparalleled fanaticism. I. Original Authorities on Ancient Wines. In the absence of precise knowledge of the nature of the wines and other 'liquor of grapes,' which the ancient Jews in Palestine were in the habit of using, an approximation has been sought among those in ordinary consumption by the Greeks and Romans. Since garbled citations have often been furnished from classic authors, no apology need be offered for more extended quotations and care- ful translations, with comments interspersed for the illustration of a subject which, though familiar enough to the farmer and peasant in the southern lands of the vine, must unavoidably be obscure even to the educated classes of Britain and America. Pliny devoted the whole of the 14th Book of his Historia Naturalis (A. D. 60) to the consideration of potable liquors, and his concluding observations convey a clear conception as to their universal use in vine countries. (We cite from Jahn's Leipsic edition.) Duo sunt liquores humanis corporibus gratissimi, intus vini, /oris olei, arboritm e genere ambo prcecipui, sed olei necessarius. Nee segniter in eo vita elaboravit. Quanto tamen in potu ingeniosior adparebit, ad bibendum generibus centum octo- ginta quinque, si species vero cestimentur, pcene duplici mimero excogitatis, tantoque paucioribus olei — "There are two liquors most grateful to the human body, wine for internal use, oil for outward application, both of them principally from some kind of tree,' but oil a necessity. The life of man has been employed, and not sluggishly, in their invention. Yet how much greater is the amount of ingenuity APPENDIX D. 435 bestowed on the drink, will be apparent from there having been 185 kinds invented for drinking, which, if species were counted in the number, would be nearly- doubled, but of oils there be fewer by far." The distinction as to genus and species will appear from an extract (xiv. 6. 2) concerning fashionable wines : — Secunda nobilitas Falerno agro erat, et eo tnaxume Faustiniano — "The second rank belonged to the Falernian district, and in that most of all to the Faustian." The Faustian was a subordinate district in the Falernian, and after describing minutely (by reference to a bridge, the left hand, a village, and distances by miles) the locality of each, he continues : — Nee ulli nunc •vino major atcctoritas ; solo vinorum flamma accenditur — "No district has greater note in the matter of wine; by it alone of all wines, a blaze is lighted up." Tria ejus genera, austerum, dulce, tenue. Quidam ita distingunt : su??zmis collibus cau- cinum gigni, mediis Faustinianum, imis Falernum — "There are three kinds, the rough, the sweet, and the thin* Some persons distinguish them thus : — the Cau- cinum is produced on the highest range of hills, the Faustinium on the middle, and the [true] Falernian on the lowest." Thus when the Patrician host promised his guests 'Falernian,' they might, according to his reputation for an excellent cellar or otherwise, expect the best or the worst of the three species. Some wines, it seems, had a prestige on medicinal grounds, similar to that in the present day for old Port, London stout, or bitter beer, founded on some 'opinion of the faculty,' in the acquired taste of the individual, or its apparent want of positive disagreement with his system. Pliny, after noticing with disgust the discordant recommendations of the faculty as to wine for persons in health, pur-, sues the subject with reference to cases in which health was impaired (xxiii. 2. 24). Nunc circa cegritudines sermo de vinis erit. Saluberrimu?n liberaliter genitis Campania quodcunque tenuis simum : volgo vero quod quemque maxume juverit validwn. Utilissimum omnibus sacco VIRIBUS fractis. Meminerimus sucum esse qui fervendo viris musto sibi fecetit. " My dis- course upon wines shall now be with reference to conditions of disease. For the gentry the very thinnest Campanian will be the most wholesome; but to the common people any full-bodied wine that would most support the person. The most useful for everybody is that which has its strength broken by the filter. We must bear in mind that there is a juice \sucus~\ which, by fermenting, would make to itself viris out of the must." The sucus represents the gluten, the detention whereof in the sackcloth while straining the 'must,' prevents it from fermenting and acquiring the viris so dreaded, but the filter could never stop it after it had once generated. This related to ordinary wines, which must not be confounded with such as were purposely compounded with medicinal intent. The Romans being ignorant of distilled liquors, and in the habit of using wines in general of small alcoholic power, had no need of the powerful tinctures prescribed in the present day, but made thin common wines, and even more frequently grape syrups, the vehicle for the admin- istration of drugs. Of wormwood and hyssop, Pliny says (xiv. 16. 5) : — Ex ceteris herbis, jit absinthites in xl. sextariis musti absinthi Pontici libra decocta ad tertias partis, vel scopis absinthi in vinum additis . . . Similiter hyssopites e Cilicio hyssopo unciis tribus in duos congios musti cojectis aut tunsis in vinum. "From other herbs, * Athenseus (i. 48) says, "Galen is represented as saying that the Falernian is fit to drink from its fifteenth to twentieth year, but after that, is apt to give headaches, and disturbs the nervous system." 436 APPENDIX D. wormwood-wine is made by boiling down to one-third a pound of Pontic worm- wood in forty sextarii of must (a sextarius was nearly a pint and half), or two scopi (say handfuls) of wormwood added to wine. In like manner hyssop wine, by throwing three ounces of Cilician hyssop into two congii of must (a congius was hardly a gallon), or crushing it into wine." Thus, whether must or fermented wine were used, one of them formed the basis of the compound, and its quantity was to be in large proportion to that of the drug. Of myrtle (xiv. 16) : — Myrtiten Cato quern admodum fieri docuerit mox paulo indicabimus, Grceci et alio modo. Ramis teneris cum suis foliis in albo musto decoctis, tunsis, libram in tribus musti congiis deferve faciunt, donee duo supersint. — "A little further on we shall show how Cato would have instructed for the making of myrtle-wine. But the Greeks had another method. They beat the tender twigs with their leaves, put them into white must that had been boiled down, a pound to three gallons of must ; they caused it to be boiled down until two remained." Of such wine Columella says, lib. xii. c. 38: — Vinum myttiten ad tormina, et ad alvi proluviem, et ad imbeclllum stomachum sic facito — "After this manner make myrtle- wine, for the gripes, and for a purgative of the bowels, and for weakness of the stomach." * Of hellebore all that Pliny says is (xiv. 16. 5) : — Sic et helleboriten fieri ex veratro nigro Cato docet. — "In this way also Cato instructs how hellebore wine is to be made from the black veratrum." On turning to Cato's own work (cxv) his recipe is found to run thus : — In vinum mustum veratri atri manipulum conjicito in amphoram. Ubi satis efferverit de vino manipulum ejicito ; id vinum servato ad alvum movendam — " Throw a manipulum [a handful] of black hellebore into new wine in an amphora [full]. When it shall have fermented sufficiently, throw the manipulus out of the wine; keep that wine for moving the belly [as an aperient]." The chapter of Pliny which contains these three recipes, relates to artificial wines, and it is apparent that each composition was intended for a medicine rather than a beverage. The last of the three must have been about as nauseous as a modern black draught, t Wormwood might have been used in very small doses by the glutton, as a provocative to eating. The existence of dry wines conceded, the taste for sweet wine, and the ingenuity employed in making it, may be best explained by the recipe left for it, premising, however, that the article does not correspond with that which the English now term 'a sweet wine.' The original is in Columella, De Re Rustica, (xii. c. 27) — Vinum dulce sic facere oportet. Uvas legito, in sole per triduum expandito, quarto die meridiano tempore calidas uvas proculcato, mustum lixivum, hoc est, antequam prcelo pressum sit, quod in lacum musti fluxerit, tollito, cum deferbuerit in sextarios quinquaginta iridem bene pinsitam nee plus uncice ponder e addito, vinum afecibus eliquatum diffundito. Hoc vinum erit suave, firmum, corpori salubre — " Gather the grapes in the bunches — spread them out in the sunshine for three days ; on the fourth day, at the noontide hour, proculcato, tread out the grapes, calidas, while they are hot [by several hours' exposure to the sun's rays] ; take the mustum lixivium, that is, such as should flow into the lake of must before it [the mass of * Mnesitheus, cited by Athenaeus, (ii. 2) says of wine : — " A wholesome physic 'tis when mixed with potions ; heals wounds as well as plasters or cold lotions." Why do not drinkers think of this sort of wine when citing the case of Timothy ? t Alcaeus, quoted by Athenaeus (ii. 2), says : — " Wine sometimes than honey sweeter, Sometimes more than nettles bitter." Alexis, quoted by the same authority (i. 57), says :— " Foreign wine was rare, and that from Corinth 'nful drinking. APPENDIX D. 437 grapes] should be pressed by the beam; cum deferbuerit, when it shall have cooled down [the grapes having been trodden while hot], add to every fifty sextarii [of must] not exceeding an ounce of iris well pounded, rack off the wine by pouring it from the dregs [this being a more careful operation than straining]. This wine will be sweet [or smooth], sound-bodied, and wholesome to the body." Columella knew experimentally what he was teaching, and his plan is theoretic- ally and practically correct, in accordance with modern science. He first directs to gather the grapes in the clusters, a direction which might appear superfluous were it not known from other recipes that the ancients had also a method of gently twisting the stalks, and stripping off the leaves, so as to allow the grapes to wilter on the vine. He here bids you spread out the grapes to the heat of the sun long enough to thicken the juice to the degree known to prevent fermentation ; though this was not the only plan, for sometimes the clusters were hung on poles and trellis. He next instructs to take the grapes up at noon, after they had been exposed for six or seven hours to a southern sun, and, while hot, have them lightly trodden, the naked feet being less likely than a huge wooden beam to break the little cells containing the gluten, i. e. the fermentable matter which, by action of the oxygen of the air, would proceed to ferment. It also more easily admitted of an adjusted pressure, by boys and girls instead of men. The heated state of the grapes was purposely chosen for treading, because the juice would flow more readily under gentle pressure than if the grapes were allowed to cool. This was the second precaution against fermentation. Then as much as fifty sextarii (nine gallons) of the must in the state of mtistum lixivium, such as came flowing into the lake before applying the press, are to be taken, and some orris root to be put to it, finely pounded and not merely crushed, the quantity being carefully specified. For some reason not stated, but doubtless understood at the time, the juice was allowed to cool before the iris was mixed with it. Lastly, it was to be racked off, the mode of doing it being by pouring the wine off the top of the vessel, whereby it would come away much clearer than by straining, which tends to render even a clear wine muddy. The Romans had, likewise, a very luscious wine, of a similar nature, distin- guished by the name of passum, because made from uv 235-6, 238-9, 240, 242-248, 340. Serpents — the action of wine compared to the bite of a serpent, xlvi, 137. Supposed to be fond of wine, which increased the virulence of their poison, 62. The brazen serpent broken to pieces, 92. Shakar (Greek sikera) 'sweet drink,' — see Appendix B, 418. Shakspeare — on 'the invisible spirit of wine,' xliv. Shahkar — see Appendix B, 422. Sibylline oracles — on a period of abun- dant food and joy, 232. Shaw, Dr T. — the meaning of debash, 20. Shicron — name of a Jewish town, 67. Sin — incurred by a neglect to do known good, 382. Slavery — defended, as drinking-customs are, by an appeal to Scripture, 379. Smith, Dr E. — on alcohol in any quantity as a disturber and weakener, xliv, 262 (foot-note). Smith, Rev. Dr Pye — on the vine after the Deluge, 10. Smith's, Dr W., 'Dictionary of the Bible ' — error as to tirosh, xviii. Smith's, Dr W., Latin and English Dic- tionary — quoted, on ebrius, etc., 9. Snares — to be avoided, 263. Not to be set before others, 273. Sober-minded — for its Scripture use, see Appendix B, under sophron, 428. Sodom — wine of, 13. Vine of, 62 (foot- note). Solima — stone wine-presses at, xxx. Sophocles — his use of neepho, 363. Soraq — see Appendix B, 419. Sowing and reaping — their inseparable connection, 350-1. Speechley — his work on the vine quoted, 180-1. Spirit — Webster gives twenty-one defini- tions of, xxiii (foot-note). Sponge — dipped in vinegar, 288. Stanley, Dean — on methui, xxii (foot- note). On a new leaf of the Bible to be turned, xxxiii. On methud, 341. On the words, ' as often as ye drink it, ' 343 (also foot-note). Erroneously attributes to Mohammedans an aversion to the vine, 390. 466 INDEX. Stephanus — his definition of neepka/ios, 362. Stephens — his received Greek Text, A. D. 1550, xlvi. Steudel, Dr — on submission to Scripture, xxii. Stowell, Canon — on man causing an ap- parent discord between science and Scripture, xix. Straying — like a drunken man, 114, 164. Strong drink — forbidden to the priests when officiating, 36. Forbidden to the Nazarites, 41. When permitted, 53. Forbidden to Samson's mother, 71. Said to be 'raging,' 133. Not to be desired by princes, 143. Only suited to the hopeless, 144. Becoming bitter to the taste, 165. Ruinous to priests and prophets, 170. Enervating effect of, 181. Forbidden to John the Bap- tist, 292. Stuart, Professor — on Joseph's brethren making merry with him, 21. On the Nazarites not being permitted to use vine-fruit, 44. On the wine used at the passover, 283. Stum — abbreviation of mustum, xl. Stumblingblocks — to be removed, 263-4, 322. Subject — nature of, part of the context, xxiv. Syr and syrceum — referred to, xxvii. Suetonius — his account of Tiberius Csesar, 293 ; of Claudius Ceesar, 315 ; of Nero, 310. Suidas — on g/eukos, xl, 313. His definition of neephalioi thusai, 362. Surfeiting — reproved, 299. Surenne — definition of 'sou/, full, drunken, 427. Swinburne — on the preservation of fresh grapes in Spain, 278. Sycophant — derivation and use of the word, 229. Syrup — derivation of, xxvi. Symmachus's Greek Version of the Old Testament — when prepared, xlix. Quoted, 3, 23, 42, 62, 83, 84, 1 16-17, 1 19-124, 131-2, 134, 151-2, 154, 156, 158-9, 166-7, 169-171, 176, 181, 185, 203, 208. Syriac Version of the Old Testament — quoted 42, 52-3, 57, 65, 70, 77, 85, 108, 113-115, 1 18-9, 124, 126, 129, 13°. I33» *35-i& H3-4, i55> l6o > 163, 165, 167, 169, 1 70-1, 202-3, 208, 217-18, 221-2, 231, 238, 240, 246. Table of Contents, v. Tacitus — on the drinking customs of the ancient Germans, 10. ' Take away the heart ' — how to be under- stood, 219-20. Talmud, composed of the Mishna (the text) and two Gemaras (commen- taries) — sanction of drunkenness at the feast of Purim, 112. On the 'blessings ' for fruit, etc., 218. Refer- ences to the use of wine at the pass- over, 229, 284. Traditions respect- ing the supply of drugged wine to criminals, 287, 291. Targums, expositions of the Old Testa- ment — their authors and character described, xlix. Quoted, 3, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 21-2, 25, 36, 41-2, 46-49, a-53, 60-62, 64-5, 70-1, 77, 79, 80, 82, 85-86, 108-9, II0 > 1 15-16, 118, 120-122, 124, 126-7, i3°> J 33> H3-4, 147-149, 151, 156, 159, 160, 163, 165, 169, 1 70-1, 176, 198, 203, 206, 208, 217-220, 222-3, 22 5-6, 228, 230-1, 236-240, 246-7, 251. Tatham, Archdeacon — his objections to unfermented wine at the Lord's Sup- per, 277. Tatian — his abhorrence of wine, 253. Tavernier, Baron — on the wine used at the Lord's Supper by the Christians of St John, 282. Temperance — true meaning of, 149. Justly used to designate the total abstinence movement, 292, 317-18. Should form a subject of preaching, 318. A fruit of the Spirit, 350. Its comprehensiveness, 377. - Temperance reform — a harbinger of the gospel, 292. Temperate — for use of, in N. T., see Appendix B, under enkratees and sophron, 428. ' Temperate in all things ' — the abuse of this phrase corrected, 334. Temptation — in the garden of Eden, no justification of the use or sale of in- toxicating drinks, 3. Lessons to be drawn from the trial in Eden, 4. Of God, by man, 26. How associated with the use of alcoholic liquors, 261-2, 264. Not chargeable upon God, 380. Theocritus — his allusion to vinegar used by reapers, 77. Theodore, Emperor of Abyssinia — the evil effects of his intemperance, 270. Theodoret — on Tatian's abhorrence of wine, 253. Theodotion's Greek Version of the Old Testament — when composed, xlix. Quoted, 1, 62, 117, 131, 133, 135, 136, 143, 158, 169, 171, 178, 181. Theognis — his use of neepho, 364. Thevenot — on the buckets used in the East, 309. INDEX. 467 Therapeutse ('healers') — their profes- sion, 256. Philo's testimony to their purity and abstinence, 257. Thomson, J. — lines from his ' Seasons,' on palm- wine, 18 (foot-note). Thumos, heat, fury, 391. Times (The) — on paradise, 6. On the destruction of corn in the manufacture of ardent spirits, 132. On armor-plate rolling without strong drink, 1 75. Timothy — to keep himself pure, 371. Might use a little wine, 371-374. Tirosh — not a fluid, but the solid fruit of the vine, 15, 51, 53, 70, 117, 129, 179, 185, 217-220, 223, 226, 236, 244. See also ' Vine-fruit ' and Appendix B, 414. Variously translated. By Wal- ton, mustum, 47, 53, etc. By Arabic, etzer, 'juice,' 47, 52, 104, etc. By St Jerome, vindemice, 52, 106. By Aquila, fruit, 52, 165. By Gesenius, grape, vine-fruit, 165-7. Tirosh-lo-Yayin ('Tirosh not Yayin') —quoted, on the size of grapes in Syria and England, 46. On soveh, 157. On the color of grape-juice, 180- 1 (foot- note). On oil-wine, 197. Tokay wine — how produced, 31. Tongue — in what sense full of deadly poison, 380. Total abstinence — see ' Abstinence ' and ' Temperance. ' 'Touch not, taste not, handle not,' 358. Trench, Archbishop — on the drawing of the water by the servants at Cana, and the character of the miracle wrought, 303. Trees — bearing fruit not to be cut down, 56. Truth — stronger than wine, 187. Sym- bolized by 'living water,' 394. Tyndale's English Version of the New Testament (a. d. 1527) — quoted, 267, 275> 2 95, 303. 317, 328', 333, 355, 366, 367, 372. U Unfermented things — alone permitted at the passover, and why, 27. See Ap- pendix B, under matzah and azumee. Unfermented wine — can it be preserved ? xxxviii. Mr F. Wright's, xxxviii, 86. Made near Cincinnati, xxxviii. How to preserve it, xxxviii, xli. Improved by age, why, xxxix, 294. Whether used at the institution of the Lord's Supper, 277-283. Used by Eastern churches, 282. Reasons for its use by modern churches, 285-6. Recipe for its domestic manufacture, 286. Words for, or applied to [see Tirosh\ Dios- corides, xl. Gleukos, used by Josephus, 18. Suidas, 312-313. Sweet- cider, 314. Khamrah =*= Yayin ; le- gend from Talmud, 15, 25. Tar- gum on Canticles, 151. Boiled wine, 208. Oinos used by Anacreon, 22 ; Philo, 249 ; Papias, 276. Persian sherap and pekmez, ' wine ' ; Turkish, boiled wine or syrup, 443. Arabic nebeedh, unintoxicating wine, 445. Yayin and oinos, 22, 60, and Appendix C, 431. Viniim, used by Aquinas, xxxix, 285 ; by Dindorf, 202 ; by an- cient and modern authors, xxxix, Mont- gomery, 8. Thomson, 18. Macgregor, 312. See 445. Ure, Dr A. — on grape-juice before fer- mentation, as sweet wine, xli. On the prevention of fermentation by re- moval of yeast, 168. Valpy, F. E. J. — on mustum and merum, xli. His derivation of neepho, 362. Vashti — her banquet, 1 10. Vine — planted by Noah, legend of, 9. Cultivated in Egypt, 17, 123-4. Fable of Jotham, 70. Sitting under, a sign of security, 88, 245. Species growing wild, 91, 248. Planted on hill-sides, 188, 225. Price of, in the time of Isaiah, 161. Of Sibmah, 161, 199. Languishing, 165. Dried up, 226. Its wood only fit for fuel, 206. On the phrase 'a vine in thy blood,' 206. ' Fruit of,' 290. A type of Christ, 310. See also Appendix B, under gephen and ampelos. Vine-dressers, 75, 99, 179, 201, 226. Vine-fruit — value of, in the East, xxviii, 93. See Appendix B, under 'Tirosh,'4i4. Vinegar — forbidden to the Nazarites, 41. Given to Ruth, 77. Prophetic allusion to, 121. Proverbs concern- ing, 132, 138. Offered to Christ, mingled with gall, and refused, 287. Offered to Him on the cross, and received, 287-8, 291, 300, 311. Vineyards — Mosaic rules concerning, 39, 40. Their narrow paths, 49. Not to be sown with diverse seeds, 58. Might be plucked by the passer by, 59. Not to be gleaned by the owner, 59. Naboth's, desired by Ahab, 90. Of the wicked, 114. Avoided by the wicked, 115. In flower, 151, 153-4. Solomon's, 155. Measured by yokes, 159. Of 'red wine,' 168. Devastated, 230-1. Parable of, 273, 290. St Paul's reference to, 332. Vinet — on the possibility of great errors in the Church, xxxiii. 468 INDEX. Vintage — of Abi-ezer, a proverb for scarcity, 69. Celebrated by the She- chemites with songs, 71. Failure of, described, 159, 173, 199, 223, 241. Shouting to cease, 162. Prolific, 245. Virgil — on the site of vines, 158. On sweet must, 441. Vow — of the Nazarites, 41. Assumed by St Paul, 315-6. Vulgate (The) Latin Translation of the Old and New Testament — when and by whom executed, xlix. Quoted, 3, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 21-2, 27-29, 31-33, 36, 41-2, 44, 47, 49, 52-3, 55-57, 59- 68, 70-72, 77, 79-86, 88-9, 91-93, 96- 138, 141-144, H7-i5 6 > 158-171, 173- 179, 181-183, 185-189, 191, 198-200, 202-209, 211-12, 214, 217-232, 235- 240, 242-248, 265, 274, 295, 333, 353, 355, 367. W Wages — wasted in intoxicating drinks, 243- Watchfulness — connected with sobriety, 360-1. 'To prayers,' 385. Water — highly valued in the East, 14, 88, 127, 174-5. Israelites murmured for, 29. Song of the tribes, 48. Offer of payment for, by the Israelites, 81. King Saul's cruse of, 83. Supplied to Elijah, 88, Not given to the weary, 114. An emblem of conjugal affec- tion, 130. Given to the thirsty, 140, 164. Proverb concerning, 141. The 'stay of water,' 157. A refreshment to the smith, 175, 205. A cup, if given to a disciple, to be rewarded, 266. Living water, 309. A type of Christ, 335. Represented by Plato as the neephon theos, 'abstemious deity,' 363. The water of life, 394. Water-pots — at the marriage feast in Cana, 302. Water-drinker — meaning of the term, 37i, 373- Webster's (Dr) Dictionary — definition of must as wine, xli. Webster and Wilkinson's ' Notes on the New Testament' — on the phrase 'one is hungry and another is drunken,' 339. On the words ' appearance of evil,' 366. Weisinger — his view that bishops only are restricted to monogamy, xxxvii. Wells used by Abraham's herdsmen, 14. Song of the well, 48. Bethlehem's, 87. Jacob's, 309. Wesley, Rev. John — on the Nazarites, 37. On fortunes made in the liquor traffic, 375-6. On raising a revenue from the sale of the ' poison ' — ardent spirits, 389. On Societies for reforma- tion of manners, 380. Westminster Assembly of Divines — their Annotations quoted, 209, 219, 235. Wetstein — referred to, 378, 389. ' Whatsoever things are true,' etc.— the great principle of Christian life and duty, 355-6. Whitby, Dr — on ' temperate in all things,' 333- Wiclifs English Version of the New Testament (a. d. 1380) — quoted, 267, 292, 295, 301, 303, 317, 328, 372. Wilkinson, Sir G.— on the culture of the vine in Egypt, 17. On the opposite properties of ancient wines, 18. On vineyard- wine and palm-wine, 18. On the use of wine by the kings of Egypt, 19. Williams, Rev. Dr E. — errors of inter- pretation for want of closer search, xxxiv. Wine — its primary relation to the vine- cluster, xx. The name properly applied to the juice of grapes before fermenta- tion, xxxix, 9; see also Appendix C. Preserved in its grapes from the crea- tion, 15, 251. Made from unpressed grapes, 31. Forbidden to the priests when officiating, 36, 209-211. Va- rieties of, 105. Bursting bags for want of vent, 105, 265-6. Wine ' of astonishment,' 120. Mixed and foam- ing, 122. Making glad the heart, 125. Wine 'of violence,' 130. Prepared by Wisdom, 131. Described as 'a mocker,' 133. The lover of, not to be rich, 134. When not to be looked upon (desired), 136-138. Not to be drunk by kings, 143. Only adapted to produce oblivion, 144. Followed after by the Preacher, 147. To be drunk with a merry heart, 148. Causing mirth, 149. Spiced, 154. Mixed with water, 156. Inflaming effect of, 159. Ceasing to abound, 166. Ruinous to priest and prophet, 1 70-1 72. Argument on its title to be accounted the strongest of all things, 187. Asked for by children, 202. Of Helbon, 208-9. Refused by Daniel and his friends, 211. At Belshazzar's feast, 214. Said 'to take away the heart,' 219. Defiling the king and princes of Samaria, 222. Of Lebanon, 224. Failure of, 225. Often condemned, 229. Given to the Nazarites, 230. Drunk in bowls, 231. A defrauder, 239. Inflaming drink, 240. Old preferred to new, 294. Of Arcadia, 295. Opimian, 295. Miraculously produced at Cana, the kind and quan- INDEX. 469 tity considered, 304-307. Mingled with gall and myrrh, 287, 291. St Paul's declaration concerning, 324. Contrasted with the influence of the Holy Spirit, 354-5. Its nutritious value 156 times less than that of beef- steak, 370.- A little allowed to Timo- thy, 371. Use of, by bishops, dea- cons, etc., 367, 377. Of God's wrath, 391-2; and of fornication, 391-393. See also Appendix B, under yayin, ahsis, soveh, khamar, tirosh, shemah- rim, ashishah, khatnah, oinos, gleukos ; and Appendix C. Winebibbers — condemned, 135. Wine countries — their supposed sobriety not real, 171, 235-6. Wine-press — the nature of, and references to those used at Bhadoom and Solima, xxx. Of Zeeb, 69. Abounding with tirosh, 129, 227-8. Trodden by the Messiah, 180. Trodden by Jehovah, 202. Trodden by foreign nations, 228. Small produce of, 244. Of God's wrath, 391, 393. See also Appendix B, under yeqeb, gath, purah, 421. Wine-vat (or wine-fat) — nature of, 290. Wisdom — her invitation to drink of her mixed wine, 131. Justified by her children, 295. Wolff, Rev. Dr — his interviews with modern Rechabites, 196. Women — intemperance of, peculiarly de- grading, 80. Among the ancient Ro- mans prohibited from using wine, 369. In Austria very sober, 369. Wordsworth, Dr — on St Paul's advice to Timothy, 373. Work — the hardest performed without intoxicating drink, 175. Wormwood wine — its nature, 203. See 1 Absinthe.' Worms — destructive to vines, 60. Wounds — associated with wine, 297. Wright, F. — his unfermented sacramental wine favorably noticed by Dr Hassall, xxxviii (foot-note). Improves with age, xxxix. Proved by experiments to con- tain no alcohol, xlii. Words — examples of their various appli- cations, xix, xxxv. Wylie, Rev. J. A. — on the wines of Lebanon, 224. Xenophon — his account of the fall of Babylon, 215. His definition of 'the temperate man ' (enkratees), 317. His account of the ancient eranoi, 338. On the address of Cyrus to his chiefs, 361. Y Yayin, * grape-juice ' — its generic sense, xx. Its derivation, xxv. Different senses, xxvi-vii. See also Appendices B, C, and D. Yitzhar, 'orchard-fruit' — derivation of the name, xxix. See Appendix B. Not oil. Translated 'fruit' by Sep- tuagint, 189. Orchard-fruit, associated with corn and vintage-produce, see Tirosh. Yonge, F. — his definition oineephon, 362. Yeqev, ' press ' — derivation and mean- ing of, xxx, 421. Zabian ' Book of Adam ' — noticed, 160. Zythus (barley- wine or beer), 18. In closing this volume of Sacred Exposition, we would direct the mind of the sincere Student and Truth-Seeker to the marvelous manner in which modern science at last is compelled to lay offerings upon the shrine of Divine Truth. Dr W. B. Richardson, F. R. S., of London, writing in the Medical Times, thus concludes his elaborate inquiries into the action of alcohol : " Speaking honestly, I cannot by the arguments yet presented to me admit the alcohols through any gate that might distinguish them as apart from other chemical bodies. I can no more accept them as foods than I can chloroform, or ether, or methylal. That they produce a temporary excitement is true, but as their general action is quickly to reduce animal heat, I cannot see how they can supply animal force. I see clearly how they reduce animal power, and can show a reason for using them in order to stop physical pain or to stupefy mental pain ; but that they give strength — i. e. that they supply material for construction of vital tissue, or throw force into tissues supplied by other material — must be an error as solemn as it is wide-spread. The true character of the alcohols is, that they are agreeable temporary shrouds. The savage, with the mansions of his soul unfurnished, buries his restless energy under their shadow. The civilized man, overburdened with mental labor or with engrossing care, seeks the same shade ; but it is a shade after all, in which, in exact proportion as he seeks it, the seeker retires from perfect natural life. To resort for force to alcohol, is, to my mind, equivalent to the act of searching for the sun in subterranean gloom, until all is night." What a striking comment that, upon the oldest wisdom — 'Wine IS A mocker.' WILL YOU HELP SPREAD THE TRUTH? Do you ask, dear reader, what truth? Well, suffer me to explain. Our country, and all its great interests of health, industry, intelligence, and morals, is cursed by intemperance ; and the work of the Christian church marred and hindered by its defilement. The great principles of the Temperance movement are, by infidel, sensual, and interested men, opposed with the alle- gation, that the Bible sanctions the use of inebriating liquors, and therefore that drinking is right ! This doctrine has been the bane of the church, and has occasioned the downfall of myriads within its pale, and is still, leading millions more to the same impending doom. I am now an old man in my 78th year, and for over thirty years have had this matter on my mind. From the beginning I rejected the notion that any word of God, truly interpreted, contradicted the verdict of Experience and Science as to the noxious character of strong drink. In my Enquirer, and other periodicals (from 1835 to '43), I held that the ' cup of blessing ' and ' wine the mocker ' must refer to things essentially different in quality. In this position I was sustained by many eminent scholars and writers — such as Stuart, Bush, Bishop A. Potter, Nott, Goodell, Duffield, Chapin, among the clergy, and Chancellor Walworth, Prof. C. A. Lee, E. James and L. M. Sargent, among the laity. In an initial endeavor to explore and explain so elaborate and profound a problem, it was inevitable that some lapses and errors should occur, but after all the criticism, the main position is left untouched and impregnable. English writers, especially three, have pursued the inquiry to the end, and two of them have con- centrated the established results of all previous research, and of their own study, into one great volume, which it seems to me, as to many others better able to judge of the mere learning, demonstrates the harmony of scripture truth with temperance teaching, lifts the whole question out of the region of mystery, and vindicates the Bible from the aspersions of the sensualist and sceptic. THE TEMPERANCE BIBLE COMMENTARY is the book I refer to. The English edition, obtainable here only for three dollars, is now handsomely reprinted, with valuable addi- tions, and can be had FOR TWO AND A HALF DOLLARS, payable on delivery. In referring you to the opinions of learned men and the press as to the character of the work, I solicit you tc subscribe and read, and to induce your friends to do likewise, so God's truth may be promoted, and suffering men may be saved. Edward C. Delavan. Schenectady, N. Y., Feb. 14, 1870. W&tfi. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 027 293 752 7 mm HHL ass Kit mm Hi Ik HH- ni I ■■I