LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ©If»l!,^ tqiitrig^ "^0 Shelf !35^ -^m?^^ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ry^" 'V \ c\^ ^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/worldhlstoricala01gilb THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 1— Liglitlionse on tlie Island of PImros, Alcxiuulriiv. 4— The Temple of Diana at Ephesus. 3— StntiK' of- the Olympian Jupiter. 5— The Mausoleum of Artemisia. 3— The Colossus at Rhodes. U— The Pyramids of Egypt. 7— The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babvlou, -Je THE WORLD: HISTORICAL AND ACTUAL. WHAT HAS BEEN AND WHAT IS. OUR SLOBE II ITS RELATIONS TO OTHER WORLDS, MD BEFORE Miff. Ancient Nations in the Order of their Antiquity. THE MIDDLE AGES AND THEIR DARKNESS. THE PRESENT PEOPLES OF THE EARTH IN THEIR GRADUAL EMERGENCE FROM BARBARISM INTO THE SUNLIGHT OF TO-DAY, AND AS THEY NOW STAND UPON THE PLANE OF CIVILIZATION. TOGETHER WITH USEFUL AND INSTRUCTIVE CHARTS, REFERENCE TABLES OF HISTORY, FINANCE, COMMERCE AND LITERATURE FROM B. C. 1500, TO THE PRESENT TIME. ^ntnerons |Elegant Jlllnstratian^. By frank gilbert, A.M. \\ Late Assistant Tbkasureb U. S. at Chicago and Associate Editok of Chicago Joubkax; Author op The Manual op American Litkbaturk. CHICAGO AND NEW YORK: FAIRBANKS, PALMER & CO. PmT,Ai)Ei,PHiA : p. A. DAVI8. St. Lonia: RICHARD S. PEALE & CO. Cincinnati: ADAMS^S^KTMBALL. San Francisco: A. L. BANCROFT & CO. Salt Lake, Utah: R. M. POWERS. Hillsdale. Mich.: PENFIELD, WILLIAMS & CO. Baltimore: A. C. THOMAS. Sydney, Australia: McNEIL & COFFEE. 1882. dS^ -^ ±^ THE LIBRARTl or CONGRESS Washington! H ^3 ■ Ottaway Pi-intlng Company, Printers. ^1 A. Zeeae & Co., Electrotypei Donohue & Henneberry, Binders. a \ ^ e ib_ ^^t s>\J'. -^^^^ HIS age is at once busy and inqu'iring. The peo- ple have more thirst for knowledge than time to devote to its acquisition, and of that little, much must be given to the cur- rent topics of the day as presented in the newspapers. The aim of The World is to meet the demand of this large class of the public for a volume which shall be ency- clopedic in its range of imforma- tion, yet so written as to be an un- broken account of man's progress in the past and condition in the present. Each chapter forms an essay substantially complete in itself upon the subject an- nounced in the heading. It is also a Imk in a chain of intelhgence which encircles the globe and binds in a grand unity all the known ages. This method, adopted with grave apprehension of its feasibility, was found to be natural and easy to follow. Preliminary to the history and introductory to the body of the work are presented such scientific facts in regard to the heavens above and the earth beneath as were deemed necessary to an intelligent understanding of man's environment. No attempt has been made to give instruction in the sciences, beyond the accomplishment of this object. Modern scholarship has disclosed in dim outline the illimit- able field of prehistoric humanity, and a faint glimpse of that vast field is also afforded for the same introductory purpose. It will be observed that each country or people is presented in the order of its emergence from obscur- ity and followed in its development until the present time. Into the ocean of the Actual debouch the numberless streams of the Historical, from the Nile of Egypt to the Amazon of America. Care has been taken to give to each the relative prominence to which it is entitled by its real weight and influence in the scale of civilization. Separate facts, too, have been treated upon the same principle. There is wide latitude for honest and intelligent difference of opin- ion as to the importance of almost every event, and no two estimates would agree entirely upon details. Every subject which seemed to require pictorial representation to render it more intelligible and in- teresting has been illustrated. These illustrations are believed to add very materially to the intrinsic value, as well as the attractiveness of the volume. There are many subjects which cannot be fully pre- sented unless " the art preservative of art," as print- ing has been called, is supplemented and rounded out by the engraver's art. Of course in a volume covering a field so vast, many things which are in themselves highly import- ant must be passed over in silence or mentioned only briefly ; but the endeavor has been to avoid the omission of anything necessary to the general plan of the book, as set forth upon the title-page. In the verification of facts the author of a work which is telescopic rather than microscopic, cannot make original research, and often there is a wide di- vergence in the statements made by standard author- ities. In this book no statement Avill be found for which good authority could not be adduced, and in many cases (more especially in the statistical part) (iii) srv ^^ Ik. IV PREFACE. great effort has been made to determine the relative weight of testimony and conform tliereto. In the preparation of this volume it has been assumed that the reader is far more interested in American history than in foreign history ; in mod- ern times than in antiquity. If the space devoted to art, for instance, in the United States is small, as compared with that given to the art of some other countries, while American industry is given especial prominence, the reason is that, much as might be said in praise of art in the United States, it is unde- niable that the typical American is an artisan rather than an artist, and his hands are more skillful in the use of tools and implements of industry than the brush and chisel of art. The earliest nation of which we know anything, Egypt, seems to have been mainly anxious to pre- serve the body after death ; the greatest of all nations in actual attainments, England, has devel- oped what might be called factory mechanism, — machinery which enabled the English to convert raw material into merchandise on terms to defy the competition of the world. America has wrought much in the English line, but the distinctive pecu- liarity of the United States is care for the number- less comforts and conveniences of life. In a word, it seems to be the mission of American industry and ingenuity to lighten the labors and enhance the hapjMness of the toiling masses of mankind. The truth of these observations is obvi- ous, and it only remains to say that throughout the volume the aim has been to bring out in due promi- nence the distinctive characteristics of each people or period. It will be observed that the reading matter has been re-inforced by copious statistics, selected and arranged with reference to the general scojdb of The Woeld, constituting a compend of leading facts, relating to the past and to the present nations of our globe. These tables, based on the latest attainable information, aim to make the book available for the purpose of reference, especially in connection with the index, and will meet, it is hoped, a want now felt by speakers, ^vriters, jirofessional and business men and others, whose limited time will not permit their consulting exhaustive treatises, but who demand that the salient points shall be so arranged as to be easily found just when desired. By the joint aid of the table of reference and the index, it is entirely feasible to almost instantaneously secure the information desired. The table of con- tents is designed to be a complete and ready guide to the reader in selecting tojoics about which to read, for the book is equally adapted to continuous and occasional reading. The author is under great obhgations to " Gas- kell's Compendium of Forms," and such eminent statisticians as Mulhall, Nichol and Walker, for tabular matter, also to L. T. Palmer ; to Prof. W. P. Jones for assistance in the chapters on China, and to the Hoa. C. E. Jones, of Melbourne, for aid in the preparation of the chapter on Australasia. In the body of the book due credit is given to the numer- ous authors from whom quotations are made. It only remains to add that one more needed labor will have been performed if this book shall satisfac- torily iill the niche in the library and the place in the family-circle for which it was designed. *^ ^ I. THE CHILDREN OP THE SUN II. THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN III. PRE-HISTORIC MAN IV. THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT EGYPT AT ITS BEST V. VI. THE DECLINE OF EGYPT VII. EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA VIII. EGYPT AS IT IS TX. ETHIOPIA AND THE PHCENECIANS X. THE JEWS XI. HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS XII. ASSYRIA AND SYRLA. XIII. PERSLA., PARTHIA AND THE ZENDA VESTA XIV. GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP XV. HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE XVI. STATE CRAFT IN GREECE . XVII. GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE XVIII. GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART XIX. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY XX. THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS . PAGK =5 48 64 109 XXI. MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH XXII. ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME XXIII. SEMI-HISTORIC ROME .... XXIV. ROME AND CARTHAGE XXV. LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC . XXVI. CiBSAR AND THE EMPIRE .... XXVII. LATIN CLASSICS .... XXVIII. THR EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO .A.LARIC XXIX. PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY .... XXX. THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY . XXXI. ITALY AND THE ITALIANS . XXXII. XXXIII. THE DARK AGES THE SARACEN EMPIRE XXXIV THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE XXXV. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE (TURKEY) XXXVI. RUSSIA XXXVI L POLAND AND THE POLES XXXVIII. MEDIEVAL GERMANY . XXXIX. GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION XL. FAOB 139 138 148 160 I ■65 184 l8q NEW GERMANY <,Vj At VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. --4- ^c XLI. INTELLECTUAL GERMANY XLII. AUSTRLA-HUNGARY XLIII. BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS XLIV. OLD FRANCE XLV. TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY XLVI. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION .... XLVII. NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS . XL VIII. LATTER-DAY FRANCE . XLIX. CELTIC, GOTHIC, AND MOORISH SPAIN L. FERDINAND AND ISABELLA . LI. CATHOLIC SPAIN .... LIL PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE LIIl. THE SCANDINAVIANS LIV. SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE LV. OLD ENGLAND LVI. OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS LVII. MSDERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS LVIIL LANCASTER AND YORK .... LIX. THE TUDORS LX. THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH LXI. PRESENT ENGLAND LXII. LITERATURE OP ENGLAND . LXIII. SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH LXIV. IRELAND AND THE IRISH LXV. THE DOMINION OF CANADA PAGE 342 BRITISH INDIA AUSTRALASIA LXVI. LXVII. 267 289 .161 367 375 383 187 LXVIII. JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE LXIX. THE CHINESE EMPIRE TUB CHINESE LXX. LXXI. MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA .... LXXII. MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS LXXIIL SOUTH AMERICA LXXIV. CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA LXXV. NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS LXXVI. EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES LXXVII. COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH LXXVIII. INDEPENDENCE AND UNION LXXIX. THE YOUNG REPUBLIC LXXX. THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE LXXXI. THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT . LXXXII. RISE AND FALL OP THE CONFEDERACY LXXXIII. THE PRESENT UNITED STATES LXXXI V. GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES LXXXV. PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS LXXXVI. STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES, LXXXVI L AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS LXXXVIII. AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART .... PAGE ' 400 461 4«7 485 S16 564 580 LXXXIX. AMERICAN LITERATURE TABLES OP REFERENCE xc. 631^ 638 650 9 ST k. vu PAGE. Abbas, Khedive of Egypt 60 Abdul Hamid II 20S Abelard and Heloise 193, 263 Abica of Tyre 67 Aborigines of Germany 242 Abraham 68 Abu-Bekr Succeeds Mahommed 198 The Saracen Empire under 198 Re-arranges the Koran 197 Abyssinia, or Modern Ethiopia 66 Population and Area, 66 Acadia and the Acadians 395 Academies in France 270 Achaean League, The 107 Achilles 93 Acropolis at Athens, The 117 Actium.The Battle of 157 Adams, John 5 18, 5S0 Adams, John Quincy $283 5S3 Addison, Joseph 379 Adelaide 417 Adler on the Jews So Adolphus, Gustavus 233 Adrian I, Pope 180 Adrianople 202 Adrianopolitan Period 206 AduUum, The Cave of 135 ^tolian League, The 107 ^schylus 1 10 .^sop and his Fables no ^neas of Virgil 161 ^neas in Latium 135 ^neid of Virgil, The. , 161 Afghanistan 455 Africa, Minor Asia and 453 Ancient Libya 456 Explorations in 456 Agamemnon and Iphigenia 92 Agassiz Louis 644 Age of Fable, the Golden .40 Fables, Poland's 21S The Stone and Bronze 42 of the Mammoth, The ,40 of the Mastodon, The 40 The Augustan 159 of the Antonines 16S of Poetry, the Silver and Golden 161 The Apostolic 176 of the Bishops 17S of the Popes 17S The Medieval 178 The Dark 1S9 of Chivalry .190 PAGE. Agnosticism of Alexandria 57 Agincourt, Battle of 351 Agrarian Laws 139 Agrarianism, Primitive 136 Agricola and Britain 333 Agrippa, Menenius 139 Agripina 166 Ahaz 84 Aix la Chapelle, Peace of. 310 Alabama 592 Alabama Claims 564 Alaric. The Goth 171 The Emperors from Augustus to 165 Sacks Rome 171 Alaska 593 Alba Longa 135 Albert I., Emperor of Germany 250 Albert II., Emperor of Germany 250 Albert V., of Austria 250 becomes Albert 11. of Germany 250 Albert, Prince of Wales 36S Albigenses, The, a Protestant Sect iSi Alembert, D' 271 Alexander The Great 53i SSi loi Alexander Severus j68 Alexander 1 213, 221 Alexander II 215 Alexander III 216. Alexandria, Glory of. 155 Commerce of 56 Museum at 56 Public Library 57 Theological Warfare at 58 Alexandrian Philosophy 57 Christianity 58 Alexis, Emperor of Byzantine 202 Alfonso XII 313 Alfonso V 315 Alfonso I 315 Alfred The Great 336,375 Algeria 457 Algerine Piracy 52 1 Alhambra of Granada 298 All Mehemet, the Saracen 19S Allen, Ethan 505 Alliance, The Holy , 213 Alps, The 326 Alsace — Lorraine 240, 291 Amadeus, Victor 186 Amadeus --Z^h Amanothph II ^9 Amanothph III 50 Amazons, Theseus battles with the 92 Amendments to the Constitution . American Indians Literature Inventions and Inventors Industries Ammon, The God Alexander's Sonship to Amphictyonic League, The Amru, The Saracen in Egypt. . . . Amsterdam Amurath, The Sultan Anatomy — Born at Alexandria. . . Anabaptists Anam, or Cochin, China Anamese Literature Ancient Egypt, The Most Italy, and primitive Rome. . . Ancients, The World of the Andersen, Hans Anderson, Maj. Robert Andersonville Prison Andorra Andre, Major Andrew of Hungary Andronicus , Angevine Dynasty Anglo-Saxons in England Anne, Queen Animal Kingdom, The Antietam, Battle of. Antilles, The Antioch Antiochus Epiphanes , Antony, Mark in Egypt Antonius, T. Aurelius Antonines, The A^t. of the Apostolic Age, The Appomattox, Surrender at Appius, Claudius and Virginia Apollo, The Colossus Arab Shiek, an Arabs and the Saracen Arabia and the Arabs Aradnus Aragon and Castile Arbcla, Defeat of Darius Arcadian League, The Archaeological Discoveries Archimedes Architecture of the Greeks of Corinth PAGE. 569 4SS 638 ". . ,. ,622 . . , ..629 56 56 107 58 ... .256 202 .57 232 453 «3 44 • --m 125 322 • 530, S50 542 329 513 192 202 339 .334 366 .39 537 479 Ss ...71. S5 >56 ....157 .. ..16S ... .16S ....176 546 '39 140 .. ..125 6S 197 455 66 299 lOI 107 S3 126 iiS 130 '\ ^2 INDEX. ■^ PAGE. Architecture in China 449 in Germany. . 237 in France 269 Area of Civilization 3^ of Egrypt 59 of Persia S9 of Present Italy 1S4 of the Byzantine Empire ....201 of Turkey 209 of Siberia 216 of Poland 217 of Prussia 241 of Germany 241 of Austria 249 of Hungary 25" of Bosnia 254 of Belgium 255 of the Netherlands 256 of Portugal 3^5 of Norway 322 of Sweden 323 of Canada --394 of Australasia 4^^! of the United States 57° Argentine Republic 468 Aristedes 99 Aristophanes m Aristotle "5 Arius, The Presbyter 58 Arizona 594 Arkansas 593 Arkwright, Sir Richard 624 Armada Destroyed, The Spanish 307 Arnold, Benedict 5^=;, S^S. 5H Arnold of Brescia 181 Arpad Dynasty of Hungary, The 250 Artemisia, "Widow of Mansolus 135 Art and Achievements, Titanic 4S of Ethiopia 65 of Phcenicia.'. 67 Greek Philosophy, and 114 Etruscan 141 Byzantine 205 Flemish and Dutch 259 in Spain 313 American 637 Articles of Confederation 513 Arthur, Chester A 569, 5S6 Arya 127 Aryan Race, The 88, 128, 400 Ascanius 135 Asia and Africa, Minor 453 Assassination of Lincoln 546 of Garfield 569 Assembly, National 275 The Legislative 376 Asser 375 Asshur Si Assyria Si Assyrian Antiquity Si Ninus and Semiramis Si Senacherib and Sardana polis S2 The City of Nineveh Si Babylon and Its Hanging Gardens S3 Babylonian History S3 Alexander and Babylon , S3 Recent Archseological Discoveries S3 Assyrians, The 53 Astronomy, The Science of 25, 32 Astronomers 23, 25, 32, 35 PAGE. Atcacer Quibir 318 Athanasius 58, 1 76 Athenians, The 97 Athens, The City of. . .97 Athor 52 Atlanta, Capture of 545 Atossa 97 Attorney General, The 579 Audobon, J.J 640 Auerstadt, The Battle of 237 Augsburg, Council of 232 Augustan Age, The 1 59 Augustus, Frederick 219, 220 Augustine, an Early Christian Writer 176 Augustine Monks 230 Augustus, Caisar 457 Defeats Antony 157 to Alaric, The Emperors, from 165 Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome 16S Austerlitz, The Battle of 237 Austria-Hungary 249 German and Semi- German 249 The Dual Empire Formed 349 The Hapsburg and Hohenzollern 249 Rhodolph and Ottocar 249 The Duchy and Arch Duchy 252 Modern or Present 253 Hungary and the Magyars 353 The Hapsburgs in Hungary 253 Present Government of the Empire 253 Religion and Education 253 Bosnia and Hervegovina 254 The Literature of Hungary 254 The Cities of. 254 Australia, Western 426 Area, Debt, Exports 426 Australasia, the Colonies of 411 Australasian Independence 426 Ayasha 197 Aztecs in Mexico, The 461 Azores Islands 317 Azores and Portugal, The , 4S4 Baalbac, The City of 84 Babel, The Tower of. Gg Babylon, Jewish Captivity in 69 The City of. 82 Babylonians, Early history of the S3 Bache, A. D 644 Bach, a Composer 245 Bacon, Roger 341, 36S Bacon, Francis 377 Bacon's Rebellion 493 Bagdad, the City of 82 Bahama Islands, The 479 Bakumin, Michael 215 Balaklava, The Battle of 314 Baldwin, Count, of Flanders 202 Baliol 345 Bancroft, George 644 Bank of England 368 The United States... 51S Banking System, U. S 636 Banks, N.P 536,541 Barbarossa 325 Enters Italy 1S5 Barneveldt, John, a Dutch Soldier. 258 Barons ^Var, The. 341 Barnet, The Battle of. 353 Bastile, Fall of the 275 Bathshebaof Nineveh 81 PAGE. Battles of the Franco Prussian War 24 1 Bavarian Republic, The 259 Baxter, Richard 194, 378 Bazil Ascends Byzantine Throne 203 Bazilian Dynasty, The 203 Beaconsfield, Lord 373 Beauregard, General 53i) 561 Becket, Thomas, k - 339 Beecher, Lyman 649 Beecher, Henry Ward 649 Before History 23 Beirat, The City of 66 Belfast 38S, 390 Belgium and the Netherlands 255 Religion and Education 256 Java— Dutch Government 256 Typography and Resources.. 257 The Dutch in History 257 The Nation and Its Great War 35S The Throes of the Dutch Republic. 358 Period of Prosperity 25S Fall of the Republic 359 Dutch Art 259 AVaterloo 360 Belisarius, General 201 Beloochistan 455 Belshazzar, King of Babylon ', 8-^ Belus, The Temple of. 82 Benares, The City of. 40S Benedek, Marshall 339 Bengal, the City of. 404 Benhadad, King of Syria 84 Bennett, J . G 645 Bennington, Battle of. 511 Berlin, The French Enter 285 The University of. 335 , The Treaty of. 254 Berenice's Hair, The Group 32 Beethoven 345 Bey, A Turkish 208 Bible, The Books of the 70 The Persian 8S Birney, James G 527 Bishop of Rome, Pope 178 Bismark, Count Von 238 Black Death, The 34S Bladensburg, Battle of 520 Blaine, James G ^. .-. 566 Blair, Frank P 554 Blanchard, Thomas 635 Blenheim The Battle of 269 Blucher, Marshal 237, 369 Boabdil, Moorish King 299 Defeated by Ferdinand 399 Boadicea, Queen 333 Board of Trade and Plantations 500 Bobadilla, Admiral 304 Boccacio 193 Boileau 370 Bokhara 4^4 Colleges of 454 Boleslas I., of Poland , 21S Boleyn, Annie 356 Bolingbroke of Lancaster 34S, 350 Crowned Henry IV 350 Bolivar, Simon 470 Bolivia, Republic of. 474 Bombay, The City of. 407 Bonaparte, Napoleon 381 Bonaparte, Louis ■ 359 -71 "a \ ^ INDEX. IX PAGE. Bonaparte, JosepTi 2S5, 310 Borough Representation 34-5 Bosnia, The Province of 254 Boston,**Tea Party," S"? Evacuation of. 506 Great Fire in S^H Bosworth, Battle of 2154 Bossuet , 269 Botany Bay 4 " Botzaris, Marco 102,131 Bourbons in France, The 271 Boyne, Battle of the 365, 3SS Brabant, The Dukedom o£ 25S Bradstreet, Mrs. Ann 63S Bragg-, General 53S Brake, The Air 625 Brandywine, The Battle of 5> i Brazil, The Empire of. 469, 31S Kingdom Established 31S Dom Pedro 470 Breakspear, Adrian IV 340 Breckenridge, John C 530, 561 Brickmaking in Egypt 47 Bright, John 373 British India .400 Britons, The Ancient 333 Bronze and Stone Age , 42 Bronte, Charlotte 3S1 Browne, C. F 647 Brown, General 519 Brown, John 5^9 Browning, Mrs 3S0 Browning, Robert 3S1 Bruce, Robert 345, 3S4 Brussa, City of 206 Bryant, William CuUen 645 Brussells, the City of. 255 Uprising in 255 Brutus, Junius 13S Brutus, Marcus 157 Bruyere, La 270 Bubastis, Priests of 53 Buchanan, James S2S, 5S5 Buchner, Prof. 247 Buckner, General 533 Bucolics of Virgil i6l Buddhism in Japan 430 in China 451 Buel, General 534, 53S Buenos Ayres, The City of. 46S Buffon 271 Bulwer-Lytton 381 Bull Run, Battles of S3 1. 536 Bull Fights of Spain 314 Bundesrath and Reichstag , 251 Bunker, or Breed's Hill 505 Bunyan, John 37S Burgoyne, General 512 Burgundy, First King of 325 Duke of 25S Burke, Edmund 379 Burmah, or Farther India 454 Burmuda Isles, The. ..4S4 Burns, Robert 3S6 Btirnside, Ambrose E t . , 534, 537 Butler, Samuel 378 Butler, Benjamin F 534, 550 Byblus, City of 66 Byron, Lord 130, 3S0 Byzantine Empire, The 197, 200 PAGE. Byzantine Empire, Area and Conserva- tism of 200 Justinian and Belisarius 201 The Civil Law 20 1 Brazil Dynasty 202 The Comnenians and Latin Crusaders... 203 Palceologi and the Turks 203 Byzantium, City of 169, 200 Cabinet, The English 373 of the United States 573 Cabot, John 394, 491 Cabot, Sebastian 394, 46S Cabral, Pedro Alvarez 31S Cade Rebellion, The Jack 351 Csnarvon, The Castle of. 344 CEEsar, Julius... 4S, 151, ICJ3, 155, 156^ 157, 163,333 Cssar, Tiberius 165 CiEsar, Caius or Caligula 165 Csesarea, The City of. 71 Cairo, Egypt 61 Caius, Marius 150 Caius, C?esar 165 Calais, City of 262 Calcutta, City of 409 Calendar, The Gregorian 35 The Russian 3 ^ The Egyptian 4S Calderon 314 Calhoun, J. C 523 California 594 Caliphs of Damascus 59 Caliph of Mahammed 197 Caliphs. First Four 19S Caligula, Emperor 16:; Assassinated . . , . , 166 Calmar, Union of 321 Calvin, John 265, 328 Calvinists and Lutherans 232 Cambyses 53) 65 Camden, Battle of ^13 Camillus Captures Veil 141 Camoens, The Poet, 319 Canada, Dominion of 394 Census of iSSi 394 English Discoverj- of. 395 Acadia and the Acadians 391; Champlain's Policy 396 British Policy . ..396 Old World Prejudices 396 The Indians of 396 Manitoba and Hudson Bay 396 Political system of 397 Virtual Independence 397 Reciprocity 397 Cities, Education, Railroads 393 Labrador, the Esquimaux 399 Canaan, Land of 69 Canal, The Suez 60 The Cloaca Maxima rS6 Candace, Queen 65 Candia, The Island of 126 Cannce, Battle of 146 Cantebury, Bishopric of. 334 Canute, the Dane 321 Rules, England 336 Cape of Good Hope 317, 45S Cape Verde Islands 317 Capetian Line, The 262 The Valois Branch 262 Captivity of the Jews 69 PAGE. Carlist War, The 312 Carlos, Don 312 Carlovingian Empire 257 Dynasty 262 Carlyle, Thomas 33I, 3S6 Carolina, North 613 South 616 Carolina, Colonial History 497 French Huguenots 49S Carnot, French Minister 27S Carthage, Rome and 143 Its Place in History 144 First Punic War 144 Hamilcar and Hannibal 145 Second Punic War 145 Hannibal Crosses the Alps 146 Battle ot Canas 14C1 Fall of Carthage 147 Carthagenians, The 1 43 Cartier, Jacques 39^ Casimir, The Restorer , 21S The Great 218 Casimir IV 2 iS Castelar. 3 1^ Castile and Aragon United 299 Castor and Pollux, Sudden Appearance of... 137 Cataline, The Conspiracy of. 1^2 C^ataracts of the Nile 62 Catherine de Medici 26^, 267 Catherine 1 1 Catherine of Russia 207, 213 War with Turkey 207 Petitions Poland 213, 220, 236 Cato the Censor i^y Destroys Carthage 147 The Younger i^g Cave Dwellers, The 4S7 Cavour, Italian Statesman 1S6 Cedar Mountain, Battle of. tjj Cedars of Lebanon, The 67 Celtic and Moorish Spain 294 Celts of Great Britain 33-1 Celts and Celtic Progress 40 Census of Canada gg^ of the United States 51S, 570 Central America j.70 The States of 4^3 Champlain Founds Quebec 396 Chancellorville, Battle of. 53S Channing, Dr 643 Chaldea S2 Chaldean Bricks $2 Charlemagne and Chivalry , 190 and the Dark Ages 192 in Germany 22S at Aix la Chapelle 225 Dynasty 262 Charles XII 219 Charles VI 235 Charles VII 236 Charles VII 26.^ Charles IX 265;, 267 Charles, Martel 225 Defeats the Saracens 262, 225 Charles X 289 Charles V 306 Charles U 309 Charles XI 323 Charles XI 323 Charles I., and Parliament. 362, 363 INDEX. Hi\ PAOE. Charles I., at Marston Moor 364. Charles II , 364 Returns From Holland 365 Charleston Attacked 506 Chart, A Geolog-ical 38 Charter, The Magna 341 Charws of Lindus 125 Chasidium Sect So Chaucer, Geoffrey 347.376 Cheops, The Pyramid of 4^ Chicago Fire, The 564 Chickamaug-a, Battle of 54^ Chilperic IV., King- of the Franks 262 Chili, The Republic of -174 War with Peru 476 Chinese Empire 434 Its Territorial Extent 434 China Proper 434 The Shanghai Region - . . . 437 The Valley of the Hwang-Ho 437 Interior China 437 Products ot China 437 Rivers, Climate, Forests, Flora 439 Minerals, Petroleum, Animals 439 Corea and Its Exclusiveness 440 Manchura and the Modern Tartars 440 Mongolia and the Mongols 441 Thibet and the Grand Llama 441 Chinese, The 442 The China of Fable 443 The Dynasties of China 443 Confucius and the Great Wall 443 The Most Civilized Land 443 Kublai-Khan and Marco Polo 443 International Commercial Intercourse. ..444 Population and Government. , 445 Revenue and Taxation 446 Peculiarities — Occupation 447 Architecture and Art 449 Education and Office-Holding 450 Hanlin University 450 Religion of China 451 Eve of Great Reforms 452 Chivalry, The Age of. 190 Chloroform Discovered 627 Chrisna, of India 174 Christ, Jesus the 173 Rome and 173 Four Biographies of. 173 Paul Preaches 174 Christian Commission, The 549 Christian IV 232 Christian 1 321 Christian X .321 Christiana, City of 322 Christian Church, The 175 Churches, The Eight 174 Christians, Persecutions of by Pagans 174 Christianity in Egypt gS Constantine Embraces 169 Early Days of 174 Paul's Preaching 174 Catacombs of Rome 175 The Apostolic Age 176 Papacy and Modern 177 In Britain , 374. In Scotland 3S2 Chrysostom 176 Chusan Archipelago 4.3^ Church, The Greek 132 PAGE. Eight Christian i74 Its Primitive Simplicity i74 of the Catacombs t7S Apostolic Age ...176 of Rome i77 The Russian 217 Churches, Strength of the 1S3 Cicero iK3. i57> 163 CIncinnatus 14° Cities of Ireland 39° of Japan 4^7 of China 444 of Italy 1S4 Civil Service of the U. S 571 Civil War in Portugal 31S In the United States. 529 Civilization, The Area of. 3S Classics, The Latin 160 Clay, Henry .523 Claudius 166 In Britain 333 Clement V., Pope 263 Clemens, Samuel L 647 Clenisthenes of Greece 106 Cleopatra and Antony 157 Cliff" House Indians 486 Climate and Resources of Egypt 44 Clinton, General 509 Clinton, DeWitt 612 Cloaca Maxima 136 Clothing of the Egyptians 54 Clevis, Merong 262 Clovis, Merovingian Dynasty 224 Accepts Christianity 261 Cnajus Pompeius 151 Code Napoleon, The 27S Colbert, M 369 Coleridge, The Poet.. 381 Colfax, Schuyler 554 Coligny, Admiral 266 Collins, "Wilkie 3S1 Colonial Policy, Roman 137 History of the U. S 401 Colonies of France 293 of the Netherlands 256 of Spain 306, 314 of Portugal 317 of Sweden 323 of England 373 Colorado 596 Colossus of Rhodes, The 125 Colt, Samuel 625 Columbia, The United States of. 47 1 Columbus, Christopher 302 Sails for the New World 303 Death and Disgraced 304 Comets 32, 31; Commerce of Europe 264 of Alexandria 57 of the Phcenicians 67 Commentaries, Blackstone's 370 Commons, House of 341 Commonwealth, The English 361, 364 Comnens, Isaac 203 Compromise, The Period of. 542 The Missouri 523 Conception, The Immaculate 1S3 Confederacy, Rise and Fall of the 555 Confederation, The Swiss 331; Confederate States, The 530 PAGE, Confession of Faith 386 St. Patrick's 3S8 Confucius, The Age of 443 Congress, First Continental 503 Second Continental 504 Under the Constitution 516 The Confederate 557 Conservative Leaders, English 372 Consini, Leonora 268 Conspiracy of Cataline 152 Constantine the Great 58 Succeeds Constantius 169 Declared Emperor 169 Embraces Christianity 169 Decree of Milan 169 Defeats Lucenius 1 69 Removes to Constantinople 169 Constantine IX 303 Constantine XIII 202 Constantine II 384 Constantinople Founded 169, 200 Resists Repeated Sieges 198 Constantius and Galerius 169 Constantius, Son of Constantine 170 Constellations of the Zodiac 33 Constitution, Canadian , 397 of France * . . 376 of the U. S S^, 569 Conti, Prince of France 319 Continental Army 505 Money . , . . , . . 517 Consuls of Rome, First. 138 Continents and Population 38 Convention, The National 276 Cooper, J. Fennimore. 641 Cooper, Peter 635 Copenhagen, City of 33 1 Copernicus , 35, 24S Copts and Coptic Races 54, 63 Coptic Justice 54 Copley, John S 637 Copperheads at the North 53S Corday, Charlotte 27S Cordova and Moorish Spain 296 and Its Literature 397 The Fall of 29S Corea, Island of. 440 Corfu, Island of. 136 Corinth, City of 129 Corinthian Architecture 130 Coriolanus 141 Cornelia 149 Corpus "Juris Civilis 301 Corn Laws in England .' 371 Cornwall, Duke of 226 Cornwallis, General 514 Corsica, Conquered 145 Cortez and Mexico 462 Costa Rica, States of. 478 Cotton Gin, The ^533, 624 Cotton Industry, The 633 Cowpens, Battle of, 514 Cowper, William 3S0 Council, The Nicene 17^ The Vatican 128 of Constance , 22S Courts of the U. S., The 579 Cracow, City of.... 218 Cracus 218 Cranmer, Thomas 356 Til 'M^ INDEX. XI PAGE. Crater, The Tycho 31 Creation, The Theories of. 37 Creed, The Nlcene 176 Crescent, Success of the 207 Cressy, Battle of 346 Crete, Island of 1 26 CrcESus of I*ydia 96 Cromwell, Oliver 363 Dissolves Parliament 365 Becomes Lord Protector 365 Cromwell. Richard 365 Crusade, The First 191, 263 The Second 191 The Third 19a The Fourth 192 The Fifth 192 The Eighth 192 The Latin 202 Cuba, The Island of. 480 Curtis, General 533 Curtis, George W 64S Cushites Dynasty, The 52, 65 Customs of the Egyptians 54. Cuvier 39 Cynics, The 116 Cyprus, The Island of. 126 Cyrus the Great 53, 96 Dagobert 224 Daimios of Japan 432 Dakota Territory 59S Damascus, City of 84 Siege of. 192 and the Saracens 19S Dana, Richard H 641 Dana, James D 644 Danes in History 321 Dante 187, 193 Danton 276, 278 Darius Hystaspes S6, 97 Dark Ages, The 189 Medieval Chaos 1S9 Feudalism and Feudal Tenures 190 Guizot on Feudalism igo The Crusaders ...190 Charlemagne 193 The Minnesingers 193 Witchcraft, Wesley ...,■. 194 The Saracen Empire 1S9 Darwin, Charles 381 David, King of Israel 70 David 1 3S4 David II 384 Davis, Jefferson 530, 555, 561 Daza 169 Deborah 70 Debt ot Egypt 60 of the Colonies 502 Decatur, Commodore 521 Declaration of Independence.. .. 506 Decline of Egypt 52 Decree of Milan 171 Decretals, Forged Documents iSo Defoe, Daniel 179 De Gras&e, Count 514 De Kalb, Baron 513 De'Launay, Gov 275 Delaware 59S Delphi, Oracle of. loS Delta of the Nile 62 Deluge, The 69 P&GE. Demosthenes 113 Denmark 321 Dennison A. L .624 Dentatus 140 D'Estaing, Count 512 Destruction of Jerusalem 71 Detroit, Surrender of 519 Developments, Gradations of. 41 Developments, Geological 39 Diana of Ephesus 126 Dickens, Charles 3S1 Diderot 27 1 Diocletian 169 Directory of France, The 277 Fall of Ihe 2S0 Discovery of the New World 303 Disraeli, Benjamin 373 as a Novelist 3S1 DoUinger 234 Dombroroka, Princess 218 Domesday, Book of England 33S Dominion of Canada 394 Domitian 167 Donation, a Forged Document. iSo DonelsoD, Capture of Fort 533 Douglas, Stephen A 527, 600 Dowlah, Surajah.. . . 404 Drake, Sir Francis 359 Drake, Joseph R. 640 Draper, Dr. J. W 644 Dresden, Battle [of. 285 Dryden, John 37S Druzbacka, Elizabeth 222 Dublin, The City of 390 The University of 391 Dufferin, Lord 397 Duncan and Macbeth 3S4 Durer, Albrecht 259 Dustan 336 Dutch Republic, The 25S Commerce 25S in History, The 257 The Medieval 258 Acknowledged by Phillip II 308 Art 259 Dwellings of the Egyptians, The 54 Dynasty, First Egyptian 46 The Cushite 52, 65 of Fatima, The 59 The Ptolemic 55 The Ommiad 19S The Bazilian 302 The Palasologi 202 The Merovingian 234, 262 The Hohenstaufels 226 of Hungary, Arpad 250 The Hapsburg 250 Dynasties of China, The 445 Eads.John B 62S Earth Without Man, The , 37 Its Surface in Square Miles 37 The Planet... 25,26 Earth's Strata, The 38 East India Company, Dutch 403 The English 404 Ecologues of \/irgiI,The i6i Ecuador, Republic of 4.71 Ecumenical Council of Constance 32S Edda, The Elder 324 Ed ict of Nantes , 26S PAGE. Edinburgh, Founded 334 Edmund 1 336 Edmunds, George F 566 Education in Turkey 209 in Germany 241, 247 in Austria 253 in Belgium 256 in the Netherlands . . 257 in France 293 in Denmark 321 in China 450 Edward the Elder 336 Edward the Confessor 336 Edward I. of England 343 Annexes Wales 344 Scotland, a Dependency 345 Rebellion of the Scotts 345 Edward II 346 Defeated and Captured 346 Edward III 346 Lays Claim to France 346 Defeats the French 346 Edward IV , 352 Victory at Tew^ksbury 352 Defeated by Warwick 353 Edward V., murdered by Richard III 354 Edward the Black Prince 346 Edward VI 35S Abolishes Mass 35S Lady Jane Grey His Successor 258 Edwardian Age of England, The 347 Edwards, Jonathan 639 Edwin of Northuinbria 334*383 Egbert, King of Wessex 335 Egypt, The most Ancient 44 The Geography of. 44 Its Climate and Resources 44 The Rosetta Stone 45 First Egyptian Dynasty 46 Cheops, Pyramid and Sphinx 46 The Shepherd Kings 47 The Dawn of Thebes. 47 The Memphian Kingdom 47 At Its Best 48 From Memphis to Thebes 48 Kanarkand its Tombs 48 Cataracts of the Nile 48 Reform in the Calendar 48 Amanothph and the Exodus 49 A G.impse of Greece 50 Rameses the Great to Home Development and Conquest 51 Gold and its Influence 51 Decline of. e^ Shishank and Bubastis, 52 The Cushite Period . , t^2 Commerce and Discovery 53 Assyrian and Persian Wars 53 Cambyses Work of Destruction 53 and Greece 53 University at HeliopoUs 53 Coptic Justice 54 Clothing and Dwellings 54 Domestic Life in 54 Political Divisions in 54 Survey by an Eminent Writer 54 and Glory of Alexandria 55 Alexander and Alexandna ■■••SS PapjTus Making 55 The First of the Ptolemies 56 ^©pv PAGE. Egypt, Alexandrian Commerce .0 Its Public Buildings 5^ The Museum, The Library The Ptolemies and Science 57 Alexandrian Philosophy 57 Material Decline of Alexandria 57 Alexandrian Christianity 5^ Theological Warfare S^ Zenobia in Egypt 5^ The Saracen Invasion 5^ Present 59 Turkish Subjugation 59 The Present Dynasty 59 Debt and Political Consequences 6o Railroads and the Suez Canal 6o Cairo and Alexandria 6i The Niles Natural Recources 62 Slave Trade and Education 62 The Present Population 62 The Fellahs, Copts and Turks 63 Elder Edda, The 334 Elgin Marbles 119 Eliot, John 638 Eliot, George 3S1 Elizabeth, Queen of England 35S Declines the Suit of Philip H 35S Defeats the Spanish Amada 358 Mary, Queen of Scots... 359 Favorites of the Queen 359 Raleigh— Drake 359 English Literature 360 Elizabethan Age of Literature 360 Emancipation, The Proclamation of 538 Emanuel, Victor 186 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 645 Emigrants of France 276 Emigration of the Irish 390 Empire, The Roman 155 The Saracen - 189, 195 The Byzantine 200 The Ottoman 205 The British 332 Emmet, Robert 393 Emperors from Augustus to Alaric 165 Encyclopedia of France 271 England, Old 333 Early Britons , . 333 Caesar in Britain 333 The Druids 333 Roman Conquest 333 Advent of the Anglo-Saxon 334 Christian Evangelization 334 Irish and Roman Church 335 The Synod of Whitley 335 The Danish Incursion 335 From Alfred to Edward 335, 337 The Norman Invasion 337 Harold and William 337 Domesday Book and Realty 33S Henry I., Long Reign 338 and the Planta genets, Old 339 Thomas & Becket 339 Strongbow and Irish Subjugation 339 Henry II., Sorrows 340 Richard Coeur de Leon. 340 John and the Magna Charter 34 1 Henry III. and Parliament 341 Edward and the Barons 341 Roger Bacon, Scientist 342 Architecture and Free Masonry 343 PAGE. England, Retrospect of Old 34^ and the Plantagenets, Modern. 343 Edward I. and his Ambition 343 Llewellen, Welsh Policy 344 Arthurian Legends 345 Wallace, Bruce, Subjection of Scotland ..345 Edward and Scotch Independence 345 Edward II. —Edward III 34^ France and the Black Prince 346 Chaucer— WycliflFe 347 Richard IF., and Wat. Tyler 34S Houses of Lancaster and York 349 Period of the Roses 349 Henry IV. and Wycliffe 350 Henry V. in France 351 Henry VI.— One Hundred Years' War. .351 Jack Cade's Insurrection 351 The War of the Roses 352 Edward IV 35^ Warwick, the King Maker 352 Edward v.— Richard III 3.54 Bosworth Field 35^ The House of the Tudors 355 Henry VII. and his Times 355 Henry VIII., his Character and Times . . .356 Edward VI. and Jane Grey 35S Bloody Mary 351 Accession of Elizabeth 358 Philip of Spain 35S Mary, Queen of Scots 358 The Elizabethan Age..., 35S Under the Tudors 360 Ireland under the Tudors 360 The Stuarts and Commonwealth 361 The Gunpowder Plot 361 Sir Walter Raleigh 361 Tobacco and Potatoes 362 King James Version 362 Virginia and New England 362 Charles I. and Royalty ,.•■362 Cromwell, The Long Parliament 363 The Commonwealth 364 Charles II., James II 364 William and Mary- Anne 365 Close of Stuart Dynasty 366 A t the Present Time 367 The Georges— William IV 36S Victoria and Prince Albert 368 Colonian Intervention 371 Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.... 371 The Com Laws 371 Political Parties and Leaders 373 Royalty, its Palaces and Reveniies 373 Parliament, Tht; Ministry 373 The United Kingdom and British Empire. 373 Colonial Possessions 373 England, The Literature of 375 Chaucer and his Times 376 Shakespeare and his Contemporaries ...376 Milton and his Contemporaries 378 Literature of the Restoration 378 Add ison and the Spectator 379 Byron and his Peers 3S0 The Great Novelists 3S1 t'ontemporary Men of Letters 381 Latest Type of Literature in 38 1 English, William H.. 569 Ephesus, The City of 126 Temple of Diana 1 26 Epicurean and Stoic Philosophy 116 PAGE. Epictetus 161, 163 Erfurt, The University of 230 Ergamenes 65 Eric of Denmark 321 Ericsson, John 533, 627 Erin, as Known to the Celts 3S7 Erostratus 126 Escurial, Palaces of the 308 Espartero, Regent 313 Esquimaux of Labrador 399 Essenessect 74 Ethelbert, Earl of Kent 334 Ether, Discovery of 637 Ethiopia Subjugated by Egypt 51 Secession of 52 and the Phcenicians 64 and Egypt 65 Elective Monarchy 65 The Arts and Sciences of 65 Present Ethiopia or Abyssinia . . . : 65 Etrusci and the Etruscans 134 Romans Capture 141 Etruscan Art 140 Euripedes no Eutaw Springs, The Battle of 514 Evilmerodach 83 Executive Department, The -. 573 Exodus from Egypt, The 49 Exposition, The Centennial 565 Ezra the Scribe 70 Fabian Policy, The 146 Fabius, Consul of Rome 146 Fable, The Golden Age of 40 Poland and Its 318 The China of. . . 443 Factory System, The 624 Fairbanks, Thaddeus 626 American Scales 626 F'^air Oaks, Battle of. 535 B'arragut, Admiral 549 Farmer, From Shepherd to 42 Fatima, The Dynasty of 59 Federalists of the U. S., The 517 Fellahs of Egypt, The 62 Fenelon 269 Fenian Brotherhood, The 393 Ferdinand of Germany. 232 Ferdinand IV 250 Ferdinand and Isabella 300 Capture of Malaga , 299 Ferdinand VII., of Spain 310 Fergus, The Celt 382 Ferrend, Extract From 220 Feudalism and Feudal Tenures 189 Defined by Guizot 190 in Poland 2 iS in the Netherlands 258 in Scotland 3S4 Fichte 246 Fifteenth. Amendment ^ 553 Fiji Islands, The 484 Fillmore, Millard 526,584 Finances of the Confederacy 560 Fire Arms, The Manufactory of. 625 Fisher, Capture of Fort 559 Fisheries, Canadian 595 of the United States 629 Flanders, The Count of. 258 Flavii, a Roman Family 167 Flemish and Dutch Art 260 -TF '-^ INDEX. XIU. PAGE. Flodden Heights, Battle of, 385 Florence, The City of 1S6 Florida 498, 59S Florida Purchased 3^' Fontaine, La 270 Foote, Commodore 532 Forrest, General 545, 554 Forum at Rome, The 160 Fourteenth Amendment 553 France, Old shi Ancient Gaul 261 Clovisand the Franks 261 The Merovingian Line 362 Charles Martel and Saracens 262 Carlovingian and Capetian Dynasties... .262 The House of Valois 262 Abelard and Heloise 263 St. Louis, Molay, Serfs 263 Battle of Agincourt and Joan of Arc. . . . 264 The Renaissance and Rabelais 264 The Vandois and John Calvin 265 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's 265 Protestantism Organized in 266 Triumph and Decay of Monarchy 267 Henry of Navarre 267 Recantation and Toleration 26S Louis XIII.. Richelieu 26S Louis XV 26S Intellectual Progress 26S Persecution and Oppression 269 Literati of that Period 269 Louis XV. and John Law 270 Finance and Colonization 270 American Revolution 271 Great Revolutionary Writers 271 Colonies in America 27 1 Colony in India 270 The Revolution in 272 States General— National Assembly 272 The Bastile— The Emigrants 275 Flight of the Royal Party 276 Legislative Assembly 276 Change of the Calendar 276 The Jacobins 276 The Girondists and Paine 276 The Reign of Terror 277 The Directory 277 Napoleon and the Revolution 277 Notable Characters 27S The Code Napoleon 27S Napoleon and His Campaigns 28 [ Latter Day 2S9 A Recall of the Bourbons 2S9 Louis Phillipe, King 2S9 Louis Napoleon 290 The Siege of Paris 291 Centralization in 292 Importance of Paris 292 Land and Rents 293 Religion and Education 293 Colonial Possessions 293 Contemporary French Literature 393 The Rise of the Republic 292 Jules Grevy, President 292 The Cities of 292 Franks Invade Gaul 361 Franklin, Benj 507, 623, 639 Franklin, Battle of 546 Fredericksburg, Battle of 537 Free Masonry in England 342 PAGE. Free Trade in England 371 Fremont, John C 528, 532 French of Canada, The 395 Settlements in the Miss. Valley 499 French Revolution, The 272 France Declares War Against Germany 239 Francis, Joseph I., of Austria 251 Franks Allies of Rome, The 1S4 Under Charlemagne 184 Invade Gaul . . ...261 Frederick I., called Barbarossa 225 and the Lombards 226 and the Crusades 226 Frederick II., and the Crusades 192, 226 Wears the Crown of Jerusalem 226 Drives Pope Gregory IX. From Rome.. 226 Establishes Court at Palermo 226 Frederick I., King of Prussia 235 Frederick William I., King of Prussia 235 Frederick William IV., King of Prussia.... 338 Frederick William, Crown Prince 240 Frederick II., Called Frederick the Great.. .236 War with Austria 23(1 The Seven Years' War 236 Division of Poland 236 Sympathy for America 237 Frederick III. of Austria 250 Fuller, Margaret 642 Fuller, Thomas 378 Fulton, Robert , C23 Fushimi, Battle of 432 Gaelic Language, The 3SS Gaines Farm, Battle of 536 Galba, a Roman Imperator 166 Galerius, a Roman Imperator 16S Galileo 35 Galveston, Capture of 538 Gama, Vasco da 317 Gambetta 291 Games, The Four Greek 107 Garibaldi, of Italy 186 Garfield, James A 532, 569, 585 Gates, General 512 Gaul, Conquered by Rome 261 Invaded by Germans 261 Invaded by Franks 261 Gauls Invade Rome, The 142 Genghis Khan, a Tartar Chief.. 212 Genoa and Pisa, The Cities of. . ..,,... 184 Geograpliia^ by Ptolemy, of Alexandria 12S Geography of Egypt, The 44 Geological Periods 37 Chart 38 Developments 39 George I., Elector and King 367 South Sea Bubble 367 George n 368 George III 368 The Revolutionary War 368 George IV 368 George, Prince of Denmark 131 Georgia 498, 599 Georgics of Virgil, The 161 German Thought and Intelligence 242 Music and Literature 243 Universities and Libraries 247 Philosophy 245 Order in the North -.227 Germans, The Medieval 223 Germany, Medieval 223 PAGE Germany, The Ancient Teutons 223 Introduction of Christianity 224 The Mero vingan Kings 224 Charles the Hammer 225 Reign of the Stewards 225 Charlemagne, Ludwig 225 Barbarossa, Otto 225 Inquisition and Frederick II 226 Decline of the Empire ..226 The Hanseatic League 227 Conversion of Prussia 227 and the Reformation . 22S John Huss at Prague 228 Byzantine Empire Falls 229 Invention of Printing and Paper 230 Martin Luther, Diet of Worms 231 Translation of the Bible 23 1 The Augsburg Confession 232 The Thirty Years' War 232 Adolphus and Wallenstein 233 The Peace of Westphalia 233 The Lutheran Church 234 New 235 Military Beginning of New 235 Rise of Prussia, Frederick William 331; Frederick and Maria Theresa 236 The Division of Poland 236 The French Revolution and 237 Napoleon in Germany 237 Jena Blucher and Waterloo 237 The Uprising in 1S48 23S William I. and Bismarck 23S Schleswig and Holstein 238 The Seven Weeks* War 239 The HohenzoUerns 239 The Franco-Prussian War 239 The Seven Months' War 2^0 Paris, its Resistance and Capitulation. . .240 Alsace-Loraine 240 Present States and Reconstruction 241 Compulsory Education and Army 241 Area and Population 24 1 Intellectual 242 Development of German Thought 242 An Intellectual Quadrangle 242 Attainments in Music 242, 244 Philosophers of 245 Universities and Libraries of. 247 Scholarship of. 24S Gettysburg, Battle of y^ Gibralter, The Straits of. 53, 309, 369 Gideon and His Band 70 Gilbert of Ravena, Pope iSo Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 491 Girondists of France 276 Gladstone, William E 372 Gloucester, The Earl of 351 Gluck 245 God Ammon, The 56 Thoth, The 49 Godfrey of Bouillon ■ »9i » 263 Gods of Mythology 1 20 Godwin, Earl of Wessex 337 Goethe 243 Golden Age of Fable 40 of Poetry , ... 161 Golden Horde of Tartars 312 Goldsmith, Oliver 380 Goodyear, Charles 627 Gorilla, The 39 s(^ ^ XIV. INDEX. Ll^ PAGE. Gothic Alphabet, The 223 Spain 294 Goths of Germany, The 22S Goudar, City of 66 Government of the United States $7^ of Italy 186 of Turkey 20S Gracchus, Tiberius ^49 Gracchus, Caius 149 Gradations of Development 41 Granada and the Alhambra 29S Grand Vizier, The 20S Grand Llama 44^ Grant. U. S.. . .532, 534 S39, 546, 553, SS4» 564» 5^5 Gratian, Emperor ■.■ '7' Gravelotte, Battle of 240 Gray, Asa

Hi^ Hanno ^^^S PAGE. Hanseatic League 227 , Hapsburg, The Dynasty of J50 in the Netherlands 258 Hardee, General 563 Harper's Ferry, Brown at 529 Harrison, William H 525 , 584 Harte, Bret 649 Hastings, Battle of. 337 Haydn, Joseph 245 Hayti, The Island of 481 Havana, The City of 480 Hawthorne, Nathaniel 648 Hawthorne, Julian 64S Hawaiian Islands, The 484 Hayes, Rutherford B 565, 585 Headley, J. T 64S Headley, P. C 648 Hebtrrt 277 Hebrew Nation, The 68 Bible, The 73 Literature an d Sects 73 Hegel 246 Heine, Heinerich 244 Heison H 126 Heidleberg, The University of. 348 Helen, Wife of Menelaus 93 Heliopolis, The City of '. 29 University of 53 Helenic University, The 57 Helveti and Switzerland 325 Hendricks, Thomas A 566 Henry HI. of Germany 180 Henry 11. of France 266 Henry III. of France - 267 Henry IV. of France.. . . 266, 267, 268 Henry, Count of Portugal 315 Henry I. of England 339 Henry II. of England 338, 339, 340 Henry HI. of England 341 Parliament Established 341 Henry IV. of England 350 Henry V., King of England 351 Henry VI. of England and France 351 Henry Tudor Defeats Richard III 354 Crowned Henry! VII 355 Henry Vm., King of England 356 Henry, Patrick 503 Henry, Capture of Fort 533 Herbert, George 378 Hercules 91 Herder 243 Hero Worship, Greek 90 Heroic Age, The 90 Herods of Jewish History 71 Herodotus in Herring, S. C 627 Herschel, Sir William 35 Herzegovina, Province of 254 Hesiod 103 Hibernia, as Known to the Romans 387 Hildebrand, Pope 180 Highlanders of Scotland 383 Highways of Rome, The 137 Hildretb, Richard 644 Hill, General A. P 536, 563 Hill, General D. H 563 Hiram of Phcenicia 67 Historic Wars of Greece 95 History, Before 23 Hitchcock, Edward 644 -* aK- .^ INDEX. XV. PAGE. Hohenlinden, Battle of 237 Hohenstau-fels, Dyaasty 226 HohenzoUerns, House of. 235 Holland, J. G 64.S Holland, King-dom of 256, 259 Holly Spring:s, The Battle of 538 Holmes, O. W 646 Holy Alliance, The 213 Humboldt, Von 23, 24S Homemnes 50 Homer 90, 103, 109 Honduras, The State of. 47S British 479 Honorius 171 Hood, General 545, 546 Hood, Thomas 3S0 Hooker, General 535, 538, 541, 550 Hopkins, Ezekiel 515 Hopkins, Samuel 623 H orace 162 Hottentot, The.. , 39 House of Representatives, The 572 Houston, General Sam 525 Howard, General O. 553 Howe, Klias 626 Howells, J. D 649 Howe, Lord 509 Howe, General 509 Hudson's Bay Company 396 Hug:uenots of France 265 Hull, General 519 Hume, David 379, 3S6 Hungarians and Maria Theresa 236 History 250 Literature and Language 254 Hungary- Austria 249 The Hapsburg- and 2i;o The Dual Government 2i;o and Maria Theresa 236, 250 Area of 250 Hunter to Shepherd, From 41 Huss, John, at Prague 22S Opposition to the Romish Church 22S Hussite War, The 228 Huxley 381 Hyades, The 332 Ibrahim 60,131 Ibrahim, The Devil 219 Iberia, or Celtic Spain 294 Iceland and its Government 320 Iconoclasts, Reign of the 201 Ida, Mount 126 Idaho Territory 599 Ignatius, Bishop 176 Iliad, Homer's 92 Illinois 599 Imitation of Christ ,, 181 Immaculate Conception Proclaimed iS^ Impeachment Trial of Johnson 554 Inauguration of Washington 519 India of the Ancients 1 27 India, the French in 270 India, British 400 Victoria, Empress of 400 The Aryan Race 400 Alexander the Great .... 403 Portuguese and Dutch 403 British Expulsion of the Dutch 404 Lord Clive and Surajah Dowlah .404 Hasting*s*-CornwalIis 404 PAGE. India, The Sepoy Mutiny 407 Viceroys of the Crown .... 407 Owen Merideth— Lord Ripon 407 The Mogul Empire 40S Benares the Holy City 40S Sanskrit and its Possibilities 40S Railways— Population — ^Religion 40S Indian. Territory 601,489 Ind ian Wars in the West , , 516 War in Florida 520 Indiana 601 Indians, The American 4S5 Origin of the Race 4S5 Mounds and Mound -Builders 4S6 Cliff Houses 486 Cave Dwellers 4S7 Native Tribes of the Atlantic 4S8 Reservations of the United States 4S9 The Indian Bureau 4S9 The Indian Territory 489 Opportunity and Prospects 490 Their Relation toU. S. History 490 Indians of Canada, The 396 Industries of the U. S 629 Infallibility, Papal 182 Inkerman, Battle of. 214 Innocent III 181, 192,226 Inquisition Established, The 181 of Spain, The 301 Insurance 636 Intellectual Germany 343 Interior, The Secretary of the 577 Investitures, War of iSo lonians. The 97 Isles, The 126 Iowa 602 Iphegenia. 92 Irenzeus of Lyons 176 Ireland, England, In 340 Subjugated by the Tudors 360 and the Irish 3S7 Its Situation and Area .-3S7 Roads and Products of 387 Conversion under St. Patrick 3S7 Its Language and Literature 3SS Counties and Provinces 3SS English Rule 388 Daniel O'Connell and Parnell 3S9 Revolution and Reform 389 Emigrations to America 390 Irish Land Law— Its Cities 390 Emmet and the United Irishmen 393 The Fenian Brotherhood 393 The Land League 393 Irish Missionaries in England 335 Policy of the Tudors 360 Church, The 3S7 Land Bill, The 390 Iron Industry, The 633 Irving, Washington 643 Isaac to Moses, From (^ Isabella, Ferdinand and 300, 305 Isabella II 31a Islam, see Saracen, also Mohammed The University of 61 The Followers of. 19S and Constantinople 307 Islands, The Ionian 126 Isles of the Sea 479 Ismail, Khedive of Egypt , .60 PAGE. Isocrates 113 Ispahan, Capital of Persia 89 Israel and the Hebrews 63 Isthmian Games, The 107 Italians— Italy and the 184 Italy and Primitive Rome 133 The Peninsular of Ancient 134 and the Italians 184 The Youngest Nation 184 The Lombards 184 in the Dark Ages 1S5 The Free Cities 1S5 The Chief Glory of Medieval 1S5 Emanuel and Italian Unity 1S6 Pope Pio Nino 1S6 The Present Government 1S7 Condition of the Country 187 Literature and Art of 187 The Italian Renaissance 1S8 luka. Battle of. 53S Ivan, Grand Prince of Mosco^v 212 Expels the Golden Horde 212 Monarch of the Russias 21a Ivan, The Terrible 212 Ivry, The Battle of. 267 lyeyas, Emperor 43 j Jackson, Andrew 520, 524, 583 Jackson, Gen. Stonewall 535, 562 Jacob in Egypt 69 Jacobins of France, The 276 Jagellos Family, The 219 James I. of England 361 The Gunpowder Plot 361 Translation of the Bible 362 James I. of Scotland 3S4 The Baronial Power 384 James II. of England 365 Establishes the Bloody Assizes 365 Defeated at Boyne 365 James II. of Scotland 3S4 Civil and Border Warfare 3S4 James V. of Scotland 3S4 Navy Built and Fisheries Established. . .385 Defeated at Flodden 385 James VI. of Scotland 386 James, Jr., Henry 649 Janizaries, The 206 Japan and the Japanese 427 Description of the Country 427 Its Cities, Products and Population 42S Mines and Minerals 428 Its Early History 428 Its Greatest Queen Kogu 429 Letters and Philosophy 429 Buddhism Introduced 430 First Contact with Europeans 430 Jesuit Missions, The Dutch 431 Tycoon lyeyas 431 America and Commodore Perry 431 Fall of the Daimios 433 Christian Calendar Adopted 433 as it is, or New Japan 433 Idolatry and Sintuism 433 Methods of Transportation 433 Modern Missions AT^'i Japanese Literature .... 433 Java , 256 Jay, John 640 Jefferson, Thomas giS, 5S0, 640 Jena, Battle of. 237, 285 'V Jti>^ XVI. INDEX. PAOE. Jephthah 7^ Jerome ^7^ Jerome, Chauncy 62S Jerusalem 7° and the Jews 7^ Submits to Alexander 70 Captured by Ptolemy Soter 70 Destroyed by Titus 70, 166 Godfrey, King; of ...- 19^ Christians Driven out by Saladin 192 Jesus the Christ i73 The Society of iSi Jesuitism and the Inquisition iSi The Boast of 1S3 Jesuit Missions injapan, China and India., .431 in America S2 Jesuits, The Society of the iSi Dissolution by Papal Bull 1S2 Jewish Literature and Sects 73 History— The Intangible m 73 Persecutions in Eng;land 34*^ Jews, The 6S A Peculiar People 6S The Fatherhood of Abraham 6S From Isaac to Moses 69 The Period of thejudg-es 69 Saul and David 7° Solomon King, Poet and Philosopher 70 Disunion and Subjug;ation 7° The Restoration and the Maccabees 71 Under the Roman Rod "Ji Destruction of Jerusalem 71 Persecution in Dispersion 72 Improved Condition of the 72 Jerusalem and the 7^ In Poland 222 Persecution in Spain 301 Joan of Arc 264 John the Evangelist 176 John of Saxony 13^ John of England 340 Signs the Magna Charter 341 John HI. of Portugal 318 Establishes Kingdom of Brazil 31S John Maria Joseph 318 John of Gaunt 349 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, Lexographer 366 Johnson, Andrew 545, 553, 5S5 Johnston, Albert Sydney 534. 5^2 Johnston.Joseph E 535. 545. 546, 562 Jones, John Paul 5^5 Joseph, Son of Jacob 49. 69 Joseph II 236 Josephus 74 Joshua 70 Jovian 17' Juana 305 Juarez, President of Mexico 465 Judah, The Tribe of 70 Judea or Palestine 70 Judges, The Period of the 69 Judiciary of England Under Edward 1 345 Julian 170 Jupiter, The Planet 25, 26 The Mythological God 121 Jurisprudence, Roman 164 Justin, Martyr 176 Justin II 197, 201 Justinian, Emperor 201 Corpus Juris Civilis 201 PAGE. Juvenal '^^ Kaani, Persian °9 Kansas ^^ Kansas -Nebraska Bill, The 527 Kant, Immanuel 246 Karaites 80 Katzbach, The Battle of 237 Kearny, General 535 Keats, John, English Poet 3S0 Keiser 244 Kempis, k Thomas iSi Kenneth, King of the Lowlands 3S3 Kent, Chancellor 643 Kentucky 603 Kepler, The Astronomer 35 Key, Francis S 640 Khedive of Egypt, The 59 Kiah-tsing, Chinese Emperor 444 Kingdom, The Animal 39 Kings, The Legendary i33. ^38 Kings, The Shepherd 47 Kirk of Scotland 3^6 Klopstock 243 Knightsof St. John,The I93 Knox, John, and Presbyterianism 3S6 KoncEski, Stanislas 222 Koran of Mohammed, The 197 Kosciusko, Thaddeus, Defends Poland 220 in America 5^2 Koshroes II., King of Persia 197 Kossuth 250 Krasicki, Archbishop 222 Kremlin at Moscow, The 214 Kublai-Khan 443 Ku KIux Klan, The S54 Labrador and the Esquimaux 399 Lafayette de Marquis 271, 272, 511 Lake Regillus, Battle of. 137 Trasimenus, Battle of 146 Lamartine 27S Lancaster, The House of 349 Land Bill, The Irish 390 I,and League of Ireland 393 Language of Ireland, Original 3S7 LaocCibn, The 93. ^'9 LaPIata of South America 46S Lathe, The 625 Latin Classics 160 Macauley and Primitive Latin 160 The Golden Age 161 The Silver Age 163 The Historians of Rome 164 Latium, The Ancient Nation of. 134 Law, John, " Mississippi Bubble." 270 Law, The Coptic 54 The Jewish 69 The Licinian 149 The Salic 312 I^awrence, Commodore 519 Laws, Lycurgus and His 103 of Draco 104 of Solon 105 of Napoleon, or Code Napoleon 27S League, The Hanseatic 227 Leagues, The Four Greek 107 Lebanon, The Cedars of 67 Lebrun, a French Artist 270 Lech I., King of Poland 21S Lee, General Robert E 536, 546 Legendary Kings of Rome 133 PAGE. Legislative Assembly of France 276 Legends, The Arthurian 345 Leicester, Earl of 341 Leipzig, The University of 22S "Ihe Battle of 237 Leo The Great, Pope 179 Leo X. and Luther 179, iSi, 231 Leo m. , Pope iSo Crowns Charlemagne 192 Leo HI. of Byzantine 201 The Reign of the Iconoclasis 201 Leo IV". of the Byzantine 202 LeoXIII., Pope 1S3 Leonidas at Thermopylae 98 Leopold of Saxe Coburg, Prince 131, 255 Leopold II. of Saxe Coburg 255 Lepidus, Antony, Caesar's Master of Horse. 157 Lesseps, M. de 60 Lessing, a German Dramatist 243 Lexington, Battle of 504 Liberal Leaders of England 372 Liberia, The Republic of...,' 457 Liberius, The Thirty-Sixth Pope 179 Libraries and Universities of Germany 247 Lichtenstein, The Province of. . . .- 354 Limbourg, The Dukedom of. ^ 258 Lincoln, Abraham 530, 546, 585 I^isbon Taken from the Moors 315 Great Earthquake in 316 Literature of the Jews 73 The Hebrew Bible 73 The Septuagint, The Talmud 73 Sadduces and Pharisees. Essenes 74 Testimony of Pliny 74 Philo on the Essenes 74 Josephus on Jewish Sects 74 ' The Chasidim So Felix Adieron the Jews 80 . of Persia Sq Greek Classics 109 The Latin and Preclassic 160 Italian 1S7 In the Dark Ages 193 of the Saracen Empire 199 Turkish 20S of Poland 221 of Germany 242 of Hungary 254 Under Louis XIV 269 of Cordova and Moorish Spuin 297 of Spain 313 of Portugal 319 of the Scandinavians 325 in England 347j 360, 375 in Scotland 386 in Ireland 388 of the Japanese 42S in America 638, 649 Livy, a Roman Historian 164 Llewellyn, of Wales 344 Locke, John 37S Locomotive, The 623, 625 Lombards in Italy, The 1S4 London Captured by Boadicea 333 Longfellow, Henry W 645 Long Island, Battle of 509 Longstreet, General James 542. 562 Lookout Mountain, Battle of 542 Lorraine, Alsace and 240 Lome, Marquis of. 397 l\^ '-k^ INDEX. xvn. PAGE. Lost Stars, The 32 Louis of Bavaria 13 1 Louis IX. of France 192, 263 Convokes a Parliament 263 Louis X. of France 263 Louis XI. of France , 264 Louis XIII. of P'rance 26S Louis XIV., the Grand 26S Louis XV. of France 270 and John Law 270 and New France 270 Louis XVI. of France 271 Marie Antoinette 271 and the United States 271 Louis XVIII 289 Louis Philippe, of France 2S9 Louis I. of Portugal 315 Louisiana 499, 51S, 603 Low Lands, or the Netherlands 25S Lowell, James R,. ..■ 646 Loyola Founds the Society of Jesus iSi Lubbock, Sir John 43 Lucenius, Defeat of 169 Lucius, King of Rome 136 Lucretia, Tragedy of 137 Lucretius 162 Lud wig the Pious 225 'Lundy's Lane, Battle of 5 19 Lutherans, Numerical Strength of 234 I..utherism and Anabaptists 232 Luther, Martin, and the Reformation 230 Lutzen, The Battle of 233 Luxemburg Dynastv of Germany 229 The Dukedom of 25S Lycurgus and His Laws 103 Lydia, The Kingdom of 96 I^yon, Gen. Nathaniel 532 Macauley, Lord 3S1, 160 Macbeth 384 Maccabees, Rule of the 71 M'Clellan, General G. B 53 1. 537 Macdonough, Commodore 520 Macedonia, Philip of 100 MacKenzie on the Turk 209 MacMahon, Marshall 292 Macomb, General 520 MacPherson, General 245, 553 Macphertion, James 380 McCormick, Cyrus 627 McDowell, General 531 Madagascar, The; Island of 456 Madeira, Discovery of 316 Madison, James 518, 583, 640 Magi of the East, The 87 Magna Charter, The 34 1 Magna Grxcia 134 Magruder, General 535 Maine 604 Magyars of Austria-Hungary 250 Malaga, City and Capture of 299 Malbone, Edward G 637 Malcolm I., of Scotland 384 Malta, The Island of 192 Malvern Hills, Battle of 535 Mamelukes Subjugate Egypt 59 Mammoth, The Age of the 40 Man, The Earth Without 37 and Nature 3S From Sponge to 39 Prehistoric - 40 PAGE. Manitoba, Canada 396 Manchuria, Country of 440 Alanlius Torquatus 142 Mansard, The Architect 270 Marat, Jean Paul 278 Marathon, Battle of 97 Marbles, The Elgin 1 19 Marcellus, General 145 Marcus Aurelius 163 Mardonius, General 97 Marengo, Battle of 237 Margall, President 313 Margaret, Queen of the Danes 321 Margaret of Scotland 3S1; Maria Christina 312 Marie Antoinette 27S Marion, General 513 Marius, Caius 150 Mark Twain on the Sphinx 46 Marlborough, Duke of. 366 Mars, The Planet 25, 26 Marshall, Humphrey 533 Marston Moor, Battle of 364 Martius, The Campus 134 Martyr, J ustin 176 Mary, Queen of England 358, 306 Marries Philip II., of Spain .35S Persecutes the Protestants 35S Mary and William of Orange 365 Mary, Queen of Scots 385 Maryland 493, 604 Masonry of Old England, Free 342 Massachusetts 604 Mastodon, The Age of 40 Mather, Cotton 638 Matter and Motion 37 Matthias of Germany 232 Maurice of Nassau 25S Maury, Commodore 644 Mausolus, The Tomb of. 125 Maximian 169 Maximilian, The Emperor 464 Maximus of Thrace 168 Mazarin, Cardinal 268 Meade, General George G 53S, 550 Mecklenburg Resolutions, The 505 Medes and Persians, The 53 Medici, Catherine de 265, 267 Medici, Mary de 26S Medieval Germany 223 Mehemet, AH ..60 Mehemit, Tewfix 50 Melancthon, Philip. .-. 231 Melbourne, The City of 420 Memphis, The Glory of 46 Mendelssohn 246 Menelaus of Sparta 92 Menes of Egypt 46 Mercury, The Planet 25, 26 Mercia, Kingdom of. 334 Merovingian Dynasty 224 Atrocities of the 224 Messenia, Kingdom of 95 Messenian Wars, The Three 95 Metamorphoses, By Ovid 162 Methodism, The Founders of 369 Metz, Battle of 240 Mexico and the Mexicans 461 Discovered by Cortez 463 The Aztecs and Their Civilization ^bt PAGE. Mexico, The Conquest of 462 Mexican Independence 463 Civil War and Mexicanization 463 Political Fortunes of Santa Anna 463 The Mexican War 463 Disestablishment of the Church 464 Maximilian and the Monroe Doctrine,. .464 The French in Mexico 464 Juarez and Political Stability 465 Subsequent Presidents 465 The City of Mexico 465 Resources of the Country 466 Agriculture and Transportation 466 Banco Nacional MexJcano 466 Mexican War, The 525 Michigan 606 Michael VIII 202 Mickiewicz, Adam 222 Miecislas I., of Poland 218 Miecislas II. of Poland 21S Mignard 270 Mikado, Rebellion Against the 432 Milan, The Decree of 169 The City of 186 Military Duty in Germany 241 Milky Way, The 32 Mill, James Stuart 3S1 Miller, Joaquin 649 Miltiades Defeats Darius 97 Milton, John, and His Writings 378 Minerals in the U. S '633 Ministry, The English 373 Minnesota 605 Minor Asia and Africa 453 Minute Men of the Revolution 504 Mirabeau 372 Missions, Modern 1S3 Missouri 60S Mitchell, S. A 35 Mississippi 605 Mi_ssissippi Valley, Fr(;nch Settlements in. .499 Mithrides of Parlhia 87 Mithridiiles Defeated by Sulla , . ... 151 Mockern, The Battle 237 Modern Egypt 59 Persia 89 Ethiopia 65 Greece 102 Greece and the Greek Church 129 Christianity, The Papacy and 177 Missions 1S3 Mogul Em pire. The 40S Mohammed, The Prophet 195 Names Kadijah 195 Begins Preaching 196 Seeks Safety in Flight 196 Builds a Mosque at Medina 196 War Upon the Christians 196 Captures Mecca 196 Death 196 The Koran of 197 Mohammed II., at Stamboul 207 Mohammedan Era Dates From 196 Mohammedanism, The Strength of. 197 Moliere, a French Writer 270 Molay, Jacques 263 Moltke, Von, a General 239 Monaco, Republic of 330 Mongolia and the Monguls 441 Monitor and Merrimack 533 V ■4 * - XVlll. INDEX. '-i^ PAGE. Monmouth, Battle of 512 Monroe, James 522 Monroe Doctrine, The 5'7. SS3 Montana Territory 609 Montenegro, The Principality of 331 Montpensier, The Duke of 312 Montreal, The City of 39S Mons-Sacer, The Hill of 134 Moon, The Earth's 25 Neptune's 25 Moons of Saturn, The 25 of Jupiter, The 25 of U. anus, The 21; Moors in Spain, The 291; Persecutions of the 301 Moore, Sir Thomas 3S7, 37^ Moreau, Marshall 337 Morgan, General 539 Morgarten, Battle of 32S Moriscoes of Spain 301, 30S Moroe, or Ethiopia 65 Morocco 457 Morris, George P 641 Morris, Robert 5 13, 5^7 Morse, S. F. B 626 Moscow, The City of 213, 2S5 Moses, The Lawgiver 49, 69 Moslem, The Believer in 197 Mosque of St. Sophia 2or Moswijah 19S Motley, John L 644 Mound- Builders of America 4S6 Mount Cenis Tunnel 327 Mowing Machine, The 627 Mozart 245 Muhlenberg and the Lutherans 234 Multiple Stars, The 32 Munda, Battle of 156 Murad V., of Turkey 208 Murfreesboro, Battle of 53S Museum at Alexandria 56 Myloe, Naval Battle of 145 Mystics, The Sect of the iSi Mythology, Greek and Roman lao of the Scandinavians 324 Nabonasar, King of Babylon 83 Nabopolasar, King of Babylon S3 Nantes, The Edict of 26S Napata, Temple of 53 Napier, Sir Robert 66 Napoleon Bonaparte and his Campaign aSi Appointed First Consul 277 Italian and Egyptian Campaign 277, 2S2 Elected Emperor 277 The Code Napoleon 37S At Austerlitz 237, 2S2 At Marengo 237, 282, 277 At Jena 237, 2S5 Dissolves the Assembly 2S0 At Dresden 2S6 Victory for the Allies 2S6 Imprisoned at Elba 2S6 The 100 Days Campaign 2S6 Battle of Waterloo 2S6 Death at Helena 2S6 Napoleon III. — President 290 and the Coup d^etat 390 and the Crimean War 290 The Siege of Paris 291 Declares War with Germany 239,291 PAGE. Napoleon III. — Surrender at Sedan 240, 291 Naseby, The Battle of 364 Nashville, The Battle of 546 Nassr-ed-Din S9 Natal, ITie Colony of 45^ National Guard of France 272 Assembly of France 275 Convention of France 276 Nature and Man 3^ Naval Battles of the Civil War .';49 Navy Founded by Henry v.. The British. . ..351 Navy of the American Revolution, The 515 of the War of 1S12 5^9 Navy, the Secretary of the 57^ Nfbo, Temple of S3 Nebuchadnezzar 82 Nebulce, or Star Clusters 32 Nebraska 609 Necho II S3 Nemean Games of Greece 107 Neoplatonism of Alexandria 57 Nepos, Cornelius 103 N eptune. The Planet 25, 26 Neriglosar S3 Nero — The Emperor 166 Nerva, Roman Senator 167 Netherlands, Belgium and the 255 Typography and Resources : 57 The Dutch in History 257 Dutch Commerce 25S The Dutch Republic 258 Nevada 610 New England, Early Colonial History of .. . 403 Landing of the Pilgrims 493 Plymouth Colony 494 Colony of Massachusetts Bay 494 Harvard College Founded...; 494 Settlements in Connecticut 495 The Charter Oak 495 Persecution of Roger Williams 495 King Philip's War 495 The Illustrious Names of Early 496 The Salem Witchcraft 496 New Hampshire 610 New Jersey 610 New Mexico Territory 611 New Netherland's Discovered 496 New Orleans, The Battle of 519 The Capture of S34 New-Stars 32 New South Wales, The Colony of. 413 Area, Population, Government 413 The Mineral Productions of 414 Newspapers in U. S 636 Newton, Sir Isaac .35, 36S New York, Early Colonial.., ..496 Henry Hudson Discovers. 496 Trading Post Established by the Dutch.. 496 The *' Patroon" System Introduced 496 The Dutch Governors of. .497 History 611 New Zealand, The Colony of 423 Nibelungenlied, Medieval German Poetry. ..242 Nicaaa, The City of 302 Nicaragua 478 Nicene Creed, The 176 Niccne Council, The 179 Nicholas I., Czar of Russia. 214 Nicomedia, The City of 203 Nightingale, Florence 214 PAGE Nihilism in Russia 215 Nimrod, of Assyria 81 Nineveh, The City of. Si Ninus, King of Assyria Si Niphon, The Island of 427 Nitocris, Qiieen of Assyria S3 Normans, The 262 Normandy and Brittany 262 And the Norwegians 322 North Carolina 613 North-Lord 370 Norway, ConsoUdated with Denmark 321 An Independent Kingdom 322 And her Merchant Marine 322 and its Literature 322 Its Revenue and Resources 322 Nosks of the Zenda Vesta 87 Novgorod, The Republic of 210 Nubian Kingdom, The. 49, 64 Mines , ..45, 52 Valley, The 64 Numa Pompilius — King of Rome 136 Nnmidianjugurtha ico Obelisks of Egypt, The 49 O'Connell, Daniel 3S9 O'Conor, Charles 565 Octavius, Afterward Augustus C^sar 157 Odyssey, Homer's 92 Ohio 613 Oimemepthah, King ot Egypt 50 Oimemepthah II 51 Olga, Regent of Russia 211 Olenburg, The Danish House of 32 1 Olympic Games of Greece, The 107 Omar, The Caliphat of 58 Omnibus Bill, The 526 Ommiad Dynasty, The 19S Opinion of Astronomers 25 Oporto ana its Wine 319 Oracle, The Del phic loS Orange-Nassau Family, The 25S Orange River, The Teritory of 458 Orbit, Position in the 36 The Moon and Her ^6 Orchan, The Sublime Port 206 Ordinance, The Northwest 522 Oregon 613 Origen of Alexandria 176 Orleans, The Siege of Raised 264 The Duke of 270 Osci, Early Races of Italy, The 134 Osinta, King of Egypt 51 Othman Founds the Ottoman Empire 208 Olho of Bavaria 131 Otho, Imperator of Rome 166 Otho, the Great King of Germany 225 Restores Peace in Italy 1S4 Otis, James 507 Ottawa, Canada 39S Ottocar 249 Ottoman Empire, The 206 Ourique, The Battle of 315 Ovid, Roman Poet 162 Oxford, University of 342 Packenham, General 520 Padisha, or Sublime Porte 206 Paine, Thomas 276, 277, 640 Painters, Celebrated Italian 1S7 Palaces of Egypt, The 54 of England, Royal 373 INDEX. XIX PAGE. Palaeologi Dynasty, The 202 Palatinates, Poland Divided into 2 iS Palfrey, John G 642 Palermo, The City of. 1S6 Palestine in the Time of Christ 172 Palmyra, Zenobia Queen of 58 The City of S4 Panama, Isthmus and State of 479 Pan -Slavonic Nation, A , . ..221 Papacy and Modern Christianity 177 Its Slow Growth 178 Papal Infallibility, The Dogma 1S2 Paper, First Made 230 Papyrus, When First Used 55 Paraguay Republic, The 46S Paris, Siege of 240, 291 The importance of. 292 Paris of Troy and Helen of Sparta 92 Parker, Theodore 6<\z Parkman, Francis '54-f Parliament Established in England 341 and Cromwell , The Long 364 Under Cromwell, The Rump 365 of Present England 373 Abolished, The Irish 3S9 The Canadian 397 The Australian 423 Parnassus, Mount loS Parnell and the Irish 389 Parsees of Persia, The 88 Parthenon of Athens, The 117 Parthia and the Zenda Vesta 86 and Rome, Darius S6 Pascal 270 Pasha of Turkey, The 20S Patagonia and the Patagonians 46S Patents and Patentees 622 Paul Preaches Christ 174 Paul, Czar of Russia 213 Paulus, Consul of Rome 146 Pavia, The City of 1S6 Pea Ridge, The Battle of 533 Pedro, Dom, Emperor 318 Pelasgi, The 134 Peloponnesian War, The 99 Pemberton, General 541 Penal Colonies of Austral.isia 411 Pendleton, George H 545 Penn, William 497 Pennsylvania 497, 615 People, A Peculiar 68 Pepin of Germany 225 Pepin, The Short 225, 262 Periander in Pericles and Aspasia 106 Period, The Cushite 52 of the Judges 69 of Compromise ^2Z of Conflict, The 529 Periods, The Geological 37 Perrault 270 Perry, Commodore M. C 431 Perry, Commodore O. II 519 Persia, Parthia and the Zenda Vesta 86 its Early History and Wars S6 Physical Aspects and Conditions 86 Darius, Parthia and Rome 87 Zorasten and the Magi 87 The Parsees and the Zenda Vesta 83 Summary of the Persian Bible 89 PAGE. Persia, Comparative Antiquity S9 Present 89 Persian Invasion of Egypt 55 Isolation 86 Literature 86 War with Greece 97 Persius, a Roman Poet 162 Persecution of the Jews 72 of Christians 174 Persepolis, The City of. S7 Peru, Republic of 472 Francisco, Pizarro Invades 473 Mines and Guano Beds of 474 Peter The Great, Czar of Russia 212 Peter at Rome, Saint 17S Peter The Hermit 190, 263 Petersburg, C^aplure of 546 Petition of Rights, The 363 Phsedrus, Fables of 162 Pharaohs of Egypt, The >\^ Pharisees, a Jewish Sect 74 Pharsalia,The Battle of. 152 Pharos, Lighthouse on the 56 Phidias the Sculptor 117 PhiloE, The City of 62 Philip of Macedonia 100, 103 Philip ir. of Spain 25S, 306 Marries Bloody Mary 306 and Queen Elizabeth 307 Philip The Handsome 263 Philip VI., First Valois King 264 Philip ni., King of Spain 30S Philip IV., King of Spain 309 Philippi, The Battle of 137 Philo and the Essenes 57) 74> ^ ^7 Philosophy, Alexandrian School of 57 and Art, Greek 114 Phcenicia and the Phcenicians 64 The Cities of 66 Tyre and Sidon 66 Commerce and Enterprise 67 The Colonies of 67 The Arts and Industries 67 Disappearance of the Phcenicians 67 Pickens, General 513 Picts of Scotland, The 382 of England, The, 333 Pierce, Franklin 527, 5S4 Pillow, Massacre of Fort 542 Pindar 110 Pisa, The City of 1S5 Pittsburg Landing, Battle of 534 Pius Antonius 49 Pius IX., Pope 1S6 Dogma of Immaculate Conception 186 Dogma of Infallibility 186 Planets, The 25, 26, 36 Plates, Explanation of the Astronomical 36 Plato 112, 115 Plattsburg, Battle of. 5:9 Plautus 161 Pleiades, The 32 Plhehmen, Meiothph 51 P'iny 74, ^33 Si phara, The City of ^4 Slavs, The Polish 222 Slavonic Republic, The Dream of a ..221 Slowacki, Julius 222 Smith, Adam 379 Smith, General Kirby 54<5 Smith, Captain John 49^ Smugglers of Rhode Island and the Gospee.503 Sobieski,John, A Polish Ruler 3iq Defeats Ibrahim, The Devil 219 Defeats the Turks Under Mustapha 219 Sobieski, James, of Poland 219 Sobieski, Paul 221 Socrates iiS Solar System, The. 26 Solomon, King 7*^ Solon and his Laws 105 Solymon The Magnificent 192, 207 Sons of Liberty, Organized 503 Soudan, A frica 457 South America, The Countries of 467 South Carolina 616 South Mountain, The Battle of 537 Southey, Robert 3S1 South Sea Company, The 367 Spam, Celtic, Gothic and Moorish 29.^ Iberia and the First Age of Spain 294 The Gothic Period 294 Theological Animosity 294 Invasion of the Moors 295 The Moorish Kingdom Established 295 Averroes and Religious Reaction 297 Fall of Cordova and Rise of Granada., .29S The Alhambra 29S The Fall of Malaga.,.,. . 299 The Conquest of Granada 299 Ferdinand and Isabella .-^oo and Portugal . ....... 300 The Moors and Moriscoes 301 Persecution of the Jews 301 The Inquisition and Auto-da-fe ■.301 Christopher Columbus and his Career.. .302 Indian a»id African Slavery 304 The last Days of Ferdinand and Isabella. 304 Catholic, Chapter LI 305 Philip and Juana 305 The Escurial 307 Portuguese and Spanish Crowns 30S Decline and Loss of Territory 306 Napoleon and Spain 310 The Rulers from Charles V. to Isabella 11,31 1 A Republic 313 Alfonzo and the Present Government.. .313 Art and Literature of 313 Sparks, Jared 642 Sparta, The Kingdom of 95) 9S1 1C14 Spartans, The 95, 104 Spencer, Herbert 3S1 Spenser, Edmund 376 Sphynx, The Great Pyramid and 46 Sponge to Man, From the 39 PAGE, Spots on the Sim, View of 3^ Spottsylvania, Battle of 545 Spurius Cassius ^39 Stamboul, or Constantinople 204 Stamp Act, The 5°^ Stanislas of Poland 220 Stanton, Edwin M 57^ Star of Bethlehem, The 32 Stark, Col. John 5^2 Stars, The 25,32 State, The Secretary of 573 State Sovereignty, The Doctrine of 556 States of the German Empire 241 of the United Stiites 592 of Colombia, The United States 47 1 Steamboat, The 623 Stephen of Vendome 192 Stephen, King of England 33S Stephen I. of Hungary 250 Stephens, Alexander H 530, 555, 561 Sterne, Lawrence 3^0 Steuben, Baron 5'^ Stevens, Thaddens 553 Stewards, or Major Domi 225 Stewart, Commodore 5^9 Stilicho 171 Stockholm, The City of 323 Stone and Bronze Age, 'llie 42 The Rosetta 45 Stoneman, General 535 Story, W. W 637 Story, Judge , 643 Stowe, Harriet B 64S Strasburg, The Siege of 240 Stratherne, Ancient 3S3 Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke 340 Stuart, General J. E, B 536 Stuart, Gilbert C 637 Stuart, Prof. Moses 643 Stuarts of Germany, The 225 of England, The 1 , 361 Subjugation of the Jews 70 Suetonius 164 Suez Canal and Town 60 Suffrage in the United States 579 Suffolk. The Duke of 351 Sulla, Cornelius 150 Sullivan, General 509 Sumner, Charles 527 Sumner, General E, V 536 Sun, The Children of the 25 The Paternity of the 25 Spots on the 31 Supreme Court, The. ... 579 Sumter, Fort, Bombardment of 530 Swedes in America, The 497 Swedenborg, Emanuel 323 Sweden, First Founded 322 and Protestantism 323 Gustavus Adolphus 323 The Literature of 324 Scandinavian Mythology 324 Swedenborg and the Church of the New Jerusalem 323 Swift, Jonathan 370 Swing, David „ 649 Switzerland and Lesser Europe 321; The Helveti and Medieval Switzerland. .325 The Story of William Tell 326 The Mountains of.... 32G PAGE. Switzerland, The Mt. Cenis Tunnei 327 and the Reformation 32S The Swiss as Soldiers 32S Swiss Literature and Universities 329 Sydney, The City of 424 Sylvester ■ • i79 Syracuse, The City of 126 Syria, Antiochus, Epiphanes of 7'^ in its First Period 81 Under the Selucidse S4 Modern, and Syriac 85 Tables of Reference, Astronomical 36 of Ancient History and Literature, From B. C. 1:500 to A. D 200... 651-662 of American and European History and LiteratureA, D. 200 to A. D.18S2. .,663-684 The Principal Countries of the World... 685 The Commerce of the World 6S5 The Legislatures of the World 686 Congressional Apportionment, Based on Census of iSSo .:6S6 The Industries of All Nations ..687 Money of All Nations, Compared With Population 687 Armaments of All Nations, or the Art of War ...._. 6S8 The Capital or Wealth of All Nations. .6SS The Earnings or Income of All Nations, 638 The Increase of Railroads since 1S70 .6SS The Food Supply of All Nations 689 The Food of All Nations 6S9 Agricultural and Pastoral Industries of the World 690 Increase or Population since 1S70. 690 Consumption of Cotton, Wool, Flax, Etc 690 ' Manufacturers of All Nations 690 Gold and Silver Production of All Na- tions 691 The Gold Coinage of the World 691 The Mint Coinage of the United States, 691 Increase of Commerce and Balance of Trade 692 Gold and Silver Coins of the U. S 692 Coin Minted and Production of Precious Metals ... 693 Production of Iron and Steel Works in U. S 692 U. S. Financial History 693 U. S. Political History 694 U. S. Military History 605-699 U. S. Naval History 700 Paper Money and Fractional Currency in U.S .'...701 Pension Statistics of the U.S.. 701 The Presidents and Their Cabinets, 702, 703 Right of Suffrage in States 704 New Testament Canon 704 The Chinese Empire 704 Foreign Exchange 710 Pay Roll of the Leading Civil officers U. S 710 Pay Roll U. S. Army, Navy and Marine Corps 710 Distances and Standards of Time 705 History of the Several States nnd Terri- tories . 706 Population-of the Several 'States 707 Population of the Leading Cities of the U. S 70S ^ INDEX. XXiil. PAGE. Tables, Population of the Cities oflhe World .70S Religious and Educational Statistics of U. S 709 The Metric and Standard System of Measure 71 1 Tacitus 1 64. Talmagc, T. DeWitt 649 Talmud, The 74 Tamerlane '^o6 Tarakus of Ethiopia 65 Tarlton, General S^'^ Tarquin, Lucius, King of Rome 136 TarquinThe Proud 137 Tarquin Servius 137 Tarquinius CoUatinus 13S Tartar Invasion of Russia, The 212 Tasmania, ..414 Tasso 1S7 Taylor, Bayard 645 Taylor, Jeremy - 37S Taylor, Gen. Richard 546, 563 Taylor, Zachery 525, ^^4 Telegraph, The 626 Tell, William, and Swiss History ... 326 Temples of Egypt, The 52, 54 Ten Tribes of Israel... ... .70 Tennessee 6f6 Tennyson, Alfred 3^' Terence 161 Territory and Tribes, The Indian 4S9 Territorial Governments, The 579 Terror, The Reign of 277 Terry, General 5-9 Tertullion of Carthage 176 Tenure of Office Bill 553 Tetzel 231 Tewfix, Khedive of Egypt 59 Tewkesbury, Battle of 352 Texas, Republic of 525 Annexed to the United States 525, 617 Thackeray .3S1 Thales of Miletus 114 Thebes in Egypt 4S in Greece 91 Themistocles 99, 106 Theodra, Queen 201 Theories of Creation 37 Theodore II., of Abyssinia 65 Theodosius of Constantinople 171 Theseus the Pride of Athens a. 92 Theresa, Maria 336 Thermopyl^, The Glory of. 9S Th ses of Martin I^uther 231 Thibet and the Grand Llama 441 Thiers, M., President of France 292 Thirteenth Amendment 553 Thirty Years' War 232 Thomas, Gen. Geo. H 539, 546, 550 Thoth, the Egyptian God 49 Thothmosis, King 49 ThothmosisIV 50 Thucydides 112 Thurman, Allen G 566 Tiber, The River '. 134 Tiberius Caesar 165 Ticinus, Battle of 146 Tiglathpileser 84 Tilden, Samuel J 565 Tirhakus 65 Titus 71, 166 PAGE. Tokio, Japan 427 Toronto, The City of 398 The University of. 39S Torquemada 302 Tory Party Leaders of England. - 372 Tower of Babel, The 69 Trafalgar, The Battle of , 2S2, 310 Traja .167 Trasimenus, Battle of Lake 146 Trebia, The Battle of 146 Trent Affair, The - 532 Trenton, The Bittleof 510 Treasury, The, Secretary of the 574 Treaty of Berlin, The 253 Tribunatus Established in Rome 139 Tribes, The Ten 70 Tribes of the Atlantic Coast, The Ind an ... . 4S8 Tribune, The N. Y 565 Trinity College, Dublin 393 Tripoli, a Country in Africa 457 Tripolis, TheCity of. 66 Trojan War, The 9^*95 Trollope, Anthony. 3S1 Trowbridge, J. T -648 Troy Captured by the Greeks 93 Troyes, The Treaty of 351 Trumbull, John 637 Tudors, The House of the 355 Tullia, Wife of Lucius 136 Tullius, Hostilius 136 TulHus, Servius , 136 lunis, Africa 457 Turkestan and Ancient Scythia 455 Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire 206 Adrianople and Tamerlane 206 The Fall of Constantinople 207 Solyman the Magnificent 207 The Decline of the Empire 207 Religion. and Intelligence in 208 Present Condition of 208 Area, Popul ition, Government 208 Education, Railroads, Debt 209 Tycho, The Crater 31 Tj'coon of Japan Established 432 Tyler,John 525. 5S4 Tyler, Wat, and the Poll Tax 34S Tyndall 3S1 Tyre and Sidon, The Cities of 66 Ulema and the Koran 20S Ulfila 224 Ulpian 16S Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden 323 Ulysses of Ithaca 93 The "Wanderings of 94 Umbri, A Race of Ancient Ittly 134 Unhistoric Man 43 Union of Sweden and Norway 323 United Kingdom, The 373 United States of Colombia, The 471 United Stites, Early Colonial tlistory of the, 491 England and English America 491 The Dutch and New Netherlands. . .. ..496 The Spanish and French Settlements. . . .49S Colonial Growth and Outgrowth 500 Board of Trade and Plantations 500 Intercolonial Wars 500 French, Sp.inish and English Posses- sions 501 Capture of Quebec 501 Colonial Del-its and Money — . . ..502 PAGE. United States, The Stamp Act 503 Smuggling and the Gaspee 503 The Boston Tea Party 503 First Continental Congress 503 Minute Men and Paul Revere. 504 Battles of Lexington and Concord 504 Continental Army Organized 505 The Battle of Bunker Hill 505 Evacuation of Boston 506 Charleston and Moultrie 506 Declaration of Independence ^06 Eminent Men ot the Period 506 Independence and Union 509 The Hessians and Indians 509 The Two British General Hooves 50^ The Battle of Long Island 509 The Defeat of Burgoyne 510, 512 La Fayette and French Reinforcements.. 531 The Battle of the Bran 'ywine 511 Battle of Germantown and Evacuation of Philadelphia 511 The Battle of Bennington 511 Valley Forge and the Hour of Gloom 51a Articles of Confederation Submitted 512 France Recognizes American Indepen- dence 512 The Battle at Monmouth 512 The Campaigns in the South .513 The Treason of Arnold 513 The Surrender of Cornwallis 514 The Navy of the Revolution 515 The Adoption ot the Constitution 515 The Young Republic 516 Election of Washington as President. ..516 Hamilton and the U. S. Bank 51 S The Period of Compromise 522 The Period of Conflict 529 The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy.. .^55 The Present 564 The Government of the.... 571 The Presidents of the 5S0 The States of the 592 Inventions and Inventors of the 622 The Industries of the 629 American Literature . . .• 63S Universe, The Conception of the 23 University of Alexandria, The Hellenic 57 of Islam, Cairo 63 of Prague 22S at Leipzig 228 Erfurt 230 Wittenburg 230 of Berlin 235, 247 of Jena 247 of Halle 247 of Heidleberg 24S of Copenhagen 321 of Toronto 398 of Hanlin, China 450 Universities of Germany, The 242 of Belgium, The 256 of the Netherlands 257 of Switzerland 329 of Ireland 391 Upsala, Sweden, Tlie Library of . .224 Uranus, The Planet 25, 20 Urban II. , Pope 263 Uruguay, The Republic of 468 Utah Territory 617 Valentinian 171 \ Q e^ ^ INDEX. PAGE- Valentinian II 171 Valerius Corans i^2 Valerius, a Roman General 137 Van Buren, Martin 525, 5S3 Van Dieman's Land .411 Van Dorn, General 533 Van Dyck 259 Van Eyck, Hubert 259 Van Eyck, Jan 259 Valencia, The Treaty of ...311 Valois Branch of the Capeiian Dynasty 263 Vatican Council, The 1S2 at Rome, The iS^ Vaudois, The, a Religious Sect 265 Massacre of the 265 Venezuela, The Republic of 4.70 Venice, The City of 1S4 Venus, The Planet 35, 26 Verdun, The Treaty of z&s Vermont 61S Versailles, Louis XVI Retires to 275 Vespasian 166 In Britain 333 Vesta, Persia, Parthia and the Zenda S6 Vice President, The Duties of the 572 Vicksburg" Captured . 541 Victoria, Queen of Eng-Iand 419 Marriag-e with Prince Albert 36S Victoria, The Colony of 479 Vienna, The City of . . , 237, 249 Napoleon at 237 Vionville, The Battle of -. 240 Virgil, a Poet of Rome 162 Virg^in Islands, The 479 Virg-inia , First Settlement in 492 Captain John Smith and Pocahontas 492 Slavery Introduced into 492 First Indian War 49a The Colonial Governors of 4^3 Bacon's Rebellion in 493 History of 619 Virginia, The Death of 140 Virginius, a Roman Tribune 140 Volcanoes 24 Volcanic Eruptions^ 24 Voltaire 271 Von Humboldt 23 Vladimir of Novg-orod 211 Embraces Christianity 211 Wagner 246 Wakefield, The Battle of 352 Waldo, of Lyons, Peter iSi Waldenes, The iSi Wales Absorbed by Eng-land 344 Wales, Llewellyn, Prince of 344 Wales, The First English Prince of 344 Wall of China, The Great 443 Wallace, William , 345, 3S4 Wallenstein and the Reformation 33 Walpole, Sir Horace 367 Walter, The Penniless 191 Walton, Izaak 373 War for Grecian Independence 130 The First Punic , ,144 The Second Punic 145 The Third Punic 147 of the Investitures iSo The Crimean .214 The Hussite 22S The Thirty Years' 232 PAGE War, The Seven Years' 235 The Seven Weeks^ 239 The Dutch 25S The Peninsula 311 of the Roses, The 352 The Mexican 463 of America, The Colonial SOD The Revolutionary 5^9 with England, The Second .51S War, The Secretary of 576 Wares, Henry and William 643 Warren at Bunker Hill, General 505, 5o3 Warren, Seth 512 Warsaw, The City of 220 Wartburg, The Castle of 231 Warwick, The Earl of .352 Washington Territory 620 Washington Selected as the Capital 516 Burnt by the British 521 Washington, George, and Virginia Militia, 501 Present at Braddock's Defeat 5°^ Takes Command at Boston 505 and the War of the Revolution 509 Inaugurated as President 5'7i S^o Watch-making in America 624 Waterloo, The Plain and Town of 260 The Battle 2S6 Watts, Isaac 479 Way, The Flammian 145 The Appian 145 Wayne, General Anthony 516 Weapons, Bronze and Stdne....^ ..43 Webster, Daniel 523 Webster, Noah , 643 Weimer, The Court of 243 Weisenberg, The Battle of 240 Wellington, Lord 311, 286 Welsh Chiefs at Caernarvon 344 Wenda, Queen 218 Wesley, John and Charles 369 West, Benjamin 637 West Indies, The 479 Westminster Abbey 337, 343 West Virginia 620 Westphalia, The Peace of 233, 323 Weiland 243 Wheeler, William A 566 Whig Parties of England 372 Party of the United States 590 Whipple, E. P 646 Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania 511^ Whitby, The Synod of 335 Whitfield, George, and Methodism. 369 White Plains, The Battle of. 509 Whitman, Walt 6^S Whitney, Eli 624, 523 Whittier, John G 64; Wilberforce, William. .370 Wilderness, Battle of the 545 Wilkes, Captain Charles 533 "William, Duke of Normandy 263 Invades England 263 Claims English Crown 3 ^7 Defeats Harold at Hastings 337 Crowned at Westminster Abbey 337 The Dnmes - Day Book 33S William and Mary ^(jir Victory of the Bo^-ne 365 Act of Settl.ment P-issed 36- William IV., of England 36S PAGE. William I., First King of the Netherlands... 257 William II., of the Netherlands 257 William III., of the Netherlands 257 William of Nassau 20 William I., King of Prussia 238 Crowned Emperor of Germany 239 Receives the Surrender of Napoleon.. ..240 Williamsburg, The Battle of 535 Willis, N. P 641 Wilson, Alexander 640 '\\'iIson, Henry 565 Wilson's Creek, Battle of. 532 Wincheil, Alexander ^ ^ 644 ■Winchester, The Battle of. , 542 Wirt, William .5S9 Wirz^ Henry 542 Wisconsin , 620 Witchcraft of the Dark Ages 193 and King James' Version 194 Innocent VIII., Bull Against 194 Richard Baxter and John Wesley on 194 Salem, Massachusetts 194 Wittenberg, The University of. 230 Wolfe Captures Quebec , . . . .501 Wolsey, Cardinal 356 Wood, Jethro 624 \Vood worth, Samuel -, 640 Wool Industry 633 Woolman, John 639 Worcester, J. E .643 Wordsworth, William 3Sr World of the Ancients, The-. 125 Outer Greece 125 Rhodes and its Colossus 125 Halicarnassus and its Mausoleum 125 Diana of Ephesus^ 126 Syracuse and Archimedes 126 The Ionian Islands. 126 Crete and Cyprus 126 Scandia, Sarmatia, Dacia, and Thrace.. . 127 Scythia and India, Arya 127 Ptolemy and His Geography 12S The Ptolemic System 1-28 The Great Periods of the 24 Worms, The Diet of. 231 Worship, Greek Hero 90 Worth, The Battle of 240 Wycliffe, John 347 Wyoming Territory 621 Massacre of r. 512 Xenophon 113 Xerxes the Great 53. 9^ Ximenes, Cardinal of Spain 302, 306 Varoslaf, Prince of Russia 211 Yesso, an Island of Japan 427 Yokohama, a Seaport City of Japan 427 York, Richard Duke of 352 York, Edward Duke of 352 Crowned Edward IV 352 Yorktown, Cornwallis* Surrender at 514 Ypsilantis, Alexander, and Demetrius T02 Zahringen of Switzerland 325 Zama, The Battle of 147 Zenda Vesta, Persia, Parthia and the 86 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra 5S Zcrubbabel, The Jews Under 70 Ziska, John 229 Zoroaster and the Zenda Vesta 87 Zululand and the Zulus. 458 Zwingle and the Reformation 32S u - 1- wmmmMmtmrn^-^R-^ ^ K—^CS)^^ CIENCE has dispelled the old delusion that all things were created for man, that he is the diamond of creation, all else being mere setting ; but it is none the less true, that no conception can be formed of the universe, excej)t in its human relations. It is equally true, that in order to follow the path of human progress intelligently, it is necessary to first glance at the vast field of knowledge, outside the domain of his- toF}', antedating all human records. Such a preliminary survey will serve as a fitting introdu.ction to the specific inquiry in hand, and, indeed, forms an integral part of it. The great Von Humboldt may be said to have finished the demonstration of the fact that "the universe is governed by law," by which it is meant that all things proceed in an or- derly and rational manner, as Great Britain or the United States may be said to be governed by law. It is the part of science to discover and disclose those laws, in their manifold relations. It is but yesterday that man began to unravel the mysteries of creation. For thousands of years the eye of gen- ius was dimmed by the mists of absurd conceits and immemorial blunders. Albeit the ancient folly that the universe was made for man has been cast into the limbo of ex- ploded heresies, it is undeniable that the prepara- tions made for man were elaborate beyond all pre- conception. Whether one glance over the celestial field, and pause to ponder upon the wonders of the heavens, or delve deep into the earth to ascertain the marvels of geology and paleontology, one is alike impressed with the magnitude and minuteness of the preparations which rendered this earth habit- able by human beings. From the remotest star in the Milky Way to the tiniest spear of grass, all forms a part, necessary and correlative, in the mighty sys- tem of being over which man sways the scepter of sujjerior intelligence. The antiquity of the human race is a problem thus far defiant of solution. Bibhcal chronology has been somewhat variously interpreted by differ- ent scholars, but science and scripture agree that man was the last and crowning result of creation. Vast epochs intervened between the beginning and the end of the journey which began in the dim chambers of mere conceptive potency, and ended in humanity. ' It would be foreign to the object of this volume to discuss the polemics of science. The field of positive and definite information is far more in- viting and profitable. It is wiser to calmly glean and garner the wheat of knowledge than to frantic- ally thresh the tares of controversy. It may be, and doubtless is, a grander flight of genius to skim along the azure of philosophic thought than to wearily plod along the road of events ; but as a preiJaration for the intelligent perusal of history, a few general facts of nature are vastly more helpful than the subhmest disquisitions upon the abstract and the abstruse. The development of existing cosmos out of pri- mordial chaos, produced continents, oceans and mountains in the place of a vast globe of liquid fire. The great mass of the earth is still in a fluid and fiery (23) sPV ^'. i>L. 24 BEFORE HISTORY. state, covered by a comparatively thin crust of cold and solid substance. In tracing the necessary course of this change from a molten to a solid con- dition, a scientific writer of our day remarks : " As the interior became hard and concrete by cooling, furrows, corrugations and depressions in the exter- nal crust of the globe would occur, causing great in- equalities in its surface." Volcanic eruptions are simply the escape of the central fire, and liability to such eruptions would be proportionate to the thin- ness of the crust. Once this globe must have been little else than one universal volcano, belching fire and lava at every point. In the earlier stages of creation, volcanic action played the chief part, even after its general subsidence. As volcanoes were the great agencies of the geo- logical dawn, so glaciers came in the cool of the evening. The transition from more than tropical heat, the world over, to universal winter is supposed to have been sudden, and no satisfactory hypothesis has yet been devised for its explanation. Agassiz says of this era of frost: " A vast mantle of ice and snow covered the plains, the valleys, and the seas. All the springs were dried up ; the rivers ceased to flow. To the movements of a numerous and ani- mated creation succeeded the silence of death." It was in the period immediately following the general thaw, or springtime of that supreme winter, that the present life of the earth was begun. Nature having, as it were, frozen out, and gotten rid of her experiments, zoological and botanical, was ready to create man and his vital environments. In point of time, then, the great period of the world was before man, as well as before history. aropsBiii]^ Tic l^ The Paternity op the Sun— Chief Members of the Solar Family— Pecdliaritie3 OF THE Several Planets — The Properties of Matter — Density, Velocity and Diameter of Planets — The Moon — Sun-spots — Precession and Multiple Stabs— The Star of Bethlehem and its Re •appearance— The Milky Wat anDj Star- Clusters — Comets — Gravitation — Time — Noted Astronomers. f-^-^^sJs^"-^- 'HOU hast set the solitary in families, was spoken of man, but it is quite as applicable to worlds. There are, it is true, wandering stars which seem defiant of the law of association, as there are human beings who shoot off on tangents of solitude, forming exceptions to the general rule of society. The rule itself is, however, none the less forcible. In the opinion of some astron- omers, there exists somewhere in the limitless and illimitable vast- ness of space a luminary which is the center and source of life, light and existence. But no eye has caught a glimpse of it, nor is there any like- lihood of such discovery. The utmost stretch of astronomical intelligence goes to the ascertainment of suns which are, each in its sphere, the head of a planetary system or family. Every fixed star that shines in the firmament is the father of a family of worlds, and the same is true of countless others which lie beyond human ken, however assisted the eye may be by the telescope. The central body, the light andlife, of our system of worlds, is the Sun. The planets and satellites which belong to this system are absolutely depend- ent upon the father-sun for the necessaries of life, no less than for all the luxuries of planetary exist- ence. They can never reach " majority," but ever remain " infants." Children are they of a parent whose patriarchal authority must be resi^ected for- ever. Without the heat of the Sun, every planet would become little else than a vast iceberg. There are many members of this family too small for observation from an earthly stand-point, and many which can be discerned by the telescope can not be explored by it, and are hardly worth mention. The recognized and important children of the Sun are Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Earth, Venus and Mercury, eight in all. Some of these have satellites of their own, or, as they might be designated, children. These grandchildren of the Sun, so far as discovered, are eighteen. The Moon is the satellite of Earth. Mars, Venus and Mercury have none. Saturn has eight moons or satellites, Jupiter four, Uranus four, and Neptune one. From observation by the naked eye, the Moon occupies a prominence out of all proportion to its real importance in the solar household. This planet of ours is somewhat below par in magnitude. It is, however, one of the more favored children of the Sun in point of relative position. Some of the plan- ets are so far removed from the Sun as to suffer perpetual winter, while others endure a continuous furnace heat. It would hardly be of interest to " go a-sailing all (25) I 9 -^==^ k^ 26 THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. among the little stars," but some members of the family deserve special attention, besides the Earth. Mercury, the smallest of the noteworthy planets, is the nearest to the Sun. " I am blinded by my own The Earth. liglit," says the Ormuzd of the Persian mythology, and Mercury might well say the same. It is sup- posed to have very high mountains. Its tempera- ture is seven times hotter than our own. If its material were as liable to combustion as our own, it -would have been consumed with fervid heat long ago. Its days are very unequal in length, and if inhabited at all, it must be by very peculiar people, veritable salamanders. "They must," observes a French author, " be as vivacious and mad as raving maniacs," Venus must have twice the heat of the Earth. Like Mercury, it has immense moun- tains, some of them at least twenty-five miles high. It is studded with islands, and has an atmosphere not very inference or guess of Venus IS a very lovely Telescopic Views of Venus. unlike our own. The the astronomers is that world. Although destitute of moons, it has the benefit of reflections from Mercury and Earth. Mars is nearest to Earth, and presents close analo- gies to our planet, espe- cially in atmospheric phenomena and polar cold. It is believed to have a very dense air. Continents and seas are distinguishable upon it. A fair idea of its topog- Telescopic View of Mars. , t p 1 raphy may be formed from a study of the map of North America, TeleBCopic View of Jupiter. with this transposition : that the continent of one stands for the water of the other. Science shows it to be a very old planet. The other plan- ets, Neptune, Saturn, Ura- nus, and Jupiter, are so very far off that their pe- culiarities are less known than those of the other members of the family of I the Sun. The rings of Saturn, however, deserve | mention. The most plaus- ible theory is that they consist of an accumulation of satellites, completely filling its orbit. These satellites, however, defy anything like definite observation. In this connection, it may be well to give some facts general to the solar system. The properties of matter are fourteen, viz. : Divisibility, in- destructibility, impenetrability (or the occupancy of space), variability (i. c, gas, liquid or solid), inertia, motion, force, gravitation, magnetism, electricity, heat, reflection, refrac- tion, polarizing and absorbing, cohesion and repulsion. Taking water as a standard of unity, the density of the planets is as follows: Nep- tune, 1.25 ; Uranus, .97 ; Saturn, .76 ; Jupiter, 1.32; Mars, 5.12; Earth, 5.44; Venus, 5.11; Mercury, 6.71. The velocity of planets, stated in miles per second, is as follows : Neptune, 3.491 ; Uranus, 4.369; Saturn, 6.196; Jupiter, 8.389; Mars, 15.50 ; Earth, 19.13 ; Venus, 23.50 ; Mercury, 30.76. The diameters of the planets, expressed in miles, are as follows : Neptune, 33,243 ; Uranus, 34,704; Saturn, 71,936; Jupiter, 88,316; Mars, 3,900; Earth, 7,925.3; Venus, 7,566; Mercury, 3,960 ; the Sun, 851,736. The Moon is too prominent a factor in the celes- tial problem which astronomy has been solving for thousands of years (but can never fully solve), to bo overlooked. It is insignificant from the stand- point of the universe, or even from that of the Sun ; but the Earth has special interest in it. Everybody has heard of " the man in the Moon," Telescopic View of Saturn. vTi PLATE I. r !■ I fi' PLATE II. PLATE TIT. PLATE IV. THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 31 but the wisdom of the telescope pronounces him a myth, or, if he ever existed, it was ages ago. The Moon is set down as a vast charnel-house. It has neither air, water, nor life of any kind. Its awful crags are absolutely desolate. The supposition is that it is an exhausted, burnt-out, and used-up world. If there is life at all, it must be utterly unlike any known to man. It is the Sahara of the skies. Distant from the earth only 240,000 miles, it is attracted and largely controlled by this planet. The term satellite is appropriate. It is not exhaust- ive, however, for it, too, is a planet of the Sun. Although distant 92,000,000 miles from the head of the family, it is more influenced by it than by the Earth. The action of the Moon upon this planet is chiefly in the ebb and flow of the tides. M^^ M ' Wi'M?^3^^,>ji Its huge craters are, some of them, one hun- dred miles in diameter, and the whole sur- '■f.Ym^i^^^^^m^." vmsiSMm^K^^m face of the mMxI^^^^f^SkL-mlmm^mstS' moon appears to be honey- combed by ex- RWi^ ■^'■SiSHH!(Mp|Ji^' -y -*■ ; tinct volcanoes. >L fWrTh.A \\^ The Moon has its phases from full to crescent. The Crater Tycho, as seen by Telescope. Thev are the different portions of her illuminated surface, which she presents to the Earth in revolving around it. When the dark side is turned toward us the Moon is said to be new ; then it is half -full and horned, and by these phases the revolutions of the Moon are ascertained. The time between full moons is 29^ days ; a synodical month, or lunation. Sun-spots were first carefully studied by Fabri- cius in the seventeenth century. They have been observed very closely ever since. Those of to-day are not those of two centuries ago. Perpetual change goes on. They are the result of some kind of tre- mendous storms or cyclones. That vast furnace seems to be subject to inconceivable perturbations, by the side of which Vesuvius in action would be cold calm. The flames are supposed to rise to a height of 100,000 miles sometimes. The rents and chasms in that ocean of flame are measureless in AstroTiomerp have measured one width and depth, chasm or spot that was found to be large enough to hold one hun- dred Earths. A still larger spotwasmeas- ured in 1839, and found to be 186,000 miles in diam- eter. The speed or mo ve- m e n t p e r - ceived in spots exceeded that of the most Telescopic view of a Sun-spot. violent hurricanes, three to one. The term precession applies to the gradual fall- ing back of the equinoctial points from east to west. In his apparent annual revolution around the Earth, the Sun does not cross the equinoctial ^aaSiSafiiarSi. ■ Aries. Taarns. Gemini. Cancer. Leo. Virgo. Libra. Scorpio. Sagittarius. Capricomns. Acquarins. Pisces. The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac at the same points one year that it does tlie next, but drops to the west about 50 seconds a year. The 5 \ -^3 32 THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. entire precession of the equinoxes requires a period of nearly 26,000 years. Consequently the apparent positions of the stars constantly undergo change, and the Pole-star, even, is not the same in all eons. For the convenience of astronomical study, the heavens are divided into distinct spaces, represented on the map by the figures of animals or other objects. These spaces, with the stars they contain, are called constellations. They are distinguished as northern, zodiacal, and southern, according to^ their positions in respect to the ecliptic. There are twenty-five prominent constellations in the north, twelve in the zodiac and eighteen in the south. Multiple stars are those which seem to the ordi- nary observer to be single, but which, when viewed through a telescope, appear to be two or more stars. If there are only two, they are called double, or binary stars. Variable stars exhibit periodical changes of brightness. Temporary stars are the luminaries which make their appearance suddenly in the heavens, often very brilliant, but after a while fading away, or nearly so. If they do not disappear entirely they are called new stars. Astron- omers can arrive at no satisfactory solution of this mystery. Some stars known to the ancients are not to be found. They are called lost stars. One peculiarity of astrondmy is that it can fore- tell events in its own line, and also discover lost information. For instance, it is known that in the year 4 B. C. a brilliant star appeared, which astron- omers call the " Star of Bethlehem," and of this star the learned Professor Gounnier remarks : "In 1887 the ' Star of Bethlehem ' will be once more seen in ' Caseopia's Chair,' and will be accompanied by a total eclipse of the sun and moon. The star only makes its appearance every 315 years. It will appear and illuminate the heavens, and exceed in brilliancy even Jupiter when in opposition to the sun, and therefore nearer to the sun and brightest. The marvelous brilliancy of the ' Star of Bethle- hem,' in 1887, will surpass any of its previous visit- ations. It will be seen even by noonday, shining with a quick, flashing light, the entire year, after which it will gradually decrease in brightness, and finally disappear, not to return to our heavens until 2202, or 315 years after 1887. This star first attracted the attention of modjern astronomers in the year 1575. It was then called a new star. It was no new star, however, for this was the star which shone so brightly 4 B. C, and was the star that illuminated the heavens at the nativity of Christ." Beside the planets which belong to our system, and the suns of other systems, which are, for the most part, the countless stars of our firmament, is the Milky Way. That is too sharply defined in its individuality, as seen by the naked eye, to be passed over, although, in point of fact, no part of the solar system. It conif)rises luminous matter; aggrega- tions of stars. As one writer expresses it, " The Milky Way presents patches of diifuse, luminous matter, and many millions of stars, some isolated, others formed in groups, and forming, in its total- ity, a kind of zone or ring, the diameter of which would be about six times greater than its thickness, and of which our sun would form a part. It has been estimated that light would not traverse the distance between those nebulae and the earth in less than sixty millions of years, while a cannon-ball would require 37,000 millions of years to traverse the same distance ; yet the limits of the universe would still be untouched. As Buchner and others contend, it is highly probable that the universe, like the earth, is a sphere, with no "jumping-ofE place " anywhere. Star-clusters are near of kin to the Milky Way. Some of these groups have been ascertained to contain no less than 25,000 stars, such as the Pleiades, the Hyades, and the group known as Berenice's Hair. These glob- ular clusters, or galaxies, are supposed to be held together by their motions and mutual attractions. Nebulae are star- clusters, only so far ofE as to be , . , , , . Nebulae viewed through vague even to the telescopic the Telescope. eye. The separate stars cannot be distinguished. They form the extreme verge of celestial discovery, and serve to suggest .the infinite spaces .beyond the reach of scientific inquiry. By all ignorant people, great consequence is attached to comets. As a matter of fact, they are trifles, and literally lighter than air. They are small, irregular nebulae, which travel in space, and which, coming within the sphere of the sun's attrac- tion, approach that body at an ever-increasing veloc- ity, revolving around it, at a varying distance from its surface, and again moving off toward other -^: pla te v. fei=2= THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 35 L^ regions of the sky, losing their Telocity as they recede. They vary in their nature and move- ments, and really possess very little actual signifi- cance in the solaf economy. They are to the solar system about what a light morning fog is to a day in June. Comets are infrequent, but shooting stars are very common, and deserve brief con- sideration. They are sometimes Comet of 1819. Called boHdes, aer- olites, or meteorites. This branch of science has not readied basis of demonstration in its details. Enough is known to warrant the positive assertion that these seeming eccentricities are not freaks of nature, but results of established laws of the uni- verse, especially that great fundamental law, gravi- tation. This law of gravitation is so very funda- mental, in fact, as almost to deserve the appellation of " First Cause," or, as a German would put it, " the cause of the cause of the thing caused." One extract from Rambosson's lectures on this subject will serve as a fitting bridge between this subject and its immediate successor. He says: " It has been found that the earth revolves upon its rapid course like a vast cannon-ball amidst moving clusters of rings of bullets, circulating ever- lastingly in fixed ellipses. These rings are regular rivers, witliout beginning or end, which pour along their beds in celestial projectiles, intersecting at several points the invisible route which the earth follows around the sun. The earth, in passing through them, i s struck by thousands of the small planets, which drop to its surface, and its attractive force drags a great number more of them into its train, causing them to revolve around it for some time, like so maiiy imperceptible moons, until they, too, fall to its surface in the shape of shooting stars." Whenever and wherever there has been anything approaching a correct computation of time, astron- omy has been the base of reckoning. The Egyp- tians, Greeks, and Eomans, not only, but the Hin- doos and Chinese, all adopted the same general plan. The moon is the convenient stand-point for computing months, as the sun is for computing days and years. The present system, sometimes called the new style, was introduced by Pope Greg- ory XIII. in 1582, as the result of careful study and observation, and so accurate is it that the vari- ation between the computed and the actual year is not over one day in 5,000 years. The Gregorean calendar was at once adopted in Catholic countries, but it gained general credence in Protestant coun- tries only about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Russia has not even yet adopted it. The Russians, or the members of the Greek Church, reckon from the birth of Christ, old style. The Mohammedans reckon from the flight of their prophet from Medina 1,300 years ago; the He- brews from the creation, 5641. Several great astronomers deserve mention for the services they rendered mankind in making known the wonders of the heavens. First of all ranks Copernicus, born in 1473, a German, who verified the ancient theory that the sun was the center of the solar system. After his day this was a demonstrated fact, and not a mere hypothe- sis. Galileo, born 1564, made further discoveries in that same line, proving beyond a doubt that the world moves around the sun, not the sun around the earth. For that "heresy" he was tried, and would have suffered martyrdom had he not I'ecanted, his recantation being no detriment to science. Gal- ileo was an Italian. Kepler, a German, born in 1571, made great progress in this science, and with good reason exclaimed: "I think thy thoughts after thee, God." He discovered several of the fundamental laws of the solar system. With Sir Isaac Newton, born in 1642, England came to occupy the front rank in astronomical discoveries, for he discerned that greatest of all laws, the law of gravitation, or the reason why the planets revolve, as well as why the apple falls to the ground when shaken from the stem. His supreme law is that matter attracts other matter in proportion to its mass and distance. Sir Willjam Herschel and his son, belonging in their life work to England and the present century; deserve exalted rank, as do Mitcliell, father and daughter, in this country. Richard A. Proctor has done and is doing very mucli to bring astronomical knowledge within the easy reach of the general public. to ^ 36 TABLES AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES. TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIONS OF POSITION IN THE ORBIT. k^ Name Mercury Venus.. Earth.. . Mars . . . Jupiter . Saturn . . Uranus . Neptune Place of Perihelion. 15° 30' 48" 9° 42' 32" Bg 10° 46' 38" 3° 45' 28" 12° 18' 47" 09 0° 85' 23" W 18° 36' 8" i^ 14° 19' 28" T Annual Variation. -I- 5.84" - 2.68" 11.81" 15.82" -- 6.65" 19.37" -I- 2. 4" Place of North Node. ^ 16° 50' 39" JI 15° 33' 6" 69 18° 33' 16" 9° 21' 27" 69 32° 34' 37" H - - - 13° 17' 9" 11° 9' 30" Annual Variation. . 7.82" 18.71" ■ 23.29" 15.81" ■ 19.42" ■36. 0" Inclination of Orbit. 7° 0' 18" 3° 23' 33" T°" 5Y'""6'' 1° 18' 35" 2° 29' 24" 0° 46' 30" 1° 47' 2" Annual Variation. + 0.181" + 0.045" — o.oW" — 0.226" — 0.155" + 0.031" Table showing the diameter in miles, and the angular diameter of eacli body, in seconds, wnen at the mean distance from the Earth; the weights of each as compared with those of the Sun and Earth, and the Densities as compared with that of the Earth, and with equal bulks of water. Diameter in Weight Sun = 1. Weight Earth = 1. Density Earth =- 1. Density Miles. Seconds. Water = 1. Sun -- Mercurv 851736 2960 7566 7925.6 3900 88316 71936 34704 32243 1923.6" 6.7" 17.1" 5.8" 38.4" 17.1" 4.1" 2.4" 1.000000 258i5S3"T IT5(J5 TTTSiT 354936. 0.0729 0.9101 1.0000 0.1324 338.718 101364 14.252 18.98 0.284 1.392 1.032 1.000 1.105 0.258 0.149 0.19 0.335 1.533 ■7.518 5.573 Earlli 5.4 5.965 1.393 Saturn 0.804 1.025 Neptune - 1.807 The followina; are the Elements of the Moon, and of her Orbit. Mean Distance in Radii of Earth Mean Distance in Miles, Eccentricity of Orbit, Diameter in Miles, Angular Semi-diameter Weight (Earth -= 1), Weight of Earth and Moon (Sun being 1), 14' 44' 59.96435 237,626 0.054844 3153 to 16' 46" 0.011399 Sidereal Revolution, days, Synodical Revolution. . Inclination of Orbit, Revolution of Nodes, Days, Revolution of Perigee, Density (Earth = 1). 27.331661418 29.530488715 5° 8' 47.9" 6798.28 3233.57534 0.5657 -"JFiYTTT EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Plate I. Contains representations of the planets Venus and Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. The figure of Venus (Fig. 2) is copied from a drawing by Schroeter representing the planet near its inferior conjunction. The figure of Mars (Fig. 1) is copied from a drawing by Secchi. The figure of .Tupiter, (Fig. 3) is copied from a drawing in the Sidereal Messenger^ and the figure of Saturn (Fig. 4) is copied from a drawing by Dawes. Plate II. Shows the apparent size of the Sun as viewed from the several plan- ets, and the relative sizes of the eight principal planets. Plate III. Is a representation of the appearance of the full Moon, copied from the engraving of Bear and Maedler — also a representation of portion of the moon's surface as seen with a powerful telescope near the time of the first quarter. ^ Plate iV. Contains representations of Comets. Fig. 1 is a representation of Halley's comet as it appeared to the naked eye October 29, 1835, accord- ing to Stravc. Fig. 2 is a representation of Donati's comet as it ap- peared to the naked eye October 10, 1858, according to Prof. Bond. Fig. 3 is a telescopic view of the head of Donati's comet as it appeared October 2, 1858, according to Prof. Bond. Plate V. This Map shows all the prominent constellations visible in the United States; the center is the North Pole. The map shows all the Fixed Stars of not less than the third magnitude, with many of the smaller stars. ^^ A^ Ij^l^gl^gj^ ESCakiiail THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. CHAPTER II. Matter antj Motion — Theories of Creation — Geological Periods — Nature and Man — The Continents and Population— Geological Developjiients— From Sponge to Man— The Animal Kingdom. F the facilities for studying all the jjlanets of our solar system were the same, this world would dwindle into insignificance, being one of the smallest of the heaven- ly bodies. It is, however, able to boast a surface of 197,124,000 square miles, and a jilan- etary mass amounting to 356,000 mil- lions of cubic feet. All this matter is in constant motion. The '' change- less rocks " are never at rest, absolute- ly. As the earth itself is in motion, so are its component parts. Gradual changes are being wrought through this activity. " Nature, immutable in its laws, but forever variable in its phenomena, never repeats itself." The rotation of the earth is around an ideal axis, fiassing through the two poles. The movement is from right to left, or from west to east, that is, contrary to the appar- ent motion of the sun and stars. The origin of the earth is an unsolved, if not an insoluble, mystery. Ingenious theories on this sub- ject have been elaborated, but none of them have been actually verified. Kant, Lai^lace, and others, have devoted a good deal of study to the birth of the earth. Their ideas are interesting, without being satisfactory, or worthy of more than mere reference in this connection. We know that it was a slow development. That much is certain. The records of geology show that " in the beginning," must have been millions, and probably billions, of ages ago, and that the present life, animal and veg- etable, of the world, including man, must be of ■comparatively recent date. "The commonly received opinion is that originally the j^lanets were sparks from the sun, vast. gaseous or liquid matter, and that, by a process of cooling and solidifying, was brought into existence the rocks, soil, and various transmutations which make up a habitable world. It is supposed that some planets are now going through the process of preparation for utility, and perhaps others, again, have literally outlived their usefulness. With a lamp of geological science for guide, one might, by descending a shaft sunk deejjly in the earth, read, page by page, the history written in the strata penetrated. Each stratum represents and records a vast and distinct formative period. These strata may be classed as shown in the subjoined chart. The organic remains, animal or vegetable, whicli are contained in a greater part of these various formations, afford the principal data for ascertaining, frequently with absolute cer- tainty, the order of succession of the various lay- ers. There is, however, more or less lajiping over, the ages not being so perfectly disconnected in pro- ductions as the scientists at one time supposed. (37) ^i 38 THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. " The idea is not warranted," says Keclus, " which connects some kind of cataclysm with the end of each geological period, and continuity of life has linked together all the formations, from the organ- BIRDS AND MAMMALIA. Different orders. Quo OOOJn t> <^ "^ OOP o ir.yp ppfvl ItVrVddie: -Oolite: FISH (soft scaled). MAESUPIALIA. MAESUPIAL MAMMALIA. FISH (homocerque). TRACE OF MAMMAIIA. BIRDS wingless, by footsteps. REPTILIA. ' ^^H5: MUlstone Grit BATRACHIA. (Insects.) MOLLUSCA Cophalopoda. Gasteropoda, Brachiopoda. INVEETEBEATA. Crustacea, etc. Annelids, etc. Zoophytes, etc. The Earth's Strata. (Hitchcock.) ized beings which first made their appearance on earth, down to the countless multitudes which now inhabit it." To this may be added, in a general way, that the higher the organism is raised in the scale of being, the narrower the limits between which it is confined. Man, for instance, is found in all parts of the world, but the higher types of manhood are quite limited. Human remains are to be found, on the other hand, side by side with the bones of the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct species. About three-quarters of the earth's surface is covered by sea. !No part of this surface is without its organic life, and beneath large portions of the land are deposited the vast stores of fuel and metals of every kind. Ample provision is made for the happiness of every kind of creatures. The under- ground resources belong exclusively to man. He alone can appropriate to his use coal, iron, copper, silver, gold, and kindred resources of nature. The relations man sustains to his surroundings form an interesting subject of study. It is only where all conditions are favorable that satisfactory results can be obtained. It is no less true that, were all nature auspicious, this very favorability would be paralyzing to human effort. Some obstacles must be encountered, or no triumplis are to be expected. Perpetual summer balm, plenty and pleasure unceasing, would undermine the character and debil- itate the system, while arctic winter, sterility and suffering are no less benumbing. On the American continent, the area favorable to civilization is small. In South America the temperate region is narrow, and subject to disad- vantages so serious as to preclude the hope of great South American prosperity. North America is much more favored, and, with Asia and Europe, comprises the great area for civilization, and it will be with these continents, for the most part, that general history must have to do, not only now, but during the ages to come. Man can adapt himself to almost any vegetable food nature furnishes. The potato, now as important aswheat,was unknown to our ancestors of a few centuries ago. If there were no wheat or potatoes either, we could get on very well with some of the other cereals and roots. But the continent of America tried in vain to pro- duce a permanent historical civilization without that one animal, the horse. While, therefore, details of zoology would be out of place here, it is well, before proceeding to the records of man, to pause for a brief consideration of the animal king- dom by which man is surrounded, and upon which he is so dependent. ^-71^ "S \ Lk. THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. 39 According to Cuvier, the greatest of all natural- ists, and second to none as a scientist, the living animals are divided into two great classes, those having backbones, and those destitute of the same ; vertebrates, and invertebrates. The former include fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, the latter being all those living things which nourish their young by direct food supply from the mother. The in- vertebrates take inmollusks, such as oysters, snails, cuttle-fish ; also spiders, lobsters, and insects gen- erally, including those half -developed, pulpy things called " radiated animals." One of the very lowest forms of life is the sponge, familiar to everybody as a toilet article. ^ The flint is a petri- fied sponge. The coral, as ornamental as the sponge is use- ful, is another petri- faction of animal life as found in the sea. It is a popular theory with the sci- entists that one form of life develops into another, and that all, from man down, originated in the very lowest form of vitalicy, a form so very nearly akin to * the vegetable kingdom as to be almost indistinguish- able from it. This is a theory, not an established fact. If it be true, then, we are not only descended from monkeys, but from a first parent lower in the scale of being than the dumb oyster, the useful sponge, or tJie beautiful coral. The lowest form of man is about as much like the chimpanzee (the most human of animals) as he is like the civilized man. If this world were visited by a being of intelligence, or rather of capacity for intelligence, but utterly ignorant of what he was to find here, he would infer, as a strong probability, that the development from the least to the greatest was by gradual steps. He would nowhere find any " connecting link," however, but everywhere suggestions and family resemblances. The soft-footed animalculae, or rhizopod a, leading Female Hottentot. up to sponges, itiftisoria, corallines, corals, echiu- odermata, and parasitic worms, constitute the different species of the first division of animals. T'he second division, with its countless sorts of worms, is just one step removed from insects, crabs, shrimps, and mollusks. The latter grade into fishes and reptiles. The progress to birds and animals of the mammal family is a much longer stride ; still the resemblances are preserved through- out. The embryo and the skeleton, however, show the kinship of nature more clearly than existence in its perfection. For instance, there is no mis- taking the man and the orangoutang, seen in any vitality, but their skeletons, with hands and feet cut off, are almost in- distingiiishable. That any species ever passed over, by development, into another sjoecies, is a theory without the support of direct evidence. There is not an attribute of man, however, which is not found in rudimentary form in the brute creation. The old idea of instinct, in distinction from reason, has been abandoned. Rational use of intellectual faculties accounts for intelligence, judgment and efficiency, whether in man or beast, bird or insect. The animal kingdom has been compared to a great city. From it go out many thorouglifares, and each street has its own starting-point and des- tination, not necessarily separate in all respects, but maintainitig individuality even m intersections. Along these streets are found .all sorts of people, and all sorts of business. The Broadway of tliis city of Existence is Man. All otiier roads, whether parallel with or at right-angles to it, are tributtiry, and contribute. to its supremacy. There is inter- dependence throughout, but all in consistence with the grand idea of climacteric unity in man's rule over " the earth and the fullness thereof." Female Gorilla. ^\^ The Golden Age of Fable— Primitite Savage— Fkom Huntek to Shepherd— Prom Shepherd to Farmer— Primi- tive Implements— Stone and Bronze— Gradations of Development, and Degrees of Savagert — Celts and Celtic Progress — Sir John Luebock's Testimony — Prehistoric and Unhistoric Man. HE poetic fancy in all ages has depicted primitive man as a delightful and angelic being. All civilized people have had their golden age of the past. If, as in the case of all Europe, the bar- ic age lapped on the age of ilization, comjielling a recog- ition of ancestral savagism, the imagination would trav- back to a more remote ancestry find an honorable origin. But now, the poetic faculty has been superseded by the scientific sense, and we must all admit, whatever our fancies and conceits, that man in his first estate was a savage of tlie lowest type. A few years ago, it would have been positively absurd in a historical work, to treat of prehistoric man. It would have been set down as self-evidently preposterous. But there is a history older than history. The annals of primeval man do no,t follow out any line of chronology with exact- ness, nor do they present to the mind individual types and details. They simply show us the stages by wliicli the savage became a man capable of his- toric achievements. For this we are indebted to archeology, which may be defined as the history of men and things which have no history. The Roman poet, Horace, was almost prophetic of what would be discovered centuries after him, when lie wrote : " When these brutes, now called Mammoth {E. pi-imigenius) and Mastodon (M. giganteus) Restored. men, first crawled out of the ground, a dvinib and dn-ty lot, they fought for nuts and sheltering spots, with nail and fist; then with sticks; later, with arms forged of metal. Then they invented names and words. With language and thought, came cit- ies, and some relief from strife." In the days of the mammoth, in what seems to have been an almost totally distinct era, man lived in caves, and was on much the same plane of existence as the Puegians when first discovered. He fed on fruits. (40) T) V tk. PREHISTORIC MAN. 41 nuts, and I'oots, on f5sh or flesh, according to his opportunities and necessities. Emerging, by slow and gradual steps, from the cavern of darkest sav- agery, primitive man was still a hunter, living by the chase, or a fisher, as circumstances might deter- mine. What is now the recreation of the over- worked civilized man was the first employment of the race. A people dependent upon wild beasts of a cave, he has a tent made of the skins of beasts, rude in its simplicity, still a great improvement on a hole in the ground. It was a great step to go from wild to domestic animals. The brute and man meet on the same level when both live by raj^ine and violence. Grazing is an ascent toward the table-lands of civilization. The Hebrews can trace their descent from that Bedouin sheik, Abra- Prehistoric Man. and fish for sustenance are necessarily migratory. Tliey must follow the trail wherever it leads, and if neither the game nor the fish appear in their accus- tomed haunts, they must go in search of them. From hunting to pastoral life is the natural gradation. This, too, is somewhat migratory. The flocks must be led beside still waters and into green pastures, be the same far or near. The shepherd is some advance upon the hunter and fisher ; still, he is very near the bottom of the ladder. He can- not build hini a house or form society. The shep- herd must be in constant readiness to move. Instead ham, but we may all rest assured that in the far- away ages our ancestors fed their flocks and pitched their tents in true Arabic fashion, however obscure the annals may be. The hunter may be as isolated from the rest of his kind as the deer of the forest, mating only at the fierce impulse of a passing pas- sion, but the nomad belongs to a tribe. It may be small, or it may branch out into an imposing mul- titude ; it is surely a great improvement. There is a community of interest which begets society and stimulates progress. Most nations can be traced back traditionally, if not historically, to this prini- ~s V ^4^ — - Jin 42 PREHISTORIC MAN. itive or tribal system. The father is the patriarch, and as such a little king, absolute, indeed, but with- out temptation to despotism. Poets love to picture the pastoral life. It lias charms for romance and sentiment, especially when viewed from afar. To the pastoral life succeeds the agricultural phase of progress. Necessity is the mother of civ- ilization. It takes a great deal of land to maintain a very small pastoral population. With the increase of people, it becomes impossible to live by meat and milk alone. Very likely there have, almost from the first, been some crude attempts at tillage, but, in proportion as the people improved, the cultiva- tion of the ground has always gained iri relative prominence. It is only when agriculture is the chief reliance of a people that permanent habita- tions are built, and stable institutions are out of the question with vagrant tribes of flock-tenders. It may be said, then, that when a people have so stone As. (Mound Builders".) Stone Hammer. far prospered that they are tillers of the soil, farm- ers, properly so called, they have reached a stage of civilization wliich fairly takes them out of the pre- historic list. There is abundant evidence of the correctness of this theory of progress. We now give the more prominent facts in support of the foregoing obser- vations. The rude implements discovered in the valley of the Somme, in France ; at Iloxne, Santon, Down- ham, and Thetford, England, in conjunction with elephant remains, and those of other extinct ani- mals, raises apresumption which is irresistible : their makers were rude barbarians. Flint instruments, found in the gravel drifts at Ponte Molle, near Rome, attest the same facts. So do many of the relics of America. In fact, wherever science has explored, and, as it were, had access to the libraries of prehistoric man, the same line of facts- has been ascertained. The nearest approach to an exception to this rule is found in America. Here, on this continent, there was once a progress reaching civil- ization, and that without the pastoral phase. There was, however, an intermediate phase, and the prin- ciple of gradation from low to high is perfectly traceable in the remains of the aboriginal Ameri- cans, and in Peru there were shepherds with vast flocks of sheep. Mention has been made of the flint or stone, and of the bronze age. Man seems to have been endowed with a strong predilection for some sort of imple- ment. The researches of archaeology have traced out five distinct stages of the stone age, and on so broad a scale as to show the operation everywhere Cuppur Helics from Wisconsin. of the same grand law of growth. First came the rudest flint;;, mere chunks of stone. Then came flakes chipped from the rock, and showing the dawn of the creative or fashioning faculty. The third stage indicates some skill and art in the fash- ioning of the flint. The idea of form and comeli- ness, of adaptability and convenience, crops out. The fourth age was the beginning of grinding or rubbing. The points are made sharp by attrition. The fifth stage brings us to the perfectly polished and quite artistic flint implements, which show constructive invention. Some of these flints are a rude sort of ax, one piece fitted into anothei', like helve and blade. One is impressed with the immense progress made from the use of a jagged -7'^ PREHISTORIC MAN. 43 stone, such as an ape might use, to the somewhat curiously wrought and laboriously finished flint hatchet. While there are found these five gradations, there are indicated by them three stages of human pvog- ress. The flints, implements of the cave period, show man at his worst ; the flint flakes belong to a people devoted to the chase, while the ground, pol- ished, and fashioned stones bespeak a pastoral age. not unmixed with the initial steps of agriculture. The archaeological designations of these three ages are the palseolithic, the mesolithic, and the neo- lithic. No nation has come up to civilization with- out passing through those primitive stages. Between the fifth or stone age and the bronze age intervened a sixth stage, transitional in character, in which copper, cold and crude, was hammered into shape. It was used like a stone, and not fused and fashioned in conformity to the peculiar prop- erties of metals. It was treated as a kind of mal- leable stone. Very little creative progress was made anywhere during this stage. This period is found everywhere, but evidently continued much longer in the new world than in the old. The Promethean gift of fire seems to have come much earlier to the barbarians of the East than to the savages of the West. The seventh stage ofjcns to view the bronze age proper. Then began the fusing of metals. The soft copper and liard tin were blended into the bronze of the prehistoric age. That was probably the result of a lucky accident. When once the idea of melting and metals was conceived, tlie skill slowly attained in the making of stone and copper implements was brought into requisition, and improvements were easy and inevitable. The world over are found traces of the birth of bronze, tlie dawn of its day, and the brilliance of its aurora. Manufacturing by molding began. The corner- stone of all construction was laid when smelting- and molding commenced, and that corner-stone may be said to have reached around the world. It was at this point of development that the more advanced peoples became celts, i. e., tool-makers and users. Sir John Lubbock remarks that " the use of bronze weajjons is cliaracteristic of a jjarticular phase in the history of civilization, and one which was anterior to the discovery, or, at least, to the general use, of iron. Soon after iron, came pot- tery. Man found, not only the advantage of soft- ening metals with fire, but of hardening clay with it. A mass of evidence proves that a stone age prevailed in every great district of the inhabited world, followed, as general progress was made, by the other ages named." As Figuier observes, " The development of man must have been doubtless the same in all parts of the earth, or that, in whatever country we may consider him, man must have passed through the same phases in order to arrive at liis present state. He must have had everywhere his age of stone, his epoch of bronze, and liis epoch of iron, in orderly succession." In a word, the pre- historic man of the past still lives in the unhistoric man of tlie preseiit, and the march from savagism to civilization is over substantially the same road. ^F -^=iNr II ^ jnjn The Fountain-head of History— The Geography of Egypt— Climate and Resoukces— The J L ' ■ J iLJ^ EosETTA Stone — First Egyptian Dynasty — Cheops, his Pyramid and Sphinx — The Shep- herd Kings— The Dawn op Thebes ^■^JST attemfit has been made to trace man in liis civilized state to Ethiopia, but the nearest to that country that researcli has been able to come is Egypt. The land of the Pharaohs, the pyr- amids, the Sphinx, and the Nile, if not the veritable cradle of civ- ilization, was its earliest historic home. By civilization is here meant that stream of intelligence and betterment, which, trickling through the ages, has fertilized Europe and America. The myriads of China and Japan are not without a civilization, and it may antedate that of more Western peoples, but it does not' belong to that steadily widening current of thouglit which gives a certain unity to all the lands and times, fi'om the dawn of history to date. As a term in geography, Egypt represents almost as fixed and unvarying a quantity as America. Nature has determined its boundaries. It is indeed the country of the Nile, or Egyptus, as tliat river was once called. From the seven mouths of that grand river, through which it debouches into the Mediterranean Sea on the north, to the cataracts or rapids of the south, which arrest navigation at Syene, and from desert to desert, on either side, extends this wonder-land. Upper Egypt is the region of the undivided Nile, and Lower Eg}'pt of the vast delta, through which it flows in several streams, broadening the area of productiveness. Besides these, were a few green spots in the desert, and ports on the Red Sea. By its geograi)hical position, the country was pro- tected from hostile incursions by a better than Chi- nese wall, and allowed to develop normally until a comparatively late period. Not that the same race maintained the ascendency all the time, but that the immunity from hostile incursion enjoj^ed by that people was such as no other nation ever enjoyed until the United States came upon the stage of national development. It was not necessary to exhaust the resources and ingenuity of the people in war. There was ample leisure for and incentive to the cultivation of the arts of peace. The Rainless Land might be the appellation of Egypt. The productiveness of the soil is not dejiend- ent upon capricious clouds. During our spring months the air is sultry and the ground parched. The rains of mountainous Abyssinia commingle in the upper Nile, and by about the middle of June the mighty flood reaches Egypt, and the overflow begins. The fields of the delta are one vast sheet of water during Avigust, SejDtember, and October. The villages, built on raised mounds or artificial hills, are little islands. The water is red with Abyssinian mud. When the water disapioears, early in Novem- ber, the alluvial deposit is the richest of soil, and (44) >pr THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 45 J- . the vegetation is prodigious. Two crops a year can be raised. First wheat and barley, then corn and rice. The latter crop is sowed to grow during the inundation, giving rise to the proverb about casting bread (seed) upon the water. It is harvested in time for the second crop to be put in, and matured during the same year. A country so fertile can sujDport a very dense population, especially as the water affords facilities for transportation and exchange. For a long time gold and precious stones came from the south, and to some extent commerce is still maintained in that di- rection. The Nubian mines were the "bonanzas" of an- tiquity. To them Thebes was largely indebted for its opulence, being for five hun- dred years the richest city in the world. The water which overflowed the delta supplied the clay for most excellent brick, and a road- way for the stupendous blocks of stone which are still conspicuous and mar- velous in ruins. It is from the inscriptions on these monumental ruins that tlie oldest authentic history must be gleaned. Until a quite recent date those hiero- glyphics were a sealed book. The discovery and deci- phering of that key to the mysteries of Egyptian rec- ords, called the Eosetta Stone, led to the recovery of a lost treasury of knowledge. And here, an account of this pass-key to the historic treasures of Most An- cient Egypt can hardly fail to be read with interest. Tlie Rosetta Stone was discovered in 1799, at Eosetta, a town on the delta of the Nile. It is sup- posed to have been set up originally in a temple, and was, in its perfect state, 3 feet 1 incli high, 2 feet 5 inches wide, and 10 inches thick. It has been broken, but has still 14 lines of hieroglyphics, 33 cursive Egj'ptian, the so-called demotic or enchorial writing, and 54 lines of Greek. The latter serve The Interior of the Great Pyramid. as the clew to the rest. From the Greek inscription it appears that it was erected in honor of King Ptolemy Epiphanes, in the ninth year of his reign, B. C. 196-7, by the priests assembled in synod. The birth of the king is narrated ; also the disturbances in Upper Egypt, the inundation of the Nile, tlie death of Ptolemy Philopater, the attack of Antio- chus, and especially that a cojiy of this synodical inscription should be carved on a tablet and erected in every temjjle of the first, second, and third rank, throughout the country. About one-third of the hiero- glyphic fiortion was pre- served, and nearly all the Greek and demotic versions of it. At the capitulation of Alexandria to the En- glish, not long after its dis- covery, it came into posses- sion of the conquerors, and in due time found its way to the British Museum and was published. It was at once recognized as a key to the decipherment of hiero- glyphics, if only the com- bination of the lock could be discovered. Eminent Greek scliolars succeeded in restor- ing the Greek text, and Egyi^tologists made some progress toward understand- ing the rest of the in- scription. The demotic text is still somewhat inexi^lic- able, but finally, in 1851, BrugschBeyis supposed to have completed the translation of tlie hieroglyphics, althougli the work was not really perfected until 1867. One year after, another tablet in three languages was found at San. Tlie latter is in good preserva- tion and has 37 hnes of hieroglyphics, 76 lines of Greek, and 72 of demotic writing. The decree of Canopsus, served to complete and verify the jirogress already made in reading hieroglyphics. Between the two, it was positively ascertained that they were used for sounds, not ideas, and the exact import of tliese sounds was determined. The Interior of the Great Pyramid. l\r a': ii^ 46 THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. Following the clew thus furnished, it has been discovered that the earliest dynasty to leave imper- ishable records was the royal house of Memphis, dating back to B. 0. 4400, and coming down to B. C. 3300. The Memphian kingdom was Lower Egypt, now called "the Beharah" by the Arabs. The whole land was divided into states, much as the United States is. They are sometunes desig- nated nomes. These were, at the dawn of history, forty-two in number. Each enjoyed " state rights," but recognized the "national sovereignty" of the chief dynasty, wherever it might be located. The earliest monarch definitely outhned is Meues, the founder of Memphis, and constructor, it is supposed, of the dyke of Co- chenke, which now regulates somewhat the overflow of the Nile. He caused tem- ples to be erected in every village or city, which were the main features of the towns. It may be observed that the ancient Egyp- tians were remarkable for their piety. Many of the priests were the scions of royalty, and the Pharaohs were often, if not usually, addressed as " Your Holiness." Memphis was a seat of learn- ing. A list of the kings who succeeded Menes could be given, but it would be barren of interest, for it is a list of names and nothing else for hun- dreds of years. There is a suspicious closeness of resemblance between the names of the first conquer- ors or founders of Egypt, India, Judea, and Greece, namelyv: Menes, Menu, Moses, and Minos. There were five Memphian dynasties, but only one successor of Menes who towered into the region of perpetual glory, Cheops, the master builder of all the ages. The crowning work of his reign was the pyramid bearing his name. It is 450.75 feet in height by 746 feet broad at the base. Surrounded by seventy minor joyramids, and companioned by that " monarch of the past," the Sphinx, it defies time or rivalry. High about it is piled the sand, but in vain the desert tries to entomb it. The builder of the Sphinx (called by the Arabs the " Lion of the Night") is not known. It has the form of a lion and the head of a man. It was hewn out of the solid rock, except that the fore-legs, which extend fifty feet fi-om the breast, were added to the body, some idea of which can be formed from the fact that these legs are in good proportion to the rest of that ancient marvel. The great American humorist Samuel L. Clem- ens (Mark Twain), putting aside for the moment his cap and bells, thus eloquently gives voice to the sentiment inspired by the august presence of this gigantic work of art : " After years of waiting, it was before me at last. The great face was so sad, so earnest, so longing, so patient. There was a dignity not of earth in its mien, and in its countenance a benig- nity such as never anything human wore. It was stone, but it seemed sentient. If ever image of stone thought, it was think- ing. It was looking toward the verge of the landscape, yet looking at nothing — The Great Pyramid (Cheops), and the Sphiiii. nothing but distance and vacancy. It was looking over and beyond everything of the present, and far into the past. It was gazing out over the ocean of Time — over lines of century-waves, which, further and far- ther receding, closed nearer and nearer together, and blended at last into one unbroken tide, away toward the horizon of antiquity. It was thinking of the wars of departed ages ; of the empires it had seen created and destroyed; of the nations whose birth it had witnessed, whose progress it had watched, whose annihilation it had noted ; of the joy and sor- row, the life and death, the grandeur and decay, of five thousand slow revolving years. It was the type of an attribute of man — of a faculty of his heart and brain. It was Memory — Retrospection — wrought into visible, tangible form. All who know what pathos there is in memories of days that are ac- complished, and faces that have vanished — albeit only a trifling score of years gone by — will have some appireciation of the pathos that dwells in these ^, ^'. '.^ THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 47 grave eyes that look so steadfastly back upon the things they knew before History was born, before Tradition had being — things that were, and forms that moved in a vague era which even Poetry and Romance scarce knew of — and passed one by one away, leaving the stony dreamer sohtary in the midst of a strange, new age, and uncomprehended scenes. The Spliinx is grand in its lonehness ; it is imposing in its magnitude ; it is impressive iu the mystery that hangs over its story. And there is that in the overshadowing majesty of this eternal figitre of stone, with its accusing memory of the deeds of all ages, which reveals to one something of what he shall feel when he shall stand at last in the awful presence of God." An eminent Egypt- ologist describes as fol- lows the method of pyr- amid building: "First the nucleus was formed by the erection of a small pyramid upon the soil of the desert. It was built in steps, and contained a stone chamber, well con- structed and finished. Then coverings were added until the final size was reached, and at last all was inclosed in a casing of hard stone, deft.ly fitted together and polished to a glassy surface. The pyramid, thus finished, presented a gigantic triangle on each of its four sides. The stone used for the inner structure was found near the place of erection, but as the work progressed, better material was brought fi'om the mountain quarries as far up the Nile as the modern Assouan." The gi-anite last referred to was as hard as metal, and susceptible of an exquisite polish. The dates of construction of the Sphinx and tlie great pyramid are subjects of conjecture, and authorities widely differ in their conclusions. It is supposed that the tenth king of Memphis was reigning when Abraham, forced by the stress of fodder for his flocks, drove liis herds to Egypt, there getting himself into trouble by pre- tending that his Avife was his sister. It may be well, in this connection, to speak of an episode in Egyp- tian history which served to consolidate the country Foreign Captives Making Bricks. politically. We refer to the reign of the Shepherd Kings, or Hycsos, who scourged Egypt for one hun- dred years. From the meager accounts preserved, they must have been to that country much what the Golden Horde, or Tartars, were to Russia. A race of shepherds and traders, these Arabs gradually gained a foothold in Lower Egypt. Some think they were the Philistines before they settled in Pales- tine ; others, that they were the Hebrews, between the time when Joseph, or, as the tablets call him, Zephnet-Phoenich — Joseph the Phoenician — was a member of Pharaoh's cabinet, and the subjugation of the Israelites. Be that as it may, for a century or so these interlopers maintained a certain sovereignty over the agricultural and mechanical Egyp- tians. Salatis was the first of tliese Shepherd Kings, and five others are named in the chron- icles. Finally the peo- ple became so restive under foreign domina- tion that Ujjper and Lower Egypt joined forces and swept the enemy out of the land. The union thus form- ed included the minor states of the country, and siirvived its immediate occasion. The kings of Thebes now became monarchs of all Egypt, much as Ivan the Great secured for the grand princedom of Moscow the sovereignty of all the Russias through the expulsion of the Tartars. The Pharaohs of Abraham, Joseph, and Moses, were the rulers of Memphis, or Lower Egypt, and it was doubtless for the pyramids that tlie Hebrew slaves were com- pelled to make "bricks without straw," and it was in all probaliility fi'om the fecund ooze of the delta of the Nile that tlie magical and miraculous ten plagues sprung. And now, without wearying the reader witli mere skeletons of facts, names, and dates, we take leave of Most Ancient Egypt, only pausing to make this remark, althougli Egypt has well been called "the monumental land of all the world," no con- temporary monuments of Menes, the first to reign over all the land, have been discovered. 1- IM From Memphis to Thebes — Kaknak — The Tomes and Cataracts op Upper Egypt — Refobm IN THE Calendar — Amanothph and the Exodus — A Glimpse of Greece — Eameses the Great — Home Development and Conquest— Gold and its Influence. K-o#^D^»>^r^ '■'^- S^. t)R seven hundred years the scepter of national sujjrem- acy, so long held by Mem- phis, loelonged to Thebes. It was not simply a political ascendancy. Memphis and Lower Egypt could boast gigantic works which were a triumph of architectural science, but art, in its more esthetic character, belonged rather to Thebes. That marvelous city, the miracle of history, even in ruins, represents an unbroken chain of reigns, and its tab- lets preserve the names of monarchs ' with the most meager details. Of course, the catalogue of those names would be te- dious and unprofitable. The city had a road of its own to the Eed Sea, and thus not only commanded the Ethiopian trade, but had a seaport. It was a London with its Liverpool. At one time Elephan- tine, built on an island of the Upper Nile, was the capital of a small kingdom, as was also Heracleop- olis, near Memphis. But Thebes and Memphis long enjoyed the sovereignty of Egypt. In the shadowy days of antiquity, the temple of Karnak " rose like an exhalation," and the countless tombs of Beni-IIassar were tunneled into the hills that form the site of Egyptian Thebes, for this antique city must not be confounded witlr the Thebes of Greece. These houses of death give a certain deathlessness to Egypt, for upon the walls are depicted the em- jDloyments and amusements of the peoj)le. The resemblance between Egyptian life thousands of years ago and to-day is wonderfully close. Indeed, about Thebes are evidences of the most mar- velous achievements in Titanic art. Vast and imi- perishable stones, such as modern skill could not quarry, served to make the region of Ujoper Egypt a ceaseless source of interest. Without attempting to follow the political for- tunes of dynasties with closeness, it will be of interest to note the more important facts of this middle pe- riod of Egypt. It was in the year B. C. 1321, that the new peri- od began. It was then the calendar was reformed, a work showing great attainments in science ; as- tronomy especially. It was almost identical with the calendrial reformation inaugurated at Rome by Julius Caesar, which is the real basis of modern com- putatioji of time. Csesar was little more than a borrower from " the wisdom of the Egyptians," learned while dallying with Cleopatra (for that greatest of Romans had a genius for combining pleasure with more substantial advantages). The fundamental and intimate relation of that old re- form in time-keeping with the present system, renders it worth our while to look somewhat minutely into it. The era of which we speak was called Meno- phres, and of it an eminent Eg-yf)tologist remarks -TTi (48) Ui_^ EGYPT AT ITS BEST. 49 (and we cannot do better than to quote his words) : " The observing man maj^ note that every star rises to-day eaiher than it did yesterday, and that every morning a fresh set of stars peeps up from the hori- zon to be seen but for a moment before they are lost in the bright hght of the day-break. The day on which a star is thus first seen in the east, is called its heliacal rising, and at the beginning of the era of Menophres, the first day of Thoth, the civil new year's day began, falling on the day the Dog-star was first seen to rise at day-break, which was held to be the natural new year's day, when the Nile be- sran to rise, six weeks before the overflow. This agreement between the natural new year's day and the civil new year's day may have happened simply by the motion of the civil year, but it was possibly accompanied by a reform in the calendar, and by fixing the length of the civil year at 365 days, in the beUef that the months would not again move from their seasons. Among the common names of the months, that of the last, the Bull, was clearly brought into use at this time, when the year ended with the rising of that constellation. The months, however, were left with the mistakes in their hiero- glyphical names, wMch had arisen from former change of place. The four months which were named after the season of vegetation fell during the overflow of the Nile ; the months named after the harvest fell during the height of vegetation, and those named after the inundation fell during harvest time. But if no alteration was made at this time in the calendar, and the civil year already contained 365 days, the addition of the five days had probably been made five hundred years earlier, when the first month of the inundation would have The Egyptian God, Thoth. begun with the Nile's overflow. The Egyptian year was never altered. For the want of a leap year, 1461 civil years took place in 1460 revolutions of the sun ; and in the beginning of the reign of the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, the new year's day again came around to the season from which it moved in the reign of the Menophres. Again, Plu- tarch says, that the God Thoth, i. e. King Thothmo- sis, taught the Egyptians the true length of the year ; and the figure of this king is often drawn with a palm-branch, the hieroglyphic for the word year, in each hand, hence it is probable that he is the author of the change in the calendar, made in the year B. C. 1331." This reformer of time was industrious in many ways. Cleopatra's needle (now in Central Park, New York), and other obelisks, date from his reign. Prom the lowest part of the kingdom to Nubia, are scattered unmistakable evidences of his constructive energy. At Heliopolis, Ombos and Samneh, temples which must have been marvels of architectui-al grandeur were erected. But it was during the reign of his son Amanothph II. that the arts were brought to a high degree of perfec- tion, especially the industrial branches. The paintings on the walls of the Thebau tombs show this. The artisan life these set forth, reveals ad- vanced civilization. It is supposed that under this king the Hebrew exodus occurred, and we have herein probably supplied to us a missing link in Biblical history. The Bible tells us when Josejjh brought his father and brethren into Egypt, and when Moses led them out, but when the transition from pets to slaves occurred, and the intermediate steps, are not suggested in the sacred record. From Joseph, prime minister, and his brethren highly favored, to abject slavery, was a long stride. In the light of Egyptology it seems probable, almost to certainty, that they either were the Shepherd Kings or their allies, and that the period of actual bondage was very brief, less, surely, tlian one hun- dred years. Even if they were not at all connected with the Shepherd Kings, they were of the same Arab stock, and the Pharaohs of Tiiebes and Unit- ed Egypt naturally " knew not Joseph," belonging as he did to the Memphian kingdom. The mud of the Nile, mixed with chopped straw, and baked in the sun was used very extensively. The Egj'ptian version of the Exodus is quite unlike the Hebraic account. The priests of Egyjjt were prejudiced against them because of their religion, and secured their isolation and enslavement. Moses, a learned 7 Jil5 ■1^ 50 EGYPT AT ITS BEST. priest of Heliopolis, preferred being the chief man among the despised Israelites, rather than one aaiong many aristocratic jDriests. He espoused their cause, gave them a code of laws, and a reformed rehgion, encouraged them to form a hostile alliance with the Canaanites, and wlien they were beaten by Amanothph, he retreated witli them into the desert, from which, after years of wandering and hiding from their adversaries, they succeeded in reaching the land of their allies whom in part they dispos- sessed. How much this history was a dis- torted account, we leave the reader to judge. It is certainly in- teresting and cu- rious. The two peoples thus in- timately associ- ated in the far- off days may be said to have given to Europe and America their great characteristics. To tliose fugitive slaves we owe our religion, and to their pursuers have been traced, through many a devious winding, the gen- eral civilization of modern times. It would be inter- esting to follow the Ex- odus to the Land of Prom- ise, but that would be a tangent, and we must now dismiss from our thoughts, in connection with Egypt, the children of Israel. Thothmosis IV. was the next king of Egypt. The temple which stands be- tween the fore-legs of the Sphinx, near Memphis, was evidently the work of his reign. That edifice in COLOSSAL STATUE OP EAMESES THE GREAT -^5C Dress of tlie Kiii^' shows, as Inis been observed, tliat least, though probably mucli earlier, the rock had this reign at been carved into the form of that monster." The next king, Amanothph III., was a great warrior, and did a great deal of temple and tomb building, of wall-painting and of obelisk-carving. He conquered numerous tribes of Ethiopians. His successor, Hornemnes deserves mention for the fact that he was unwittingly the father of Greek civilization. It was this way : G-reek pirates, or sailors, much the same thing in old times, had established themselves at Sais, on the east of the Delta, and conducted the Mediterranean commerce of Egypt, being for the most part in- dependent and free. Gradually they spread and improved, enjoy- ing the privilege of intercourse with cultured Egypt for five hundred years. Finally, at the time at which we have arrived if the government, Egypt, and Upper They were driven They &„->y '^■•'-'•" '^^"Hm ■'^'^rmk second great they incurred the enmity They belonged to Lower Egypt ruled the country. out as the Hebrews had been before them. returned to Greece, founded several cities (BcEotian Thebes among the number), and thus sowed the seeds of Greek civilization. Athens is sup- jjosed to owe its origin to that exodus. We come now upon the name which towers above all other Theban names — Kameses. The first king who bore that name achieved noth- ing, at least left nothing, which has survived the ravages of three chihades. His son, Oimemep- thah, was an industrious builder, and tlie inscrip- tions ujDon the walls of his structures, are very useful in deciphering the religion of Egypt. The next Idng, Eameses II., brought the The- ban dynasty to its highest glory. War and architecture, sculpture and painting, united in making him tlie most illustrious of all the nion- As — — =^ir •k EGYPT AT ITS BEST. 51 arclis the Nile can boast. His name is hardly less imposing tlian that of Csesar. He was succeeded by Plhehmen-Meiothph, Oimempthah II., Osiuta, Eo- merer, and four more kings bearing his own name, and then the glory of Thebes departed, not a sud- den atid overwhelming calamity, like that which dimmed the light of Troy and Jerusalem, but else- where, and with diminished laster, shone the star of Egyptian Empire. The last of those kings was a contemporary of Priam, Achilles, Helen, and Ulysses. The period from Eameses the Great to Rameses the last, was nearly two hundred years. No nation of antiquity relied so much as Egypt did upon the develojjment of its own resources for growth and sjilendor. Indeed, no other nation ever equaled it in this proud pre-eminence until the United States of America surpassed it. The mar- tial spirit was not wanting even upon the banks of the Nile. The tablets abound in evidences of con- quest. Rameses the Great seems to have inaugu- rated a somewhat new policy. Hitherto wars ap- pear to have been waged for defense, and against encroaching neighbors. But he marched forth up- on a campaign of subjugation. The carved and painted walls of Theban temples portray victory over the Ethiopians and the Arabs not only, but Tartars, or Scythians, Medes, Persians, Syrians, Lycians, and, in fine, the countries generally now known as Turkey in Asia, and Russia in Asia. How thorough were his conquests we cannot ascer- tain, but they were certainly extensive enough to give that king rank among the great soldiers of mankind. The art of war must have been much the same then as it continued to be, down to the invention of gunpowder. Steel was known and used both for ofEense and defense. The population of Egypt at its best, when the glory of Thebes was brightest, is supposed to have been about 5,500,000. This estimate is based on the registry of the crown tenants of the military age. The subjugation of Ethiopia brought the gold- mines of that country into the direct possession of the Egyptians. To realize the importance of this, one should recall the situation of this country before and after the Mexican war. Prior to that conflict the precious metals came into the cofEers of the United States through commercial intercourse, but after that, the mines of California (a part of the territory secured fi'om Mexico) were worked to the best advantage, and a new era in prosperity was in- augurated. Those ancient mines diffused wealth over the known world. Even Palestine sat, as it were, under the drippings of the Egyptian mint, and so astonishing was the increase of wealth in Jerusalem, that the chronicles of the Hebrew kings declare that gold was as plenty as stones in the streets of that capital during the reign of Solomon. The Ophir of the Bible is supposed by some to have been simply a port on the Red Sea, the gate through which the gold of Egypt poured into Palestine in exchange for the prod- ucts of that " land flowing with milk and hon- ey." The exhaustion of those Nubian or Ethio- pian mines had much, perhaps most, to do with the decay of Egypt. We shall see further on in this history how Spain derived advantage ft'om the mines of the new world, only to make its fall the greater. The light of three thousand years is too dim to admit of a close analysis of the causes of Egypt's fall, but certain it is, that its prosperity was not abiding, and that by the time the last of the Rameses passed away, the glory of Thebes, wliich had been gradually fading for a century and a half, suffered a permanent, but not a complete, eclipse. ?5S^CT r-^^^ -^K ^k^ Shishank and Bubastis — The Cushite Period— Commerce and Discovert — Assyrian and Persian Wars— Cametses and his Work of Destruction — Egypt and Greece— The Uni- versity AT Heliopolis— Coptic Justice, Clothing and Dwellings— Domestic Life and Political DI^^SIONS— A Sur^^y by an Eminent Writer. THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. HBHffliiigmgiimiiiffl . ATIONS do not biuld monu- ments in honor of disaster, and tiie liglits wliicli fall upon the decUne of Egj^jat are for the greater part side- i lights. The nation was di- ^§^ Tided, and the glory of Thebes departed about 950 B. C. Shishank, of Bubastis, in Low- I ^^ Egj'jjt, fsucceeded the dynast)^ of Eameses, so far as that dynasty had succession iu jjower. His capital was about sixty miles from one of the mouths of the Nile. It was very near, if it did not embrace in its im- mediate jurisdiction the land of Goshen, and was thus that part of Eg)-pt from which the Jews derived many of tlieir ideas, being next to Heliopolis. The Urini and Thummim of the Hebrew priesthood was also worn by the priests of Bubastis. It is generally supposed that the whole history of the fall of man is of Egyptian origin, and the re- semblance between the laws, customs and rites of that country and of Palestine are striking, although in many particulars there is a sharp contrast, showing that Moses was no mere copyist. The kings of Bu- bastis could not extend their sway over the whole country, although they made some conquests abroad. Tanes and Mendes were independent cities and sov- ereignties, and Thebes was no inconsiderable power •m — 3i long after it had suffered eclipse. It faded out so grad- ually that it cannot be assigned a date of death. Shishank divided the temp)oral and the spiritvial powers. The soldiers of ' the Bubastis were obeyed in the Thebaid, but the priests had no jurisdiction beyond their immediate parishes, as the modern term is. Soon after the death of Shishank, almost inter- minable civil war became chronic. No master- spirit arose to quell the storm. First one city and then another would be in the ascendant, and for- eign dependencies threw off the Egyptian yoke. Notable among these secessions was Ethiopia, and finally that southern nation became the master and Egypt the servant. Although independent, it was Coptic, and as a factor in the development of man, was essentially EgyiDtian. It contributed no new element to civilization. If, as some suppose, the Ethiopians, called also the Cushites, really ante- dated the Egyptians in civilization, their subsequent career added no lasting monuments to their glory. The BthioiDians waged fierce warfare with other na- tions far to the North, especially Assyria, now grown to -greatness, but in all the arts followed the models of Egypt, feebly and far off. At the height of its glory, the Nubian gold-mines added to the resources of the kingdom, and some works still stand to attest the imitation of Theban grandeur, notaljly the temple at Napata, and the monarch of Ethiopia boasted himself to be the well-beloved of Athor, a Theban goddess. Sometimes the Cushite (52) k. THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. 53 kings established their court at Thebes, later in Memphis, and still later at Sais, in Lower Egypt. The Ethiopian conquerors, like the Normans who took England, were gradually absorbed, and as Nor- mandy was lost sight of, and conquered and con- querors became unified as Englishmen, so Oushite and native Coptic gradually merged in Egyptians. This Cushite period, as it might be called, was not without its glory. Prom the Greeks and Phoeni- cians the people learned navigation and caught the spirit of enterprise. The priests tried to discourage all progress, and did succeed in greatly hampering it, but some of the monarchs were great and secular. About the middle of the seventh century before the Christian era, Psammeticus I. encouraged in- tercourse with tlie Greeks. He employed them as soldiers, gave Greek names to his children, and al- lowed colonies from Greece to settle uj)on the Delta. His son, Necho II., sent a fleet on a voyage of dis- covery from the Red Sea, with a view to circum- navigate Africa, and see if there were not some '•' Northwest " passage for commerce. The expedi- tion covered a period of three years. The Straits of Gibraltar were discovered and sailed through. As far as known, this was the most far-reaching voyage which had ever been undertaken at that time, and quite outstripped the " sailor's yarn " spun by Homer about the wanderings of Ulysses. Necho carried on extensive wars with the Assyri- ans, or, as by that time they deserved to be called, Babylonians or Chaldeans, for Nineveh had fallen. This line of military policy was carried on with va- rying fortunes, amid scenes no longer of much in- terest, until Cyrus the Mede crushed the liberties of Egypt. What he began, his son Cambyses fin- ished. He thoroughly overthrew the ancient em- pire of Egypt, and henceforth its most ancient form ceased to exist. The original, independent and African nation was no more. Afterwards Cambyses took Sais, captured King Psammeticus and over-ran and sacked the cities. From that time on, the Egypt of the pyramids has had only its past to boast of, and its ruins to glory in, and its subsequent achievements have been mainly due to foreign influences. It was in the year 53.3 B. C. that Cambyses marched his conqixering barbarians into Egypt, and ■ys-i B. C, that Alexander the Great invaded the land of the Sphinx. During those two centuries the country was at the lowest ebb of happiness and the high-water mark of misery. The demoniacal Cambj'ses madly destroyed and desolated out of wanton savagery. The stupendous works of art at Thebes and elsewhere, were laboriously disfigured and defaced. His wanton Medes and Persians, the Vandals of their day, took special delight in break- ing ofE the heads of statues, the beard being held in as much veneration among them as the "pig- tail "is in China. No inconsiderable portion of the destruction now witnessed among the ruins of Egypt is chargeable to them, especially during the reign of the mad Cambyses. His immediate suc- cessor, Darius, was a mercenary ruler. He cared more for the spoils and revenue than for malicious gratification. Taken as a whole, that period of two hundred years was one long, relentless, and desolating tyranny, relieved briefly during the war of Xerxes with Greece, when the opportunity for revolt was improved, resulting, however, in no act- ual benefit to the Egyptians. That was a dreary period. Its details are unin- teresting in the extreme. It is only from the stand- point of general results that it possesses significance. What was really the most important tiling of all, was the fall of Egypt as a vast schoolhouse of the nations. The pursuit of knowledge in that coun- try was beset with exceeding difficulty, especially for the Greek. The foreign student of philosophy, science, and art, would need true heroism to trust his life in any part of Egypt, especially if he were a Greek. That was an exceedingly fortunate thing for Greece and the whole world. It stimulated and developed the indigenous civilization of Greece, and contributed incalculably, although indirectly, to the glory of Athens. The intellectual scepter of the world passed from CoiDticinto Grecian hands, never to be regained. Henceforth the very glories of Egypt, if they do not really belong to Greece, are yet so very Hellenic as to have a distinctive type more suggestive of Athens than of Thebes or Memphis. It was during this dechne of Egypt that the univer- sity at Heliopolis Ijecame the fountain-head of lib- eral education for the civilized world. The schools of that city cannot be dated in tlieir origin, but it is known that it was there that Solon, Pythagoras, Plato, and the learned Greeks generally, repaired to study not only " the wisdom of tlie Egyiitians.'" but the science, philosophy, institutions and literature ■'^ ^^ H£: 54 THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. of Assyria, and the whole world of existing civiliza- tion. There the scholars of the nations far and near repaired for study, as now they seek the uni- versities of Germany. There are some features of the laws of the Coptic period which merit attention, but which may be- long to the oldest empire, for a common law older than any record of it, is by no means peculiar to Eughsh-speaking peoples. The principle of crimi- nal law was retribution, not reform or mere re- straint in the future. It was " an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth." Slaves were far better jjrotected than children or wives. Forgers were severely punished. Imprisonment for debt was not allowed. The most notable law was what in Brit- ish and American law is called " the statute of lim- itations," carried to the extreme that no debt could be collected at law unless it had been acknowledged in writing, provided the defendant denied the ob- ligation -under oath. The clothing of the Egyptians was mostly linen, the women wearing a single garment extending from head to foot ; the men, one of coarse texture and somewhat shorter. Sandals were worn gen- erally, but the head was bare, except that some- thing in the way of a badge of distinction was worn. The ordinary dwelhng was a small plot of ground inclosed between four unroofed walls. A priest could marry only one wife, but poly- gamy was allowed to the secular part of the com- munity. The land belonged to the crown, the priesthood, and the soldiery in equal parts, the rev- enues of the government coming from the peasants on the crown lands. The area of civilization was not far from eleven millions of acres. For politi- cal purposes the country was divided into nomes, or counties, varying from time to time in number fi-om thirty to forty. There were also township di- visions for ]3urposes of government. It may be added in conclusion, that the fine arts of this period compare poorly with the sculpture and painting of G-reece ; the pupil far surpassing the master. Speaking of this period, an eminent historian writes : " We now possess but few traces of the Egyptian laws and customs by which to explain the form of government ; but there are two circumstances which throw some light upon it, and prove that it was a mixed form, between a monarchy and an aris- tocracy. First, every soldier was a land-owner, and arms were only trusted to those who had such an estate in the country as would make them wish to guard it from enemies from abroad and from ty- rants and tumults at home. These men formed a IDart of the aristocracy. A second remarkable in- stitution was the hereditary priesthood. Every clergyman, sexton and undertaker, every physician and druggist, every lawyer, writing clerk, school- master and author, every sculjDtor, painter, and land measurer, every magistrate and every fortune- teller, l^elonged to the priestly order. Of this sacred body the king, as we learn from the inscriptions, was the head ; he was at the same time chief-priest and general-in-chief of the army, while the temples were both royal palaces and walled castles of great strength. The power of the king must have been in part based on the opinion and religious feeling 'of the many ; and however selfish may have been the priests, however they may have kept back knowl- edge from the people, or used the terrors of the next world as an engine for their power in this, yet such a government, while more strong, must have been far more free than the government of the sword. Every temple had its own hereditary fam- ily of priests, who were at the same time magis- trates of the city and the district, holding their power by the same right as the king did liis. The union between church and state was complete. But the government must have been a good deal changed by Rameses II. and his father. After all Egypt was united under one scepter, the power of the monarch was too great for tlie independence of the several cities. The palaces built by tliese kings were not temples ; the foreign tributes and produce of tlie gold mines were used to keep in pay a stand- ing army; and by a standing army alone could Rameses have fought his battles so far from home as in Asia Minor and on the banks of the Euphra- tes. The military land-holders were wholly unfit- ted for foreign warfare." There is no plainer les- son in history than this : However splendid and strong it may seem, a nation which employs for its defense foreign mercenaries, has entered upon its period of decline. -%■ ^s -4~ EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. ^^^ >€^ ygsy >gg^ ^^g^ ^^^gy ^^g CHAPTER VII. Alexander and Alexandria — The Phyl^e — Papyrus Making — Alexander and Egypt- First OF THE Ptolemies— Alexandrian Commerce and Public Buildings— The Muse- um—The Library— The Ptolemies and Science— Alexandrian Philosophy— The Mate- rial Decline of the City- — Alexandrian Chrlstianity' — Theological Warfare — Zeno- BiA in Kgypt — Persian Ravages — The Saracen Invasion. K- -i^c ^wW il^ N the meteoric splendor of Alexander, Greece may well take perpetual pride. It is none the less true that he was by no means a typ- ical Greek. He belonged to barbaric Macedonia, which had little in com- mon witli classic Athens, or the cul- ture which has made the name of Greece illustrious. His exploits belong indeed to another portion of this his- tory, but we are now about to enter up- on a chapter of the past which consti- tutes the one grand monument to liis glory. His dazzling splendors as a world conqueror will sliine forever, but the kingdom was divided upon his un- timely death, and fell into fragments. It was saved from universal disgrace by tlie Ptolemaic d}-- nastjr, and the still greater and more enduring gen- ius of Alexandria (for there are local as well as per- sonal genii). We have seen Egypt rise and fall, being the world's greatest academy, even in its de- cline. But Persian oppression and the enervating iiiflvience of wealth had so vitiated the Cojitic race that it seemed incapable of recovery. The new pe- riod of Egyjjtian greatness is more Hellenic than Coptic. It is Greece transplanted in Egypt, much as the glory of the United States is England trans- (55) ported to America. For three centuries the dynasty of the Ptolemies endured, and for nine cen- turies, Alexandria was the great literary and scien- tific metropolis of the world, rivaling in scholar- sliip, if not original works of genius, Athens and Rome at their best. Hitherto, in our history, we followed the course of empire as marked out upon the tablets and memorial stones of royal association, but we may now pass out into the broader ocean of literature. About the time of the Persian invasion, papyrus became common and cheap in Egj'pt, and what is more, the use of letters took the place of i^icture writing with its slow work and unsatisfactory re- sults. The way was thus made ready for Alexan- dria with its libraries and book-lore. There are in Europe, to-day, no less than ten thousand Egyp- tian papyri. But our main concern is with Alex- andria, its kings and savants, its erudition and its literature ; in fine, the part taken by it in the devel- ojiment of man. Having established his sway over all Greece and the Grecian cities of Asia Minor, Alexander led his forces against Darius. His war ujion the Persians endeared him to tlie Egyi^tian heart, so that when he went thither he was hailed as a deliverer. Witli a quick eye to tlie possibilities of empire, he deter- mined to erect a city worthy to perpetuate his name near one of the mouths of the Nile, where then stood the small village of Ehacotis. The site was ^Tv*- ^2 56 EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. ■well chosen, and although he never returned to carry out the plan, his idea, barely begun in his life- time, bore fruit. Between that little village and the island of Pharos, the water was exceptionally deep and peculiarly well adapted for the harborage of ships. Alexander treated the Egyptian prejudices with respect, instead of trying to exasperate and hu- miliate the people. His victories over the Per- sians made secure his hold upon the land of the pyramids, and his reverence for Ammon and the other deities of the Nile, made his claim of sonship to Ammon a highly appreciated compliment. It was eight years after his entrance upon Egypt that he died at Babylon, during which period very little had been done to carry out his plan beyond preparing the way for it. His half-brother, Philip Arridffius, was declar- ed by his generals, assembled at Babylon, to be his successor. But in the course of a few years the empire fell into fragments, these generals dividing- it between themselves. The province of Egypt fell to the lot of Ptolemy. From the first, he was virtually king of the country, and his dynasty continued with varying fortunes, until finally the imperiaHsni of Eome absorbed the country. The city which he built and made his capital, survived the dynasty with which in glory it was indivisibly united for a brilliant series of centuries. The first of the Ptolemies, B. C. 322, was sur- named Soter, and the last in point of fact was Cleo- patra, who applied the fatal asp to her breast B. C. 30. The real glory of Alexandria faded gradu- ally as the light of Christianity obscured the bright- ness of jiagan philosophy and science. No other date can be fixed for the final eclipse of its splen- dor so appropriate as the burning of its marvelous and vast library by the Arabs, A. D. 640. We Light-house on the Pharos. — (One of the Seven Wonders of the world.) shall not, however, in this chapter, catalogue the kings who ruled in Alexandria or the emperors who held it in vassalage, but endeavor to give an idea of the actual place held during these years by the city which may be said to furnish the connecting link between ancient and modern times. This city combined commercial with educational supremacy and in its palmy days, which were many, had about three hundred thousand inhabitants, which, by the way, is about its present population. It was laid out on a generous plan. The two main streets crossed one another at right-angles in th6 middle of the town, which was from the first, three miles long and nearly a mile wide, with streets wide enough for carriages. Upon the neighboring island of Pharos was erected (about three centuries before Christ) a gigantic light-house of white marble, which is class- ed as one of the seven wonders of the world. As described, the early city must have been peculiarly modern. The public buildings which fi'onted the har- bor included a cham- ber of commerce, and beside the wharf and cemetery, there were theaters, circuses, race- courses, public parks, public libraries, i^ublic schools, and the temple of Therapis, which might pass for a cathedral. The chief of all these institutions was the University, generally called the Museum. This Museum was the home of philosophy and learning, the resort of students old and young. Its great hall was devoted to lectures, and was also used as a dining-room, for the physical necessities of the scholars were duly regarded. The state spent vast sums of money in maintaining this institution. On the porch and in the sj)acious grounds gathered " in groups and knots " the scholars and professors in the pursuit of knowledge. In the old Coptic uni- versity previously mentioned, the savants taught only what was, strictly speaking, " the wisdom of the ■f —1 V9 ^i ik. EGYPT, AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 57 Egyptians ;" but this Hellenic University was truly cosmopolitan. It drew knowledge from the whole world. Its library was early a large one and steadily increased with the growth of literature. It may be well to say here that the Alexandrian library was fired three times, and nearly destroyed each time ; first by Cssar, when he conquered the city ; second by Christian fanaticism, and lastly by jVIohammedan fanaticism, the loss being greater upon each repetition. This vast repository of liter- ature was open to the public for reading and for copying, and the latter was an important industry in those days of more thirst for knowledge than facilities for its gratification. The papyrus and tlie scribe of those days were the printing press and compositor of modern times. The first Ptolemy was a historian of no mean attainments, and tlie last to make that name illustrious was an astrono- mer second only to Galileo and Copernicus. It was not bravery alone which was rewarded in Alexan- dria, nor yet commercial enterprise. Neither M'as under-rated, but both were held in less repute than scholarship, art, and all which the term culture embraces. Sculptors, painters, poets, historians, linguists, scientists of all kinds, and every dweller upon the lofty table-land of intellectual life, were the real aristocrats of that city. Not only was Alexandria a repository for all the wisdom of G-reece, but it embraced the body of Syrian and Assyrian learning and Jewish literature. Tlie scattered writings of the Hebrew tongue were gathered into one book and translated into Greek (for Alexan- dria being a Grecian city, in fact, made Greek tlie language of general literature). That translation is known as the Septuagint, and is identical with our Old Testament. Jesus Christ and others in the New Testament, quoted from the Septuagint, when- ever they quoted at all fi-om the scriptures of their own people, which shows that the Septuagint was the version used even in Judea. Never did a sovereign show more appreciation of intellectual superiority, regardless of nationality, than the founder of the great house of Ptolemy. He lived familiarly with the learned men of his capital, courting their society. He was not so much their patron as their friend, for he did not have the offensive ways suggested by the term " patronize." The list of eminent professors at Alexandria would be a very long one, covering the entire range of intellectual pursuits. The noble city was an asylum for the banished free-thinkers of other lands. None were more famous than the physicians. Anatomy was boni at Alexandria, and so indeed was natural history. Mathematics was brought to a still higher degree of perfection there than ever before attained. The study of nature by patient analysis and consecutive observation was fair- ly begun there, without being carried to any very satisfactory degree of perfection. There was in the Alexandrian dissecting-rooms and zoological collec- tions the suggestions of modern science, but the difference is that between the gray of early morn and full sunlight. Unfortunately, between that twilight and this daylight was the almost rayless darkness of a thousand years. When Alexandria fell, night overspread the world, its mantle being finally hfted only by the invention of printing. The peculiarity of Alexandria as compared with other great cities of learning, ancient and modern, was the paucity and insignificance of its original hterature. The copying business seemed to be un- favorable to the development of originality. It can boast no Homer, no Plato, no Virgil, no Horace, no Tacitus. In the world of ideas, poetical or philo- sophical, its every contribution to hterature might perisii without any very serious loss. Much has been said of the Alexandrian school of philosophy, its Neoplatonism and its Agnosticism, but these terms suggest vast erudition, with a singular barrenness of ideas. Philo, tlie Jew, was second to uo Alexan- drian in his philosophical ability, and his works are extant and accessible to English readers, but they are dreary and vapid. The attempt to adapt Pla- tonic thought to Hebraic theology was futile. The long list of writers, prose and poetic, contains no really great name. It is not for its productions of genius, but for the conservation of learning, that Alexandria is entitled to wear a crown of metropoli- tan supremacy. Its commerce continued with some interrujitious, but without eclipse, until the trade of India and the far Orient l^egan to go around the continent of Af- rica, instead of through its northern portion. The voyage around Africa and through the Straits of Gibraltar, previously mentioned, bore little fruit, at least it had no direct connection with the discovery which left Alexandria stranded upon the desert, un- til the construction, or rather the reconstruction, of nr^ i\ ^dL 58 EGYPT, AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. the Suez Canal by DeLesseps, since which time it has resumed some commercial importance. What has now been said of Alexandria as a seat of learning, prepares one to understand the part taken by that remarkable city in determining the character of Cliristianity, which service, be it good or ill, was the final glory of the city. The date of the introduction of Christianity into Egypt is uncer- tain. St. Mark has the traditional lienor of its in- troduction. The first opponent of Christianity, the father of all wlio assail it as unworthy tlie " divinity which doth hedge it about," was Celsus of Alexan- dria. He was answered by his townsman, Origen. That controversy partook of the metaphysical hair- splitting so j)opular in tliat university town. Hith- erto, the Christians had been content to be practical pietists. The scholarly and scholastic Alexandrians raised and discussed matters of opinion, and inau- gurated the terribly demoralizing policy of excom- munication on dogmatic ground. Theology, as a field for dialectic combat and angTy disputation, was born in the Museum, and was the natural ofEspring of the Alexandrian school of philosophy. It was there that Bishoi^ Athanasius insisted upon the di- vinity of Jesus, and Presbyter Arius denied it, car- rying the controversy so far as to occasion the Ni- cene Council and Creed, and making a schism in the church, over a creedal point quite foreign to the simijle thought of tlie primitive Christians. For a time Alexandria was the capital of Christianity, almost as truly as Home afterwards became. But that proud position was only briefly held. When Constantino had established his court on the ""ios- phorus, the city named in his honor became the seat of empire for the Greek Church, and Rome as a rival capital, became tlie metropolitan see for the rival western church. The opinion of Athanasius was espoused in Rome; and that of Arius in Constantinople, and Alexan- dria lost its prestige. Constantino sought to make his urban namesake a great seat of learning, the central point of Greek thought, and an intellectual, as well as religious center of influence. In this he so far succeeded as to sap the life of Alexandria. Wliat Roman conquest had hardly impaired, and Arab conquest subsequently attemiDted, the rivalry of Constantinople very nearly effected. The real secret, however, of Alexandrian decay was the un- due prominence given to mere learning in distinc- tion from real tliought, and polemical theology in distinction from actual religion. In the year A. D. 270, occurred an interesting episode in Egyptian history. Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, one of the most interesting characters in history, was acknowledged by all Egypt as ciueen. She made the country a province of Syria. Her reign was short, but its influence upon Upper Egypt permanent. Two years after her sovereignty began, she was taken captive by a Roman army and car- ried in triumpli to Rome, to spend the rest of her days in enforced retirement. The Coptic element still clung to the idea of sep- aration from imperial Rome tlirough Syrian leader- ship. This movement failed, but the Copts of Up- per Egypt were fired with a quenchless purpose to Ijreak the hated yoke. When, at lengtli, the Ro- man Empire was divided, Egypt fell to the lot of the Eastern Empire. That was about the begin- ning of the fifth century. A century later, the Persians having conquered a large part of Syria, in- vaded Egypt. Temple ravages were committed, but the capital was not taken. Other raids followed, but no decisive advantage was gained. The country suffered terribly from tlie rivalries of Persia and the Eastern Empire. Then came the Saracen. One of the first countries to be conquered by the follow- ers of Islam, was the land of the Pharaohs, Alexan- dria only offering serious resistance. The Saracen commander who won tliis province was Amru. It was under the Caliphat of Omar. It was by Amru that the Alexandrian library was burned the third time, in obedience to the instructions of Omar, who said, " If the books are tlie same as the Koran tliey are useless, if not, they are wicked, tlierefore they should be burned in any case." In this spirit did the Saracens ever rule all Egypt. It is none the less true, that ultimately, the treasures of Alexan- drian knowledge were larg-ely preserved and dissem- inated in Europe by the Mohammedans rather than the Christians. The service to civilization rendered by the Moors in Spain, might be called without ex- aggeration, Egypt's last, best gift to mankind. iiiaaaaiia^:; rciliic bv rriidillL' itii' li.ilv lO ^: iL. 80 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. books, and using several sorts of purifications, and being perpetually conversant in the discourses of the prophets ; and it is but seldom that they miss in their predictions. " Moreover, there is another order of Essenes, who agree with the rest in their every way of living and customs and laws, but differ from them in the point of marriage, as thinking that by not marry- ing they cut off the principal part of human life, which is the prospect of succession ; nay, rather that if all men should keep the same opinion, the whole race of mankind would fail. However, they try their spouses for tliree years, and if they find they have their natural purgations thrice, as trials that they are likely to be fruitful, they then actually marry til em. ]3ut they do not use to accompany with tlieir wives when they are with child, as a dem- onstration that they do not marry out of regard to pleasure, but for the sake of posterity. Now the women go into the baths with some of their gar- ments on, as the men do with somewhat girded about them. And these are the customs of this or- der of Essenes. " But then, as to the two other orders first men- tioned, the Pharisees are those who are esteemed most skillful in the exact explication of their laws, and introduce the first sect. These ascribe all to fate [or Providence] and to God, and yet allow that to act what is right, or the contrary, is princi- pally in the power of men, although fate does co- operate in every action. They say that all the souls are incomijatible, but that the souls of good men only are removed into other bodies, but that the souls of bad men are subject to eternal punishment. But the Sadducees are those that compose the sec- ond order, and take away fate entirely, and sujjpose that God is not concerned in our doing or not do- ing what is evil ; and they say that to act what is good or what is evil is at man's own choice, and that the one and the other belong so to every one that he may act as he pleases. Tliey also take away belief in the immortal duration of the soul, and the pun- ishments and rewards in Hades. Moreover, the Pharisees arc friendly to one another and are for the exercise of concord and regard for the laublic ; but the beluivir ratiier. cast susjiicion n]>iin Vis (8i; A '-k^ 82 ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. the flattering accounts of early historians. But if the latter may be at all trusted, she was indeed a heliimeet to Ninus during his hfe, accompanying him ill war, and counseling with him at all times on all matters of state. When he died Semiramis as- sumed the administration as regent. To her Assyria is said to owe Bal)ylon. If so, she, not Nebuchad- nezzar, could truthfully say, " Behold, is not this great Babylon which I have builded." Under her it became great and metropohtan, but not the capi- tal. She was a woman of war, and is represented by Herodotus as having " led her conquering legions far and near." The next Assyrian monarch of renown was Se- nacherib, who began to reign about 700 B. 0. He fought successfully with the Egyptians, the Israel- ites and the Philistines. It was by his father, Sar- gon, that Babylon was made a part of Assyria, and it was by Senacherib that the captivity of the ten tribes was effected. The number of the captives is computed at 200,000. He built a most sujaerb pal- ace in Nineveh which Layard has unearthed in its ruins. Nineveh reached the culmination of its ar- chitectural glory in the first half of the seventh cen- tury. It was near the close of this century (the ex- act date is unknown) that it was destroyed. The governor of the province of Babylon, assisted by the Scythian hordes frohi the North, captured and de- stroyed it. The last king of Nineveh was Sardan- apalus, renowned (whether justly or not is open to dispute) for effeminacy. He was wholly abandoned to the pleasures of the seraglio. "When besieged in his capital, he is said to have raised a huge funeral pyre, placed his numerous wives and costly treas- ures upon it, and then with his own hand applied the torch. This done, he mounted the pile himself, and fittingly perished. With him the Empire of Assyria went down forever and Nineveh became a ruin. The scepter of empire passed to Babylon. Nineveh was on the Tigris distant nearly three hundred miles from Babylon. It was more than a city in the ordhiary sense of the term. It was a col- lection of fields as well as houses, designed to be a walled community, capable of withstanding any and every kind of siege. It was fifteen miles long and nine miles wide. It is believed that the houses were built separately, and each liad very considerable ground. The walls were two hundred feet high, and so wide tluxt three chariots driven abreast could pass along Chaldean Bricks. the top. Making all due allowance for extrava- gance of statement, it is certain that Nineveh was a very marvelous city. • The clay of that region made excellent bricks. Early the art of writing was hitroduced and the potter was the publisher of that day and land. The soft bricks were indented with the words of the author, and then those m a nu script bricks were kilned and thus preserved. Of late years vast quantities o f these earthen books have been brought to light, and many of them translated. For historical ^^rposes they are not very satisfac- tory, mythological creations being so interwoven with actual fact as to defy critical dissection. In the plain of Shinar, about sixty miles south of Bagdad, where now stands the little village of Hillah, once stood the magnificent Babylon, the metropolis of Chaldea. It was about fourteen miles in extent on each of its four sides. The river Euphrates ran through it. Raw- linson believes it to have been the most magnificent city of the old world. Isaiah calls it " the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldee's excellency." Its most notable feature, accounted one of the seven wonders of the world, was the series of so-called hanging gardens mthin its walls. Those gardens consisted of terraces raised one above the other to an immense height on jjillars, well floored with cem- ent and lead, and covered with earth in which the most beautiful shrubs and trees were planted. Im- memorial in its origin, the city was completed by Nebuchadnezzar of Biblical fame. It was a brick city, naphtha and bitumen taking the place of lime. The most remarkable structure of Babylon was the temple of Belus. The following is the description of it : " The temple of Belus was, at its founda- tion, a furlong in length, and about the same in breadth ; its height is said to have exceeded six hun- dred feet, which is more than that of the Egyptian pyramids. It was built in eight stories, gradually W^ ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. «3 J^ diminishing in size as they ascended. Instead of stairs, there was a sloping terrace on the outside suf- ficiently wide for carriages and beasts of burden to ascend. Nebuchadnezzar made great additions to tliis tower, and surrounded it with smaller edifices, inclosed by a wall somewhat more than two miles in circnmference. The whole was sacred to Bel or Belus, whose temple was adorned with idols of gold and all the wealth tliat the Babylonians had ac- quired by the plunder of the East." The earliest authentic record of the Babylonians goes back to B. 0. 747. They were an offshoot from tlie Chaldeans who dwelt among the moun- tains of Taurus and . Caucasus. They were employed originally as mercenaries by tlie As- syrians. That has al- ways proved a danger- ous experiment, fre- quently ending, as in this case, in the ultimate overtlirow of the em- ploying power by the employes. The intro- duction of the Egyp- tian solar year with the accession to the Baby- lonian throne of Nabo- nasar, merely fixes a date (B. C. 747). Noth- ing noteworthy occur- red, however, exccjit tiiat calendraic adoption under that ruler, nor yet irnder his twelve successors. Prior to the overthnjw of Nineveh, Ball) Ion was the seat of a satrap rather than a king. The first real sovereign was Nabopolasar, the f;i- ther of Nebuciiadnezzar. The latter raised the em- pire to its supreme glory. He extended widely its area and the grandeur of Babylon. The book of Daniel furnishes about all tlie history we have of the empire from that date to its complete submis- sion, supplemented by some references of a liistori- cal character in Jeremiali and Ezeiviej. There is, however, a break in the record which can 1)0 supplied in its meager outlinesfrom another source. So far as the Biblical reconl goes, it would be a waste of space to reproduce il, so familiar and accessible is it. But Belshazzar did not iminediate- Hanging Gardens of Babylon. ly succeed Nebuciiadnezzar. Between them inter- vened the regency of Queen Nitocris, who held the reins of government during tlie strange insanity of the great king. Besides her were Evilmer odacli, who ■was slain and succeeded by his brother-in-law, Neri- glosar, whose son was dethroned for his despotism, and the lawful dynasty restored in the person of the young and dissolute Belshazzar, whose feast on the very night liis capital was taken and himself slain, is known to all. As we write, brilliant successes in Assman archae- ology are reported. In 1880 an expedition was or- ganized to search for tablets, or brick books, on the site of Babylon. It was under the charge of Ilormuzd Rassam. An account from a source usually authentic, states that Rassam has un- earthed " a iserfect treas- ure trove of relics, con- taining some traditions iJKit date before the l.i.i.l." The account I iroceeds thus : "Among his discov- ' ries are the account- be mks of the great fi- nancial ollicers of the Babj'lonian Empire, who farmed the jmblic revenues, this ancient syndicate being known ;is the house of Beni Egibi : fragments of the history of Babylon to the time of the capt ure of the city by Cyrus ; royal jwr.sonal rec- ords niiule by Cyrus and by Alexander the Great, who was consiiTiied so summarily by Hamlet to tlie bung- bole of a beer-barrel ; a record of the gardens of King Merodach Caladan, who liiul sixty-three ]iarks in Bahvlon ; and several inscriptions niiidc by Ncbu- chailnczzar himself, which nniy throw some liglit upon his bucolic exjieriences in the gras.s. " Besides the reconls, E^issam liiis discovered ox- tensive hydraulic works which were used to water the hanging gardens; the ruins of the ol).«ervatory tower of the great tcui|)lc of Neho. containing Ix-au- tiful specimens of vitrified bricks whicli have always been a jiuzzle to the .scientists ; the ruins of the city of Cutlia, containing a tcm]ili' tb:if was restored by ■^a ^1 84 ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. Nebuchadnezzar ; another city, not yet identified, at a place known by the Arabs as the Mounds of Deyr ; and still another city which the records showed to be the ancient Sippara. These two cities Rassam believes to be the cities of Sepharvaim, mentioned in the Book of Kings." The London Times gives the following interesting particulars concerning these two cities : " The first three lines of the largest of the foun- dation records bring our speculative thoughts to a focus and center our minds on the traditions of one of the most ancient cities of Chaldea : ' To the Sun-god, the great lord, dwelling in Bit - Parr a, which is within the City of Sip- para.' Here, then, we have restored to us the ruins and records of a city whose tra- ditions go back to the days be- fore the flood, when pious Xisuthrus, by order of his god, ' buried in the city of Sip- paraof theSun the history of the beginning, progress, and end of all things' antediluvian. And now we recover^ twenty-seven centuries after they were buried, the records of the pious restorers of this ancient temple. Such a discovery as this almost makes us inclined to dig on in hopes of finding the most ancient records buried there by the Chaldaic Noah. There are many points of history raised by this inscrip- tion, but it will suffice to say that from the earli- est days of Baljylonian history the city of ' Sippara of the Sun' was a prominent center of social and religious life." Evidently the my.steries of antiquity, as hidden beneath the debris of Babylon the Great, afford a tempting field for exploration. Had Alexander the Great lived to a good old age, Babylon would have had a second and perhaps more glorious career, but the untimely death of that great conqueror was fatal to her reconstruction. Ptole- my carried out the Alexandrian idea in Egypt, but the old capital of " the Chaldees' excellency " rap- idly fell into ruins, and the jackals do indeed " cry in their desolate houses, and wild hounds in their pleasant palaces." Syria is not a very definite term, but was gen- erally used to designate not only the present Syria but Mesopotamia also, and a part of Asia Minor. Damascus was the capital of the kingdom of Syria, a city at least as old as Abraham. The desert of Syria was not far off, on the oasis of which were built Tadmor and Palmyra. Baalbec, one of the most inter- esting cities in ruins to be found any- where, was an- otlier Syrian city. The coun- try was often divided into numerous pet- ty states, and as a nation' achieved no honor. King David was successful in war against sev- eral Syrian states. It was near to the close of Solomon's reign that Damascus was founded. Its founder was Eezor, who had been a slave origin- ally. He succeeded in building up a power which was a formidable foe to Israel for several centuries, but tliat was about all. The most powerful king of Syria was Benhadad. The Jews and Israelites, after the secession of the Ten Tribes, were often at war, and Syria was sometimes a party to their quarrels. During the reign of Ahaz at Jeru- salem, the Syrians joined the Israelites in war upon the former, who sought .the protection of Tiglath- pileser, of Assyria. Judea's extremity was Assyria's opportunity, and Damascus, which threatened to -711 ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 85 k rival Nineveh, was destroyed. Witli it fell the king- dom of S}"ria, to he lost sight of until after the dis- memberment of the Macedonian Empire, when it once more was a name and a power. The second period of S\Tian history began with tlie xictory of Seleucida3 over the satrap of Persia and Medea (B. C. 312) and continued until the Ro- man Empire swallowed up the kingdom, two hun- dred years later. He built up a strong kingdom and his son Antiochus strengthened it still more. The permanent cajjital of this new Syria was Antioch. The Ptolemies, as we have seen, made themselves a mighty factor in the world's progress ; but the Se- leucidfe did nothing worthy of note. It is true that the Christians were tirst called such in Antioch, but that city never exerted any very remarkaljle influ- ence in the rehgious world, and the second Syrian kingdom may be dismissed with the observation that it is suggestive of the fact, that nations, like individuals, may be so very commonplace as to be beneath notice. During the period of the Crusades Syi'ia suffered terribly. In 1517 Sultan Selim con- quered it, and it has ever since remained a part of the Ottoman Empire, except from 1832 to 1841, when it was under Egyptian rule. It now forms a portion of the three pashalics, Aleppo, Damascus, and Sidon, and has a population, inclusive of the nomadic Arabs, of about 2,000,000, most wretched- ly governed, and eking out a scant subsistence upon a soil exhausted by imjirovident tillage. The term Asspia long ago ceased to have a place in the actual, in distinction from the historical world, but the Syria of to-day is that portion of Turkey in Asia which lies between latitudes 31° and 37° 2' north, skirting the Mediterranean Sea from the GuLf of Iskanderoon to the Istli- mus of Suex, with an area estimated at 60,000 square miles, although the eastern and southern ex- tensions are indefinite. It includes Palestine witli its many mountains, towns, rivers, lakes and other places rendered sacred by Hebrew liistory and tra- dition. It is the land of the Bible, and the oriental customs, costumes and general mode of life of Biblical times may still be found there. Man Ihls clianged less than nature, for fields once fertile arc now sterile. The great difficulty is the scarcity of water. Tlie soil is light and sandy, easily rendered a ^^ctinl of drouth. Wlieat, barley and beans are the chief products. Figs, olives and mulberries thrive in many j)arts of Syria, and are the staple fruits of the land. Peaches, pomegranites, oranges, lemons, grapes, apricots and almonds are also grown there. Jackals, hyenas, antelopes, vri\d swine and wolves are the pest of Sjnria, while camels, asses, horses, sheep, goats and cattle are the main domes- tic animals. There are some Christians and a few Jews among the native population, l)utfortln:> most part Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion. The language now mainly in use is Arabic. Tlie old Syriac, or Aramaic, has nearly died out. Modern Greek is understood and largely used on the coast. The Syriac is a dialect of Shemitic language known to us throiigh a Christian literature extending back to the second century of our era, and which flour- ished until the Saracen Empire arose, and the Cross gave way to the Crescent. A great deal of primi- tive Christian literature is preserved in that lan- Knasre. But the most notable distinction of the Syriac is its ancient versions of tlie New Testament. It also has at lea^st two very old versions of the Old Testament. In determining the correct text of the sacred volume these venerable manuscripts are of inestimable importance. The Syriac language is in itself a curious mouunient of repeated conquests, containing as it docs a great many wonls of Greek. Persian. Latin. Arabic and Tartar origin. / ■TT^ ^^ .^s^ Persian Isolation— Eaklf History and Waes— Physical Aspects and Conditions- Dabius, Pakthia and Eome— Zokoastek and the Magi— The Zenda Vesta and the Paesees— Summary of the Persian Bible— Comparative Antiquity— God, Satan and Immortality — Modern Persia — Persian Literature. H:--«»#^®?!#"'-^ T is the peculiarity of Per- sia tliat it lias hovered per- petually upon the border of civilization, neither con- tributing to it nor deriving benefit from it. From the earliest times to the pres- ent day it has been in in- tellectual isolation. Having much that was good, it has strangely lacked the assimilating faculty. It conquered Egypt, overthrew Babylon, and sub- dued the Greek cities of Asia Minor, yet it remained substantially the same. Its area varied with the fortunes of war, but its national character under- went no radical alteration. And even when the sword of Islam revolutionized the rehgion of Persia, the people remained as they had been from the earliest times, half barbaric and half civilized, all after their own fashion. The early records of Persia are merely the wild dreams of fable and poetry. The earliest authen- tic account of that nation relates to the wars of Cy- rus, Oambyses, Darius, Xerxes and Mithridates, of which we hear enough for the purposes of this vol- ume in connection with Egypt, Greece and Eome. Persia deprived the first of independence, the second of existence itself, but sought in vain to con- quer the third and fourth. It can only boast that, notwithstanding Alexander's victories and the her- oism of Marathon, ThermopylEe, and Salamis, the Greeks did not destroy Persia; they simply pre- served their own. Mithridates did not crush or even check Roman conquest, but his kingdom main- tained its own individuality and independence, sur- viving the fall of Rome no less than the decay of Athens. The Persian dynasties, whether Archse- menidffi, Arsacidse, or Sasauidse, do not concern the world of progress, but they held their own for near- ly twelve hundred years, falling only before the fanaticism of the Koran. Ancient Persia was only about three hundred miles long and two hundred wide, between the In- dian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. It is a moun- tainous country and not very fertile. It suffers severely from drouth. It was a good jjlace to raise predatory warriors, also to excite jDoetic fancy and religious emotions, but a very poor place to culti- vate a happy community and develop a wholesome state of society. By the aid of Ouneiform inscriptions, the brick libraries of Assyria, and other sources of informa- tion, some genuine history has been arrived at. Darius Hystaspes, who came to the throne in B. C. 521, reduced" the kingdom to political order. Before 7I~ (86) "S N- PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZENDA VESTA. t^ his day, the Medes and Persians were two neighboring tribes of AssjTians, wlio, by iiniting their forces, liad been able to subdue kings and build up a great emigre loosely held together. From his reign may be dated the consolidated and organ- ized kingdom. Among the more imposing ruins of antiquity must bo numbered Persepolis, supposed to have been founded by this Darius. It was wantonly de- stroyed by Alexander the Great. Darius Hystaspes divided the country into nine- teen satrapies, or provinces, each holden for the purpose of certain fixed tribute and ruled by a sa- trap who was virtually absolute, so long as he paid his taxes in full. The central govern- m e n t maintained some authority as a safeguard against refusal to pay the assessments. There was indeed a period during which Persia seemed dead, the victim of Alexan- der's genius, but it was only stunned. The dynasty of Da- rius Hystaspes did, it is true, go down after two centuries, but in less than one hundred years the Parthiaus under Arsaces revolted, and another Persian dynasty was founded which remained in power about 450 years, Mithridates belonging to that dynasty. During that i^eriod the empire was usually called Partliia. The Parthians were a tribe of Ayrian neighbors of tlio Medes and Persians, to whom they were early subjected, and with whom they became identified. The change of name of tlje kingdom was mainly due to the dynastic change. The Parthians were often at war with Rome, nei- ther gaining decisive victories. It is thought tluit if .Tubus Cffisar had lived a few years longer he would have annexed Parthia or Persia to the Ro- iii:in lvii|iivo. 'I'he real interest in Persian history relates to Zoroaster anil tiieZeuda Vesta. All else, except as it lias already been suggested, may well l)e passed over in silence, as a jxiriod of war and inlriguc having no vital connection witli the great current of events. The ancient Greeks attributed, and the modern Parsees still attribute (the latter being those who still hold the Zeuda Vesta to be the revelation of God) the autliorship of the sacred book of old Per- sia to Zoroaster. He was a great philosopher and religious teacher. The age iu which he lived is un- known, and conjectures vary widely. All the inci- dents of his life, as recorded, were mythical. He was a native of Bactria, a country iu Central Asia, having tlie city of l?actria for its cajiital. It was the home of the Magi or "wise men" to whom reference is made in the Gospel of Matthew. A deputation of Magi, guided by the star of Bethle- hem, paid their re- sjjects to the infant Jesus in his manger cradle. The Zenda Vesta w:is tlie Bible of Persia under the olden kings. When Alexander overran Asia, the ancient religion fell into de- cline, and the Par- thians systematical- ly suppressed it. .Many of the books or parts were lost forever, but when the Per- sian dynasty of Sassanidre came to the throne, no effort was .spared to restore " the good book " in its entirely. When the Mohammedans took Persia and compelled tlie jieople to substitute the Koran for the Zenda Vesta, the more devout and res- olute fled to Bombay, Surat, and elsewhere, takinir their religion and tlieir literature with them. They are known now as Parsees, ami to them is the world greatly indel)ted for preservation of all tliat was really worth serving in Persia. Oriental scholars think that tho oldest portions of this work cannot 1)C placed later tlian B. C. 1.500. It was iulded to from tinio to time, but the great bulk of it was collected together, it is su]i- jio.sed, about a thousand years later. It con- si.5ts of twenty-one parts calletl Nosks, eacli containing a vesta and zcnd, that is, an orig- inal text and coniniontury thcrcon. Only a the pre- J^ m^ 88 PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZENDA VESTA. very small part, chiefly the Vendidad, is extant. The names and summaries are as follows: 1. Setudar.—{¥v&\sQ worship) containing the praise and worship of the Yazatas, or angels. 2. Sehidgar.—VrxYevs and instructions to men about good actions : chiefly those enjoining one an- other to assist his fellowman. 3. Vahista-Mathra.— On abstinence, piety, and religion. 4. BagJM.— An explanation of religious duties, how to guard against hell and reach heaven. 5. Z)«/«-fto<.— Knowledge of this and a future life, revelations of God con- cerning heaven, earth, water, trees, fire, men and beasts. On the resurrection of the dead and the passing of the Bridge Chinvat. 6. Nadur. — On astron- omy, astrology, geography, etc. 7. Pacham. — What food is allowed or prohibited. 8. Batushiai. — (Fifty chapters, only thirteen extant at the time of Alexander the Great) treated of kings and high priests. 9. Bunisli. — (Sixty chap- ters extant at the time of Alexander.) The code of laws for kings; also, on the sin of lying. 10. Koslmsarub. — On metaphysics, natural phi- losophy, and divinity. 11. VisMasp Nosk. — On the conversion of King Gushtasp and propagation of rehgion. 12. OhidrusM. — On the nature of divine things, obedience due to kings, agriculture, and the reward of good actions. 13. Safand. — On the miracles of Zoroaster. 14. Baghan Yesh. — Praise of high, angel-hke men. 15. larasM. — On human life; why some are born in wealth and otliers in poverty. 16. Nayarum. — Code of law; what is allowed, what prohibited. 17. Husparwn. — On medicine and astronomy. 18. Dommanch. — On marriages, and treatment of animals. 19. liuskarum- — Civil and criminal law. The Visit of the Wise Men book of 20. Vendidad. — Removal of uncleanness of ev- ery description, from which great defects arise in the world. 21. HculokM. — On the creation ; its wonders. The Zenda Vesta is supposed to be the oldest of all hterary works, at least of the Aryan race, with one exception, and that exception is the Eig. Vida of India. The latter is believed to have been pro- duced before the great Aryan family began its mi- gration from India, and when the Sanscrit was the common language of all the many Aryan nations.* The Zenda Vesta is more spiritual. Instead of de- ifying natural objects, it spiritualizes worship. It must have produced, or been produced by, a great relig- ious reformation. The cardinal doctrine of this Persian faith was the ex- istence of two mighty spir- its, good and evil, God and Satan. The personality of the devil was not distinctly taught by Zoroaster, who be- lieved in a gi'eat first cause, the primal good, and an evil tendency. But the region with which his name is iden- tified is thoroughly dualistic, as much so as the scene in the Garden of Eden and the Job. The relics of the Zenda Vesta contain some sublime poetry, and eminently Christ- like prayers. The belief in a future existence of personal consciousness is a prominent feature of the Zoroastrian religion. The Jews were brought in contact with this religion during their captivity, and borrowed from them the word Paradise, for as found in the New Testament, i"t is a Persian word. The sect of the Pharisees, with their firm belief in immortality, may be claimed as the result of intercourse of the Jews with the Persians. In the Persian theology the spirit of good is called Ormuzd ; of evil, Ahriman. In its present form the religion of ancient Persia sees in these two personages merely principles, ten- dencies, and laws of being. The Persia of to-day is one of the most unhappy * For the Aryans, see chapter on India, 'V -^^ PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZENDA VESTA. 89 .k kingdoms on the earth. In distress and misery the Persians are sadly pre-eminent. The government is an absohite monarchy. The king, or shah, knows no authority but his personal caprice. The present ruler, Nassr-ed-Din, revels in wealth while his sub- jects starve by the thousands. The area of the kingdom is 648,000 square miles, a large part of which is an arid desert. There are not, on an average, more than seven persons to a square mile, and still the population is excessive. The taxes are levied on the plan of squeezing from the producing class all they can possibly endure and live, often more than that. There are four cities of consider- able size, Tauris or Tabreez, Teheran, Mershed, Is- pahan and Yezd. Ispahan is the capital. There are eight thousand villages in the countrj*. In 1873 the Shah visited Europe and much good was an- ticipated therefrom, but he was too brutish to profit by his observations. The prevailing religion is Mo- hammedanism. There are not more than seven thou- sand followers of Zoroaster left. They are called Parsees. The severity of Mohammedan persecution drove the persistent Parsees into exile. Many of them found asylum in India. The Armenian and Nestorian Christians are somewhat numerous in some parts of Persia. The native name for the country is Iran. The best feature of Persia is its educational facilities. There are numerous colleges for the upper classes in which Persian and Arabic literature are cultivated, and many of the common people can read. The literature of the language is rich, especially in poetical works. But in the rise of the Saracen Empire, the Persia which had so long maintained itself in its essence i^ncoutamin- ated and unbroken, was lost forever. The old name exists and some of the national traits, but the blight of Islam was complete and in-emediable. The poets of Persia deserve high rank. The pres- ent poet-laureate of the Shah, Hakim Kaani, is said to have a rare command of language and rliythm, and to be worthy to rank with the best authors of the day. The first rank among the poets of Persia belongs to Iludaki. Whole lines are in the highest degree classic. He was born blind. Omar Kheiy- ane, a great poet, astronomer and mathematician, was the author of a work called AJjebr u el Mukubi- kh, or the science which still bears the name Alge- bra, which he gave it. He was an extreme free- thinker in religion. Anwari is another famous name in Persian classics. His " Divan," or collected works, has been lithographed at Zebris during the present reign. Saadi, who flourished in the thir- teenth centur}', has never been excelled for the pur- ity and elevation of his sentiments. His fancy soared among the stars of the most sublime ideas of ethics. His " Rose-Garden," a charming collection of moral tales in prose and verse, has been trans- lated into English, and is one of the choice volumes of the world's best Uterature. But the supreme poet of Persia was Shems ed-Din Mohammed, tet- ter known by his mm cle plioiie of Hafiz. He was Ijorn at Shiraz early in the fourteenth century. He, too, was a bold free-tliinker who worshiped beauty rather than the Deity of any creed, and liis inter- pretations of human sentiment in its diverse forms give him a place among the immortal bards of the ages. His tomb is an object of veneration to nu- merous visitors, and time only adds to the iwpular- ity of his l_n-ics. Persian literature is also rich in works on morals and science, and in prose fictions. " The modern Persians," says Palmer, " like other oriental na- tions, have been stimulated into intellectual activity in recent times by communications with the ^\'cst. and the result has been a number of useful works on educational and scientific subjects liave Ijeen translated from the Eurojwan languages. The old standard authors, however, still hold tlieir ground, and are studied \rith as mucli ardor as ever. Judged from a literarj' point of view, the Persian intellect is brilliant, volatile and vivacious, and not unlike, in national characteristics, the French." ^ H^ it^ y CHAPTER XIV. The PnE-EMiNENCE OF Greece— The General Grecian Peculiarity— The Ase op Fable and Poetry— Political Divisions or the Territory- Grote and Schliemann— The Heroic Age and Hercules— Theseus, the Amazons and Medea— The Trojan Heroes— Homer's Portrayal op the Heroic Age— The Siege op Troy— The City- Taken— The Wanderings OP Uly'sses — The Closing Scene. \_ _^ \S.—t N the desert of antiquity stands that beautiful oasis, Greece, forever green and fertile in the products of genius. We may admire the martial splendor of Alexander, the dauntless heroism of Marathon and Thermopylee, the statesmanship of Peri- cles, and the naval splendors of Salamis, but it is to her poets and jDhilosophers, her art and her oratory, that Greece owes the crown of fadeless glory which encir- cles the Hellenic brow and makes the subject upon which we enter with this chapter replete with interest. That little rock-bound southeastern penin- sula of Europe is linked in proud pre- eminence with the civilization of the entire continent. For a long time it was the only civilized portion of Europe. Everywhere else the barbarian held un- disputed sway for centuries after the Hellenes had mastered " the wisdom of the Egyptians " and bet- tered their instructions. Hard by Africa and Asia both, with ample har- bors and productive soil, the country was well adapted to be the home of a great if not a numer- ■-^ ous people. The term Greek really includes not only the dwellers on that peninsula; as we shall see, but numerous colonies established on adjacent islands and mainland. To trace in detail the growth and decay of each petty state in Greece proper, even, would be tedious and uniorofitable. The aim' is to make plain the subject in its entirety, and ena- ble one to clearly apprehend the place belonging to the Greeks in the world of the past. It may be re- marked here that the Alexandrian age of Egj'pt was, as has been shown, more Grecian than Coptic, and that having once entered the stream of prog- ress, the Hellenic waters never ceased to give color and character to tlie whole body, much as the Miss- issippi river is essentially the Missouri after their waters commingle and flow together into the Gulf of Mexico. Much which long passed for Grecian history is now known to be wildly fabulous, and some things gravely condemned as fiction have been shown by later research to have been actual. In the critical work whieli exposed the legendary and mythical character of supposed history, the late Mr. Grote took the lead, and for the rescue of actual facts from the reproach of being unreal, the world is supremely indebted to Schliemann. Between what one tore down and the other built up, — dug up, (90) i'^" GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 91 it. Homer. rather, — the dark places of Grecian history have been made bright with iiitelhgence. The first gi-eat name in Greece is that of Homer, and Schlieniann has shown tliat his Trojan war was not the vagary of inventive gemus,but the veritable siege of a veritable city. How- ever mucli freedom the poet allowed his muse, his subject was histori- cal. Troy was no myth, and in monumental ruins may be read the story of " the wrath of Achilles." And if Ho- mer had a substratum of history for his heroes, so, no doubt, had the gi'eat dramatists of Greece whose grand conceptions fill a large space in the intellec- tual world. It would be vain, however, to attempt tlie separation of truth and fiction, and more prof- itable to view all those characters in a poetic light, as we do Hamlet, King Lear and Hiawatha. From first to last Greece was divided into numer- ous states, generally independent of each other, and sometimes at war. The union of those common- wealtlis was confederate ratlier than federal, and when brought to its strongest point was really a partnership at will. The doctrine of "state sover- eignty" was never disputed. Homer may be said to furnish the key of the entire political history of the Greeks, when he introduces us to Achilles sulk- ing iu his tent, and the allies j^owerless to coerce his active co-operation in the war then in progress, and for which he had enlisted. It was not until he vol- untarily buckled on his shield and drew liis rusty sword from its scablxird, that he led liis terrible myrmidons into battle, slew the mighty Hector, and l)aved the way for the fall of Troy. It is, of course, idle to speculate as to tiie probable course of history had the Greeks been one nation. Perhaps the glo- ries of Greece and Rome would both have unified. It may be, on the other hand, that, like tlie Ger- many of the first half of tlie present century, it owes much of its literary importance to its political insignificance, and that national greatness would have dwarfed the intellectual growth of the people. The age of Grecian barbarism, midway between ])rimitive savagerv and the civilization which could produce a Homer and the long Une of subsequent splendor, is called the Heroic age. Not that it was really more grand than any other similar age in other lands, but the poets took up the faintly out- lined characters, weaving about them ideal person- alities, combining the rugged originals with a sub- limation purely fanciful. This heroic period is not definite in chronology, but generally designates the time from B. C. 1400 to B. C. 1300. The first of these is Hercules, whose marvelous exploits would, if true, prove him to have been indeed a demigod. He was a knight-errant, succoring the weak, subdu- ing tyrants, and performing labors most prodigious. The Greeks of the joeriod before his day are called Pelasgians. Hercules was a Phoenician bv blood. Hcrculea. He was born in Thebes, not the grand old city of the Nile, but the town of that name iu Greece founded by Cadmus the Phceniciau. He traveled far by land and water. The Straits of Giljralter were his pillars. His proverbial labors were under- taken in expiation of the murder of liis wife and children, committed in a lit of rage ; at least, that is the more usual explanation of tlio.«e labors. These labors were twelve iu number, the chief Ijeing the slaying of the Neineau lion, one of the hydra with nine heads ; cleansing the stables of King Augeaa who had a herd of three thousand oxeu whoso stables liad not been cleansed for thirty years ; stealing the girdle of Hippolyla. the (|uecii of the Amazons, and the apples in the garilen of the Hespcrides. the gift of the goddess Earth to Jimo on the occasion of her marriage with Jove. His final labor wsia bring- ^ g — - .t 92 GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. iiig Cerberus, the watch-dog of hell, from the nether world. The shirt steeped in the blood of Nessus, which caused his death in awful agony, was sent to him by his wife, who was inflamed with causeless Jealousy. The garment burned into his ilesh and could not be gotten off without taking the flesh with it. All these exploits and experiences are in constant use for illustrations. Next to Hercules in heroic eminence was The- seus, the pride of Athens. His name brings up the familiar bed of Procustes, or the stretcher. It was of iron. All travelers who fell into his hands were placed upon it. If they were longer than the bed they were chopped off, if shorter, they were stretched. This eccentric landlord was placed upon his own bedstead by Theseus and made to accept his own hospitality. Theseus made war upon those illustrious females, the Amazons, as Hercules had before him. Greek sculpture was fond of repre- senting the battles of the Amazons, and to the end of time, women who boldly stand up for their rights, undaunted by masculine opposition, will be known as Amazons. Theseus has figured more upon the histrionic stage than Hercules. We catch a shad- owy glimpse of this hero in history. His shade flits across the stage of statecraft, but only to disappear in the clouds of antique dust. The heroic age is, for the most part, the story of the Trojan heroes and those associated with them. Homer was not alone in treating this subject. On the contrary, his accounts are tantalizing, and what he omitted the tragedians sought to supply. Ho- mer introduces us to the G-reeks on the plain before the doomed city, and dui'ing the Iliad never once wanders from that charmed spot. The Odyssey treats only of the wanderings of Ulysses. Of what went before and followed after, we know nothing, except as others fur- nished the information. |\ Between all, the ac- MeneUus count is quite full. An attempt will now be made to narrate all the important features of this great pic- ture of the heroic age and its apotheosis by genius. Paris, the handsome son of Priam, King of Troy, paid a visit to Menelaus, King of Sparta. He abused the hospitality of his royal friend by eloping with his beautiful wife, Helen. The injured hus- band sent tidings of his wrong to the different Iphigeiiia. chiefs of Greece, inviting them to join in avenging the outrage. The appeal met with a cordial response. All were willing to go except Ulysses of Ithaca. He had just married a wife, and still more recently be- comeafather. Notwantingto leave the lovely Penel- ope and the infant Telemachus, he pretended to be crazy, but the trick was detected, and the trickster joined them in the expedition. A vote was taken on the question of who should be generalissimo. The choice did not fall upon the venerable Nestor, the brave Achilles, or the crafty Ulysses, but upon the magnificent Agamemnon. To insure success and safety, the commander-in-chief resolved to offer in sacrifice his own daughter, Iphigenia. A goddess interposed and saved the girl, leaving a hind upon the altar as a substitute. One may see in this story a resemblance to the less tragic incident commem- orative of Hebrew substitution of a sheep for a hu- man being. But Agamemnon, unlike Abraham, supposed his child had perished. So did the mother, Clytemnestra, who thereupon conceived deadly ha- tred for her husband, a hatred that made her false to her marriage vows, and cost him his hfe upon his return from the war. But to proceed. On their way to Troy the fleet attacked an innocent peop)le and despoiled them. Among the victims taken captive was the beautiful maiden, Briseis. The girl was allotted to Achilles, but coveted by Agamem- ^TTP ^K^ ^ GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 93 nou. The latter,exertinghis superior authority, took her to himself. Thereupon Achilles withdrew from the general camp and began liis immortal " sulks.'' The war dragged its weary length, battle after bat- tle being fought without decisive advantage on either side, until, finally, a friend of Achilles, Patroclus, was slain, when the great sulker forgot his grievance and made short work of tlie Trojans. The Greeks were still unable to enter the city. To drive the warriors within the gates was all that they could do. Then it was that the craft of Ulys- ses achieved its greatest triumph. At his sugges- tion a huge wooden horse was made and filled with the flower of the army. The Greeks then set sail as if tired of the enterprise. Troy was exultant over the raising of the siege, and fell into the trap. Sallying forth to view the relics of the camp, great curi- osity was excited by tlie wooden liorse. The people conclud- ed to bring it into the city as a trophy. A Trojan priest, by the name of La- ocoon, tried to dis- site of suade them from this madness. "I fear the Greeks," he said, " even when they offer gifts." Hardly had he spoken thus, accompanied by his two sons, when two monstrous sea-serpents came ashore, making straight for the priest and liis sons, wliom they strangled, and the popular cry was that the gods were angered by his opposition. With enthu- siasm, if liard work, the horse was brought within the walls. Previous to this, Ulysses and Diomed had crept into the town and stolen an image of Minerva, called the Palladium, which was the safely of the city. The silly Trojans flattered themselves that they now had a substitute for tlve Palladium. At niirht when all was still, the men cut their way out of their equine bo.x, set fire to the city, and opened tlie gates to their friends wlio had quietly sailed back. The fall of Troy was thus brougiit about by strategy and not by bravery. The .slaughter was terrible and relentless. Those wiio escaped the sword were sold into slavery, including the surviv- ors of the royal family. A few fled under the Irnl- ersliip of yEneas, who, according to Virgil, was ihu father of Rome. Helen's crime was condoned by her husband with whom slie returned to Sparta. Throughout, she is represented as passive in the extreme. Varied were the experiences of the lieroes. Achil- les hatl already been slain, shot in the heel (his only vulnerable spot) by a poisoned arrow from the shaft of the cowardly and mean Paris. The mur- der of Agamemnon upon the threshold of liis own palace wiis a favorite theme of the tragedians, and the sorrows of his children furnished occasion for illustrating the piti- lessness of fate. But Ulysses was the real hero after the fall of Troy. He wandered in many lands. Ho- mer represents him visiting every land known to the Greeks, real and fabulous, and expericuoing all sorts of dangers. He even went to the infernal regions and returned. The first country TKOY. visited which was purely fabulous and has always been fraught with poetic interest was the land of the lotus-eaters. The food of the people wa.s the lotus-plant, the effect of which was perfect contentnieut with present surroundings. It was with dillicuhy tiiat I'lysses could drag his com- panions on shiplioard. They next arrived at the island home of the Cyclop,s, — giants wlio dwell in caves and had a fondness for human flesh. One of these monsters, Polyphemus, devoured several Greeks. The wily chief got him under the influ- ence of wine, put out his eje (for he had only one. and that in the center of hisforelicad). After tliat it was easy to escaix) from the cave and tJie island. The island of King yEolus was touciied upon next. This monarch was intrustclcs dwelt as neigliboring states on tiio Peloponnesus. They were of one stock — Dorians. But they were unlike by the time they rose above the obscuring hills of time. Messcnia was a niucli better country than Lacedaemonia. It produced better crops and better jwople. But Laced senionia had Sparta, and Sparta had Lycurgus. As a mili- tary community the Spartans wore tiio superior, and with the usual meanness of uncivilized jxioplc, the stronger continually encroached upon tlic weaker, and ])rovokcd war. .\ chronic state of belligerency existed between them. Even when tiic fire seemed dead, it only smouldered. Tiiere were tiireo Mcsse- nian wars, with the dates. B. C. 74:{-7'>4 ; liS.VOtlS ; ■ICiJ— I."i."), iiivrriuL' :i jHTioil of almut tbrci' centuries. r ^s 96 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. and active hostilities during forty-five years, all told. Finally, in the latest set-to, lasting nine years, the Messenians were not only conquered, as usual, but wiped out. It was a war of extermination. " When Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war." The better but weaker people were driven from Peloponnesus, disappearing forever as a distinctive people from the face of the earth, leaving behind them little else than the record of their calamity. Passing by trivial outbreaks of hostility, we may say that the great historic wars of the Greeks, ex- clusive of the Messenian, were four, namely, the Persian, the Peloponnesian, the Macedonian and the Roman. Each one of these had an imjDortant bearing upon the great events of world-wide interest. We have named them in their chronological order. The first began in Asia Minor, but was none the less Greek, and ultimately extended to Greece. It may be said to have begun with the fall of CrcBsus (B. 0. 546), and closed with Cimon's defeat of the naval and military forces of the Persians in the battle of Eurymedon (B. 0. 465), a period of eighty- one years. The Peloponnesian, or great civil war of Greece, began in B. 0. 431 and continued with hardly any cessation of hostihties for twenty-seven years. Macedonia began to be a power in the world during the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great. He began the interference with the afiairs of Peloponnesus, B. 0. 344. His greater son closed his prodigious career B. C. 323, and with his death terminated the really brilliant military career of Greece. The fourth war in the present hst, the one with Rome, was httle more than the gradual absorption of Greece and the Greeks round about, ni the universal empire of the Eternal City. The first conflict of Greek and Roman arms was in B. C. 314, and in B. C. 146 the supremacy of Rome over Greece ceased to be disputed or resisted. Such are the boundaries of our present theme. The Greeks were a people of wonderful enterprise. They sent out colonies without number. The population, in excess of what was convenient and desirable, "went west," only "out west" was really "down east " Unless, indeed, as some think, the Greek settlements on the mainland were the older of the two. However that may be, it is undeniable that crossing to the opposite shore, they built cities and developed states with mar- velous fecundity. The fatherland laid claim to no sovereignty over the swarms which went out from the parent hive, and the best of feeling prevailed. While these colonies were flourishing in wealth and culture, there grew up a somewhat important king- dom further inland — Lydia. The colonial cities were free marts of commerce, like the cities of Hol- land and Germany, which formed the Hanseatic League and of which we shall speak at a later period. Not content with further enlargement toward the East, Lydia, like Russia, was impatient for a seaboard. Crcesus, the Lydian king whose wealth has been proverbial, and is so still, came to the throne in B. 0. 560. He laid siege to Ephesus, one of the Grecian cities of Asia Minor, and soon took it. He treated the citizens so leniently that he had very little difficulty in extending his sway, in a patriarchal way, over the whole of Asia Minor. For a tribute, small to those commercial cities, but enor- mous to him, he agreed to respect their rights and defend them, too. The cities and the monarchy sus- tained some such relations to each other as vassals and baron in the feudal system. His enormous wealth became known and laid him liable to attack. About that time Cyrus the Great came on the stage of imperial action. He was a Persian, but he held the scepter of Medea as well, the latter being a great kingdom. Cyrus moved upon Crcesus, and before the opulent monarch could utilize his re- sources Lydia became a province of Persia, and thus the Greek and the Persian were brought face to face for the first time. Croesus had the means to procure powerful if not invinciDle help. He sent his am- bassadors to Sparta and an alliance was formed, but before the aid could arrive all was over. Cyrus would have had the ready allegiance of the Greek cities, had he been content to guarantee the continuance of the mild sway of the Lydian sover- eign; but his demand was " unconditional and im- mediate surrender. " T'o this they would not con- sent. He deputized his lieutenants to complete the subjugation of Asia Minor. It was not a difficult task. Nor was the Persian yoke heavy or irksome, and the sovereignty of Persia was soon acknowl- edged throughout Asia Minor. Cyrus was ambitious of bagging larger game than Lydia, and as for Greece, he knew no more about it than a Tartar does of Australia. He besieged Baby- lon, and it fell. The exploits of himself and of his son Cambyses in Egypt have already been men- ■ D^T ^! Ai. HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 97 tioued. It was not until Darius, tlie successor of Cambyses, came to the throne, that Greece attracted Persian attention. A trivial accident was the spark which kindled the ilauie of tliat gi'eat war. At that time Darius had a magnificent empire. It ex- tended from the ^Egeau Sea to the Indian ocean, and from the stejjpes of Russia in Asia, to the cata- racts of the Nile. The idea of his being seriously mindful of httle Greece, would have seemed to him absurd. One day he sprained his ankle while out hunting. There happened to be a Greek physician witliin caU, named Democedes, and he was summoned to dress the wound, which he did so skillfully that the king insisted upon retaining him as his family doc- tor. His favorite wife. Queen Atossa, was treated by Democedes, and so satisfactorily, that she con- ceived a desire to have Greek maids to attend her, comb her hair and make her dresses. To please her, the doctor was sent to Greece, under escort, to procure the damsels. His companions were instructed to find out all they could about the country, and their report may be said to have introduced Greece to Persia, and been tlie beginning of the relations be- tween those two countries. It was not imme- diately productive of results. Had all the states of Greece adopted and adhered to the " Monroe doe- trine, " as the policy of non-intervention with the affairs of other nations is called, they might have been spared war with the great empire of Asia. But the Athenians undertook to meddle with the affairs of that continent, as friends of the loniaus, and to resent an insolent threat by Persia. Athens w;i.s by that time a powerful state witii a very formidable navy. Sardis, the capital of Lydia, one of the twenty satrapies of Persia, was taken by the lonians and the Athenians. Darius was more indignant -with the in- termeddlers from Athens than with the others, who haeoples was staked, but in this instance such was the case. The Athenians were ci|ual to the emergency. Tliev boldly met the invaders. Tlie battle of Hiu-tings was a reiictition of the battle of Marathon, only with reversal results. William of Normandy comiuored the Saxons, Harold falling ^^ with his kingdom, but Mil- Miiiiii.ic!. tiades. tlie liero of Mara- thon, wiis sncccssful. His liaiidful of lirave .\tlie- nians rushed forward to tiio attack so furiously that they soon drove the enemy to their shiiv;. Tlieir g.il- ^2= -^ 98 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. laut impetuosity caused a pause and made the victory complete. They had no alhes. It was Athens against the countless hordes of barbarism. About ten thou- sand European freemen repelled the attack of at least half a milhon of Asiatics. That was the first real meeting of the two continents in hostility upon a scale of continental importance. The Spartans were on their way to Marathon, but Miltiades needed no " night or BlUcher " to help him win his Water- loo. It is a melancholy reflection that the hero of this victory, more brilliant than Waterloo or the Wilderness, died in prison not long after, his con- finement aggravating a wound he received in an un- successful attempt, sub- sequent to Marathon, to enlarge the dominion of Athens. His fate con- tributed largely to the proverbial idea of the in- gratitude of republics. The Persians were ex- asperated rather than discouraged by the for- tunes of Marathon. Darius resolved to take a revenge worthy his maginficence. An execu- tive officer in distinction from a man of war, he was equal to great achievements, in preparation of arms. But before he necessary arrangements That was in B. C. 485. favorite wife already Pass of Thermopyte. at least, for a clash had completed his death called him away. Xerxes, the son of the mentioned, took his place upon the throne. He had other matters of im- portance to attend to, and it was four years more before the Persians were ready to renew the offen- sive. The king jiroposed to accompany the expedi- tion in person. The point of crossing selected was the narrow strip of water, the Hellespont, where the two continents come nearly together. A bridge was built across it. That was a great work, attended with exceeding difficulties. The army of invasion was provided with a vast fleet, as well as all con- ceivable facilities for operation by land. With a show of fairness the monarch sent embassadors to the different states of Greece to demand submission. The expression of compliance with this demand was by sending back earth and water. Several of the smaller states complied, and the disposition to actu- ally resist was confined to Athens and Sparta. The latter seemed to remember the glories of Marathon in a noble spirit of emulation, rather than a mean spirit of envy. It was in the spring of B. 0. 480 that Greece was invaded, and in a few months, two more battles, hardly less memorable than Marathon, were fought, one by land and the other on the sea, the first, Thermopylae, being the everlasting glory of Sparta, the second, Salamis, adding another star to the Athenian crown. Thermopylae vi^as a narrow pass, through which the mighty army had to march, in gaining a foot- hold of advantage. Its defense was intrusted to Leonidas, king of Sparta, and his squad — for it was hardly more than that — consisted of three hun- dred Spartans, with their Helots, or serfs, and about twenty-five hun- dred men, gathered from other cities of Greece.- The latter proved to be of no real assistance. On one side was one of the largest armies ever in array anywhere or at any time, and on the other a small battahon. Had the position of the de- fenders been approachable only on one side, as generally supposed, the resistance would have been effectual, but there was a weak point, a secret path, by which the enemy could flank them. A traitor (not a Spartan) betrayed that decisive secret to the Persians. When tliey learned that, the Spartans knew that they could not hope to keep back the assaihng horde. They would not surrender, neither would they fly. The post of danger which their country had assigned them was held with an unfal- tering heroism. Leonidas and his brave three hun- dred only thought of selling their lives as dearly as they could. The slaughter which they produced was prodigious, for the number engaged in it. They fell like the old guard at Waterloo, with their faces to the foe, and their swords fairly glutted with lalood. Xerxes gained possession of the pass, -71^ I V 4 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 99 and so far as mere men was concerned, liad suffered no crippling loss. But a grand moral effect was pro- duced. The Greeks were fired witli a heroic patri- otism seldom displayed by any people. The Persians marched upon Athens, wliicli they found very nearly deserted, and after a short check, took possession of it, and wrouglit their barbaric will. Fortunately, that was before the statesmansliip of Pericles, and the genius of Praxiteles and other artists and archi- tects, had made it tlie marvel of the world. The 2)eople had been removed with all their movables, and scattered to places of safety. Thermopylse was to Greece at that time much what the battle of Bunker Hill was to the Americans of the Revolu- tionary War, and the taking of Athens did Xerxes no more good than the taking of Washington did the British, in tlie second war between England and the United States. The decisive battle of the Persian war was still to be fought, and that by water. And now the far- sighted wisdom of Atliens was disjilayed. Ever since the battle of Marathon, the return of the Per- sians had been anticipated, and the greate.st Athe- nian of his time, Themistocles, had been unsparing and untiring in making preparation to meet the enemy upon the element whicli separated tlie two countries. The revenues of the state, derived mainly from mines, which had been divided among the citizens, lie induced the people to appropriate to the construction of a navj'. There were a few other Greek navies of small dimensions, but the Athenian only was really formidable. Themistocles had to use a great deal of diplomacy to get the Per- sians to venture everji;hing ujoon a naval engage- ment, but he finally succeeded. The Grecian fleet was massed at Salamis, and Xerxes ordered it to be surrounded and cut to pieces. That order was pre- cisely what Themistocles wanted, for it afforded ap- portunity for doing something decisive. The bat- tle was not a long one. The Persian fleet was a vast, unwieldy, and soon panic-stricken mob of boats, and tlic well-trained triremes of Athens cut tliem down like grass. It was Marathon upon the sea. The terrified monarch, as lie beheld the en- gagement from a lofty throne on the Grecian sliorc, caught the mania, and fearing that he niiglit be liemmed in and lost utterly, made haste to regain the Hellespont and rccross it. Themistocles secret- ly spurned him on by repi)rts sent to liim bv iire- tended traitors. The great Athenian judged tliat if the Persians fled from the country in terror, they would never again seriously menace the liberties of Greece, and he was right. Some further feeble at- tempts were made in that du'ection, but nothing was done liaving in it any real menace and peril. Never again had Greece occasion to fear Eastern enemies, and when tlie two nations next apjxjar before us the brave defenders are no less brave if less lionorable assailants, and Persia is on the defensive. The fate of Themistocles was hardly less sad tlian that of Miltiades. He did not die in prison, but lie was banished and became a pensioner upon the bounty of the son and successor of Xerxes, Artax- erxes. Of the three heroes of the Persian war, only Leonidas w;is spared the pangs inflicted by an ungrateful jieople. He fell upon the field of glory. The father of the Athenian navy, the Nelson of antiquity, in his last days gave still furtlier cniplia- sis to tlie ingratitude of republics. In all commu- nities which are really free, there is a wide range for the pendulum of popular favor, and the favor of one hour may turn to disfavor in tlie next. In this country this fact is constantly being illustrated. But there is this difference in Greek and American popular sentiment. Its loss in the former c;i5c was bauishment or death ; in the latter it is merely ad- verse criticism, traduction ]:>erliaps, and relegation to jirivatc life. The spirit of party ran higher and went further then and there than now and liere. Even Aristides, surnamed the Just, was banished simply because the people wearied of his monotonous goodness, and when the crisis at Sala- mis came, he was found witli his countrymen, working tn- gether with his old rival, Tliemistoclcs, for the com- mon cause. The glory of Gi'eece, and especially of Ath- Aristides, ens, would liave been more brilliant in all these ages if the surviving heriK's of tlie great Persian wars had not suffered the vengeance of party politics. The next great war of Greece was the Pelo]ioune- sian war. It was entirely Grecian and yet had some connection witli the Persian invasion. The latter devcloiiod va)»t military prowe,'*?. for even af- ter Siilaniis it wn': nerossarv to kop)i u]i a powerful sr JV^< l^ loo HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. army of defense. It was several years before the danger of another invasion was over, and still longer before the 'fear of it subsided. To be pre- pared for the worst, the Athenians and Spartans agreed to hve together in peace for at least thn-ty years. That truce was born of fear lest the " bar- barian " should again swoop down upon them. It was scrupulously observed. In the meanwhile, both states flourished and became far stronger than ever before. The expiration of the truce found Greece on a military footing, for the repulsion of a foe whose reappearance had by that time ceased to be appre- hended. With nothing particular to do (for Greece was not ambitious for foreign conquest) the two great rival states were not long in coming to blows after the truce had lapsed. There has been a great deal of learned explanation of tlie causes of the war which now began (called the Peloponnesian), but the real ' explanation is found in the one word — jealousy. Athens wanted to be, and really ought to have been, the pohtical capital of Greece then, as she is now. Sparta would consent to nothing Alexander of the kind, and each had its sympathizers. For twenty-seven years the conflict was maintained, and it was as inglorious as the other was glorious. The genius of Tliucydides as a historian, and especially as a writer of eloquent orations whicli were never delivered, has thrown around it a halo, and given it an undue prominence. It began in the year B. 0. 431, and the Athenians finally, in B. C. 405, submit- ted 10 terms of peace which left the States of Greece sustaining to each other substantially the same "state rights " relation as they did originally, except that Sparta now claimed a certain supremacy, an advan- tage it lacked the statesmanship to retain and turn to much real benefit. We pass over this period without going into de- tails. They are not important enough to justify it. The glory of that era was indeed great, but it was not military. The civil genius of Pericles and the intellectual grandeur of others of whom we are yet to speak, have contributed incalculably to the splen- dor of classic antiquity. But Pericles died in the third year of the war, and Sparta really added no luster to the glories of Thermopylae, by preparing the way as she did for the subjugation of all Pelo-, ponnesus, herself included, by the semi-Hellenic Alexander of Macedonia, upon whose wars we now enter. It was not until Greece had been sorely rent by inter-state wars and had degenerated, politically speaking, into a jargon of petty and rival national- ities, that Macedonia came upon the stage. The real founder of the Mace- donian Empire was not Alexander, but his father, Philip. The son carried out the vast scheme of his royal sire. Both died young. Phihp was only forty-seven years of age when cut down by assas- sination. He had reigned twenty-three years, and was on the eve of making war upon Persia. Begin- ning as the sovereign of a the Great. half barbaric kingdom be- yond the pale of Greek civilization, he took ad- vantage of the divided and hostile condition of the different states, also of the extreme bitterness of party feeling in the republic, to extend his influence. Gradually, by cunning diplomacy, downright bribery, and military genius, he ex- tended his kingdom until at length he had gained ascendancy over all Greece. Some states he treated with deferential respect, but all had to bow to his sway, or at most, dared not openly antagonize him. Then he made known his purpose. He an- nounced himself as the champion of the Greek cause against Persia. He called for men and means to carry on an aggTessive war. Great enthusiasm pre- vailed. Had he lived he might have achieved uni- versal empire. But as he entered a theater, just 71 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. lOI prior to his iutended departure for Persia, one Pau- sanias, ■who had a private grievance, cut him down. Alexander was then only twenty years of age, but lie had already distinguished himself in battle, and was at once chosen to succeed his father at the liead of the Grecian expedition against Persia. Tliere were some dissenters. His right to the crown of Macedonia was not disputed, but his headship of the confederate states of Greece was. He had some hard fighting on Grecian soil before he could set out for Asia. Thebes of Boeotia was the most stubborn of the free cities. He had to raze her to the very ground. " The boy of Pella," as he was derisively called, could not under- take foreign conquest until he had completely established home rule. He was not the con- queror of Greece, albeit the destroyer of one of her great cities. He made an example of Thebes to show what he might do, sparing Athens to show the paternity of his gov- ernment, if only firm and secure. Alexander came to the throne in B. G. 4oG, and two years later set out for Asia, leaving forever. He had an and 5,000 horse. AYitli that small band he under- took the conquest of the world, for the empire wliicli he was to assail ruled the whole civilized world, outside of Greece and its offslioots, and the Asiatic portion of the latter. It is triie that many Greeks preferred Persian friendship to Macedonian supremacy, and while tlie great soldier was figliting for Greek civilization, as he professed and as the event proved, Antipater, who had been left in charge of Alexander's affairs at home, found it hard work to maintain his ground. But Alexander freely supplied him with "the sinews of war" from tlie rich booty of Persian i)lunder, and so well did the vicegerent use his means, tluit tlie scepter of Macedon was more potent throughout Greece in tlie absence than in the presence of Alexander. To follow the swift course of tlie warrior who ranks with Caesar and Napoleon as one of the three greatest soldiers of all time, would be foreign to our purpose. Wlierever he went victory fol- lowed. He met Darius and his army upon the open field, and it was Marathon and Salamis over again. The vast army was routed in a battle near Issus in B. C. 333, and a second and still larger army was defeated two years later near Arbela. During the intervening two years he had taken Tyre, received the homage of Eg\-pt, and cast about " for more worlds to conquer. " After the second battle he was undisputed master of all tlie Persian empire, but not ready by any means to stay his victorious course. He pressed on to India, everywhere victorious. He would probably have pushed on to the utmost verge of the Orient, but final- ly he was obliged to turn back. The sol- diers wlio were invinci- ble in battle were stub- born in refusing to go any farther. He found the hardships from thirst and liuuger on the return march more terrible than •' an armv March of Alexander's Army. Greece, as it proved, army of only 30,000 foot with banners. '' When he had returned to Susa, he married the daiighterof Darius, and then began at J'xibylon the reconstruction of his empire, evidently intending to make tliatcity his capital. But hardly had he begun this work, when he fell a victim to fe- ver. He was only tiiirty-three years of age, and un- like Philip, he had no son old enough to take up and complete his designs. His empire fell to pieces, and his grand idea of llcUenizing the East (for he had evidently entertained .siuch an idea, even if he had formed no definite plan) was never carried out, ex- cept in fragments. Alexandriik wliose glory has been dwelt upon in a previous chajiter. may be taken as a suggestion of the stupendous scheme which would have been undertaken had his life been spared. It is not too much to say that the premature death of Alexander was a Rreater calamity to Asia -71 Sv" ^ I02 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. than any other event in all history. Greek civiliza- tion would have been established from the iEgean Sea to the Indian ocean, instead of being couiined in its transplanting, to a small area. Not that that vast region vrould have been thoroughly per- meated by it, of course, but that the Macedonian arms had plowed furrows through Southern Asia in which the seeds of civilization would doubtless have been planted, and brought forth fruit of incalcula- ble importance. But if one were to consider only what Alexandria became in the world of thought, it must be conceded that Alexander at least doubled the jDOwer over mankind of the Greek intellect. The Koman conquest of Greece was brought about largely by the dissensions of the Greeks themselves, especially by hostilities between the Acheeans and the ^tolians. Philip of Macedonia (the last of the line), entered into an alliance with Hannibal against the Eomans, and shared the fate of Carthage in point of subjugation, although the treatment of Greece by the Romans was always generous and chivalrous. Philip declared war against the Ro- mans in B. 0. 216, and in B. 0. 146 occurred the battle of Ijcucopetra, which completed the dissolu- tion of the last of the Greek Leagues, the Achaean, and henceforth Greece was under the yoke of Rome. The Senate, and afterwards the emperors, treated the fatherland of their own civilization with exceptional kindness. It was not until the Byzan- tine Empire placed its cruel foot upon the Greek neck, that all free institutions and popular rights were disregarded. As Schmitz well expresses it, " Greece, though conquered by the arms of the Eo- mans, subdued them in turn by its vast sup)eriority in the arts and in literature. The Romans them- selves owned that they were the humble disciples of Greece ; and that country in which we first meet in its full development with all that is noble and beautiful in man, is still the perennial sjpring at which we and all future generations may refresh our minds and drink intellectual inspiration. " Such are the really great and historic wars of Greece, but struggles of a later date deserve notice. Modern Greece achieved independence through the sword. After the Turks were defeated by the Christians at Vienna in 1684 Greece was ravaged by the Venetians under Francesco Morosini. In 1687 Athens fell into the hands of the Christians. Terrible was the destruction incident to that siege. The Greeks were hardly a party to the conflict, it being a part of the war betsveen the Venetians and the Turks, but none the less were Greek statuary and architecture the victims of the struggle. The Turks stored powder in the Parthenon, which ex- ploded with desolating effect. That triumph, so dearly won, was lightly esteemed, and soon Greece once more groaned under the Turkish yoke. The war of Independence began in 1821, and the last battle of that war was fought in Boeotia in Oc- tober, 1829. In the first battle of this series Prince Alexander Ypselantes was defeated, but in the last his brother Demetrius won a brilliant victory over the Turk. It will be seen from a later chapter that Grecian nationality, as it now exists, rests upon foreign intervention, but it is none the less true that the Greeks of this nineteenth century fought for independence with a valor and heroism worthy of Marathon and Therm opylas, and that Marco Botzar- is, if not Demetrius Ypsilantes, deserves to rank with the foremost warriors of that peoj)le who could boast a Miltiades, a Leonidas, a Themistocles and an Alexander. ^ ^^ -^ -.^■-^^ STATECRAFT IN GREECE. =??>^^<«s= CHAPTER XVI. State Rights in Greece— Ltcuugus and his Laws— Tue Spartan Monarchy— Republicanism AND THE Laws op Draco— Solon and Athens— The Constitution and its Leadinh Fea tures- Solon and Lycukgus Compared— Clenisthenes and Democracy— Pericles, the Statesman and his General Influences- The Four Leagues and Games— Their Char- acter and Influences- The Potver of the Leagues— The Delphic Oracle and Pythia THE Priestess. KEECE was indeed the vic- tim of what in this country might be called the Calhoun doctrine, but she was not withoutgreatstatesmen. The science of go^^ernment was carried to a high degree of perfection, although ui^on a small scale. A "pent-uj) Utica" did, it is true, contract the powers of the lawgivers, but they achieved greatness, and desen'e the prominence of a chap- ter devoted to their exclusive consider- ation. The first if not the greatest of the lawgivers was Lycurgus. In the Homeric poems wc see statecraft hardly above tribal chieftainship. Lycurgus, wlio had probably been a student iif law in Egypt, gave to Sparta a body of laws, or system of government, wliich ultimately raised it to the supremacy, not only over the ullic?' Dnvian states LjxurgUB. of Pel())ic>nnc- sus, but over the whole of Greece. It was not the aim of Lycurgus to make tlie jieople hajipy or virtuous, but the state strong. The date of his work is uncertain. Some place it as early as B. C. 1100, others as late as B. C. 880. The latter is sup- ported by the better authorities. The age of Homer and Hesiod is from B. C. 900 to B. C. 800. Obvious- ly, then, the name Lycurgus stands rather for a body of laws borrowed largely from the Delta, tluiu for an individual. Not that it was entirely ane.xotic by any means, but tliat the indigenous root was fer- tilized by the loam of the Nile. It was claimed for the laws of Lycurgus, as for those of Jloses, tliat they were the direct gift of Deity, and both were written upon taljles of stone. Like Moses, too, he is siij>posed to have gone off by himself to die, hoping thereby to strengtlien the authority of his enact - iiieuts. The territory trilnitary to Sparta, forming with it the State of Lacaonin, was, according to Plu- tarch, divideil into 30,000 sections, of wiiieh 0,00n were given to as many landed aristocrats of tiio city, and the rest to free subjects of the state; but these details arc not historically correct. It is only aswr- tanialilc that the land was dividetl among tiie i)eo])lo in such a way as to fonn three distinct ctustes, name- ly, tlie Dorians of Spiirtu ; their serfs, or Helots ; and Z^'7-*~ ^' ti. 104 . - STATECRAFT IN GREECE. the subject people, or peasantry, of the provincial district. All pohtical power was monopolized by the aristocracy of the city. Deprivation was also exemption and privilege to some extent, for the peas- antry were also the merchants and mamifacturers of tlie country, and were not considered to be in the perpetual service of the state, as the aristocracy were. Tlie latter were wholly given to politics and war. The Helots were treated with the utmost severity. Thev were "fixtures" and could not be sold off the priests and chief justices, but not sovereigns in any proper sense of the term. Courage was the one virtue held in unlimited esteem. It was the deifi- cation of the martial spirit. The story told of the Spartan youth who stole a fox, is doubtless fabu- lous, but eminently characteristic. Rather than disclose what he had done, he allowed the fox, which was hidden in his breast, to gnaw his vitals. To steal was all right, but to be caught at it or found out in it all wrong. The commerce of the countrv OLD ATHENS AS VIEWED FROM PIEiEUS. farm or the household. They were serfs, but not slaves. A people who were unsparing in rigor to- ward themselves, would, as a matter of course, be l^itiless in their treatment of subordinates. The real reins of government were held by the senate, as in the republican days of Rome, but royalty was main- tained in theory. Tlie jjeculiarity of the Spartan monarchy was, that two kings occupied the throne, a custom sup- piosed to have arisen from the fact that Aristode- mus left twin sons. These two kings corresponded to the two consuls of Rome. The kinss were chief was quite limited. Iron was the only currency, and it is said that this financial pohcy was adopted and maintained for the purpose of discouraging business enterprise. This restriction applied, however, only to the higher class and the city. The provincials were left free in their traffic. Evidently, the spirit of the heroic age was per- petuated at Sparta as nowhere else, although in the Homeric verse no special p)re-eminence was given to that state. Helen was indeed the queen of that kingdom, but her husband, Menelaus, was by no means the hero of the war. His brother, Agamem- f>\\ k^ STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 105 non, was the cliief, elected to that position hy the suffrages of his jjeers. But in historic times the heroic age survived maiiily iu Sparta, aud that, on account of the martial character of her constitu- tion. In all the states of Greece except Sparta, roy- alty was abolished about the same time, and at a very early day, and in Sparta even, the semblance only remained. By far the most important of these states was Athens, or Attica ; the latter being the name of the territory. The people are generally called Athenians, sometimes lonians, but rarelv At- ticans. Theseus is said to have given the Atlienians their first political institutions. He divided the peojjle into three classes ; the aristocracy, the hus- bandmen, and the artisans, the two latter classes ha\"ing no voice in the government. A new consti- tution was given to the state by Draco, B. C. 634. His was the first written law of Attica. It is pro- verbial for its severity and is said to have been wiit- ten in blood. The e^ddeut design of this conserva- tive law-maker was to re.press the rising power of the common j)eople and conserve the "vested riglits " of the favored few. His personal uuijopularity, un- der the operation of his code, was sueli that he had to seek safety in flight. The poj^ular discontent found exj^ression in sedition and strife. Finally, after a turljulent aud futile struggle for existence, the legislation of Draco succumbed and gave place to the laws of Solon, a legislator so wise that his name is a standing synonym for statesmanship. Enriched iu iutelhgence aud jjurse by foreign travel ;iiid commerce, Solon also liadthe advantage of military prestige. He called to his aid Epimenides of Crete, a far- famed sage. He iiiap(jsed re- straints upon the profuse expenses of the temple and funeral obsequies. That was Epimenides' part of the reforii ments did not go to the roots of things. The great troul)le was the unjust distriliution of land. The aris- tocracy held the nujre fertile plains, and derived the cliief advantage from agriculture, Avithout doing any of the work. The unrest was so great, and the dissat- isfaction with the code of Draco so general, that in 11 0. 504, Solon was made Archon with ample Solon. but these improve- authority to revise the laws. He was constituted a constitutional convention and legislature, all iu one. Ho did not abuse his opportunity. He was the first George Wasiiingtou of history. His first work was to abolish imprisonment and slavery for debt. He also reduced the rate of interest, and virtually scaled down debts by debasing the coin. Solon Wiis a friend of the jjoor without being a demagogue. He abolished capital punishment, except for murder. He admitted foreigners to citizenship. He was, perhaps, tlio father of naturalization laws, the first great jirotector of immigration. He conciliated the rich 1jy ruciuiring a jwoperty test in suffrage. The people were divided into four classes according to property (jualifications, with a graduated scale of rights aud jirivileges. He thus put a premium u\>- on cnterjirisc in Ijusiness. The property available for political elevation, however, was realty. The magistrates, to whatever class belonging, were re- sponsible to the whole people, aud not merely to their own classes. Tliere were two legislative bodies, one being the Council of Four Hundred, corre- sponding to our Senate, and the other, the Areop- agus, corresponding to a New England town-meet- ing, or Russian Mir. The latter certainly existed before his day, however it may have been with the former, but it was modified by him, aud set in its place as one of the institutions of pojiular sover- eignt)-. The ordinary public assembly was held once a month, the number necessary to a quorum not being definitely fixed, but six thousand was re- garded as a small meeting. Solon .devised a curious way to supervise and hold in check the radicalism or carelessness of the Are- opagus. Instead of a supreme bcncli composed of a few elderly lawyers, \vith the power of nullifica- tion by which they could set aside a law as uncon- stitutional, lie provided a supreme court consisting of si.x thousand, with authority to set aside any jwp- ular enactment inconsistent with the est^ililishcd or- dinances of the state. He did not attempt, how- ever, to prevent all alterations. He devisefl a plan for amending the constitution which wa." sub- staniially the same as the one which now prevails in this country. At the first popular assembly each year, one menilx>r of tlie body politic iiad a right to proj>oso a change in the establislied laws. At the third ordinary' meeting the suliject w.-js brought np again aud a committee iipiwiutcd by lot frmn ih.> ■7'e +- 1 06 STATECRAFT IN GREECE. supreme court, or lielisea of 6,000, to investigate the matter and decide upon its adoption or rejection. This variation from the prevaihug system of tliis country, does not go to the heart of the matter Solon may be called the father of flexible constitu- tions. He contemplated no distinctions between judge and jury, nor a body of professional law- yers. Demosthenes, the greatest of all advocates and prosecutors, was a " layman." A body of arbi- trators (men over sixty years of age) was created to try private law-suits, and from the decision rendered no appeal could be taken. For public offenses, crimes, the law provided the council of Areopagus, and this criminal court was conducted witli all the solemnities of oaths. A majority convicted, but if there was a tie vote, the herald cast " the vote of Athena " in favor of acquittal, on the principle that the accused is entitled to the benefit of the doubt. Lycurgus was far more specific in his code than Solon was. The greater of these two statesmen left much to the authority of the people. He must have been thoroughly democratic, a, Jefferson rather than a Hamilton. His code began to take cogni- zance of the individual at sixteen, but up to that age the child was subject exclusively to parental authority. From sixteen to eighteen the Athenian youth was obliged to submit to the training of the gymnasium, a school for both brain and brawn. At eighteen he was regarded as having reached major- ity, and was an " infant " no longer. He could hold property and vote, although full citizenship was not attained before the twentieth year. Military service was required between the ages of eighteen and sixty. As regards women, Solon sought to curb licentious- ness and extravagance, rather than to elevate the sex and enlarge its sphere, in the modern sense of the term. His ideal woman was a domestic drudge, pure and simple. He was tiot, however, inclined to require the women to stay at home quite so closely as they were obliged to do at a later period in the history of Athens. His code was designed to amel- iorate somewhat the hardships of a slave. He en- couraged the maintenance of a strong navy for the protection of commerce. Solon is supposed to have died B. C. 559. Clenisthenes introduced some important changes in the Athenian constitution half a century later, which increased the power of the people, but he displayed no genius for statecraft at all compara- ble to that of the great names mentioned. Aristi- des and Themistoeles were great political lawyers in their day, as were Ephialtes, who deprived the Are- opagus of a great deal of its power, and Thucydi- des, who was the leader of the aristocracy, and Alcibiades, a subsequent leader of the popular party. But none of these politicians deserve rank with Ly- curgus .and Solon. The only other name in Greek annals worthy of association with them is that of A^nACIA Pericles and Aspasia. Pericles whose name and fame can not be disasso- ciated from Aspasia, the beautiful, accomphshed and brilliant companion of his joys and labors. He was not so much a great law-maker as a great executive officer. His genius was equal to theirs, and was as truly a glory to statecraft. Pericles rose to eminence upon the ruin of Miltiades, of whom we heard in connection with Marathon. Of the hero of that most glorious victory of Grecian arms, it is enough to say here that he was inchned to absolutism in government, and fell a victim to the strength of the doctrine of popular sovereignty. Pericles was the acknowledged leader of the democ- racy, although of the most aristocratic descent. He sought to accomplish two objects ; first, to make Greece one nation, with Athens as its political and commercial capital ; and second, to make the repub- lic a government by the people, rather than a gov- ernment by and for an oligarchy. He provided compensation for public service, such as serving on the jury and even for attending the worship of the gods. He also gave employment to the poor out of the treasury of the public. It was in his day that Atheman art reached its loftiest heights, and the Grecian glory shone brightest. He was the first -7: £\* STATECRAFT IN GREECE. lo: and the last broadly national statesman of Greece. Lycurgus was a Spartan, Solon an Athenian, Alex- ander a barbarian, Pericles a Greek, in the fullest sense of the term. Pericles succeeded in making liis views so far un- derstood and appreciated at Atlieus, tliat lie was the master spirit of Attica nntil the day of his death, but he could not carry out his general plan. Sparta adhered, -mth the tenacity of South Carohua, to the doctrine of state sovereignty and hostility to central- ization. War ensued, in the course of which Peri- cles died. In that great struggle, the Peloponnesian war, Athens stood for the doctrine of the union of Greece (not its jDreservation, but its establishment), and in the failure of the national party, a death- blow was given to the political supremacy of Greece in tlie intellectual world. Pericles sought by state- craft, rather than by force, to unify the Greeks. What he could not do, Alexander might have done, but showed no disposition to do. Had he lived to reconstruct Greece, he might have consolidated it into one nation, but it would have been on the Macedonian, rather than on the Athenian plan. His ambition was military and had foreign conquest as its chief aim, wliile the greater Pericles tried to develoj) Greece to the fullest possible extent. A higher statesmanship could not be conceived, at least no higher ideal has ever been realized. Al- though he failed to carry out his plan in all its grandeur, he succeeded in developing at Athens a splendor which has never been equaled anywhere else in all tliat makes real culture. To this day no city in literature or art can seek liigher honor tlian to bo called a Modern Athens. The statesmanship of Pericles rendered possible tliose matchless attain- ments in esthetic civilization. Looking at tlie matter from an American point of view, there could hardly be anytliing more incon- gruous, than to couple the political associations of independent states composed of kindred people, with the pastimes of that peojile. If in writing of tlie United States, one should devote a chapter to " Fed- eral Relations and Base Ball," the inference woukl lie that the writer was either idiotic or insane. Tliey rcpresciit the extremes in point of importaiico. With us, the " National game" lias nothing what- ever to do vrith nationality. But the Greeks were a very dilTercul. people from ourselves. Their na- tional L'ainos were mil, pbivcd liv a few liircd iiicii. gazed upon by s]^)ectators who, for the most part, would scorn to take part in the game, even tliough assured of the championship. On the contrary, the pastimes of the Gi'eeks had a rank and significance, giving to them a really first-class position, even in universal liistory. They brought all sections togeth- er on a common and really national level. Taken collectively, tliey form the true Panhellcuia (Pan being the Greek for (dl), and to omit them would be to overlook a fundamental feature of the national life of the Greeks. There were four leagues or confederacies in Greece at different times: tlie Arcadian, the Amphictrionic, the Achfflan ami the ^Etolian. The games were also four : the Olymjiic, the Isthmian, the Xeinean and tlie P^iliian. There were other similar games, only on a smaller scale, in other parts of Greece, sustaining to the great games much tlie same relation that a county fair does to an inter-state or international exposition. To these festive occasions, any Greek was welcome, and was guaranteed immunity from assault, going and coming, however hostile any state through which he traveled might be to the state of which he was a citizen. None but pure Hellenists could com- pete in any of these games. Even Ak^xaiider the Great was denied tlie privilege, although in later years Tiberius and Nero, Roman Emjierors, bore off Olympian prizes. The different names of the four great games were suggested by their location, the first being on the plain of Olymiiia, the second on the isthmus of Corinth, the third on the Neinean plain, and the fourtli at Pytiiiii. The games were all alike in main feature, only that the first was the chief. There were chariot races, foot races and other athletic sports, literary entertainments and music. Tiiey blended worshij) with physical and intellectual gyministics. The prizes had no intrinsic value, being a wreath of laurels or other leaves, Ijuttliey were esteemed more liighly than gold, and proved incalculably stiiiiulu- tive to the culture of body and mind. Tlu> (trecks reckoned time by the Olympic games, which occurred once in four years. The founding of these games dates biK;k of history ami is shrouded in mystery, but the historic period of their existence ext<;nds over a thousand years, uiunely, from about B. 0. OoO to A. D. 450, when the influenro of the f'liristiaii church serured their abolition. Thev J^\ 'M. lot STATECRAFT IN GREECE. had, however, declined seriously before that time. Of the leagues of Greece, the most important was the Amphictyouic, whose origin was mythical. There were several Ampliictyons, or conventions, but tJie Amphictyon met at Delphi in the spring, at An- thela in the autumn, a town within the pass of Thermopylffi, where stood a temple of Delmeter. Its objects were twofold, — to guard the temple of Apollo, at Delphi, and to restrain the mutual violence among the states belonging to the confederacy. The latter object was not attained to any- thing like a satisfac- tory extent. The tem- ple, however, was pre- served with religious sacredness. Its oracle was held in the very highest esteem by the Greeks everywhere, and later, by the Eo- mans, but its immedi- ate custody was in- trusted to the citizens of Delphi. The chief city of Delphi, Crissa, ^"="' "' ^'^'p'^' """^ was utterly destroyed by the. allied forces of Greece, in the sixth century before Christ, for the practice of extortion upon the visitors to the Delphic Oracle. For ten years that holy war was waged. The oracles were generally couched in the most obscure language, and were given out' by a chief priestess called the Pythia. The temple was a vast treasure-house. It was sometimes de- spoiled, or in part depleted, but such levies were con- sidered as sacrilegious in the highest degree. It was not till Christianity displaced the classic superstitions, tliatthis oracle ceased to exert a powerful influence. Tlie mountain at the foot of whicli tlie Delphic oracles were uttered is in some respects the most famous in the world. It was sacred in the classic era to the muses. Thence the sacred Nine were fabled to take their flights, and Mount Parnassus yielded inspiration to the poet. To climb its rugged heights, drink of its springs, and breathe its rare and exhilarating air, filled the mind with poet- ical fancies. With Helicon, Cithseron and Parnassus, it nearly enclosed the Bceotian valley. Not as lofty as Pelion and Ossa, nor so august as Olympus, it is none the less true that surrounding it cluster asso- ciations which render it one of the most memorable peaks on the globe. One of the so-called Homeric hymns gives the legendary account of the founding of this temple : Apollo slew upon that spot a ter- rible dragon, then guided thither a Cre- tan ship, directing the crew of it to estab- lish themselves there- ■'The whole land," said they, "is bare and desolate, and whence shall we get food?" To tliis Apollo replied, 'Foolish men, stretch Mount Parnassus. forth your hands each day and slay each day the rich offerings, for they shall come to you without stint or sparing, seeing that the sons of men shall hasten hither to learn my will. Only guard ye well the temple I have reared, for if ye deal rightly, no man shall take away your glory ; but if ye speak lies or do iniquity, if ye hurt the people who come to my altar and make them go astray, then shall other men rise up in your place and ye shall be thrust out forever." This legend was the strongest possible safeguard against personal violence to visitors ; but so cunningly deceptive were the re- sponses of that oracle that Delphic came to be a synonym for statements capable of various interpretations and utterly elusive of definite un- derstanding. ^ M -^ J^ GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. ? A ^ CHAPTER XVII. The Term Classic axd Traditional Authors— Homer axd his place in Literature — Hesiod. ^sop AND Other Epic and Didactic Poets — Sappho, Pindar, and the Lyrists — The Brama— The Dramatists and Attica— JEschelus — Sophocles and Euripides — Auistophakes AND Greek Comedy— Greek Prose— Herodotus— Zenophon— Plato, Aristotle and Philo- sophical Literature — Demosthenes and Oratory in Literature— The Immortal TwEL^'E. K— -^x^— ^ " HE term " classic " was used originally to designate the surviviug Greek and Roman literature. It is of ten used to designate the more perma- nent and valuable portion of our own or an}' other litera- ture. In attempting to give an idea of the subject in hand for this chapter, it will be necessary to adopt the method admitting of the greatest brevity. There are no less than one hundred and twenty- seven names in the list of Greek jclassics. Some ofthe.se authors are cnownto us only in brief fragments, quotations found in later writings. A few are merely alluded to, and tlie name itself may designate ii. class rather tlian an in- dividual. There are six which belong to the age of fable, and may be as mythical as theMu.ses, namely, Orj)heu.s, Eumolpus, Thamyris, Olcu, Chrysothemis, and Philammon. The fragments which remain and are attributed to tliem may be, and prol)ably are, the waifs from a traditional folk-lore. The lirst historic name is that of Uoiucr. For a long time his personality was in dispute, and even now seven cities claim liis birth. lie was a native of the isle of Scio or Asia Minor, but none the less a Greek. He was the father of Epic poetry, and paradoxical as it may seem, it is none the less true, that an Asiatic wrote the oldest European work (prose or poetry) e.xtant. He may well be called the father of European literature. For a long time, probably for centuries, his Iliad and Odyssey were preserved by being memorized and rei)eated on fes- tive occasions. The people held those marvelous stories of gods and men mingling in the affairs of earth, in much the same reverence that a devout worshiijer of Jehovah and Jesus does tlie Old and tlie New Tosiamcnts, and we find Plato oppo.sed to tlic reading of Ilomer in the public schools of his ideal republic on that very account. The nature of these stories has been stated under the head of tlie " Heroic Ago." St. Augustine well said of Homer, " he stands alone and aloft on Parnassus, wliere it is not po-ssible now that any human genius siiould stand with him, the father and prince of all heroic ixH't,*. the boast and the glory of his own Greece, and the love and admiration of mankind. " Some fifty liyinns, once attributed to liim. liavc V)een ])ronounced by later schnlMrsliiji a|incrv|ili:il. Ills nanu' will rcinimi ^ • I I l^ ^5 no GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. embodied in the hearts of men to the end of time. Another great name in Greek literature is Hesiod. Born in Bceotia, he was an Asiatic Greek by descent. He lived about 900 years before Christ. He sang in dull, prosaic verse, of the evils of his times, and the grotesque theogony of Greece was set to music in a clumsy fashion. His works are not much read, nor do they deserve to be. His " Works and Days" is a tedious bucolic. He is classed as the earHest, but by no means as the first, of didactic poets. In this list of elaborate poets, epic and didactic, figure Arctinus of Miletus, Lesches of Lesbos, Agias of Trsezen, Eumelus of Corinth, and Strasinus of Cy- prus, whose produc- tions have been lost. Under the head of elegiac and iambic poets, are mentioned eight names, vary- ing in date from B. C. 720 to B. C. 594, nothing remaining from any of them, of any consequence, except iEsop, who is supposed by Plu- tarch to have been born in B. C. 620, but who is now gen- erally regarded as a myth. The fables which bear his name are beUeved to have been imported from India and Egypt, for the most part, some few being indigenous to the soil. They are certainly the very essence of common sense, generally read in these days in Latin or English prose. The next order or scliool of Greek poetry was the lyric. Several names, unworthy of more than mere reference, survive in fragments. Two names stand out conspicuous, Sappho and Pindar. Only frag- ments remain of the former, and a small part of the works of the latter. Sappho was a woman of Lesbos, born in B. C. 610. She had a wonderfully gifted mind, and was the first to raise her sex to hter- ary eminence. The Lesbian women were much given to study and culture. The loss of her writings I'lUlll Greeks of tlie Classic Period. is greatly to be deplored. Her only peer in an- cient lyrics was Pindar of Cynocephalffi, a village near Thebes. He was born in B. C. 517. Undoubtedly he was the greatest poet in his time of antiquity, and it is a matter of rejoicing that some of his verse is still extant, although the greater and probably the better part pierished utterly. We have now forty-five of his odes. He had sublimity, elegance, energy and pa- thos in a high degree. AVe come now to the drama. For- tunately much more of the Greek drama remains than of the minor poems. Three great names stand out second only to Homer, and among the dramatists of the world second only to Shakspeare. They are JjJschylus, Soph- ocles and Euripides. The others simply swell the catalogue of Greek authors, without contribut- ing to the value of extant classic litera- ture. The drama may be called a Greek invention, and it was not until Shakspeare's appearance upon the stage, that auything at all apjjroaching the original models in merit was produced, and the continental critics were slow in admitting the "Bard of Avon," because he disregarded the Greek pattern. The Semitic famihes had no drama, properly speaking. The Greek drama is distinctively Attic. JSschylus and Euripides, Sophocles and AristoiDhaues, were all born in Attica. The times of Pericles witnessed the highest dramatic attainment. iEschylus, a soldier of Marathon and Salamis, wrote seventy tragedies, of which seven remain. He was the " Father of Tragedy." For his impiety he f - I f r -4 ' ■ GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. Ill was bauished. Genius is rarelj' popular when it deals with theology, and the Greek drama was es- sentially religious. His greatest work extant is " Prometheus iJound." It represents the Supreme Being as infinitely indignant at Prometheus for being compassionate. Seeing man in his emergence from the brute, capable of making some use of fire, yet destitute of it, he introduced that primitive element of civilization. Zeus had him bound to a rock, and ever}' day a vulture gnawed at his vitals, and at night they were restored only to keep up the eternal procession of agony. There is an awful sublimity in this tragedy. It has been compared to the Hebraic account of the way man was first set upon the path of knowledge by the influence of Satan, who thence- forth was cursed with the enmity of the very race he had initiated into knowledge. Others have com- pared Prometheus in his sublime philanthropy (for he knew what fate awaited him) to Jesus on the cross. Two of the three original Promethean trilogy have been lost. The story of Agamemnon's sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia, the revenge of Clytemuestra therefor, and the awful revenge of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, ujion his mother, for the murder of the great king when he returned from Troy, are all set forth by ^schylus. The doc- trine of fate, terrible, relentless, and hopeless, is set forth with lurid vividness. Sophocles, who was ten years the junior of ^Eschylus, was less bold and vig- orous, but more beautiful and exquisite. He also was a soldier, but his military record was not bril- liant. He wrote one hundred and thirteen tragedies. Seven only have sui-^'ived to us. His " fEdipus Ty- rannus " is the most famous of his tragedies, but there is a deptli of pathos in "Antigone," "CEdipus at Colonos," and " Electra," which could hardly be surpassed. Eurijjides, born only five years later, \ras an aristocrat, as his dramas plainly indicate. Ho wrote at least seventy-five tragedies, some say ninetv-two, eighteen of which are now extant. Tliey are mostly devoted to the exploits of the heroic age. Thus wo have from tliree dramatists born in Atlicns or its suburljs, within the same generation, at least two hundred and fifty-eight tragedies, of which tliere are now extant thirty-two. Comedy among the Greeks took the place some- what of the press. It was personal and related to current men and measures. They pleased the many bv their ilings and stinirs, direftcd ML'ainst the con- spicuous few. The Atheniaiis had no newspapers to lampoon public men, but they had a vast out-door theater which held thirty tliousand people. The price of admission was seven cents. The theatrical season was during the months of December, Janu- ary, Fel)ruary and Marcli. The solemn awfulness of the tragedies was relieved by tlie commedians, who were the hornets of society, to use an illustra- tion suggested by one of the best surviving comedies. The list of comedy contains the names of ten dram- atists, but no play of any in the'list has survived, except eleven of the fifty-four plays of Aristophanes, who was born in Athens B. C. 444. About a cen- tury before his time, flourished three noted writers of comedy : E.picharmus, Phormio and Dinolochus. A little later came Chionides and Cratinus. Aris- tophanes had two brilliant cotemporaries, Eujiolis and Orates. In these extant comedies we liave sharp criticisms of Pericles, broad caricatures of Socrates, the first ridicule of woman's rights, and revolting pictures of social corruption. We turn now to prose. The earliest trace of this style of composition is Periander of Corinth (B. C. 637). He ruled that city for more than forty years. His edicts were, some of them, reduced to writing. They were long since lost. The names, and in some cases, a few fragments, are preserved of twenty writ- ers of Greek prose, during tiie period from the days of Periander bo the birth of the drama. Two of these, Thales and Pythagoras, deserve mention. Tiiey wrought grandly in tiic domain of philosophy. The former studied faithfully in Egj^jt, and may be said to have established tlio connection between Coptic knowledge and Hellenic wisdom. There were a few historians in that early jteriod, but Herotlotus was the first to write any- tiiing really worthy that designation. He was born at Ilalicarnassus in 484. He was a narrator of what he saw and heard, credu- lous and uiisojihisticated. He traveled almost every- where, and in his works, happily extant, lie dwells uiron the countries lie vis- ited, rather tiianuiion \wv- sonal exjierionces. Ho was Ta]iiier. Hrrodotui*. a uhhIcI pen jihotog- It is gencrallv su])iKi.«ed tliat the world lost \ GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART ll^ fruitage stopped there, the Greek philosophy would have been an unmitigated failure. But it did not. The training of the mind for so long a time culminated in producing Socrates, who was born in Athens B. C. 470. He found jjhilosophy a jum- ble of negations and firetentious assumptions. The learned looked down with lofty contempt upon the common people, who saw in occurrences the in- terposition of a personal deity. As regards the Socrates, popular theories of cause and effect, tlie philosophers were infidels. Socrates agreed with them in their denials, but was not content to rest in mere nega- tion. In the ''■ Clouds," Aristophanes ridicules the substitution of '■' ethereal rotation" for deity, much as an orthodox clergyman of to-day denounces the substitution of evolution for creation ; but that sub- stitution was not the distinctive peculiarity of Soc- rates, by any means. He taught, rather, that the study of Nature was a waste of time. " Man, know thyself," was his motto. He was the father of de- ductive philosophy, and with him also began an era of accuracy in thought and expression. He was fond of leading his pujiils to see their ignorance and ap- preciate definiteness of ideas. His method was by questioning them. The term "Socratic" is suggestive of inteiTogation points. But ajipreciation of igno- rance and a start in the direction of knowledge, had for their final object, moral instruction. He was a philosophical moralist. So important was this latter work that it has been said that " indi^vidual con- science and personal decision date from the epoch of Socrates, and their growth from tliat time is the ]irogress of tlic world-liistory." He was a man of very marked eccentricities. Plain, ill-shapeu and outspoken, he was utterly indifferent about dress. His wife, Xantippe, had no patience with liis dreamy indilfercnec to practical matters, and has come down to tlio world pilloried as tlie great scold. iS'o doubt she had cause for her impatience. He was too indolent to oven write out his views, leaving tliat to Plato and Xcnoplnni. who cither contented themselves with devclojiing the Socratic idea.s, or were so very modest that they attributed to fhoir teacher ideas which were really their own. In his old age, the gi'eat teacher was accused of not wor- shiping the popular gods, but instituting a religion of his own, and consequently of corrupting the youth. He was found guilty and condemned to suffer death by poison. A cup of hemlock was pre- sented to him. He drank the deadly poison with composure, and died in the serenity of an upright hfe. He was seventy-one years of age. His life- work had been comjileted, and the loving and gifted disciples who revered his memory embalmed his thoughts, and made them the rich inheritance of mankind. Plato and Socrates are so interlinked, that tlic Socratic and Platonic philosophies are substantially one and indivisible, except upon points too minute for ol)ser\-ation at long ran^e. Of his works, as literary productions, this is not the place to sjieak. and the same remark holds good of Aristotle. Both are conspicuous in Greek classic literature. Both escaped the melancholy fate of Socrates, but neither shrank from his conception of truth, whAe both were even more revolutionary than the great mar- t^T of pure reason. Plato could boast his descent from Solon, and his love was so immaculate, his jiliilosophy so ethereal and majes- tic, that his countiymcn came to revere him as the son of a virgin tnd a god. The doctrine of the Humacnlate conception has been applied to the most illustrious men of many lands. He was born at Athens in B. C. 430. He was said to be tlie son of Apollo. .Viiston, betrothed to his mother, Pcrictiono, was warned in a dream, to delay the nuptials until the birth of the divinely begotten child. His life was long and sad, \yemg " sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought. " Aristotle, a Thraciau by birth, was born B. C. 384. He was something of a .scientist He comtiined ethics and metaphysics with physics. Tlie tlu-ee supreme names in philosophy represent a gradual increase iu tlie dmnain of thought. Socrates created moral pliilosoiihy. Plato inquired into all truth. Aris- totle was hardly less anxious iu the search for facts, as well as for virtue and tnith. Ho saw in knowl- edge ttio ba«is of wisdom, and lind some .'ipprcri;!- riiuo. '-hL ii6 GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. tion of the relations of the tangible to the intan- gible. He was the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the especial object of study by the scholastics of the medieval age. The most practical phases of Greek philosophy are suggested by the terms Epicurean and Stoic. These contrasting views or theories of wise living were and are practical. The exact statement of Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, would lead one to an illimitable plain, abounding in incompre- hensible subtleties. But the distinctive ideas of the Epicure and the Stoic are easily stated and under- stood. The former has been somewhat misrepresent- ed, still, the popular notion of epicureanism is sub- stantially correct. To make the most and the best of this life by the enjoyment of its good things, is the highest wisdom, according to the epicurean school, while stoicism teaches that the best way to avoid misery is to be indiif erent to the happenings of life. One sees the wisdom of making the most and the best of the positively good, while the other sees the wisdom of being so fortified against the inevitable evil as to endure it with calmness. Both are right in what they teach directly, while both are wrong in the denials into which they naturally drifted. The founder of epicureanism, Epicurus, was born B. C. 343, died B. 0. 273. He was a noted teacher in Athens. His voluminous writings have per- ished, but his doctrines are known. He believed in moderation and sobriety, but happiness was his liighest ideal. Philosophy he regarded as the art of life, not the art of truth in the abstract, herein differing from both Plato and Aristotle. The founder of the sect of Stoics, Zeno, was a na- tive of Cyprus. The date of his birth is not known. He became a lecturer on philosof)hy at Athens, late in life, the spot where his pupils gathered being the stoa or porch, whence the name. He fixed his thoughts on virtue as the sujjreme good. ''' Be vir- tuous and you will be happy*" is stoicism ; " Be happy and you will be virtuous," epicureanism. In their determination to avoid effeminacy the stoics affected stolidity. The Eomans had no taste for the metaphysics of the philosophers, but the prac- tical issue raised by these conflicting theories, ap- pealed to the Koman mind, and the great thinkers of Eome were either Epicureans or Stoics, mostly the latter. Prom the days of Brutus to those of Mar- cus Aurelius, the austerity of stoicism met with es- pecial favor in Kome. Its ideal man Avas the typi- cal Eoman. In other words, if one were to picture to one's self the realization of Zeno's philosophy, he would be " the noblest Roman of them all. " Another famous sect of pMlosophers at Athens was the Cynics. The term has come to mean any- body who has become soured and disgusted, critical and weary of life and all its belongings. The rep- resentative Cynic was a Stoic who made an ostenta- tious show of contempt for the world. Virtue was a sort of warfare carried on by the mind against the body. Serene contempt was intensified into virulent hatred. Diogenes with his tub, and gi'im sneer at everybody and everything, was the typical Cynic. To make a virtue of insolent criticism and censure, was cynicism two thousand years ago, as now. It was Diogenes who, being seen with a lighted candle at noonday, was asked what he was looking for and answered, " I seek an honest man." But the Cynics did some good. They attacked- all with indiscriminate rancor, and some of the absurdities of the philosophers received beneficent excoriation, especially the theories of the skeptics, who placed abstract logic above the demonstrations of facts. Mention has now been made of the more illus- trious philosophers of the classic age, and their distinctive ideas presented. Century after cen- tuiy, the incomparable intellect of the Greek nation sought the solution of life's deeper prob- lems, without the aid of either religion or science. There was a httle faith and a very little science, but not enough of either to be perceptible in influence. At last the effort was given up. Various changes of base were made, but all to no purpose. From Thales down, all failed to arrive at conclusions which were really satisfactory. Even Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, failed in giving per- manent satisfaction. At last the Greeks became utterly tired of the whole domain of philosophy, and in place of this or that behef, came to almost total disbelief. Skepticism jDrevailed over all. "There is no absolute criterion of truth," said Pyrrho, the father of the skeptics. Socrates ad- mitted his ignorance, but was confident that the search for knowledge would be richly rewarded; Pyrrho, who, as a soldier of Alexander the Great, had been in India and Egypt, and knew something of all philosophies, pronounced the riddles of philosophy insoluble. There was much reluctance ^^ GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 117 to accept his views, but finally, in what was called the New Academy at Athens, i)f Arcesilaus and Garneades, agnosticism prevailed. Arcesilaus was a disciple of Aristotle, as was Garneades a century later, having been born in B. G. 313. With him the race of philosophers seemed to become extinct. And so far as Greece was concerned, it died forever. Greek culture, however, saw a rival of the sj>irit of philosophy in Alexandria. In that intellectual capital of the world, an attempt was finally made to solve the problems of jihilosophy by the aid of religion. Philo is the most jsrominent name in this connection. Neojjlatonism it was called. Accept- ing the doctrine that reason is impotent to meet the demand, Philo and his school offered the aid of faith, especially the in- tense i^iety of the Hebrew nation. He was a Jew of Greek education. He be- lieved he saw in the ■' thus saith the Lord" of his people the mis.sing link in Philosophy. He was born a few years Ijc- fore Ghrist. It was not long before The Acropi'li.-J at Alhuiie a^ it ^VLl Xeoplatonism and Christianity were Jostled against each other, Ijoth eager to turn to advantage tlie confession of philosophy that it could not solve the mystery of truth. Plotinus is the great n'aine in this conflict. In the Go.'fpel of .John with its deification of the •' Word," may be seen the inlluence of ]Sreo2)latonisni upon the churcli, especially in the doctrine of the Trinity. The last of the Xeo- jilatonists.Proclus, was born A. D. iVi. He showed the power of Christianity more than I'rotinus diil. He tried to save jiliilosophy by lil)eral concessions; but to no purpose. It was d(jonieil, and with iiis deatii was buried, ceasing to be a real power in the world, until Bacon gave it a scientific tendency. It was, then, the province of the Greeks to show- that philosophy cannot produce satisfactory results \ipon any other than a scientific basis. It tried even' conceivable llinorv. iind wliatovor th(< dis- tinctive idea, and alike with and without religion, it fell short of producing intellectual content, and its grand glorj' is the claim it may justly lay to the high honor of having stimulated inquiry. Tlie Greeks were no less prominent in art than in philosophy. They excelled equally in painting, sculpture and architecture. From the nature of the case the works of the ])ainters have jierished. Aj^jlles, whose portraits were the admiration of his country- men, was a cotemporary of Alexander, whose por- trait he painted. Nothing remains to testify, first hand, to the merit of Greek art with the brush and easel. But what Greek genius wrought in stone has not wholly disappeared. Praxiteles, wlio flourislied at Athens late in the fourth century bc- fr)re Ghrist, has been called the head of tlie Attic school. He worked in marble and bronze both, chiefly in the for- mer. His subjects were mvthological. Venus, Cupid and .Vpollo were favorite -uhjects with him. lie has been called • the sculptor of the beautiful." As the sculptor of the grand, the liighest honor telongs to Phidia.s, who flourished in the splendid era of Pericles and his no less l)rilliaut Aspa.sia (B. G. 500). Tiie colossal statite of Zeus at the temple of Olynipia, in Ells, clas.sed as one of the seven wonders of the world, was tlie work of his braiu and hand. It was in gold and ivory. It occupied its more than royal throne unril .\. D. 475, when it was destroyed i)y fire. .Xn imitation of the liead is preserved in the Vatican museum, and that is all that remains to us of that prodigy of art. Phidias ])ut the l)est work of liis life, liowcver, into the Parthenon and the other temples of the Acropolis of Atiiens. Tiuit cittidcl was not only adorned with the temple of Athen.i, but of the Erechtlieum and other tenijiles. It was no loss the treasury of Greek art than the strong- hold of the capital. S|ioaking of Phidia,<. Mr. FrotbiiiirhMm vcmarks : "He w;i>; ;i mini of li>ftv -^ - -i, J^' tlL ii8 GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. soul, majestic intellect, consummate knowledge of the jorinciples of his art, and wonderful skill in de- sign. The buildings that crowned tlie Acropolis at Athens are believed to have been erected under his direction, and much of the work — how much can- not be known — may be ascribed to his hand. The great statue of Athena in the Parthenon, of gold, ivory and precious stones, was, there is little room to doubt, executed by him." Numerous bronzes of great Ionic order was somewhat ornate. It dates as far back, probably, as the Doric, but seems to have been less used. The third and most elaborately carved order was the Corinthian, which was not introduced until the Alexandrine age. It was never tlie j^re- vailing order in fashion in Greece, to which rank it rose, however, in Kome. '■' The Greeks," says Mor- gan, "were not great builders, but they were supreme architects." It is equally true that the Romans were THE PARTHENON. Constructed of Pentelic Marble, under the direction of the celebrated sculptor Phidias, dedicated to Minerva, 438 B. C. merit are traditionally associated with the name of Phidias. The term architecture is derived from the Greek, and means " chief art," and such \Yas the Grecian estimate of the building art. The supreme edifice of antiquity, in beauty if not in sublimity, was the Parthenon, which is conceded to be the type of per- fection in construction. It was not a large building, being only 228 feet long and 101 feet wide. The material used was the finest wliite marble. It was painted within and without. It dates from B. 0. 440. The architects were Ictinus and Callicrates. It belongs to the Doric order of architecture. Euins of Greek temples show three orders, the Doric being the most common and most severely simple. The not great architects, but magnificent builders. Ttie Greek ideas of architecture were carried to grander, if less exquisite results, in Rome than in Athens, and the Pantheon, built at Rome about thirty years before Christ, was not only Greek in name (Pantlieon meaning in that language a temple for all the gods) but it was Grecian in its essential characteristics. Indeed, almost all public architecture in Europe and America, except the Gothic, may be said to attest the excellency of Greek genius in that department or art and industry. The Parthenon was despoiled from time to time, but much of its statuesque wealth survived until a comparative late day, in the ruined temple, but was at last carried off to England by Lord Elgin, and 'TIF - to jvJs GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 119 deposited in the British museum. Those treasures of art are known as the "Elgin Marbles," and in them may be seen the subtle and refined artistic genius of the Greek civihzation. One of the best known and most remarkable pieces of statuary in the world is the Laocoon of three Rhodian artists, Agesander, Achenodorus and Polydorus. It is based on a Trojan tradition, best told by Virgil in his .^Enead. A jjriest of that city opposed the introduction into Troy of tlie wooden horse, when he and his two sons were slain by two great serpents from the sea, which the Trojans seeing, accepted as a sign from Heaven that the jjriest had given unright- eous counsel. It might be noticed that the cen- tral figure is much larger in j)roi5ortion than the sons. The former is the chief merit of this incom- l^arable work of art. In his history of art, De Forest characterizes Greek art as follows : " The first plastic works of Greece were undoubted- ly marked with a strong Oriental imjjress. They were the creations of the artisan rather than of the artist, and consisted of sumjjtuous decoration appUed to armor, household utensils, and the like. The description of vichilles' sliicld in the Iliad gives us an idea of the splendor of this kind of work. The first representations of the gods were symbolic, a stone or a piece of wood ; GROUP OP THE LAOCOON. and the earliest complete images were of wood. These wooden idols were very rude, but were con- sidered siiecially sacred, even in later times. They were supplied with elaborate wardrobes, and were dressed and washed by regular attendants. Metal statues and clay images of the gods were introduced toward the close of the archaic j^eriod of Greek art." For the benefit of those who are interested in the techniques of architecture we apjwnd what De Forest says in his history of art about the lintel or entablature of a Greek or- der. " It has," he observes, "three members, — the architi-ave, or principal beam, which rests directly upon thcTcapital of the col- umns ; the frieze, or orna- mental band ; and the pro- jecting cornice which pro- tects the frieze and archi- trave, as the capital pro- tects the column from the inclemencies of the weath- er. The column is also divided into three parts, — the base, which is an ex- pansion of the shaft, hav- ing the same relation to it that the foot has to the human figure; the shaft or uijright support; and the capital or bearer, which has been likened to a hand spread out to receive the weight of the architrave. Tlie pediment or gable is the triaugular space at either end of a building between tiie cornice of the entablature and tiio cornice of the sloi)iug roof." f Greek and Eoman Names— The Origin of Classic Myths— Jupiter aotj Celestial Heeediti — -War in Heaten— Division of the Spoils— The Amours op the Gods— The Chief DmN- ITIES AND THEIR ALLOTMENTS— MiNOR DUTIES— OlYMPUS— THE JIyTH AND DETAILS OP CRE- ATION AND THE Fall of Man— Classic Story of the Deluge— Phaeton and his Presump- tion—Deification OP Love— Pegasus and Poetry— Centaurs and Other Monsters— The "Riddle op the Sphinx— Orpheus and Eurydice— Ignorance, Credulity and Skepticism. I ( N nothing else are Greek and Eoman annals and ideas so similar as in my- thology. Nearly all the deities of Eoman idolatry. Latin liter- ature, were transferred from Ath- ens to Eonie with hardly any other change than that of ' names. Cro- nos was called Saturn ; Zeus, Jupiter or Jove ; Poseidon, Neptune ; Ares, Mars; Hephses- tos, Vulcan ; Hermes, Mercury ; Hera, Juno ; Athena, Minerva ; Artemis, Diana ; Aphrodite, Ve- I is obvious, that natural and ethical meanings can be MOUNT OLYMPUS. nus ; Hestia, Vesta ; Demeter, Ceres ; Dionysius, Bacchus ; Phoebus, Apollo ; Letus, Latona. The Eoman names are commbnly used and will be em- ployed usually in this chapter. It has been said tliat with Homer and Hesiod the formation of the myths was finished, and that with the drama and philosoiahy, desintegra- tion and unbelief be- gan, the personalities vanishing into the thin air of symbols of ideas. It has been claimed by some that the old myths were born of nat- ural phenomena, and designed to teach les- sons in natural history. Others again insist that moral ideas underlie the stories of the gods. These theories are often advocated with great skill and ingenuity. It (120) <\ L ^1^ GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 12 I put into them, ami tlie myths made to do important service by way of illustration ; but tliere is uo good reason to suppose that any philosophical basis can be discovered historically for the gods of Greece and Rome. They grew up gradually out of the ooze of ignorance and superstition, and all attempts to etherealize that mud are futile. As well try to establish the identity of the alluvia of the Nile and the manna of the wilderness. The home of the gods was Mount Olympus and their king was Jupi- ter. He was elected to that position by the suf- frage of his brothers and sisters. The Greek mind would not allow the doctrine of " the divine right of kings," even in heaven. Jupiter was indeed called " the father of gods and men," but it was no such paternity as the Jews attribute to Jehovah, and the Christians to the Deity of their worship. Jupiter ■was surely the elder son of Saturn, and the latter the youngest son of Uranus, or Heaven, who was the son of Earth, eldest child of Chaos, the latter being the real father of gods and men, the great First Cause. Thus we see that .Jupiter was the great-great grandson of the divine parent of all things. The ancient Greeks and Romans caught a faint glimpse of a celestial chain of heredity. The first active display of heavenly energy defin- itely conceived in this mji^hology bears a striking resemblance to the war in heaven, described so minutely by the greatly praised and sometimes read " Paradise Lost," of Milton, only the rebels of the old mj'ths won the battle. Jupiter, his brothers and sisters, so runs the story, rose in rebellion against their father and the older deities, called Titans. The battle was fierce and desperate. At last the Titans were vanquished, and cast down into hell, or Tar- tarus, from which they will emerge in some remote future, something as Satan is promised release from the same place of torment, for the space of a thou- sand years. Having won the world by conquest, the victors divided the siwils. Jui^iter took heaven, or Olym- pus, where the gods reside, Neptune the ocean, and Pluto, Hades, the home of departed spirits. Un- fortunately for the peace of mankind, the Eartli was what is called a free zone, — a vast common held by the gods in sociafic. The principle of evil, tlie Ahrinnin of the Persians, tlic Satan of tlio Jews, the Siva of the Hindoos, and the Loki of the Scandinavians, does not appear in classic my- thology. Any such deity would be superfluous. All the gods are bad, diflering more in capacity than in disposition. Jupiter's high domain was no less tur- bulent than the ocean, and there was not repose even in the dreary desolation of the nether world. Jupiter was a notori- ous rake. His life, as written by the poets, was that of a divine Don Juan. His wife, Juno, was jealous, constant- ly watuliing liim, and wreaking revenge upon the victims or fruits of his amours. The de- tails of ancient mythol- ogy are too vile to be read, especially as portrayed by the Latin poets. The older Greeks were less indecent in their narrations. But at its best, the mythology of the Greeks and Romans was a seething caldron of impurity. Nu- merous were the demi-gods, or semi-gods, as they might better be termed, for in Greek mjiihs, as iu antediluvian times, "the sons of God" made love to the " daughters of men." Among the Greeks and the Romans religion and morals had no connection. That feature of religion so very prominent in Christianity and Buddliism is almost entirely want- ing iu classic mythology, this deficiency showing itself with especial emphasis in the love intrigues of tlie Olympic deities. Tlie rank and si)here of Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, have alreiuly been stated. Apollo was the god of music, physics, poetry, and the arts. The nine Muses, the esjjecial jiatrons of poetry, were un- der his rule. The chariot of the sun was his, and he alone could guide it. Mars was the god of bat- tle. Vulcan wa.s the blacksmith and general arti- san of heaven. Mercury was the messenger of tlie gods, also the deity of commerce and thievery. Bacchus was the god of wine. Venus was the god- dess of love, and a female of decidedly loose morals. Siie wiis wedded to Vulcan, wiio was lame and unat- tractive. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, espe- cially in war. She sprang full armetl from the l)rain of .Jupiter. Diana was tlie gV GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 123 to the human family. For his impiety, as it was called, Prometheus was bound to a rock where a vulture ate his ever-renewing vitals. This myth furnished the groundwork of the highest tragedy of Greek literature. The story of Pandora and her box is a variation of the Promethean story. It is said that to furnish the first woman. Pandora was made of material contrib- uted by each god, and corresponding to the charac- teristics of each. She seemed a perfect being. Epi- metheus was delighted with such an addition to the world. But Prometheus warned him that Jupiter meant mischief by his seeming fair bounty. And so it proved. In Ms work of creation Epimetheus had carefully rejected all bad material, and put it in a refuse box. To keep that closed forever, would protect man from evil, but to open it, would be to let loose upon the world all evil. Of course Pandora was so very cu- rious to know the con- tents of that box that one day she lifted the lid, when out flew the con- tents, to torment and distract mankind. The story of the fall of man, not only, but of the flood, is clearly trace- deucaliun able in classic m}'thology. The only survivors of that deluge were DeucaUon and his wife Pyrrha, a pious and God-fearing couple. After the waters had subsided they proceeded, in obedience to an oracle, to people the world by casting stones behind them, those thrown by the man becoming men, those thrown by the woman becoming women. The new race was hardy, but far inferior to the antediluvians. The passion of love is variously brought out by mytliology. Venus was the goddess of love in its fullest .sense, but besides lier were Psyche and Cupid. The former was tlie goddess of the spiritual cle- ment in love, without its physical expres.sion. Cupid wiis the son of Venus, a mischievous boy, roaming about with his bow and arrow, shooting whom he would, and whom he wonmlcil was sure In fall in lovo with the next person met of the opposite sex. Thus his own motlier one day wounded herself with one of Cu])id's arrows, and in consequence became so enam- ored of an earthly boy, Adonis, that she found no pleasure in lieaven, but wooed the unresponsive lad. He was unmindful of all her cliarms, being wlioUy given to the pleasures of the chase. At last a wild boar ended the life of Adonis. " The Muses nine" were not the only mythologi- cal embodiment of the classic idea of the poetical faculty as a divine gift. Those famous sisters dwelt on Mount Helicon, and drank of the fountain Ilip- pocrenc. Minerva presented to them the winged horse Pegasus, upon which, if one rode, lie would soar aloft among the creations of fancy. This horse ajjjjears ui several myths, esi^ecially in the slaying of t he Chimera. TJiat horrid monster breathed fire and raised havoc in Lycia. Beller- ophon, mounted on the winged horse, undertook to slay tlio ravaging drag- on, and did so. But when, later, the slayer of the Chinurra attempted to fly upon Pegasus to heav- en, Jupiter sent a gad- fly, wliicli so worried the AND PYRRHA. l,„rse with wings tliat he threw his aspmng rider, who became lame andbhud from the fall. The centaurs were monsters vrith the heads of men and the bodies of horses. They were sometimes admitted to the society of men. On one occasion they were invited to a marriage feast, and when under the influence of wine otTered violence to the bride. A fierce combat followed, known in sculpture and poetry as the battle of the LajnthiB and Ccntiiurs. But one of tlie Centaurs, Cliiron, was renowned for his wisdom and goixlness. At death Zeus placed him among the stars. Chiron was famous for liis skill in prophecy, pixstry and medicine. Apollo is said to have intrustcil to liis care the infant /Esculapius, who stands in le- gendary annals as the groat physician. Tlio Pvirniii's wrn- a nation of dwarfs. They k^ 124 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. once came upon Hercules asleep, and prepared to attack Mm as if lie were a city with walls. The Griffin, or Gryphon, was a monster with the body of a Hon, the head and wings of an eagle, and a back covered with feathers. It was the guardian of hid- den treasures, especially of the gold of India. The Sphinx of Greece was a cruel monster with the body of a lion and the head of a woman. It infested the highway near Thebes. AH passers-by were asked by the Sphinx, " What animal is that which in the morning goes on four feet, at noon on two, and in the evening on three ?" None could guess the riddle until CEdipus replied, " Man, who in childhood creeps on hands and knees, in manhood walks erect, and in old age with astaif ." Her riddle guessed, the Sphinx plunged into the sea and was seen no more forever. Phaeton was ambitious to drive the chariot of the sun, his father, Apollo, or Phoebus. The sire finally consented. The car of day made a perilous trip around the world, inandout among the heavenly bodies. For a time all went well. The horses darted up the vault- ed sky at a furious rate. In a luckless moment Phae- ton glanced down to earth and lost self-control. The reins fell from his hands, off into space, setting fire to mountains, cities and the world generally. Had not Jupiter taken pity on the earth, utter ruin would have been inevitable. He launched a thunderbolt at Phaeton, hurhng him to earth, sacrificed to save the world which was being destroyed for his folly. The ambition of the youth was noble, but it was none the less necessary that he should pay the penalty of his presumption. OriDheus and Eurydice are familiar mythological characters. Ori^heus was the son of Apollo and the Muse Calliope. He could play the iyre so very charm- ingly that he drew to him the verj' beasts of the field, who were softened and made gentle by the influence of his music. He Avas wedded to the nymph Euryd- ice. Soon after their marriage, which was pre- sided over by Hymen, the god of wedlock, she The horses darted madly was wandering with her sylvan companions in the woods when a serpent bit her foot. She died of the wound. The disconsolate husband sought his love in Hades. He sang his grief in tones so melancholy that the spirits of the dead shed ghostly tears, and so did even the Furies. All the regions below were stirred with symjjathy. Finally Pluto consented that the tender Orpheus should take back his bride, but on one condition — he should not look back in all his ascent to the upper world. In a moment of for- getfulness he turned to look at his fair companion limping along behind him. That moment she van- ished into thin air, saying, "Farewell, a last fare- well." In vain he lingered and sought for Eurydice. At length he returned to earth alone and disconso- late. All thoughts of love were now abhorrent to him, until in death he was re- united to his lost wife. The common people of Greece always had confi- dence in the national dei- ties as actual personages, and the stories told about them were imiDlicitly be- lieved. But the educated class seems to have seen in the popular mythology a series of allegories or downright fables, more cu- PHAETON." rious than solemn. In Rome, even the common people came to doubt the reality of their rehgion, and the educated class looked upon it as the invention of their ancestors, and more especially of the Greeks whose intellectual superiority was held in highest respect. Actual faith in the myths of the old Greeks, fading out, left a blank in which Chris- tianity could inscribe its tenets without the ne- cessity of first eradicating deep-rooted theologi- cal convictions. Mythology may be called the half-brother of the heroic element in Greek his- tory. It is a curious fact that Christian Europe culti- vated belief in the classic deities as spiritual reali- ties, only they were held to be demons, or devils. This was the general o^Dinion of Christendom until about a century ago. ■^l T- — >.-. ) -. ) — —r T — T — rr) — -r ^ -l:^ig^x^■'M^^/^ - ^ ') -\ --O- f- : I ■■ :- f'\ -j\ -- j\ -y . (_ THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. laaiQDQCi^aaai*' The Sentlitt or the World— Outer Greece — Rhodes and its Colossus — ELujoadnabsits and ITS Mausoleum — Diana op Ephesus — Syracuse and Archimedes — Ionian Islands — Crete — Cyprus — From Mauritania to Albion — Scandia, Sarmatia, Dacia and Thrace — Sctthia AND India — Arya, the CraTdle of Civilization — Ptolemy and his Geography — The Ptol- emaic System, or the Three-fold World op the Ancients. •tCiMiaQCfCMJDiCi ^ ^^"^ ^ HE lands thus far visited in the course of tins histo- ry form very insignificant parts of the present world. Some of the nations have disajDpeared altogether, liv- ing, if, at all, only iu " a good diffused," or in a de- crepitude which is a hving death. But Eome, with all its vicissitudes, is a very important part of the ac- tual life of to-day. Standing, there- fore, at the division line between the -^'1 vt-'-f ' '^S- '^^ nations which have upon them '^W^lvtM/^o' *^'^'6''y "I'lrk of senihty, if they are J2)i)^«K'fe not actually in the grave, and the ^^^K^ one nation of antiquity which re- "^ & newed its youth at the fountain of ecclesiastical authority, it may be well to pause for a survey of the world of the ancients. This old world contained many Greek cities and colonies, some of whom have thus far escajjcd tlie attention to which their importance entitles them. Wo will visit those places of interest and then fur- nish a key to the accompanying map. Within ten miles of the Asiatic coast lies the island of Rhodes, with an area of 420 square miles, with a population of 135,000. Its main town bears the same niiino. That citv dnliN frdin P>. C Uis. At the entrance of one of its harbors once stood the Colossus of Rhodes (see frontispiece) one of the seven wonders of the world. It was a brazen statue of Apollo, supposed to date from B. C. 280. It was 105 feet in height. Tradition says that ships in full sail passed between its huge legs. It could be ascended by a winding staircase. In B. C. 224: an earthquake overthrew it. Its fragments were still preserved as late as A. D. 672. The execution of that stupendous work of art is attributed to Charus of Lindus. Not far froni Rhodes, upon the mainland of Asia, stood the Greek city of Halicarnassus. It was thoroughly Greek in language and culture, but truly Persian in political ciuiracter. It was ruled for a long time by a line of princes who were loyal to the Persian crown. The most acted of these was Mausolus (see frontispiece) whose tomb is au- otiier of the seven wonders of the world. It was erected by his widow, Artemisia, in B. C 353. Pli- ny described it minutely. Like the Colossus of Rhodes, it Wiis the victim of an oartlKiuake. but that elemental destruction was far from complete. In the fifteenth century the Kuigiita of Rhodes took possession of the city and desecrated the tomb. Later the Turks used the stones for oilier purposes to such an extent tliat for a long tmio the very site was in doubt. Piissiiiir northw.'ird from TTnlic.'irna,«)is-. nnc nr- -^ U^S) •V (3 126 THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. rives at Ephesus, one of the most important of the historic cities of the Ionian Confederation. It was the supposed birthplace of the goddess Diana, and there stood still an- other of the seven wonders of the world, the temple of Diana (see frontispiece). According to Herodotus, Hercules founded the city B.C. 1250. That wondrou.s temple was fired in B. 0. 356 by Erostratus,the youth who had an insane thirst for notoriet}'. The actual Diana of Ephesiis. destruction of the temple, and the consequent decay of the cit)', was the work ofG-othsinA.D.262. Re- cent excavations have dis- closed the foundations of three distinct temples built upon the same site. The last temple of Diana was 164 feet wide, 343 feet long, with 100 mas- sive columns, some of Syracuse, which were carved most ornately.' A Christian church was established at Ephesus in the apostolic age, to which St. Paul addressed one of his most characteristic epistles, and it was there that the great apostle narrowly escaped being mobbed for ]3reaching the gosj^el, the cry of the mob being, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians ! ",. Syracuse was once a very flourishing Greek city of Sicily. Its prosperity began when the Romans gained possession of the rest of the island, which had been settled largely by the Phoenicians. That change in the condition of Syracuse grew out of the first Punic war, which settled the question of supremacy between Rome and Carthage. Without anticipating the chaijter devoted to that struggle, it may be said that in B. C. 275 the Roman power es- tabhshed the rule in Syracuse of Heiron II., an ally of Rome, and that under this king the city prospered greatly. Its population was immense and its pubhc buildings magnificent. But in the second Punic war Syracuse allied itself with Rome, a fatal mistake. The city was besieged. For a long time the defense was impregnable, thanks to Archimedes, that prodigy of mathematics and mechanics ; but in B. C. 212 the city fell, Archimedes himself being slain in the wild havoc of the sack. It is now a city of imposing ruins. Along the western and southern coast of Greece extends a chain of islands, containing in all 1041 square miles. They are called the Ionian islands, of which the largest is Corfu. Prom immemorial time the people were Greeks. The total population of the cluster is about two hundred and fifty thousand. Politically they have been subjected to a great many vicissitudes, but finally, in 1864, they were annexed to Greece, much to their satisfaction. Crete, or Candia, is one of the more famous is- lands of the Mediterra- nean. It is 150 miles long and from 6 to 35 miles in width. In the midst of it rises Mount Ida, famous in classic mythology as the retreat of the Mino- taur. It is supposed to have contained a popula- tion of over a million at one time, but has now only about 200,000. From 1866 to 1869 the Cretans were at war with the Turks, demanding annexation to Greece. They were subdued after a most des- perate struggle. It is su^Dposed by some that Crete was the very cradle of European civilization. Tradition makes Minos its ruler at one time. It was a part of Phoenicia once, but a Greek colony was early planted there, which entirely supplanted the Plioenician settlement. Cyprus is another Greek island of about the size and population of Crete. It is 44 miles south of Cape Annonone, in Anatolia, and about the same distance west of Syria. As a naval point it is of very great importance. The Turks took possession of it in the sixteenth century, kaeping it until the present decade, when the "Sick Man" was compelled THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. 127 to surrenaor it to England. Cyprus luis uliuost always been under foreign rule. It is rich, iu ruins and its mines of relics have been very indus- triously worked, yielding prolific stores of coins, pottery and other evidences of buried ci^'iliza- tions. Tliese relics attest the existence, under Phojuician, Assyrian, Greek, Persian, and, later, Egyptian rule, of great wealth and high culture. "We turn no\T from Outer Greece, as it might be called, to the large divisions of the world of the Ancients. The map wliich accomisanies this chap- ter will be our guide in what remains. The term Mauritania was used to designate the httle-known northwestern portion of Africa, as Libya Interior, Ethiopia Interior, Ethiopes, Hesperia andPortunatelslcs were names for iin- exjilored and dimly conceived portions of the same conti- nent. It will be observed that the Ancients had no idea whatever of Southern Africa, and none of any real intelligence of any portion of Af- rica outside of Ethioiiia proper, Egyjjt, and the southern shore of the ilcditei'ranean sea. If their sliips passed beyond the pillars of Hercules the prows were turned nortliward rather than soutlr.rard. Hibernia, the jjresent Ireland, was mentioned by Aristotle, Pliny, Ptolemy aud some others, but none of them seemed to have any real information in re- gard to it. Albion (England) signifies " AVliite island," suggested, perhaps, by the Cliffs of Kent. No doubt the PhcMnicians knew something of En- gland, but no part of tliu British Islands came into any vital relations to the rest of the world until Agricola established there the rule of Rome. Scandia, or Scandinavia, derived no prominence whatever until the medieval age. Those bold pirates of the northern waters never entered the Medilcrra- nean iu ancient times, nor were they disturbed in their own homes by men from tiie civilized South. The vast region between the Baltic and the Black Sea, and from the Vistula to the Volga, called Sar- matia, was also an almost wholly unknown land, even to the Romans of the declinuig empire. It ex- tended southward to Dacia, the home of the Daci, a warlike people wlio are supposed to have gone from Thrace northward as early as the time of Alexander the Great, but of whom we really hear nothing un- til about the time our Christian era began, wlien the Romans undertook their conquest. It was over a hundred years before the Daci were really subdued. Thrace was tlie border-land between Greek and bar- barian, or rather, the barbaric and tiioroughly non- Hellenistic portion of Greece. The Macedonians were only semi-Greek, and the Thracians had no part or lot iu that superb civilization. At the present time Thrace is infested by a 2)eople nearly as rude and uncul- tured as their an- cestors of the re- motest day. Germania, Gaul, Italia, and Hispa- nia are, as the read- er readily recogni- zes, the Germany, France, Italy, and Spain and Portu- gal of to-day. They were the rudest of savages all through the old-world period. Turning to Asia, we find, besides Asia Minor, Ara- bia, Media, Persia and Syria (of which we liave lieard or will liear distinctively, and which were, in time, tlio seats of great civilizations), India, Scythia and Arya. The former tempted Alexander, through whom some very slight knowledge of tlic country wa^ derived by the Greeks, but for nearly all purposes of definite knowledge and rcal communication it was an unknown world, and one to wliicli the historians of antiquity very rarely so much as refer. Scytliia was the original name for tlie indefinite region north, east and south of the Caspian Sea and tlie Sea of Aral. It was liardly a googra]iliical term, licing vaguely applied to the liives whence swarmed, from time to time, hordes of barlmrians. Mucli of Russia, csjiecialiy in Asia, was vaguely dcsig- mitcd Scytliia, aud if a band of savage raiders in ^p 128 THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. old times would not be otherwise identified, they were called Scythiaiis, or Gauls, according to the direction from which they came. From a strictly ancient point of view, no name on the map referred to (given on the preceding page) would be less important than Arya ; but in view of modern philological discoveries it assumes very great importance. It was the home of the Sanskrit- speaking people of India, the Ayran race, from which has sprung the Indo-Germanic races, or nearly the entire civilized world of to-day. The higher classes of India are Aryans, and so are the Persians, and, as has been well remarked, " also the whole of the extensive family whose forefathers once inhabited central Asia, whence they migrated in search of pastures new, some going southeast to India, some northward- or northwestward to Russia, and others westward to Asia Minor, thence to southern and central Europe. " It will be seen that according to this opinion, based on a scientific study of comjjarative pliilology, Arya was the cradle of the Greek, the Roman, the Brahmin and the Yankee. In the Sanskrit tongue, Arya means "agricultural," "respectable," and "honorable." Such was the ancient knowledge of geography. The wisdom of antiquity on that subject was summed up by Ptolemy of Alexandria, not one of the thirteen kings of EgyjDt who had their capital there, but Claudius- Ptolemaeus, who flourished in the middle of the second Christian century. His Geocjrapliia represented that a great inland sea was formed by the coast of Africa, extending eastward until it joined the coast of Asia. He thought the world extended east and west 170°, instead of 120°. Geograjjhy was largely a siDCCulative instead of a scientific study, from the earliest time until after the globe had been circumnavigated. Ptolemy set forth what had been known for centuries, and it was not until the fifteenth century that his work became antiquated. To the ancients the earth was the center of the universe. Their idea of astronomy, called the " Ptolemaic system," was that the sun and moon revolved around the earth, and that beneath this world of ours were the infernal regions of gods and spirits, while in the azure above were lands fairer than the eye of man ever beheld. In a word, the World of the Ancients was a vast edifice with three stories. There was no uniformity in the ancient ideas of the world below and above us. The modern distinctions of hell and heaven were not sharply and uniformly outlined. To Homer and the Greeks the nether world was gloomy and painful ; to Virgil and the Romans it was not wholly so. In a . general way, however, it may be said that the ancient theory was that this earth was intermediate, in happiness or misery, as well as in position, between the two spiritual worlds of their imaginations. ^^^ piffifflWliniliniiTimmpiiTiiniTinin| (TiiMi(nniiTii Decat op the Destructible— From Greece to Achaia— Corinth, Anxiest and Modern — Byzantine and Moslem Eule— The Venetians and the Parthenon— The Greek Kevoli-- tion, Btron and Botzaris — Inter\t:ntion of the Great Powers — The iloNARCUY Estab- lished — Kings and the Constitution— Present Go\'ERNMEnt op Greece— Condition ok the Country — Greek Church and Greece— Greek Church Elsewhere- Characteristics OP THIS Church — Farewell to the Greeks. ''N eminent bistoriaii lias ■well remarked that '•' there seems to be something in the Ro- man rule which brought death to the Greek sjjirit."' - >?^ When, therefore, in tracing M?^the historic ^Tars of Greece we K^^OC^^^-T^ -7\ followed the fortames of the Greeks to the period of Roman coutjuest, we may fairly be said to have reached the end, in an important sense, of Ancient Greece. From that time iintil our own century, that uuhai^jiy country was the prey of misery and opioression. There was no Medieval Greece. For two chil- iads the land was obscured. Its history could be written with niiuuteness, but with no j)rofit. Greek thought permeated, if itdid notdoininatG,the intellectual world, but apart from philosophy, includ- ing speculative theology, poetry and general litera- ture, all was blank. Modern Greece is indeed insig- nilicant, still it is a distinct national entity. To trace in outline the course of events, from a Gre- cian jioint of view, from the great comiuest to the present day, and tiien set fortb the actual condition of Greece now, togethor with an account of the (ireok churcli, will be our ol)ject in IJiis connection. The original policy of Rome was to respect, to a most remarlcable degree, the political sentiments of the Greeks. lu B. C. 190, Flamiuius proclaimed tlie liberty of Greece. Nine years later, after some fur- ther conquests, rendered necessarj^ from the Ronnin standpoint, by rebellion, the Achajan Lcjigue was crushed, but in B. C. 1-iT, Sparta and Corintii were allowed independence, but still there was no con- tentment. Such was the state of things at Corintli that the Roman policy was suddenly and radically changed. The year B. C. 146 saw, that sujierb city laid in ashes, its treasures of art scatteral and de- stroyed, and Greece blotted out, to be, houceforlli, merely the Roman Province of Achaia. To Cor- inth nniy thus be attributed the dubious honor of occasioning the great calamity of Greece. For this reason specific mention of that city has been reserved for this chapter. Corintli is situated fifty miles from Athens, on the isthmus bearing tlie same name. The place on which it is located is sterile and volcanic, but tlie city commands all the passes between the Pcloiwn- nesus and Northern Greece, making it an excellent point for commerce, especially in ancient timas. It was the gateway of the two seas, Ionian and JEgc- aii, the cmiiorium of Eastern and Western trafiic. The city of Corintli usually allied itself with the (129) i^ Jds 130 MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. Spartans as against the Athenians, but some time ' after the Peloponne- sian war it took np the sword against Sj)arta in wliat was called the Corinthian War, which ended in the renewal of friend- ly relations. Its wealth made it a great cen- ter of art. The mer- chant princes were liberal patrons of If Boston is the Athens Corinthian Capital. sculpture and j)ainting. than five thousand inhabitants. When the Ro- man Empire fell asunder and the Byzantine Em- pire rose to suijremacy in the East, Greece became a part of it, remaining under the sway of the Emj)eror at Constantinople until the fourth Crusade (1203), when it fell to the lot of the Frankish princes. For two centuries and a half the Dukedom of Athens was a speck on the map of the East, and hardly more. On the fall of Constantinople (1453) Greece passed under the Moslem rod. In 1687 the Chris- tian LeagTie, under Venetian leadership, besieged and took Athens. A few years later the Venetians were driven out, and the Moslem once more had i^^-" lu -r- ■ ' ' ' 'J -mir ^ ' jv m ^^^"^^^ |p"°°'^ _ -.-^ g^/ - MsitJ ' ANCIENT COEINTH. of America, Cornith was the New York of Greece. Besides sculpture and painting, the city was no- ted for the splendor of its architecture. Indeed, the most elaborate order of ancient architecture was the Corinthian order, especially the capital. Numer- ous temples and palatial residences embellished the city until Eomau vandahsm laid them low. The principal monument now remaining is the citadel, situated on the hill Acrocorinthus. The view from that citadel is one of the most magnificent in the world. A few columns exist in ruins in other parts of the city, mournfully elegant in their tale of fall- en grandeur. The present city is a Tillage of less possession of Greece. From that time until the successful termination of the Greek rebellion the despotism of the Turk kept the country in a most deplorable condition of subjugation. The war for Grecian independence began in 1821. It was a remarkable struggle. The sympathies of the civilized world were enlisted in behalf of the country which had been so long the garden of civ- ilization. Money and men were contributed from far and near. The most notable volunteer from without was Lord Byron, the poet. He had drunk deep at the fountain of Greek inspiration, and thither he went to help in the deliverance of Mod •^1 MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. eru Greece from Turkish tj'ranny. He repaired to one of the Ionian isles, and met his death at Misso- longhi, January 5, 1824. During the year 1822 the island of Scio witnessed a most horrible massacre by the Turks, the poiKila- tion being reduced from 120,000 to 16,000 inhab- itants. The Greeks achieved some brilliant victo- ries by sea, and the next year a small band of Greek patriots fell upon the Turkish camp at Carpenesion, putting to the svrord 800 Turks, with a loss on then- side of only 50, but among the number was their gallant leader, Marco Botzaris, whose heroism was the final glory of the historic wars of Greece. But in 1825 the superior numbers of the Moslem forces, led by the indomitable Ibrahim Pasha of Eg3'pt, crushed out the revolution, for the time. Finally the Great Powers, England, Prance and Kussia, interposed by diplomacy. The Allies pro- posed that Greece should constitute a tributary province, with the right to choose its own govern- ors. Greece was willing to accept these terms, but the Ottoman Empire rejected them with scorn. The war then became a naval one between the Al- lies and the Turks, resulting, as was inevitable it should result, in the almost total destruction of the Turkish fleet. It may be said that from this time the Sultan has been, in the full sense of the term, " The sick man of the East." The " Eastern ques- tion" became a troublesome problem at once. It was not desired to weaken the Turkish Empire too much. For two years the Alhes were iincertain what to do with their "white elephant." In the meanwhile there continued to be some iighting be- tween the original belligerents. In 1828 the Alhes decided to create Greece an in- dependent kingdom, oflEering the crown to Prince John of Saxony. He declined to accept it.. The offer was then made to Prince Lcopcjld of Saxe- Coburg. He accepted conditionally, tlie conditions not being satisfactory to the Guardian Powers. He was nominal king of Greece, however, until 1830. Otho, second son of Louis of Bavaria, was ten- dered the crown, after much delay and negotiation. In 1833 he assumed the reins of government, nom- inally, for he w;is only eighteen years of age at the time. The capital at that time wa.s NaupUa, a small and inconsequential Peloponncsiau city. In 1835 the capital was removed to .Vtliens, where it has ever since remained, and of riglit hi •) outs. .\I the same time Otho assumed full control of the government. The people demanded a con- stitution, with all the pojjular rights implied. This demand became so imperious and menacing that in 1813 .the king comjihed. That was an important revolution, achieved without bloodshed. Affairs moved on with tolerable smoothness, the king jaelding partial obedience to the constitution, until one day in October, 18G2, when he and liis queen returned from a short excursion among _ the islands of the ^Egean sea, the royal yacht wiis met at Sala- mis by a deputation of citizens, and the king in- formed that his services were no longer needed. He took passage in a British man-of-war for Yen- ice, and thence proceeded to Bavaria, to be lost henceforth from pubhc view. The people held an election for king, resulting in the choice of Prince George of Denmark, a younger brother of Alexandria, Princess of ^Yalcs. He accepted on condition that the Ionian Islands, which had constituted a nominal republic, under British protection, since 1814, should be an- nexed to the kingdom. This condition was accept- able to all the parties in interest The new king was crowned George I., and assumed the reins in October, 18G3, jiroving an acceptable sovereign. He may be said to have established a dynasty. His queen, Olga, is a mcnilwr of the I'oyal fam- ily of Russia. The population of Greece in 1879, was 1,679,775. The legislative power is vested in a representative chamljcr called The Boule, elected by manhood suf- frage for the term of four years. The Boule meets annually. The number of this body varies with the pojnilation. Under the prc.sent census it is 188. In the exercise of executive functions the king has a cabinet of eiglit responsible ministers, iliuisterial changes are frequent, for popular favor in Greece is precarious. The education of tlie jK'ople i.s receiving considerable attention, but the masses are still densely ignorant. Not half the men can read, nor more tlian ouo-lonth of the women. All the able- bt)died young men are liable to military senice, as in Germany. About one-half of the people are agri- culturists, and yet not more than ono-sixtli of the area is under cultivation, and agriculture is in a very backward state. Greece can boiist only seven miles of railroad. Tliat c(ninects Athens with the {wrt of I'invns. The countrv is almo-t roadlfss, and coni- ojv 132 MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. munication exceedingly difficult, except by water. The principal production is currants, which are dried and exported in large quantities ; certainly a most " lame and impotent conclusion " of Grecian greatness. The Greek church is indeed the church of Greece, but the two terms are widely different, in import ; Greece sustaining to the church named in its honor no such relation as Rome does to the Roman hier- archy. The modern Greeks are, for the most part, members of the orthodox branch of the Greek church. The papists and other Christians in the country number only a few thousand; the Jews about 2,500, and the Mohammedans less than a thousand. Re- ligious toleration is guaranteed by the constitution. Nominally the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the Patriarch at Constantinople, but practically the control of ecclesiastical matters in that kingdom is vested in a permanent council, called the Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens, and four archbishops and bishops, who during office reside at the capital. It is, virtually, a strictly na- tional church. The full name of the Greek church is " the Holy Oriental Orthodox Cathohc Apostohc Church, " the term " Catholic " being alike claimed by the Greek, Roman, and English churches, although usually ap- plied only to the Roman. The Greek church has no unbroken history with sharply defined outlines, as the Roman and the Protestant churches have. It may truly be called the mother church. ISTearly all the region visited by the Apostles belongs to it, so far as it is Christian at all. The language of the creeds, liturgies and theological literature of this community is the Greek, whatever the popular lan- guage of the laity may be. The numerical strength of this church is estimated at 80,000,000, or about one-half that of the Roman or the Mohammedan churches, and nearly the same as that of the Pro- testants. It is divided into three branches — the Or- thodox, under the Patriarch of Constant! uople, with the subordinate patriarchates of Alexandria, Jeru- salem and Antioch ; the orthodox church in Rus- sia, under the Permanent Holy Synod of St. Peters- burg and the Czar ; and third, the church in Greece. There is a very considerable jjortion of the church winch acknowledges the authority of the Pope of Rome, which yet clings to Greek church usages and ideas. They are called United Greeks, and are scattered through Turkey, Hungary, Galacia, Tran- sylvania, and found even in Russia. The Nesto- rians, Jacobites, Armenians, Maronites and other Eastern " heretics," are the Protestants of the Ori- ent, in an ecclesiastical point of view. We will quote on this subject from that very learned scholar, Philip Schaii : " The history of the Greek church," he says, " is not disfigured by bloody tribunals of orthodoxy like the Spanish iu- cpisitiou, nor systematic and long-continued perse- cutions, like the crusades against the "Waldenses, Al- bigenses and Huguenots, with the infernal scenes of St. Bartholomew's massacre. Yet the Greek church of old has mercilessly expelled and exiled the Arian, Nestorian, Eutychian and other heretics, persecu- ted the Paulicians, and modern Russia rigidly pro- hibits secession from the orthodox national church, and all the children of mixed marriages where one parent belongs to it, must be baptized and educated in it. " He might have added that -there was never, anywhere or in any age, more crael and heartless persecution than that practiced by the Greek Church of Russia during the present genera- tion, in the treatment of Roman Catholic nuns in Poland. Dr. Schaff characterizes the Greek church as " a Patriarchal oligarchy in distinction from the papal monarchy. " Instead of being forbidden to marry, as in the Romish communion, the Greek priests are compelled to marrj^ There are some Greek monks, like the community at Athos, but mouasticism is not a prominent feature of the church. So there is oracular confession of the laity to the clergy, but not so markedly as in the Papal church. Baptism with the Greeks is by immersion, and that three consecutive times. The old Greek calendar, which is eleven days behind the new style introduced by Pop)e Gregory XIII., is still retained, notwithstanding the serious inconvenience of thus differing in the computation of time from all other Christian countries. The late Dean Stanley char- acterized the Greek worship as '•' a union of barbaric rudeness and elaborate ceremonialism. " And now we take our final leave of the Greeks to enter upon the career of the great nation of anti- quity which alone can be compared with the Gre- cian in importance to the world. Fundamen- tally and essentially unlike, they have such fellow- ship in pre-eminence that each may well be called the counterpart of the other. a ^ :®ZD ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. CHAPTER XXII. BtRD's-EYE View of the Citv of Komk — The Peninsula op Italy — Mountains and Rivers — Races JInd Cities— Latium axd Alba Longa Co3n»ARED— Leoendb ant> History — ^NEAS AND THE FAMOUS TwiNS— TlIE FOUNDING OF ROME— ThE RaPE OF THE SaBINES— The Reign of Numa — The Tarquins— Etrcria — Primitive Agrarianism— Lucius and Tul- LiA— Roman Colonial Policy — The Public Higitways — Tarqcin the Proud and the Le- gends op his Day — The Last of the Legendary Kings. ^"^^^^^^-^ E have been picking our Tvay through the intricacies of a history which is the record of one people and many states ; now we enter upon a history -vvhich is the rec- ord throughout of one state and many peoples. The states of Greece at many points of time were literally innumer- able, and to follow the political divis- ions of Greece, not to say the Greeks, would be both impossible and unprofitable, but Eome grad- ually grew from a little vil- lage to an intercontinental Empire. From the days of Ilomcr, whose grand epic has a historical basis and value, down to the mergence of Greece in Rome, is about a thousand years ANCIENT ROME, and Roman history covers sub- stantially the same length of time, as does also the history of philosoi^hy and many other epochs. Without magnifying fanciful resoniblances, wo may ask the reader to note the apparent tendency of mankind to run in cycles of a chiliad, or in mil- lenniums. The empire of Rome, from its inception to its fall, stood a little longer than that, but not much longer, and the same is true of the .second empire, at Constantinople, sometimes called the Greek or Byzantine Empire, but which was, in point of fact, acuiitiiiuatiou of the Roman. PUny justly observed, " Rome is the mistress of (lie world and the metropolis of the habitable earth, des- tined by the god.s to unite, civilize and govern the scat- tered races of men."' With- out anticipating events and, as it were, taking off the edge of the reader's apix;tite, it may be well to make a geo- graphical study of this seat I if empire. The site of Rome is these seven hills: Pulatiuus, Ger- malns, Velia, Fugut;jl, Op- pius, Cespius, Subura. Tlicrc were four parts, or wards, from the earliest time, namely, Esquilina, Ctflina. Palatini and Suburbana. Three times was it nearly destroyed by lire, — first, by the Gauls ; second, under (if not by), Nero ; and third. -% U33; ^ 134 ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. during the reign of Titus, — eacli time being rebuilt on a grander and better scale. Tlie population amount- ed to 2,000,000, at times. The Tiber flows through it from north to south, and empties into the Medi- terranean sea fourteen miles below the city. Five bridges span it. A wall twelve miles long encircles the city. The present city is mostly on the plain known as the Campus Martius, the hills being nearly deserted. It is safe to say that the original Romans knew very httle of the world beyond their rustic burg. They were rude barbarians. Gradu- ally, as their early traditional history shows, the hor- izon of their knowledge broadened, and the penin- sula of Italy became known to them. They traced geographical lines with their swords, learning of other tribes and states as they came into hostile contact with them. The army of the Potomac, under the late Gen. Burnside, was sometimes called "Burnside's Geography Class," and every Eoman army was in effect a class in geography, teaching the whole city as well as learning themselves, prac- tical lessons in that branch of study. And theirs was not a mere seaside knowledge. Thorough and practical was the information gained. The peninsula of Italy has an area of about 93,600 sqaare miles, including all the country south of the Alps. The Greeks called the land Hespe- ria. The Apennines are a chain of mountains ex- tending almost the entire length of Italy. The Alban Hills have been called "the central sanctu- ary of the Latin nations." Mons Sacer was a hill near Rome. Vesuvius is the most famous peak in Italy. That volcano was in a quiescent state many centuries, but in the year 79 occurred the terrible eruption which whelmed in utter ruin two magnifi- cent cities, Pompeii and Herculaneuni, and a smaller town, Stabise, still more remote. Besides the Tiber, Italy has her famous rivers, the Po, the largest of the peninsula, and the Rubicon, the northern boundary of Italy proper, rendered im- mortal by Csesar. Along these and other rivers are fertile plains, and in some of the mountains rich deposits of minerals. The different races of old Italy were five, not counting the Romans, who absorbed them all : the Pelasgi, the Osci, the Sabelh, the Umbri and the Etrusci. The first dwelt in the southeast and may have come originally from Greece ; the second were central ; the third spread over the western slopes, and included the powerful Samnites ; the fourth held sway from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhene Sea, and from the mouths of the Po to those of the Ti- ber ; the fifth, the Etruscans, were a distinct and powerful nation who made encroachments upon all the others and built up a powerful state, possessing many attributes of true greatness. Our informa- tion in regard to them, however, is mainly confined to such fugitive glimpses as Roman history affords in its early and uncer- tain period. We know that Etruria was a con- federacy of twelve in- dependent states, Tor- quinii, Veii, Volsinii? and Clusium being the more important. To conquer these states and destroy the cities, was the work of centuries. Vicinity of Borne. Latium was the old term apphed to a region bounded on the north by the Tiber, east by the Marsi and Samnium, and southwest by the Tyr- rhene Sea. Besides Rome, it included Tivoli, Ostia, Tusculum and Alba Longa, the latter being the parent city of Rome. Of Magna Grsecia and the Italian islands known to the Greeks, an account has already been given, and we are now prepared to explore the archives of the Rome of traditional kings. The story elaborated by Virgil, of the founding of what became the Roman state by a band of Trojan refugees, may have some truth in it. There w^is certainly nothing improbable in the supposition, but it has no place in actual history. The founding of Rome as a city by Romulus and his brother Remus is hardly less poetic and fanciful than the exploits of iEneas, but until a comparatively recent date, it was supposed that a veritable history of Rome existed from the birth of those wolf -suckled twins to the extinguishment of the Western Em- pire. The truth is, however, that for about one- half of that period, the history is legendary. The more notable persons and events in Roman history have been so critically investigated that there is hardly the shadow of a shade of real fact left. It is not until we come down to Scipio, mid- way between the two ends, that we encounter a fa- mous Roman of whose actual life we have historic -71^ ~s 'V T ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 135 data. Early Roman liistory has a deep interest, nevertheless, and an inestimable value, for with all its untrustworthiness in detail, it fairly represents the spirit of early Rome, and explains the i^henom- enal growth of a small town into the most far- reacliiug empire the world ever saw. It will not be our purpose to point out the probable historj^ in distinction from romance, in the records of those times, for it could not be done with any degree of accurac}', and if done, would be unsatisfactory. It is enougli to call attention to tlie general fact at the outset, partly to guard against attaching too much inifiortance to details, and joartly as an explanation of the proposed disregard of all the details given of tliat period, except those which possess value in throwing hght upon the Roman character. A pure fiction often has a jtositive and great im- portance in a histor- ical point of view. The stor}' of Wilham Tell, for example, may be, as now claimed, a myth, but it none the less fairly represents the Swiss struo^o-le for liberty. Again, George Washington's " little hatchet " never cut down a parental cherry-tree, but the story none the less fairly illustrates the truthfulness of " the father of his country." With this much prefatory to our narrative, we proceed. yEneas, having finally reached Latium (Italy) notwithstanding the buffetings of Juno, had tlie good fortune and consideration to marry a royal maiden, and so became a ruler in a small way. His son, Ascanius, or lulus, founded Alba Longa, and a dynasty which held sway for tlirce hundred j'ears, witliout traditions, till two lirothers of the royal liousehold, Xumitor and Amuhus, rpiarreled. The successful brother thought to perjietuate his family title by committing tlie only child of his brother, Rhea Silva, to a nunnery. She took the veil, as we would call it in our day, as a vestal virgin, by wiiicli vow she liound licrsclf to perjietual virginity. Hut in those far-away days, fate was not lialkod by any The Wolf-Bucklud Twins. little thing Uke that. The god of war, ^lars, visited her by night, and the result of that divinefavor was the ever-famous Romulus and Remus. Of course the royal uncle was horrified, and had no ideaof ac- cepting the theory of tlie immaculate conception. He caused tlie twins to be exposed, and, as he suj^posed, cut sliort in their career at once. But tlie friendly Tiber bore them to the foot of the Palatine in safety, and a slie-woK nourished them. With the blood of Mars and tlie milk of a wolf coursing through their veins, they were in a fair way to become good fighters, as, indeed, befitted tlie founders of a mighty empire. The king's sheiiherd, all unconscious of the ori- gin of the foundlings, took them home and reared them as liis own. In due time they became leaders of petty clans among their fellows, and their prowess came to the knowledge of their de- tlironed grandfather. Tiie mystery of their parentage was also ascertained. Then the young men rallied their associates, made war upon tlie usurjKT, slew him, and received from their grateful grandfa- ther a tract of land. The legend runs that Romulus built a wall for a city, and that Remus, in derision, jumped over it, whereupon the irate brother slew him. When the Romans were in deep alfliction, ages later, they remembered with unavailing horror, that tlic foundations of tlieir city were cemented with frater- nal blood, albeit Romulus tried to carry it oflE bravely by exclaiming, " So perish all who dare to climb these ramparts." Having a city, he wanted inhabitants. Tiie out- laws and desjieradoes of the vicinity gatliered Avithui the inclosnre. It was a cave of Adullum. The gang (for such tliey really were) soon felt the need of female society, and their chief tried to negotiate for wives, but to no purpose. The outlaws who liatl rallied about liis standard were not looked u|K>n witli favor as sons-in-law. Not to be Imflled by re- fusal, bo hit iqinn a niso. Ho announccKl a ]iublic \ >>, 136 ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. festival in honor of a god, a sort of pagan camp- meeting, and invited liis neiglibors. They came, bringing their families with them, suspecting no treachery. Al a given signal, the bachelors of Eome seized every man a woman, and fled within the inclosure. That was the famous Eape of the Sabines. It was not long before the outraged com- munity rallied to the rescue and revenge. They made good headway, and would probably have de- stroyed the city at one blow had not the women themselves interfered. Having found that the " in- tentions " of the robbers were " honorable," they rushed between the combatants and made peace betweeji them. The Sabines seemed quite ready to ratify the enforced nujatials, since those most inter- ested were satisfied with the arrangement. Hence- forth the Sabines and Romans became one people. The next king after Romulus was Numa Pora- pilius, a Sabine. He has come down to us in tradi- tion as a real statesman and philosopher, a man of learning, albeit not above practical deception. To give the laws which he jiromulgated special sanc- tioii, lie pretended to have received them by divine inspiration, the nymph Egeria having been con- sulted by him in her grotto. To him are ascribed the religious institutions of the city. It is claimed that to him belongs the honor of putting an end to human sacrifices at Rome. His successor was Tul- lius Hostilius, a Roman chosen by the Sabines. His career was one of carnage and strife. For something over one hundred years, the monarchs were elected by the senators, and by slow degrees the territory tributary to Rome was enlarged. The first real dynasty was the house of Tarquin. The founder of it, Lucius Tarquinius Prisons, is represented to have been an adventurer, the son of a Greek father and Etruscan mother, the tutor or guardian of the infant son of the fourth elective king. He abused his position to supplant his ward. Rome is supposed to have been one hundred and thirty-eigiit years old when Tarquin came to the throne. Prom his reign date the earliest public buildings and works. Etruria was the first Latin state to acquire some civilization, and when Rome had advanced far enough to be a little civilized, the inference was that an Etruscan king had done it. To him is attributed that gigantic sewer. Cloaca Maxima, which is still extant. Many of the cos- tumes and customs of Rome are said to have been introduced at this time from Etruria, including the triumjjh, lictors, fasces, chairs, curule, and per- haps the toga. OJoucii Maxima (in its present condition, 1881). Tarquin was succeeded by his son-in-law, Servius Tullius. To him is accredited the honor of en- larging the city to the full size it maintained during the days of the republic, a city indeed, vnth its four quarters, the Palatine, the Suburban, the Cceline, and the Esquiline, and as niany tribes or wards. The outside territory he divided into twenty-four tribes, or townships. These in turn^he divided into classes and centuries. He was a friend of the people, especially in the distribution of the land. And now for the first time crops to the sur- face the jealousies and animosities between the ple- beians and the patricians, the great division -line between the parties during the era of the republic. Prom the first, the laud question, or agrarianism, as it was afterwards called, was the great issue at stake, much as the relative powers of the United States and the several states have been funda- mental to the politics of this country from Wash- ington's administration down. The good king was not allowed to finish his career in peace. He was ruthlessly slain, and in his place was installed Lu- cius, his son-in-law, a tool of the aristocracy. The reader will not fail to note the prominence given to sons-in-law in primitive Roman traditions. This Lucius seems to have had an atrocious wife. She first slew her husband and sister that she might marry her brother-in-law, and then, when the ill- gotten husband threw the aged king down the pal- ace stairs, she drove her chariot over his prostrate body. This monstrous dame bore the mild name of Tullia. She must have been the Eve of the Borgias. Lucius found Rome one of the forty- seven petty Latin states, which met together on the Alban Mount to worship Jupiter, having the slight- 7 T)K _« 9 K^ ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. ^37 est possible bond of union. To his reigu is assigned the sujDremacy of Eome over all of tliem, besides the extension of Eoman sway to some other parts of Italy. Lucius is supposed to have come to the throne when the city was two hundred and twenty years old, B. C. 534. He was the first to establish a Roman colony. By his day tlie city began to be troubled with au excess of population, and very likely the popular clamor for land had a good deal to do with the coloniza- tion policy. Greek colonies were bound to the mother country by no political ties, but tlie colo- nies sent out by Rome were au integral part of the nation itself. They were subject and provincial, but as much a part of the Roman kingdom, repubhc or empire, as the case might be, as the states of this Uuion are which have been admitted since the fed- eration of the original thirteen states. The people were Roman citizens as truly as if they hved on Capitoliue Hill. The principle of representation was not allowed in the Roman government, and consequently the communities living in or near Rome had a decided advantage. It is as if an American citizen were obliged personally to appear at "Washington city to have a vote in national poli- tics. This advantage was not great, but the colo- nies remained loyal to their national allegiance, and thereto may be attributed in a very large measure the expansion of tlie little village of outlaws into a nation, extending from the British Isles to the far Orient. Intimately connected with tlie political constitu- tion which bound the parent city and her colonial off- spring together, was the road system, which was as old apparently as the first colony. Between the city and the colony was built a broad and perma- nent liigliway, having for its primary object the establishment of military connection. Either could readily come to the assistance of the other in case of attack. Some of those old roads are still extant, and almost intact. They bespeak a very considerable degree of civilization. These roads, Lf not a fortunate accident, attest a prescience in statecraft unparalleled in all history, prior to the r.ritish pohcy by which a small island became the supremo empire, and of which we shall have occa- sion to speak hereafter. Tradition presents only oue more royal name : Tanjuin the Proud. Many curious romances clus- ter around liis name, or rather his supposed reign. He was not a romantic character himself. Brutus, who espoused the cause of the people, and who was the pride of the illustrious family who disapjieared with the assassination of Cajsar, or rather the Ijattle of Philippi, simulated idiocy to escajxj the mur- derous enmity of Tarquin. The immediate occa- sion of the uprising of the people was the pathetic tragedy of Lucrctia. She was compelled at the point of the sword to submit to the lust of Se.xtusj the son and heir of the king. She was the fairest and most virtuous of wives. She made a statement of the case the next day to her husband and father, and then stabbed herself in their presence. Her dead body was carried to the Forum, her tale of wrong insufferable rehearsed, and the peojile ad- jured to rise against the tyrant. The appeal was successful and the dynasty overthrown, never to be restored. That was B. C. 50'J, and for nearly five centuries thereafter Rome was a republic. AU in vain the dethroned Tarrpiin sought to recover the kingdom, assisted by Etruscan intervention. Lars (King) Porsena of Clusium tried to crush the free- dom of Rome, but he signally failed. He marched lais soldiers to the Tiber, and thought to cross the bridge which would have made him master of the situation, but Horatius Codes defended it so gal- lantly, that the Romans had time to cut it down before the enemy could cross. After staying an army in its course, this prodigy in arms plunged into the river and safely swam to the oppo- site side. Porsena's ineffectual efforts were not exhaustive. Servius Tarquin seems to have been able to rally other Latin alhes. The noted battle of Lake Re- gillus, near Alba, belonged to this struggle. We are told that the Roman general, Valerius, vowed a teni])le to Castor and Pollux in the crisis of tliis battle, and that presently two youths of eminent beauty and stature were seen fighting on white liorses hi front of the Romans, and turning the enemy to flight. Finally Servius was slain, and his uncrowned father eked out a miserable old age at the court of the tyrant of Cumn?. Wc hear no more of the Tarquins nor of crowns until the Cwsars. E shall hear no more of kings. That grandest of all Eo- mans, Julius Csesar, was ^assassinated on the mere suspicion of kingly ambi- tion. In the popular mind of to-dajj emperor is a more imposing title, sug- gestive of more real power, than that of king, bat originally, it was little different from consul or president for life. The strug- gle through which Eome passed in displac- ing monarchy with repubhcanism, must liave been a long and desperate one, more terrible by far than the legends represent, else the entire people, from patrician to ple- beian, would not have had such profound and lively repugnance to monarchy. That repugnance was the one bond of fellowship among all classes. How- ever high party spirit and animosity might run, there were no royalists in Eome. Civil wars, dictators, and every possible experience came, without so much as suggesting, apparently, a resort to mon- archical institutions, and the iirst serious apprehen- sion of such a resort did not come until some four hundred and fifty years after the last of the Tar- (.[uins. The principle of republicanism could hard- ly have a firmer hold upon a nation than it had upon Eome during the consular period. In this im- mediate connection, it is proposed to bring out the more interesting and important facts and legends of the repubhc during the centuries of merely tra- ditional history, from the expulsion of the Tar- qains to the first Punic war. The first Consuls of Eome were Junius Brutus and Tarquinius CoUatinus. The name given to the latter shows the shadowy uncertainty of the history of that day, and suggests that perhaps, the over- throw of monarchy was gradual. There had by that time grown up some considerable commerce, and commercial law began to be a prominent feature. Evidently the early Eomans had no j)ity for insol- vent debtors, and enacted rigorous penalties for the enforcement of business contracts. The rich and the poor formed the two parties in the state, during the misty morning hours of the Eepublic. The patricians tried to perpetuate themselves as a landed aristocracy, while the plebeians insisted upon a fair share of the realty, and less severe penalties for un- fortunate poverty. Twice during the first half cen- tury of the republic it was necessary to appoint a dictator, or absolute autocrat of the state, to con- centrate the entire force of the nation as against hostile neighbors. In all such emergencies, the (138) SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 139 rivalries of parties and factions were forgotten, but only to re\ave as soon as the military necessity for harmony was removed. The first noteworthy romance (for such it must be called) of the Republic occurred in the year B. C. 495, when the first Appius Claudius was one of the consuls, and the popular Servilius the otlier. By tliat time the party feeling was so strong that the plebs refused to take up arms to repulse an in- cursion of the Volsci, until solemnly promised the redress of their wrongs. The enemy having been driven back, the senate refused to carry out the agreement. Another dictator was appointed to negotiate terms of reconciliation, for the f)lebeians threatened civil war, and the senate was frightened. This dictator sent Menenius Agrippa to negotiate peace. He is said to have narrated to them the famous fable of the mutiny of the eyes, ears, hands, etc., against the belly, which finally termin- ated in the conclusion by all the members, that each was necessary to the whole. This view seems to have been shared by both factions at Rome, for the Sen- ate made liberal concessions to the common people, and henceforth there was a gradual enlargement of popular rights, with only rare, infrequent and tem- porary reactions in favor of the aristocracy. It was perhaps as the result of this popular up- rising, sometimes called " the secession of the Mons Sacer," that tlie institution of the Tribunatus was established. The tribunes were magistrates charged with tlie duty of conserving and advancing the in- terests of the common j^eople. The two consuls were supposed, originally, to represent both parties, but the aristocratic element having gained the con- sular ascendancy, the jjlebeians insisted upon hav- ing two tribunes. The first selections were Sicinius and Brutus (the frequency of the latter name being suggestive of the legendary character of our in- formation). The office of tribune survived and had its uses in accordance with its original plan, long after tlie expansion and wealth of Rome had ena- bled all classes of the citizens to be patricians. " When," says a great Roman historian, " iiftcr the vast conquest of Rome, the struggle of classes lay no longer Ijotwcen patricians and plebeians, but be- tween the aristocracy, or tlie nobles, and the hetero- geneous populace wliicli constituted the ma-ss of the citizens, this institution supported again the cause of the multitude, and secured its final triumpb in Hie establishment of the empire. The emperors them- selves assumed the name and office of the tribunes, and as such claimed a legal jirerogative for the pro- tection of popular rights, and they, in their turn, converted their jjrerogative to an instrument for admitting the provinces into the privileges of the city, and transforming all the subject races of the empire into Roman citizens." Surely the seces- sion of the sacred mountain was one of the most important revolutions of all history, however in- significant it may have seemed at the time, and liowever legendary may be our information as to its details. The land question assumed esiiecial prominence in the infancy of theRepubhc. Agrarian laws were passed during the consulate of Spurius Cassius, B. C. 493, amid great opposition from the patricians. The great excitement on this subject was much la- ter, liowever, wlieii the Gracchi came forward as the leaders of the popular cause. There were two kinds of land held by the aristocracy, and none by the poorer class. "What was called Quiritary land be- longed to the occupants in fee simple, but much of the teiTitoiy round about was public domain, the title being in the state. This part of the A(jer lio- inanug was nuuiopolized by the patricians on the payment to the state of a nominal rent. The plebs insisted upon having a share of the state lands, not as tenants at the will of landlords, but as citizens in the enjoyment of a political right. The conflict must have been sharp, bitter and protrac-tcd. The plebeians seem to have gained much in tlieoiy, but little in fact. The legislation secured, amounted to hardly more tlian a " liarrcn ideality." More than once the coninion jicople, when brought face to face with a foreign foe, seized the opijortuuity to exact concessions from the senate, a body composed of the higher class, but there were other interests which came to the front. The agrarian laws of Spurius Cassius required tlie state to divide among the poorer chiss a portion of its own iictual property (the primitive liomestcad act), and at the same time to ex- act strict payment by the patricians of the renta due tiie state, the same to be appropriated to the support of the citizens wlicn called to arms. It was about this time that the tribunes of the ])eoplo were invested with a veto power upon the enacts nicnls nf the SenaU'. ami L'ivcn ipcrsdnal invinlatiil- ^ a m. LVv 140 SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. ity. Gradually they gained ground, and when above the reach of patrician bribery or intimidation, they were very useful. But neither consuls nor tribunes were allowed to wield the superior power of the state with regularity. In the period under consideration dictators were numerous. The names of no less than seven ajDpear in a period of twenty-seven years. As modern states under constitutional government, whether repubhcs or monarchies, feel obliged under emergencies to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, or even to declare martial law, so the Koman Republic frequently del- egated absolute power to some eminent citizen, usu- ally a great soldier. The most illustrious of these dictators was Cincinna- tus, the ideal jiatriot of ancient history. He is rep- resented as a pure-minded, unambitious farmer, qui- etly following the plow, except when the necessi- ties of the state impera- tively called for his servi- ces. All classes had un- bounded confidence in him. A patrician of the bluest blood, he was no less a man of the people. Nature came the nearest to realizing that lofty ideal citizen when it pro- duced a Wasliington. Without being a reform- er, he was in the grandest sense of the term, a conservative. He flourished about three hundred years after Eomulus, and four hundred and fifty before Christ. Among the tribunes, the most illustrious name is that of Dentatus. He was the soldier par ex- cellence of legendary Rome. As brave as Achilles, he never " sulked in his tent," nor was he in- vulnerable except in his lieel. Had he been, he could never have been wounded, for he never re- treated. He boldly met every danger. His scars were numerous, and all in the front. He seemed to bear a charmed life, but fell at last on the field of battle, not however, a victim of the foe, his death- wound being the result of treachery. The Consul, Appius Claudius, a name already odious, but ren- dered doubly so by this later bearer of it, deter- mined to get rid of tlie dauntless champion of popu- lar rights. He gave secret orders that Dentatus should not be allowed to come out of the battle alive. The fact that the chief hero of the Romans, apeoj)le that fairly worshiped personal bravery, was believed to have sprung from the plebeian ranks, and had been assassinated by the orders of a haughty patrician while fighting the common enemy, shows the strength of the class prejudice. Another noted plebeian of that period was Virgini- us, the father of Virginia whose story, like that of Lucretia, has ever served as a monument to female virtue. Virginius was also a Tribune. While lie was upon the " tented field," Ap)pius, who was as lustful as he was proud, saw the daughter, who was just then ripening into womanhood, on her way to school attended by her nurse. He conceived an unhallowed passion for her, and set about grati- fying it. A sujDple tool pretended that Virginia was his long lost slave. A trial was had, and false witnesses proved the claim. The court as well as the witnesses were bribed. But tidings of the horrible fate that awaited the virgin were brought to the father just as he was mourning the death of Dentatus (not yet aware of the real cause of the old soldier's death). He has- tened liome, too late to save his daughter, except by plunging his dagger into her breast. This one rem- edy he applied, and as Lucretia was enshrined in the Roman heart as a martyr to matronly virtue, so Virginia is the ideal of virginal purity. "Death before dishonor," was the sentiment in both cases. It is not too much to say that the modern world, as well as Ancient Rome, is the better for these two legends, for such they undoubtedly were. Taken together, they point a most impressive moral. As in the case of Lucretia, so m the case of Virginia, '' the blood of the martjTS was the seed " of reform, and contributed powerfully to the popular cause. Death of Virginia. ■7 SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 141 Another noted character of the ijeiioil under consideratiou was Coriolauus. He was quite as jjroud as Apjjius Claudius, but his was the pride of personal character. He scorned to stoop, and is the tj'pical aristocrat. For his valiant services in battle, and his nobility of character, he was the pride of the city. All classes were disposed to do him reverence. By the exercise of the least degree of the arts of a politician, he could have been the pet of all the people, but he despised the iilebeians. lu him centered all the prejudice of the patrician. Scorning "the vulgar herd," he let it be known perfectly well that he would not, literally speaking, turn his hand over to gain the favor of the multi- tude. The re- sult was that he was banished, and in banish- ment offered his services to the Volseians, against whom he had recently led the Roman legions in tri- unipli. His per- sonal prowess turned the scale, aud Rome was at his mercy. I-. , ,• ," Kcliet on an Etruscan Tomb JJeputations be- souglit his pardon and his leniency. To them all lie turned a deaf car, until at last his own wife, mother and child came out to him. Then anger melted into love and gentleness. Such were the ideals iield before the Roman gaze for generations, as typical ciiaracters, ideals of the mure pronounced Roman characteristics. Others followed at a later date, but of more historic ac- curacy of outline. The heroes of legendary Ureece seemed wholly deficient in moral stamina, or even tlie conception of morality. Herein Rome sliows a very marked supericmty, although far less civil- ized in intellectual culture. Besides tiie struggles between patricians and ple- beians, relatingto civil rights and privileges, in wliich tlio lower classes made some gains, and numerous petty conflicts witli neighboring states in which the wlidlc piMijilc sliiii'i'il in .'in inc'iinsr(|n('nfial wav. there were several really great wars, culminating, notwithstanding some serious disasters, in mak- ing Rome nuLstcr of Italy, tlie position it occupies when brought into conflict with Carthage. It is evident from glimpses caught here and there, tiiat Etruria was long the most civilized state in Italy, not counting the few Greek colonies in the south. Etruscan art was very considerable, and there is good reason to believe that a valuable Etruscan lit. erature once existed. There were other states iu Latium, which were somewhat more advanced than Rome, but the Romans were desjierate warriors and had a colonial policy which gradually helped extend the state. The conquest of Etruria seems to have been a very close contest. If not, the Romans were tempted to abandon fheir own rude and unwliolesome town (for Rome was never a good citj', from a sanitary point of view) and set- tle iu tlic Etrus- can city ()f Vcii, wliich was about twelve miles be- yond the Tiber. It took tiiirty years to capture the city ; tliat is, thirty years from tlie time the first attomjit wa.s made until the last one, which culminated iu suc- cess. Camillus was the General under whom the capture was made. That was in R. ('. ;?;»;. That year was memorable for the fall of V'eii, wliicli Camillus is said to have torn down, removing the building material to Rome, lest the party favoring the transfer of the capital should finally carry the day. Rut tlie year was still more memorable for the raid of the Gauls. Now, for tlie first, time, we con- front the aborigines of Franco, a jicople with wliich Rome had a great deal to do through many centu- ries. Tlie Gauls, who came finally t" be subjects of imperial Rome, came upon the stage of history aa wild marauders. In their savage cntcrpri.«c. tiicy harl crnsafMJ tlir" Alps, and ]ieiiotr;it<'d soutliwanl. JV< ^ 142 SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. desolating Italy as they went. Among the places which they ravaged was Eome, which must have been a feeble town, although nearly four hundred years old. Their march was victorious. Breunus, their leader, was a '' mighty man of war, " not covetous of lands, but greedy-eyed for personal projDerty of all sorts. It is by no means certain that the Konians do not owe the fall of Veil to these barbarians rather than to their own prowess. Be that as it may, they were an overmatch for the Ko- mans. On the banks of the Allia, eleven miles from Rome, the two armies met, the representatives of the peoples destined to many a desperate encounter in coming ages. The Gauls utterly routed the Romans and drove the few survivors into the city in head- long haste, boldly pushing their way within the walls, the people taking refuge in the Capitol. In after times the Romans pictured the senators calmly pursuing the business of legislation when the Gauls came upon them. This of course was a preposter- ous invention. The indubitable fact is, that Rome was at the mercy of the Gauls, who pillaged and sacked until their greed was glutted. The Capitol escaped the ravages of fliame, but not the city. The proud Romans attributed its salvation to divine in- terposition. The horde glutted their barbaric lust for spoils, and left the city, which never suffered hke disaster again until the Goths and Vandals took it at the final fall of Rome. Besides the Etruscans were the Samnites, a Latin people of gi-eat military strength, as compared with the Rome of that day. For a long series of years there was war between the two peoples. Samnium had the alUauce of Etruria, and is said to have se- cured aid from the Gauls. But all things have an end, and the Samnite war or wars (for there were three of them) which began B. C. 343, closed B. C. 382. There were several famous names in connec- tion with these wars, Manhus Torquatus, Valerius Corvus, and others, but none of the details are worthy of record here. It is enough to say, that by the time Rome had stood four hundred years, it was the master of Italy, except the Greek cities, and the citizens of Latium became citizens of Rome, only with some restrictions in their rights. That consummation, so gradual, but all the more secure, put an end to the struggle between the pa- tricians and the plebeians. Henceforth, urban in- habitants or citizens of the city were aristocrats. To have ancestry strictly Roman, was enough. "The first famihes" joined in asserting superiority over the Latin citizens, as in later centuries all the Latin citizens accounted themselves vastly superior to the outsiders, however complete their citizenship. Rome, in brief, is now the capital of Italy, and proud alike of her Dentatus and her Coriolanus, and the terms patrician and plebeian came gradu- ally to designate the inevitable social distinctions of a large community, rather than distinct factions and castes. ^^ — I * -^ olV -JS: Jk. CHAPTER XXIV. PruRirus ANT) HI3 ElepHjVNTs — Carthage and its place ix Histort — The First Punic War— Hamilcar and Hannibal — The Second Pl-nic War — IIannibal Crosses the Alps — The Battle or Cans.e — The Fabian Policy — Scipio and the War in ^Vfrica— The Fukther Conquests op Eome — The Third Punic War and the Fall of Carthage. ^^ Ci H^—^oc^*^ AT au arena do we leave for the Cartliagiuiaus and Romans to contend on!" Such is the exchi- niation at- tributed to Pyrrhus of Ejiirus, cousin of Alexander the Great. The remark is no doubt apocryphal, as are the details given of tlie war which PjTrlius made upon Eome. But it is highly probable that he foresaw a desjierate conflict between them. At the time at wliich we have arrived, Rome is master of Italy, ex- cept the Grecian towns on the coast, and they dared not trust to tlicir own valor. Tbey induced the king of Epirus to come to their defense. He brought a few Epirotes with him, and a kind of cavalrj- lieretofore unknown Pyirhim of to the Roman.^, namely, clepliants. Greek and Ro- man arms were thus brought into conflict, and in the first engagement Pyrrhus was victorious. His own losses, however, were heavy. " One more such vic- tor}'," he said, " and I am ruined." He did not care to follow up his advantage, and tried the virtue of nego- tiation, and if we may bcUeve Roman tradition (for our facts are still shad- owy) the Greek was profoundly im- pressed with Die incorruptibility, hero- ism, and manliness of the Romans. He moved on without accomplisliiug anytliing decisive, going to the heli) of some Greek colonists against Car- tliaginian interlojx-rs. It was not long before lie returned and had anotlior battle with the Romans. This time he was thoroughly beaten, and rc- t\irned to his own country in disgrace. That was the last aggressive war on Rome by the Greeks. It served as a prelude, and hanlly more, to the Punic wars. Acciuaintancc with the elephants of Pyrrhus prepared the legions to meet the shock of Hannibal and his clcjihants. P\t- Epirao. rhus was actuated, ajiparcntly, by no settled animosity, nor did he have any con- ception of Roman destiny. He nnist have .«con in the citizeua of Rome a community •>( rnfbir ' 1 I. ■V' hL 144 ROME AND CARTHAGE. interesting barbarians, and that is about all. The Carthaginians may be said to have been the first jjeoiDle, beyond the narrow limits of Italy, to resolute- ly attempt to thwart the " manifest destiny " of Rome. Carthage was the capital of a republic of the same name, on the southern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, near the site of the modern Tunis. It was a PhcBnician city, an offshoot of Tyre, founded B. C. 850. It had a vast commerce and a splendid civili- zation, including a literature, but the final success of the Romans in destroying it involved the loss of that literature. Consequently ^ye know very little about Carthage, except as it is derived from Roman sources, and from Polybius, a Greek, who was present at its destruction, as the frifind of the victori- ous Scipio, and whose work has been all lost, with the exception of a few chapters. The Carthaginians were called Putiei, hence the three wars with Rome were called the Punic wars. They were a very enterpris- ing people. Their commerce extended wherever ships sailed in those days, and carried on with the African and nomadic CARTHAGE. a vast inland trade was Numidians, and other tribes. The population of the city is supposed to have been about 700,000. The government seems to have been quite sim- ilar to that of Rome ; an aristocratic repubhc. In carryhig forward commercial enterprise, it was necessary to estabhsh trading-posts here and there. For that reason Carthage long enjoyed the control of a very considerable amount of foreign territory, not acquired for the ordinary purposes of conquest and dominion, but for the uses of traific. According to Polybius, all the islands of the western Mediterranean belonged to Carthage, besides much territory in Spain. At the time the first Punic war began, B. C. 264, a very considerable area of land about the city was under a high state of cultivation. The nolDility took delight in agTicultnre, and the me- chanical arts were not neglected. At that time they were a far more civilized people than the Romans, and they might have well looked down with lofty scorn upon the rude barbarians of the Tiber. The immediate occasion of the war between the two repubhcs was the attempt of Carthage to gain possession of Sicily, an island about the size of the State of Maryland, and the most inqaortant in the Mediterranean. It contained a flourishing Greek colony. It is worthy of remark that although Ath- ens was a great commercial center, a httle jxisse then, but long prominent, it never came into con- flict with Carthage. Sicily was too near Italy to make the establish- ment there of a Punic stronghold tolerable in the eyes of Rome, which by this- time had become master of Italy, and was in no mood to brook in- tervention from the Southwest. Seeing that two great powers were thus brought into conflict, Pyrrhus may reasonably have withdrawn, in the hope of a life-and- death struggle be- tween these two re- publics which should pave the way for the Epi- rotes to ride in triumph over both. If he held any such theory he was destined to disappointment, the real disaster of the war being confined to one of the other gaining in proportion to the combatants, its rival's loss. The Romans were successful in driving the Car- thaginians from Sicily, or rather, they and their allies were successful, for in the beginning of the con- flict Rome was not single-handed by any means. The Carthaginians were compelled to give up their enterprise. They would have been content, proba- bly, to go on ^rith their commerce witliout further combat with the Romans. They do not appear to have seen a rival on the Tiber, but the Romans were not content to let the matter rest there. They carried the war into Africa, assuminsr the ag-gres- sive. A naval battle was fought not long after, in -s V ROME AND CARTHAGE. H5 which, to let them tell it, the Romans performed l^rodigies. They were uot sea figliters, but they grajjpled the enemies' ships, boarded them and waged a haud-to-haud fight, for which the Cartha- ginian mercenaries were not prepared. The victory of Mylffi was the Trafalgar of the- Punio war, and the Romans never wearied of boasting of it. Tliey took from Carthage several outlying posts, but on the continent of Africa they experienced terrible disasters. Regulus, the hero of the first Punic war, as conducted by land, was uot properly supported. His array was terribly defeated and himself taken prisoner. He was sent as an envoy of peace to Rome, where he had the hero- ism to advise the senate to reject the terms offered, and then bore back the refusal of his country to entertain the idea of a cessa- tion of hostihties, while under the cloud of disaster. His patriot- ism cost him his life, but the persistence of Rome was reward- ed. After dragging along twenty- four years the first Punic war ended in an agreement on the part of Carthage to give up all claims to Sicily, restore her pris- oners and pay to Rome a consid- erable indemnity. The losses on both sides had been large ■flrithout being at all decisive. It may be said that liothwere weary and took a rest, with no thouglit of permanent i)eace. Twenty years elapsed between the first and the second Punic wars. To Carthage those were years of wasting civil strife. The unhappy repubhc was the prey of party conflicts, involving serious loss. One faction was in favor of strict attention to busi- ness, the other, insisting tliat a more military char- acter must be given to tlie state, and that the war- like power which had arisen in Italy must be crushed l)efore commerce could jirosper on a solid founda- tion. Tiie leaders of the two parties. Ilanno and Ilamilcar, when the issue was raised, died during tiie cessation of hostilities, and IIannil)al, son of the great soldier Ilamilcar, came to the front as the worthy successor of his martial father. At the age of twentv-.six. he became the General of Hannibal. Hannibal's Vow the Carthaginian army in Spain, for in Iberia, as the ancients called it, Carthage had very important possessions. Tradition has it, that at the age of nine his fatlier took liim to the temple and made him swear eternal enmity to Rome. If he did take sucli an oath, right loyally did he observe it. Turning now to Rome, we find that the interval of peace with Carthage was a season of preparation. Some fighting was necessary to main- tain the supremacy of Latium, and hold the Gauls in check. Sardinia and Corsica were con- quered and a large part of Illyria overrun. Rome asserted herself in the affairs of Greece. The famous Flaniinian ^\'ay, from Rome to the Gallic frontier near Ariminum, was constructed, giv- ing the consul Flaminius a reputation second only to Ap- pius, who built the Appian ^\'ay. JIarcellus, a plebeian, yet a noljle- man, carried the Roman arms to triumph over an alliance of Gauls and Germans. The Car- tliaginians liad indeed gained much in Spain, but the e.\teusion of Roman ])ower was far the greater of the two. Tlie second Punic war began, however, with great advan- tage on tiie part of Carthage, from the fact that it had the services of one of the greatest warriors of history, for Hannibal ranks with Alexander, C'lvsar, Napoleon and Grant. The summer of B. C. 218 witnessed the begin- uiujx of the second Punic war. The vouiig Cart hii- ginian General eros.'scd the Ebro with a Inuulrod tliousand men and thirty-.seven elephants, resolved to enter the Roman territory by way of the Pyrenees and tlie .\lps. Tlic undertaking was one of tlie most dillicultever planned, tlie distauoo l)eing eight hundred miles. Tlic very fact tliat he must subsist off tlie tril)cs along the route, made tlie entire mareli the invasion of a liostile country. He left detach- ments )x;hiiKl at sevoriil jioints. to hold in eheck the ^: tyi. 146 ROME AND CARTHAGE. enemies he had' made and subdued. He turned the Pyrenees by taking the coast hne, and probably in- tended to outflank the Alps also. The Eomans were expecting nothing of the kind. They had de- signed sending Scipio to attack Hannibal in Spain, and Sempronius was to march upon Carthage it- self. The latter had set sail before the news of this aggressive movement was received. Scipio was di- rected to intercept Hannibal at the Rhone, but he ■was too late. The great soldier had got beyond him. Looking back upon it all, one is surprised that Hannibal did not await the attack, being far better prepared to meet it then than later ; but he evidently misjudged the nature of Roman rule in Italy. Thinking it like Carthaginian rule in Afri- ca, he supposed that he had only to reach Latium to have the alliance of the Latins, and so he avoid- ed an engagement by trying one of the most diffi- cult passes of the Alps, probably tlie Little St. Ber- nard. The sufferings of his men were terrible, and the losses immense, so late was the season. When at last the army of invasion came down into the sunny valleys of the Cisalpine, it had dwindled to twenty thousand foot, six thousand horse, and seven elephants. Worst of all, there were no alhes. He was in the enemy's country in an unexpected sense. And now the genius of Hannibal was put to the test. Appreciating the situation, his first care was to gain a victory, however small the scale, in the hope of thus winning allies. He succeeded. The skirmish of the Ticinus brought him thousands of G-auls, and now he was eager for a battle with Scipio, especially as the latter would soon be rein- forced by Sempronius. The battle of Trebia was fought, Scipio having been joined by Sempronius, and the latter being in command. The result was a great victory for Hannibal. Early the next year he crossed the Apennines and tried to provoke an- other battle there. Failing in this, he pushed on into the heart of Italy, the very valley of the Tiber. It was then necessary for the Roman legions to fol- low hina. Another battle was fought, this time by the waters of Lake Trasimenus, and agaiii Hanni- bal was victorious. By this time the Roman sen- ate was seriously alarmed. The crisis of Rome had come, and the nation was threatened with disintegra- tion. A victorious foe was devastating the country with impunity. To fight, was to run the risk of more defeat, and to avoid conflict, was to encourage devastation. Finally, a conflict became inevitable. In B. C. 216 was fought the immortal battle of Cannse, on the borders of Apulia. Both sides were gathered there in full force, as if the fate of Rome were in the balance. Again Hannibal was victori- ous. The slaughter was terrible. Forty-five thou- sand Romans were lost, including a large number of senators and the Consul Paulus. Polybius puts the loss at seventy thousand. But all was not lost. Cannffi was two hundred miles from Rome, separa- ted from it by mountains and rivers. Then, too, the conquerors must needs gorge themselves with plun- der. " To the victors belong the spoils." Had the army of invasion been content to take advantage of the success, even Rome would have been laid in ruins. Once before the Gauls had devastated it, but Camillus restored it. Had the Carthaginians razed the walls, no third Romulus or second Ca- millus would have appeared. The destroyer would have looked carefully to that. But what the brav- ery of Roman arms could not do, the richness of Italian spoils effected. It is said that three bushels of gold rings were taken from the fingers of the fallen legionaries. However that may have been, it is certain that the mercenaries and allies of Car- thage gave themselves up to rapine and plunder, thus throwing away the opportunity of final victory. To follow the fortunes of the second Punic war in its details, would be uninteresting. Hencefortli, the policy of Rome was to detach the allies from Hannibal, and worry him out by delays. Fabius was the consul who advised this course, and from that day to this the " Fabian ^Jolicy " has been a proverbial term. Every nerve was strained to maintain the Roman army. Debtors, criminals and slaves were enlisted. Hannibal kept up the devas- tation, and even appeared before the walls of Rome. But the Romans all this while were busy in Spain and Carthage, also at SjTacuse. Their aim was to so harass and punish the Carthaginians that they would recall Hannibal before he had executed his full purpose, and in this they were successful. By carrjang the war into Africa they so far alarmed the citizens of Carthage that they felt compelled to abandon the aggressive policy, and in a repubhc not even a Hannibal can defy the popular voice. While Fabius kept up just enough of activity to prevent the fall of Rome, Scipio '•' pushed things " in Africa so vigorously that in B. C. 201 Carthage sued for ■f ROME AND CARTHAGE. 147 ii^ peace and submitted to ignomiuious terms. Han- nibal had inspired such terror tliat when he set sail from Orotonia, in the fall of 303, Rome felt infinite relief, and when Scipio wrung from the enemy hu- miliating concessions, Roman joy knew no bounds. He was held in the highest repute as the savior of his country and the gi-eatest of warriors. Carthage was at his mercy. He could have razed it to the ground, but he was not in favor of any such poUcy. He did not demand the surrender of Hannibal, now in disgrace, although it was not his fault that Rome was not at the mercy of Carthage. It was a test of na- tional character, of popular endurance ; Roman hero- ism was an overmatch for Carthaginian civilization. The victory of Zania near the city of Carthage had effaced the memory of Tarentum and Cannae. Scipio Africanus, as he was now called, might doubtless have been consul for life, but he was a true patriot. As his humanity saved Carthage from destruction, so his patriotism saved republicanism at Rome intact. Rome was now the foremost military power in the world. The empire of Alexander had fallen to pieces, and the greatest of the fragmentary king- doms, Egyf)t, had developed a more wholesome am- bition than lust for dominion. The Roman legions were soon recruited and turned eastward. With the subjugation of Carthage all the region west of Rome was under Roman dominion, except the barbarians. To reduce Greece, was an easy task. Macedo- nia was feeble, and the various confederacies of Greece illy prepared to cope with the great and cen- tralized republic. From Greece the victors passed to Asia, and made serious inroads into the empire of Antiochus. In fine, the Roman conquests of this period, ^rithout being brilliant, were decisive, and as rapid as could be desired. Rome adhered to her original policy of digesting her conquests. In the meanwhUe Carthage was slowly dying, suffering the agonies of mortification. Hedged about and de- prived of commerce or mercenaries, it was the mere shadow of its former self. Hannibal was the most unpopular and unhappy of men, and finally died in sorrow and exile in the year B. C. 183. lu that same year Scipio died also. It was not until 13. C. 14:8 that Carthage was de- stroyed. The third Punic war was hardly a war at all. The iMrty led by Cato, the jwdantic censor, in- sisted that Carthage must be destroyed, seemingly afraid that something might transpire to renew its lease of life. The senate became tired of the de- mand for its destruction, and ordered it, more to stop the annoyance of Cato's harsh croak than from any real fear of its former rival. The Carthagin- ians made a brave but ineffectual resistance. An- other Scipio led the Romans in this inglorious war. And now, after an illustrious career of seven centu- ries, Carthage was literally wijied from the face of the earth, and henceforth, until her final fall, Rome is destined to meet no really formidable enemy. "Whatever combats she may have waged in the leg- endary days of youth and infancy, it may bo said, that within the purview of history, Carthage was the only actually dangerous rival of Rome. ik^ CHAPTER XXV. A Century of Blood— The March of CojfQUEST — The Harvest of Power— Area of the Re- public—The Catos; the Censor and the Younger — The Gracchi— Caius jSIarius— Sulla AND Marius— The Unification of Italy — Sulla Sttpkeme — Burning of the City — Latium no More — Sulla the Dictator — Sulla's Character and Work — Postpey the Great — He Suppresses Piracy— Judea and Spain Taken— Po^tpey and C^saji— Cicero and the Conspiracy of Cataline — Julius C^sar in the West— His First Consulate— Froude's C^sak. YWV i F" HEN the second Punic war closed, there existed no nation which could stay tlio march of empire ujp- on which the Eternal City then entered. Prom the failure of Hannibal's plan of conquest, to the return of Csesar from the subjugation of "Western Europe, including England and a large part of Germany, a jDcriod of something over a century, the world was fairly drenched with blood. Erequent were the civil wars of Rome, and almost constant were her aggrandizements. It would be easy, but unprofitable, to trace the details of that gory century. A great deal of historical space' has been devoted to it, but there were no really great battles fought. The gradual expansion of tlie Roman Empire was as much due to its political constitution as to the heroism of its soldiers. It was the policy of Rome to make her victims her partners in the fruits and honors of victory, to an extent wholly unknown to the world before her day. It is true that no such policy was pursued toward Carthage, but that was an excep- tional case. This pecuharity of Rome has been pointed out before. It antedates authentic history. and was adhered to witli a steadiness of purpose which is the proudest monument to Roman genius. It may be well, first of all, to point out the terri- torial limits of Rome in its glory. The little vil- lage of Romulus had, by the time at which we have arrived, attained to such dimensions, that it could defy all human limitations to its expansion, and while it took a century to actually acquire world domain, it is true that when Carthage passed under the yoke, the whole world was at its mercy. It re- quired a period of one hundred years to harvest the field, but the real credit of it all dates back to the calamity of Carthage. The Roman Empire, as now gradually developed, was tri-continental. In Africa it stretched from the Straits of Babel-niandel, on the south point of the Red Sea, westward through the Straits of Gib- raltar, and then southward to the desert of Sahara, including part of Abyssinia, all of Egyjjt, Barca, Tripoli, Algiers and Morocco. In Asia, its main possession was Asia Minor or Turkey, with a part of Arabia and Persia. Julius Csesar contemplated in- roads into the far Orient, but he was cut off before carrying out his Eastern project. In Europe, it in- cluded all the continent excejat Russia, Northern and Western Germany, and Scandinavia. For the most part, the interest of this period clus- ters about a few names, and in the careers of Cato, •r' (148) dV •i. LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 149 the Gracchi, Marius, Sulla, Cataliiic, Cicero, Poni- pey and Caesar, may be read the progress of Rome towards its manifest destiny. A great deal of in- terest centers in Cato the Censor. His figure is sharply defined in historical outline, and he stands out upon the page of Time, the very ideal of auster- ity. The Roman virtues he exemplified to perfec- tion. He was incorruptible. Penurious to the last degi'ee, uotliing could induce him to acquire wealth illegally, or contrary to his views of honor. Car- thage in ruins was his monument. He was a pa- trician who looked U230u the enlargement of citi- zenship, and the outgro^vth of provincialisms, as degeneracy. He failed to see in that enlarge- ment the necessary condition of imperial growtli. He was a chronic grumbler. As events swept on in an ever-widening stream, he stood upon the shore and railed. He was greatly esteemed, and it was quite the fasliion to admire his Romanesque virtues, but he can hardly be said to have exerted much real influence. The stream would not reverse its course and flow up hill to please even Cato the Censor. When he died tlie last link was broken between Rome the Insignificant and Rome the Magnificent. There were two Catos, the younger being a cotem- porary of Caesar, one standing at the begin- ning, the other at tlie end of the period under consideration. Tliey are so similar in cliaracter, that one suspects tlie younger must have sat for the ijicture painted of the elder. The young- er Cato was a prolific writer on agriculture and other '■■ topics of the times. " He died at last by his own liand, unwilling to survive the ascendancy of Julius Cfesar, wlioiu lie looked upon as a demoralized and demoralizing demagogue. There were two Gracclii of note, Tiberius and Caius. "The mother of the Gracchi" is a prom- inent figure in Roman records. It is of her that it is reported, that when the matrons of Rome were summoned to appear in pul)lic with their jew- els, slie came simply dressed. Being reproved for Cato the Younger. Tiberios Gracchns. disregarding the order, she pointed to her sons, saying, " These are my jewels. " Later, Rome loved to hold her up as the model matron, a worthy com- panion-in-honor of the chaste Lucretia and Virginia. Tlie name of this greatly venerated nuitron was Cornelia. Tiberius renewed the agrarian agitation, carrying it much farther tlian it had been carried before, and his brother continued the agita- tion. Alarmed at the grooving depopulation of Italy, he con- ceived the project of raising the condition of the Ro- man commonalty. He was the son of a Consul, and his mother, Cornelia, was the daughter of the Elder Scipio Afi-icanus. Plebeian yet noble was the blood in his veins. He espoused tlie cause of the oppressed and the impoverished. He was the O'Connell and Paniell of his day. Tlie aristocracy took alarm, and spared no effort to thwart his laudable purpose. He was ir- repressible, and no allurements of office could turn him aside. He tried to revive the Licinian law, and made progress, licing elected a Tribune. His term of office expired before his work was conijilet- ed, and he insisted upon re-election, which would have been illegal, as the constitutiniial lawyers of the day claimed. A riot occurred, and Titerius was shiin. That was in B. C. 133. A few years later his brother Caius took up the cause of the landless against the landlords, and lie too was slain. The nobles seemed to be all-powerful. The rich became immensely more wealthy, and the poor sank into hopeless poverty. Henceforth there wa< a v;u;t body of the jwople dependent ujion the spoils and largess which the conquests of the period jn-ovidcd on a liberal scale. With the failure of the Gracchi Rome lost forever the opportunity to escajx" from the constant menace of a mob, and the very trium|)h of the aristocratic senate paved the way for the ulti- mate subjugation of that bcxly to the liehest.* of an ennjeror. That victory was a century-plant which flowered in the subversion of tiie Republic and the estaVilishnient of the Empire. Caius Marius, one of tiie greatest names in the military annals of Rome, wa.s a Volscian. He began life a farm-laborer. By his courage and genius lie ro>i' U) ciiiincuri' :is a "oldiiT. and thou a-*)iirod U< rV|a- ^ 150 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. a political preferment. He was a successful politi- cian, aided largely by alliance with the illustrious family of the Oa- sars, one of the first families in the state, long be- ■ fore Julius made the name immor- tal — and typical of imperialism. In Africa he dis- tingTiished him- self not only at Zama, but by the conquest of that troublesome en- Marras. emy, the Numid- ian Jugurtha, whose wars have been preserved to mankind by the pen of Sallust. His heutenant in the latter war was Cornelius Sulla. He did great things for Rome in Africa. He returned the hero of a glorious campaign, a n d seven times the consular power and honor was a- warded him. In the Northwest he strengthened and enlarged the Ro- man Empire, and Cornelius SuUa. was the idol of the people. The Oimbri made a desperate at- tempt to break the magic spell of Rome. Marius saved his country. But his star finally waned. Sul- la belonged to a younger generation, and succeeded in supplanting the veteran. In their day, the Ital- ian nationalities, still cherisliing jealousy of Roman sujDremacy, rose in rebellion. The Social or Mar- sio war was a very formidable uprising, and for its suppression Sulla won the highest credit. When that struggle was over and the repubhe needed a general to jDut down insurgents in Asia, and enlarge the emi^ire eastward, he was chosen for the position, to the chagrin and discomfit of Marius. The latter was about seventy and the former twenty-one years younger. They were very different types of men. Marius was a rough and unlettered barbarian ; Sulla was in education a Greek. There had arisen " a mighty man of war " in Asia, Mithridates, and when Sulla had departed for his overthrow, Marius set about organizing the Ital- ians into a fiolitical party, and had himself ap- pointed to the Eastern command. Sulla had not left the country, and promptly returning, entered Rome as a conqueror. Marius was not prepared for this emergency, and was obliged to seek safety in flight. He fled to Africa. A warrant for his arrest was issued. The officers dogged his stejDS, and it is repoi'ted that when they found him, they were so awed by his presence and name that they, shrank from arresting him. When they asked him what answer he had to make to the summons, he replied, " Tell the Roman Senate you found Oaius Marius sitting upon the ruins of Carthage." He had then been Consul six times. He finally returned, and raised an army to fight the blue-blooded aristocracy of the senate in the interest of the common people. He was successful, and for the seventh and last time was elected consul, Avith Caria as his colleague. He died during the year, the revolution which he aimed at, namely, the thorough enfranchisement of the Italians, incomplete ; but his colleague was able to obliterate all remaining distinctions between Italians aud Romans. To Marius, therefore, belongs the honor of vastly extending the area of tlie republic, and of unifying Italy under the Roman name and constitution. Sulla had departed on his mission to the East, while Marius was a fugitive. He stormed and sacked Athens, and the Roman soldiers sent out by Marius to fight against Sulla had the good sense to join him in marching upon the common enemy. His career was a glorious one, from a military point of view, and he returned to Rome laden with military spoils. Marius was no more, but the Marian party was still powerful, and hostile to Sulla. His mili- tary prestige, and the spoils with which he could en- rich his followers, made him master of the situa- tion. He was not slow in taking advantage of his position. The ojiposition came .out to meet him with an army, but his course was not seriously stayed, and he wrought his will. It was about this time that the capital was burned (B. C. 83) and the Sibylline oracles perished with ■'^71 I' LAST CENTURY OF THE KO.MAN KKl'UiiLlC. I^ I it. The loss of stiite j^apers was certainly very great, and throws a cloud of uncertainty over all the historical records j^revious to this time. Hence- forth minute documentary records were kept, on wliich subsequent history is supi^osed to rest. Sulla, to return to our narrative, allied himself with the aristocrac}'. He was a born autocrat. The common people were odious to him. Besides, the popular jjarty had been resolutely inimical to his claims as a military hero. After much civil war and political intrigue in desolating Italy, Etruscan civilization had not been obhterated, but he finished it. Out of his rivalry with Marius grew a desolating war upon Etruria not only, but on the Samnites, and when he sheathed his sword they were no more. In these latter days, some relics of that early civiUzatiou of Italy have been unearthed, just enough to attest the greatness of the destruc- tion effected. Sulla was appointed Dictator. That was in B. C. 83. Proscription and massacre were the order of the day. Marius had thinned the ranks of the senate by his high-handed and Ijloody line of pohcy, and now came retaliation. Sulla de- termined to restore the reign of the ohgarchy, and crush out the rising jiower of democracy. Some of his methods were peculiar. He enfranchised at one stroke ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had executed or driven into banishment. They were registered as members of the Coruehan clan, of •which the Dictator was the head, and thus was his power consolidated, as he supj^osed. He divided public and confiscated jjrivate land among his legionaries on a liberal scale. He reconstructed the senate at his sovereign pleasure. When he Ijad, as he thought, rendered secure the ascendancy of the oligarchy, he voluntarily abdicated and re- tired to his suburban estate to enjoy the luxuries of private life. He survived about twelve montlis, dy- ing at the ago of si.xty. Between hard campaign- ing and unbridled debauchery, he was literally used up. Sulla was a Bourbon, as we use tliat term m tliose days. Blind and deaf to the demand.s of na- tional growtii, he determined to restore the ancient laud marks, and coni])ol the great emjjire to run jm- litically in the same old grooves which were the rnts (if l\iime as an insignificant city, great only in its pi)s,jil)ilitics. Ifi' wrnt to his grave, .serenely (■(inlidciit tli:it 111' li:i(l iinildiic Mio ifradiial work of Lenturies, and especially the violent reform of the Marians. But it was all a mistake. Chaotic civil war soon broke out, and the state seemed tlireatened with suicide. Blood flowed freely, and the shadow of anarchy constantly hovered over the rcpuljlic. There was really no peace until the empire became imperial in governmeut, as well as in area. But it took only ten years to undo what Sulla had done as Dictator. What lie had dune as Proconsul in the East, was the salvation of the empire. Mithri- dates. King of Parthia, was a great mihtary genius, and came very near building up a vast kingdom hi Asia ; one which would have overshadowed and dwarfed Rome. The victory which Sulla won at Cha3rona, decided the day forever as between Rome and its last real rival. Henceforth, the Romans had only the rude barbarians of the Northwest to fear. ' The East was jjowerless. The civihzed world had only one poUtical capital, the really half-bar- baric '■ Eternal City." This world-conquest may be said to have begun with the first Punic war, and ended with the stamping out of the gi-eat uprising in Greece, Asia Minor and the East generally, un- der the leadership of Mithridates. The subsequent wars in those quarters involved no real peril to Rome. Among those who rose to some eminence un- der Sulla, as lullicrents to his political fortunes, was Ciifeus Pomjwius ; and among those who suf- fered 23ersecutiou for the cause of the peoijle and progress, was Julius Ca3sar. The former would have been a minor character in Roman history, had his career ended with the retirenient of his chief, while the latter would have been wholly forgotten. but for subsequent events. Pompey was the first, after Sulla, to rise to an eminence entitling him to conspicuous notice. He was not a really great, or a biul man. He was a patriot of much more than the average virtue, and a trifie more tiiun tlie aver- age ability. His great achievement was the su])- pression of piracy. Rome had Ijecouie the center of commerce, simply because it had tlie power to comjiel all commercial peoples to pay tribute. To secure the largesses of corn iiud wiue, and all pre- cious or useful merchandise, it was iiecessar}' to have immunity from tlie pirates who infested flio Mediterranean. They Inul become very for- midalilc and impudent. Tliey had no idea of hems; supprcssoil. Iiiit Iinmr' set about tlie task. B. C I'T. ^ 152 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. and was entirely successful. Pompey's commission was virtually the absolute sovereignty of that sea for three years, together with its coast for fifty miles around, which in many cases was about as far in- land as actual Eoman authority penetrated. It was a right royal commission. Tlie authority was not abused. He was then appointed governor of the East, and did much to consolidate and perfect tlie emijire. Syria and Phoenicia yielded unconditionally to his sway. ISTow, for the first time, Jewish and Roman history be- gin to have jDoints in common. It was sixty years before Christ that he laid siege to Jerusa- lem and took it. It was not destruction, but subjugation, which he sought and obtained. His exploits won him great popularity at Eome. His next field of glory was Spain, where he was invested with supreme authority. Pompey's glory was his weakness. He was a member of the conserva- tive party, and its lead- er, without being fully equal to the tasks in- volved. In the mean- while, Julius Csesar had developed into the lead- er of the opposition, and he was a man of com- manding genius. Without going now into tlie gen- eral career of this greatest of all Eomans, it may be well to dispose of his relations to Pompey. Gener- ally hostile, they were sometimes friends and co- workers. At one time they were knit togetlier by ties of marriage. In those days of easy divorces, matrimonial alliances for political reasons were not uncommon. But on the principle of " natural selection" the two men were not adapted to a " co- parceny." Ca3sar was a thorough Marian. Pom- pey, without being a consistent party man, was, on the whole, a Bourbon of the SuUan school. Then each would naturally be somewhat jealous of the other. Caesar seems to have been sjDared any very intense jealousy by his consciousness of superiority, and for a long time Pompey was sjaared it by the possession of inordinate self-conceit. But finally, all makeshifts and devices of compromise being ex- hausted, each recognized in tlie other an implacable enemy, and they came to sustain to each other much the relation C arthage and Rome had sustained. One or the other must jierish. Civil war was inevitable, and culmin- ated in the battle of Pharsalia, fought in June, B. C. 48. Both armies were large and well-officered. It was a complete victory for CfBsar. The vanquished warrior fled with a small remnant of the army, and in his flight lie was assassinated by false friends. At the age. of fifty-eight he fell, the hero of three triumphs over the three continents. Long the foremost man of Rome, Pompey fell while seeking asylum in Egypt, where he had hoped to recruit his forces and make one more , stand against the Colossal statue of Pompey, Eome. hipvit'lblp Between the glory of Pompey and the eclipsing splendor of Ctesar, there intervened the conspiracy of Cataline, an episode of the republic rendered im- mortal by Cicero. Cataline was a spoilt child of fortune. Noble in blood and great in intellect, he was ignoble in spirit and unscrupulous in the use of means. He aspired to the consulship. Faihng to reach the goal by fair means, he conceived the des- jierate purpose of raising a conspiracy. It was an age of blood and horrors, and that Aaron Burr of Rome resolved to achieve command by arming the lowest and most desperate class of citizens. His LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 153 A Cicero. jjlot vras disclosed, and Cicero, then tlic foremost orator at the Komau bar and in the senate, undertook to thwart him by prosecution for treason. The orations he delivered are preserv- ed, and rank second on- ly to the Phih^jpics of Demosthenes. The great orator secured the ban- ishment of the consjoira- tor, and was hailed as the savior of his country ; and so perhaps he was. Cicero was a most accom- plished man in every way. He was the ripest fruit of civilization produced by the Roman repubhc. His weakness was vanity, and as a man of public affairs he was not the equal of Caesar, but in schol- arship and superb statesmanship he Wiis unrivaled. His is one of the most august figures in all history. A jjhilosopher and a statesman, he contributed more to the literature of his country than to its political destiny, while yet pre-eminent in affairs of state. The consulship was attained by him. He was not a strong jjartisan, nor was he a thoroughly great poli- tician in any point of view. His powers were a lit- tle to odiversified to admit of the very highest achiev- ments. He sought to preserve the good in old forms and ideas, while appreciating the advantages of progress. He seemed somewhat vacillating, but it was the vacillation of intellectual breadth rather than cowardice. He enjoyed the popular favor, and escajied the perils of civil war until the great crisis of the state culminated in the assassination of .Ju- lius Caesar, when not even a Cicero could maintain a neutral jjosition. He fully identified himself with the party of B,rutus, incapable thougli he was of act- ual participation in the assassination. AVhcn Cas- sarism won the day and retrilnition came, Cicero wa.s one of the victims. Ho was murdered by order of tlie victorious Octavius, B. C. 42. But his fame und liis writing remain a vital part of the world, and will survive to all time. .Tubus Caesar belongs in part to thciieriod of this ciuipter, and in part to the next. Altliough lie never wore a crown, he justly stand.s as the typical emperor. Imjierialism and Cajsarisin are synony- mous terms. Yet he was a democrat, in distinction from an aristocrat, and throughout his political ca- reer was the unvarying and indomitable foe of the aristocracy. His blood was noble, none more so, and lie could have been the pet of the senatorial aristocrats. But following the fortunes of the Ma- rian party, to which he was bound by family ties, he championed the catise of the populace. Cautious and far-seeing, he did not Ijlurt out his plans, and spoil all by wearing liis heart on his sleeve. He en- tered public life early, and yet was deliberate and prudent in pushing to the front. He took care not to call upon himself special animosity. By gradual steps he rose, until he was allowed a command in the far West. Up to this time ho had not distin- guished himself. Some narrow escajies are recorded of him in the days of Sulla, whose command to put away by divorce tlie wife of his youth, he grandly disobeyed. He was not a model husband by any means, and did divorce his wife afterwards from motives of policy. He was a spendthrift and de- liauche. After distinguishing himself in Spain, he return- ed and was elected Consul, B. C. 59. That was something of a crisis in the republic, for the new Consul inqn'oved the time to secui-e many reforms. and to foreshadow quite clearly the aims of the de- mocracy. It was evident tliat he would, if he could, put an end to the narrowness of the jiast. Rome. to his conception, was a nation, not a metropoUs. This ever-present political issue, the constant quan- tity, in Roman politics, was accepted in all its logic by Caesar. It was not the plebeians against tlie pa- tricians, Latium against the city, but the whole em- pire against the favored few of the capital. He became henceforth tlie recognized leader of the na- tional party. His term of service over, he went to Gaul as Proconsul, and pushed the conquest of the West to Britain. By the artful cmploymeut of po- litical agencies, he so far conciliated Ponipey and his party, a.s to secure the extension of his military commission. He "stooped to coiic|Ucr." Allowctl a powerful army, he made such splciuliil use of his opportunities, that he laid Rome under very heavy ol)liJL-< 'HERE is most unmistaka- ble proof that the Eomaiis, hke tlie Greeks and many other peoples, had their early ballads. Every coun- try which can boast much curiosity and intelligence, with little if any reading or writ- ing, has had a wealth of such crea- tions of mingled history and fancy, of fable and fact, woven into pop- ular songs. Biit that primitive Lat- in literature almost wholly perished , - , ~>-, Ions: before tlie present Latin liter- ,r\rxi x"^ ' ature liad its birth. What is known ®r£ as the history of the kings and early consuls of Eome is mainly ficticious. More than three hun- dred years after the date ordinarily assigned for the foundation of the city, the public records were de- stroyed by the Gauls, and it was at least a century and a half later, before the annals of the common- wealth were compiled. Speaking on tlie subject in hand, Macauiay says in one of his essays, " The Latin literature which has come down to us is of later date than the commencement of the second Punic war, and con- sists almost exclusively of words fashioned on Greek ^i models. The Latin metres — heroic, elegiac, lyric, and dramatic — are of Greek origin. The best Latin epic poetry is the feeble echo of the Iliad and Odys- sey. The best Latin ecologues are imitations of Theocritus. The plan of the most finished didactic poem in the Latin tongue was taken from Hesiod. Tlie Latin tragedies are bad copies of the master- pieces of Sophocles and Euripides. The Latin comedies are free translations from Demophilus, Mereander and Ajiollodorus. The Latin philosophy was borrowed without alteration from the Portico and the Academy ; and the great Latin orators constantly proposed to themselves as patterns, the speeches of Demosthenes and Lysias." There is, therefore, nothing original, strictly speaking, in the extant writings of the Latin classics, and the very name of any absolutely original author has per- ished. The later writers, wliose works have per- ished, were imitators, and probably poor at that. The fair inference from fragments is, that the best of the literature has survived. Without enumer- ating the lost books, we will give some idea of the present body of Latin classics. It is only where a language and a literature is original and germinal, like the Greek, that its very fragments and tradi- tions are valuable.' Latin literature may be said to have had three periods. The first contains many lost works and ■^' (i6o) >\ -k. LATIN CLASSICS. l6l two names worthy of record, Plautus aud Terence. Both were writers of comedies, not the grand and powerful works of Aristoplianes and Shakspeare, but the light, half farcical conceits of the present '• play of the period." They have all the vices of the Greek and some of the excellences. We have twenty of the comedies of Plautus. They are low and morbid, generally devoted to the intrigues of illicit love. They were very popular for at least five centuries. He was a native of Italy, but not of Eome, and was born B. C. 210. Terence was eighteen years younger and a native of Cartilage. He was a slave, as was Epictetus, the gj-eat ethical writer of later Rome. He modeled his works after the Greek pat- terns. He left six plays, which are much read by scholars, and studied by playwrights of classical education. He had great power of character delinea- tion. He is credited with having given to the Latin lansfuase its highest perfection in point of elegance and art. He was more refined than Plautus. The latter wrote for the stage as patronized by a coarse people; the former wrote for a more refined taste. Passing over the somewhat long list of lost medi- ocrity, we come to the Golden Age, for what re- mains belongs either to that period or the Silver Age, a distinction fully justified by the poetry of the two ages, but not by the prose. The poets of the Golden age arc Ovid, Virgil, Horace and Lucre- tius ; of the Silver Age, Phsdrus, Juvenal, Lucau, Statius and Martial. The prose writers of the former ago are Cicero, Nepos, Cneaur, Sallust and Livy ; of the latter age, Tacitus, Suetonius, Seneca, Pliny, Quintilian, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. The two latter names are sometimes nmiiteil.but tliey belong here. The first was a slave and the second an emperor, and l)oth were pure and lofty moralists. Tacitus, Quintilian and Soncca are second only to Cicero, if inclcod. nut worthy to rank at his side. The first name in Latin hterature is that of Vir- gil. He was a man of rare genius aud indefatiga- ble industry. He wrote much aud was unwearied in perfecting his lines. Born at Mantua in B. C. 70, he became a ripe scholar, a careful student of the Greek, also of medicine and mathematics. At the age of thirty he repaired to the ca])ital. His education was received mainly at Naples, where his last years were spent. His disposition was of a re- tiring nature, loving the solitude of I7ature and his library. His first work was the "Bucolics,"' a truly rural poem of considerable length. The " Georgics " and " Ecologues " came later and occuj)ied his time for seven years. But Ins one really great production is the " M- ueid," upon wliich the last ten years of his industrious life were spent. He lived to complete it, but so crit- ical was his taste that he never ceased to pol- ish the verse. Had his life-work closed with- out the latter epic, he would have ranked with Hesiod, only his suiMjrior by far. The ^'Encid gives him com- panionship with Ho- mer, but a long distance beneath him. He is, there- fore, asecond and greater Hesiod. and second and less- er Homer. The subject of tiic .Encid is the settle- ment of the Trojans in Italy. In the " Iliad " iEneas is one of the minor heroes of Troy, and Virgil repre- sents him as escaping with great ilitliculty from that posed tolx; the very 1X3 rfection of Latin prose. •His numerous extant ejiistles are mainly val- uable for tlie light which they throw n]i- on the history of his tmics. The first of the historians in iioiut of time was Sallust, a Sabine, born in B. 0. 85. A Pleteian by birth, he rose to eminence in ])olitics, and secured the appointment of Governor of Numidia, where he accunmlated a vast fortune, returning to Rome for its enjoyment. Surrounded liy all the luxuries of ill-gotten gain, he wrote his histor)- of the con- spiracy of Oataline and of the war against Jugur- tha, relieving the dryness of his narrative with moral rellections upon the degeneracy of the times. After him came Cornelius Nepos, a friend of Cicero, whose voluminous writings are all lost except his "Lives of Eminent Generals." He seems to have been a faithful chronicler. The most eminent of all Uonuius. .Julius Caesar, wa.s a liis- torian. His writings are hi. 8, 9. Temples of Saturn, of 5. Temple of Castor and Pollux. Vespasian, of Concord. 6. Tabularium. 10. Column of Phocas. 14. Basilicic. 15. Temple of Antonius and Faustina. 11. Statue of Domitian. 1:;. Rostra. 13. .iVrcU of S. ScverUB. tian Jews did not hesitate to seek shelter within the walls, while the Ciiristiaus, as confidently looking for the second coming of Jesus, were bold in the defiance of temporal power. The dispersion of tlio one and the repeated persecution of the other fol- lowed, and that not simply from monsters of the Ncronuaii type, but from emperors of good in- tentions, including Ve.spa.sian. Titus, and the Anio- ninus. The accession of Vespasian to the throne was tlie elevation of a thoroughly plebeian family, the Flavii, to the royalty. The founder of this dynasty had a long and honorable reign, liis immediate suc- cessor a brief and no less honorable one, followed by the bloody Domitian, tlie second son of Vespa- Trajau succeeded to the tliroue apparently bo- cause all recognized his con- spicuous fitness for the grave duties of the imiierial pur- ple. His long reign was rendered glorious by the immense extension of the empire in every direction. There had lieen a gradual growth ill area ever since the suprcnijicy of Konie had Jjecome an establislicd fact, bilt more especially under Trajan, atIio wa.-* Sllrri'cdi^l liv :l rol.'ll i\ ('. IIm'1 jS' i68 THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. peror had more genius for government than any ruler since Julius Csesar. Under him much was done to civilize the ruder portions of the empire ; Hadrian being alike equal to military and civil emergencies. Toward the close of his reign, Hadrian chose as his associate (for it was the custom then and afterwards to choose an assistant emperor) T. Aurelius Anto- ninus, a man of mature age and most exemplary character. The Forum at Kome corresponded with the Agora at Athens. It was an open space surrounded by pubhc buildings, and devoted to business. It was at once a market-place and a court of justice. All kinds of transactions centered there. The climate admitted of such an open-air system. The Forum had to be enlarged several times to meet the de- mands of the j)ubhc, but the cut given on the pre- ceding page represents the Forum as it was when the empire was at its best. It may be added that as American towns frequently have squares around which business centers, so the Italian towns gener- ally had their forums, sustaining substantially the same relation to them that the great Forum did to Eome. At the death of Hadrian, to return to the emper- ors, Antoninus associated with himself in the gov- ernment a near relative, known in history as Marcus Aurelius. " The an- cient world," it has been truly remarked, " perhaps the modern world, has never enjoy- ed a period of more unbroken felicity, than that which glided tran- quilly from Vespasian to Marcus Aurelius. " This is called the " Age of the Antonines. " Notwithstanding the persecutions of that age, and the wars necessary to maintain and extend the empire, the condition of mankind, as a whole, was eminently prosperous. It extended over a period of aboixt one hundred years. The Antonines were philosophers in the very best sense of the term ; broad-minded, high-souled and conscientious. The latest of them was a writer of ethical precepts, whose essays are still admired by all lovers of good Marcus AureliuB. morals. The Antonines did much to raise the pub- lic standard of right, and give an impetus to higher morality. With the death of Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 180, a new and calamitous era began. His son Conmo- dus, was a vile wretch, early assassinated, and fol- lowed, at brief intervals, by several emperors of the Nero and CaligTila type, whose names are not enti- tled to even the honor of mention. About the year 220, Alex- ander, better known as Sev- erus, , came to the throne. He was amiable and honorable if not gTcat. He it was who placed at the head of af- fairs, in i^oint of fact, Ulpian, a man pre-emi- nent in Roman jurisprudence. His rule of thirteen years was of incalculable ben- efit, not alone or mainly to the empire of his day, but to the science of law. Under the genius of Ul- pian, justice became indeed a science, if such it had not become prior to that time. While engaged in a military expedition upon the Rhine, Severus was slain in a mutiny instituted by an officer named Maximus, a rude Thracian peasant, of superb jjliysique. The soldiers were captivated by the personal prowess of this Thracian, and named him emperor. Then followed another series of swiftly rising and falling em^serors, having no just claim to the sovereignty, and no fixed tenure of office. For fifty years the empire was on the verge of anarchy. During that time, the barbaric hordes, the Persians on the East and the Goths in the West, seriously menaced the very existence of the empire. But the hour of doom had not come. Diocletian was raised to the throne in A. D. 284, and his accession marked a new era in the empire, entering then upon what may be called its oriental phase. The very name of Consul ceased to be used. Having completed the degradation of the old rul- ing class at Rome, and succeeded in readjusting the empire on a strictly autocratic plan, he vol- ^ IL THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALAKIC. 169 untarily abdicated, and spent the remaining years of his life in elegant retire- ment. His chief associate in po;Ter was Maxiniian, whom he compelled to abtlicate also, leaving the govenuiient to Ga- lerius in the East, and Con- stantius in the West. The for- )ner, Diocletian's favorite son- in-law, was allowed to name the associate of both himself and Constantius, and he chose for Diocletian. llis OWn associate his nejihew, Daza, and for Constantius one Flavins Servius. The real choice of Constantius was his own son Constantine of Christian memory. At that time Constantius was in Brit- ain, and there he died not long after. The ambitious son boldly assumed the office of his father, having already won a brilliant record as a soldier, and evinced remarkable sa- gacity. Constantine did not jiress his claims at once, but was content to exercise the functions of a subordinate officer, busied with the ad- ministration of affairs in the extreme Northwest. Declared Emperor at York in A. D. 306, it was not until several years later that he openly asserted his claim. By that time Chris- tianity had made tremendous strides, and had a vast number of converts. Constantine was totally devoid of religious scruples or convictions, but he had the wisdom to avow himself a champion of llio Christian clmrch. That rallied to his standard multitudes of enthusiastic supporters in all parts of the empire, especially in the East, where lie was in most need of allies. His armj' had the enthusiasm of rehgious zealots, and they fought witli a heroism which was irresistible. Several battles were neces- sary to the decision of the issue between the rival Cresars. The last battle was fought at the Melvian bridge, only three miles from l\nmc. Constantine COXST.\XTi::«E THE GREAT, had already issued the Decree of Milan, gi\'ing im- perial liceiLse for the first time, to Christianity, and avowing himself a believer in its doctrines. Enter- ing Rome in triumph, he became, A. D. .31^, the first Christian sovereign of the world. He had pre- tended to see while marching through Gaul a vision of the cross in tlie heavens, inscribed with the le- gend, •■ By this sign con<[uer." But the capture of Home was not the subjugation of the entire Roman Empire by any means, and it was not until 323 that the gTcat battle between paganism and Christianity was fought. Two mighty armies met, one under Constantine appealing to the Christian's God for suc- cor, the other under Lu- cenius exhorted to rememljer that the gods of Olymims were nniny against only one, and he '• the Prince of Peace." The defeat of the pagans was an utter rout and the sliattered host souglit refuge in the fortress of Byzantium, from which they were soon driven. At last the surrender was unconditional, and Con- stantine found himself sole emperor of the entire Ro- man Empire. In personal character tliis man was utterly detestable, but he certainly had great genius, and in notliing did ho show this more plainly than in transferring his capital from Rome to Byzantium, whicli he changed to Constantinople, and reconsti'ucted upon a scale worthy tlie imixrial center of tlie world. Like a second Romulus, " he buildc-^v^V. -^vr~^^=^. ^fe / / / PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 7 7^- ^ / /- ■^ ., ^ ^ ^ ^ a CHAPTER XXIX, EoME AND CmusT— The Jews and Jesus— The Fundamestai. Tihtths— Fiiust CuunciiEs— St. Paul and the Primitive Fathers — Virtues and J\vith of the Early Curiicii — Paoan and Christian Persecutions Compared — Flexibility op Christianity— The Catacosibs— The Primit^'e Fathers— Nicente Creed. ^Jfi_ H^—^OC^^-Ti •HE history of Rome would be inexcusably defective if Sfiecial promiucnce were not given to Christianity in its primitive stage. That period of ecclesiastical de- velopment belonged to the empire of the Caesars. The found- er of the religion wliich now pre- vails over Evirope and America ■was a subject of Home, and the dis- tinctively primitive period of our faitli was entirely Roman. By her courpxests, her roads, and her genc- 'ral unification of many peoples, tlie Queen City of the world i^repared V^Jvs^ the way for the propagandists of the faith. To contemporary eyes, the reUgion of the despised and crucified Nazarene was a mere trifle ; but in the light of subsequent events, it is clothed with incalculable importance, outranking in vital force and molding power every other feature of Roman history.. In its career is justified the prediction, " Tlie stone which tlic build- ers rejected, the same has become the head of the corner," and that, too, vhetlier the Romans or tlie Jews be considered as tlie "builders." The Jews were almost unknown to the civilized world of olden times, and their religion was confined to the narrow tract of land called Palestine, their nationality becoming a great factor only after the past had begun to merge into and give place to the present. The chief claim, however, of tlie Hebrews to pre-eminence, is tlie production, hunuinlysiieak- ing, of Christianity. It is proposal to consider this mighty system of worship in its early stage, as a separate entity, and tliat witliout doctrinal bias, in a purely historical spirit. The fact tluit the birth of Jesus of Nazareth is the time from whicli all civilized modern nations compute dates, is a fitting testimony to the significance of his supreme person- ality. Born of lowly i)arents, there could have been no more improbable suggestion made during his lifetime, even wlieii he was most prosjwrous, than that he would prove to be the most notable char- acter in all history, but tliat such is the fact, is in- (lul)itable. The four biographies of Jesus (for such the Gos- pels really arc) agree in representing the founder of Ciiristianity as a teacher of certain fnudament^il l)rinciples, and not as cither an organizer or sys- tematizer. lie formed no church, forniulateil no creed. Content to teach practical tniths, his aim as a teacher was to lill (he lieart of man with gen- tleness, and bauisJi from it impure thoughts. His ideal was essentially original and now, so far as tlio great world of the Roman empire was concerned. In his own n;itivc P:i1('srnic \v;i>: a small sect calletl ( I /.I 174 PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. Essenes, by whom were practiced the virtues and graces exemplified and advocated by Jesus Christ. Tliat sect may liave derived its doctrines from the few Jews who had wandered into India, and learned the wisdom of the Christlike Clirisna. However that may be, the Christian religion as it was started by Jesus, and further promulgated by Paul, was a fresh element in human society. The old mytholo- gies were almost dead. Men of education held all Olympus in contempt, and philosophy was no long- er the satisfaction of spiritual longings. Some- thing radically unlike either would naturally meet with favor. The preaching of Jesus was indeed brief. At the age of thirty he abandoned his trade as a car- penter, and devoted himself to the life of an itin- erant preacher, and healer of diseases. Less than three years later, his body was nailed to the * cross, his public career ended. During that time he visit- ed many places in his native land, and created a great sensation, but his influence did not extend be- yond Canaan. To all appearances, he had entered upon a strictly jirovincial career. His most inti- mate associates, the disciples, and the devoted women who revered him the most, had no concep- tion of his real mission. The church at Jerusalem was the oldest of all the churches, but could hardly be called the mother church. In the earliest days of Christianity, very soon after the crucifixion, there were eight churches. The one at Jerusalem was a commune, each mem- ber pooling his property, and having all things in common. The other prominent and somewhat later churches were those at Antioch, Ephesus, Smyrna, Athens, Corinth, Rome and Alexandria. For the most part, these churches attest the zeal and broad views of Paul. That great apostle of the Gentiles, as he is called, conceived the idea of mak- ing the doctrines and personality of Jesus the foun- dation of a world-wide religion ; one which should supersede Judaism and paganism. It was a lofty thought, and the most stupendous undertaking that ever engaged the efforts of man. The success which attended the preaching of Christianity on the Paul- ine plan, must ever stand in history as a more far- reaching and exalted triumph of genius than any of the conquests of the world by arms. Mohammed was a sword-bearer, and his caliphs were men of war, but Jesus, Paul, and all the propagandists of primitive Christianity, were men of peace. Perse- cuted and mahgned, they won their way by moral force, and when at last Constantine acknowledged the Christian religion as the state religion, he sim- ply gave official recognition of the fact that, de- spite every obstacle, the new faith had conquered, the empire being more Christian than Pagan. The converts were mainly from the middle and lower classes, but inclu.ded many of the nobility, and a large element of learning. The primitive simplicity and purity of the church was maintained for the first two centuries, when the prevalence of the faith changed somewhat in its character. Angry disputes and immorality gained ground. Pious frauds and forgery were practiced. In their zeal to substantiate their peculiar views, disputants would often interpolate passages into the Testament, and even palm off sinirious writings as sacred. A great deal of stress was laid ujDon the sujoposed near approach of the end of the world. The earth was very soon to be burnt up, and the wildest theories of impending ruin were entertain- ed. The prophesied near approach of the end of the Jewish dispensation, and the establishment of the Christian religion, were interpreted to mean the literal destruction of the globe,- at least of all physical life upon it. It may be remarked that that millenarian delusion has been the prolific pa- rent of fanaticism, almost from the beginning of the Christian era. We sometimes hear of the ten persecirtions of the Christians by tlie Pagan emperors. There were at most only five, and these were slight, as com- pared with the Inquisition and kindred persecutions of Christians by Christians. In a strictly religious point of view, polytheism was tolerant, but there were religious rites and ceremonies blended with political institutions, as previously exjDlained, which rendered the monotheistic scruples of Jews and Christians treasonable, in the light of Roman law. But " those light afflictions " were like a little water thrown upon a great flame, stimiilating rather than quenching the zeal of the believers. "' The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church " was writ- ten by Tertullian, during the days of jjagan supremacy, and was true of those light persecutions. Many a primitive Christian was obliged to contrib- ute, however, to the brutal pleasure of a Roman multitude, gathered at the amphitheatre to witness ■r .=A. PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 175 a contest between \rild beasts and men. The train- ed and professional gladiators were often killed in the fierce combat, and the untrained Christians were almost always slain. Sometimes women and even children were thrown to the wild beasts for the delectation of a bloodthirsty populace. But the persecutions in later times, except in Germany, Hol- land and Great Britain, were so severe us to prevent the spread of opinions and sentiments opposed to tlie ruling church. Protestantism was burnt out of Italy, France and Spain, with a persistence and ve- hemence in persecution finding no parallel in tlie history of primitive Christianity. One general characteristic of Chr isti anity, ^7hich very ear- ly manifested itself, deserves observation; namely, its a- daptability. IN'o other religion can at all com- jDare with it in this regard. There are ten religions witliin the scojie of his- tory, including the agnosticism of Confucius. RUixs of the All except Christianity are local, or, as in the case of Judaism, strictly national. When Greece and Rome developed in philosophy, outgrowing the crude m)i;hs of their ancestors, their religion re- mained stationary. The world moved on and left Olymjws beliind. Brahminism, Buddhism, and Is- lamism, each is substantially the same, always and everywhere, resembling tliu man who should wear the same clothing in all seasons and lat itudos. Cln-is- tianity has the elasticity wh id 1 admils of ami in- vites growth, wliile it defies outgrowtli. There is aijsolutcly no limit to its range of thought. The world has undergone many changes since its birth, but to every phase of luiiuan development it lui-s accommodated itself. It tJins gives j)romi.se of a permanence, wliich is not the fixity of the rock, but the gradual, sure, and persistent growth of the centurv ])laiit. 'I'lif ])rogn?ss of civilization dpiii;inds frequent and radical changes, which must be met in disregard of precedents and prejudice, and it is aljility to meet these demands that gives to Cliri.s- tianity the 2)romise of universal spiritual empire. This adaptability enabled the primitive church to conquer the empire, survive the Dark Ages, and conform to the conditions of vitality peculiar to its ever-varying environment. A peculiarly interesting feature of primitive Christianity was the catacomljs of Rome. The Ronuui metliod of disposing of tlead bodies was to burn the corpse. Cremation was almost universal in the Eternal City, and quite general throughout the empire. But the early Chris- tians were op- posed to destroy- ing the body, whether by fire or other means. They looked for a literal resurrec- tion of the body, and that in tlic ncarfuture. The catacombs were vast subterra- nean ehaml}er.< which were used as receptacles of COLISEUM, Rojri;. the bodies of be- lievers in those primitive days. Many legends are told of the church of the catacombs wliicli lack historical verification. It is proljablc that those underground rooms were the quarries from which building material for the city had been taken from time immemcirial. Their use for tlie purjwses of Christian Imrial is sup- posed to liave Ijeeu the first utilization of the space. The earliest mention of tlie catiicombs was in tlic reign of Nero. Sometimes the per.^ecuted church t(K)k refuge in the catacombs. Many inscriptions attest the i)iety of the early fathers. Tlie .'symlwls carved on the stones also bear testimony to tlie religions character of the place. No doubt tlio original quarries were greatly enlarged under the Christian infiueiice ami usage, and the catacombs are sup- l)o.scd to have readied tlieirniaxinnun dimensions in the fifth century. The first Hire of theCliristinn ohnrch is c-n]lc awe in tlie breast of a savage, \s lW- i8o THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. and please the cesthetic taste of the cultivated wor- shiper. In A. D. 730, the title of Pope was changed from Serints Servorunu Servant of Servants, to Domi- nus, or Lord. Gregory 11. was the pope who received the sword of Lntprand in recognition of this neAV sovereignty. It was not, however, until the corona- tion of Charlemagne, 800, that the papacy received its full measure of jurisdiction. The Lombards re- sisted the popes, but Charles the Great confirmed their claims. Leo III. was the pope who crowned that greatest of medieval sov- ereigns. The temporal au- thority of the popes continued until the unification of Italy under Victor Emanuel. It was under the pontifi- cate of Adrian I. that the forged documents known as the Decretals and Donation were devised, which have been called " those two magic pillars of the sf)iritual and temporal monarchy of tlie popes." By the former, all ecclesiastical disputes, wherever occurring, were to be referred to the bishop of Eome for settlement, and by the latter, Constantine (the supposed author of the first decree) donated to the pon- tiffs the temporal authority over Eome, Italy, and the Western emijire generally. These forgeries would not have been perpetrated, had there not been the densest ignorance among the people, including Charlemagne himself, and his court ; also a long period of previous arrogation of nearly that much authority. That those docu- ments were spurious, admits of no doubt at the present time, but their falsity was not discovered until long after their promulgation. Building on that false foundation, and the gradual encroach- ments wliich preceded those most stupendous of all forgeries, tlie paj^acy pursued a career of arro- gance and licentiousness, of treachery and vice. With very rare exceptions, the popes, for a thou- sand years, were monsters of villainy, and eminent only for their crimes. They were the heads of the Gueli^h party, and filled Italy with woe. It was a desolating, sickening and horrible contest for tem- poral power in Italy, with some diversions in favor of superstition in general, and against, the spirit of Protestantism in particular, especially as that sf)irit found expression in Italy. There were some mut- terings of the coming Reformation, but intrigues, plots and infamies seemed to engage the almost undivided attention of the jDopes down to the time when Martin Luther and kindred reformers began their stupendous work, when a new era in papacy was inaugurated. Until the eleventh century, the popes were elected by the clergy and the people of Rome, but for eight hundred years the college of cardinals has had the authority, a two- thirds majority being nec- essary to a choice. There have been numerous cases — nearly twenty — of sharp, bit- ter and protracted contests, resulting in two or more pre- lates claiming the tiara at the same time. It was in this century, 107.3, that Hildebrand was elected f>ope, taking the title of Gregory VII., under whom was waged the "A¥ar of the Investitures." By the term investiture was designa- ted the ceremony by which parish priests and other clergy were clothed with the functions of their sacred ofiice. The secular authorities, especially in Germany and Prance, insisted upon the right to invest the clergy, while the pope in- sisted that such investiture belonged within the province of the pontificate. The issue thus raised involved the relative superiority of the secular and the spiritual authorities. It was a question of church or state. Henry III. of Germany set up a new pope, Gilbert of Ravenna ; but Gregory had the alhance of Robert of Normandy, and was, withal, a great genius. The contest was still in progress when Gregory died, 1085. The question of investiture was not decided until 1132. when a THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. l8l compromise was efEected — ii comiiromiso which gave the lion's sliare of tlie advantage to the Papacy. When the Protestant Reformation set Europe ablaze with religious ideas hostile to the Papacy. Poi)e Leo X. found himself compelled to make Italian politics secondary, and the suppression of Protes- tantism i^riniary. From that time to date the spir- itual empire of Rome has engaged the chief atten- tion of the popes. Since the Leo who fulminated his bull against Luther, none of the pojoes have been great elements in Italian affairs. They clung to the temporality of the petty Roman state with great tenacity, but not so much for its own sake as from fear lest its loss should prove a fatal blow at the hierarchy itself. The first outcropping of Protestantism was in 1134, when Arnold of Brescia entered emphatic protest against papal corruption. The Waldenses, disciples of Peter Waldo, of Lyons, date from 1170, and early acquired foothold in the valleys of Pied- mont. Persecuted and maligned, they held their own. and to-day number between twenty and thirty thousand communicants. They constitute almost the entire Protestant force of Italy. They have sixteen churches. The Albigenses were a similar but smaller sect of Protestants belonging to the period of Waldo and his immediate followers. Sa- vonarola, who preached at Florence in the latter part (if the fifteenth century, effected the downfall of the Medici, the ruling family in that part of It- alv, but anti-Papacy which he earnestly proclaimed, gained no jiermanent and general foothold in the immediate national vicinage, as it might be called, of the popes, and he himself died the death of a martyr. The Mystics were deeply .spiritual religious enthu- siasts, whose influence dates from the middle of tlie fiiurteenth century, and who were not at all contro- versial. Thomas a Kempis, who died in l-lrl, was the licst known of these remarkable men. His treatise on " The Imitation of Christ" has been translated into every language, and is the expres- sion of tlie most intense piety. Religious recluses became somewhat common at an early day, and may be closely identified with the Essenes of Judea. 'luitc fully described in a previous cliai)ter ; but monasticism reached its climax in mendicant orders in the tliirtcpntli, fourteenth, (iftnnnth and six- teenth centuries. They constituted at once the Ix-st and the worst features of the Romish church. To the serious, monastic life, whether reclu.«e or med- dicant, afforded special incitements to purity, while to the hyjjocritical it otiered sjxjcial facilities for im- position and immorality. Medieval mysticism, as exju'cssed in iKempis and others of his class, car- ried spirituality to the highest pinnacle of the tem- jile of faith ; but the modern church has had its mystics, from Spener and Francke, who founded the Halle school of pietists in Germany, to Moody and Sankey of contemiMrary fame. But to return to the papacy, we find in the Inqui- sition a more natural development of hierarchal ideas. It was. eai'ly in the thirteenth century that Innocent III. established the Inquisition, but it was not until Protestantism cai)tured Germany and Eng- land, and seriously threatened Eurojje, that tliis in- strument of persecution was put in full operation. At first tlie Inquisition was merely a process of in- vestigation, as the term would indicate, but it grew into an institution terrible in power and cunning in device. It spread to every country where the authority of thepopeof Rome w;is recognized. With its auto-da-fc, it was used for the eradication of the Jews from Spain, no less than the Protestants from the face of the earth. In jjroportiou as the jiapacy was strong the Inquisition was thorougli. Its vic- tims were millions in number. Nothing can be ad- duced in its extenuation unless it be the fact that the inquisitor was often sincere in his merciless bigotry. Jesuitism sprang from the same soil as tiie Inqui- sition, but it can boast some positive good and some extenuating virtues. The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, and re- ceived pontifical sanction from Pojic Paul III. in 1540. Originally it was designed to be an order of monks, bound to the ordinary monastic vows of ciiastitv, poverty and obedience ; but tiie second vicar-geueral of the order. James Layiiez, gave to it its present and historical character, a cliaractcr which h;us made Jesuitical a synonym for deceptive. Tiie maintenance of the papal authority against any and all adversaries was made tlic jirinic object of the order, under the motto, " The cud justifies the means." It was and is a .secret society with won- derful adajitation to the exerci.«c of influence. By a suiitle process of insinuation and percolation, iis l\' ^ 182 THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. one might say, the Jesuits gained control of the reins of government, the institutions of learning, and the gTeat agencies of power in many countries. From being a protector of Rome the order grew in- to a vast and dangerous empire. In 1773 a papal bull was promulgated for the dissolution of the en- tire order. This was done at the request of France, Spain, Portugal, Parma, Naples and Austria. The self-sacrifice of the order in carrjdng the gospel to the heathen, especially in America. Jesuit missions did much to Christianize the aborigines of this con- tinent, more particularly in South America and on the Pacific coast ; also to establish pioneer churches in many 23arts of the far Orient. It was in 1854 that the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary was laroclaimed as a divine dogma. PETER'S AT ROME, WITH COLONADES. order could only exist as a recognized institution in Russia, thanks to the sufferance of Catharine II. For several years the society seemed powerless; if not dead. But after the terrible ujDheaval of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, the Jesuits were looked upon with more favor, and in 1814 the order was re-estabhshedinits original form by a papal bull. Since then Jesuitism has been less arrogant than formerly, Ijut to its influence in large measure may be attributed the " Syllabus of Error " and the dogma of Papal Infallibihty. The latest blow at the Jesuits was struck by the Republic of France in the secularization of French education. The chief credit and boast of Jesuitism is the heroic and the Vatican Council of 1870 declared the pojje to be "the infallible bishoj) of bishops." In the year 1864 the pope issued the " Syllabus of Errors," a general bull against, or condemnation of, modern civilization, including scientific thought and relig- ious freedom. Speaking of the worship and ceremonies of the church of Rome, the learned Philip Schafl observes : " The Roman church accompanies its members from the cradle to the grave, receiving them into life by baptism, dismissing them into the other world by extreme unction, and consecrating all their impor- tant acts by the sacramental mysteries and bless- ings. It draws all the fine arts into its service. ^^F J^^Q THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 183 Gothic cathedrals, altars, crucifixes. Madonnas, pic- tures, statues and rehcs of saints, rich decorations, solemn processions, operatic music, — all combine to lend their great attractions for the common people, and for cultured persons of prevailing [esthetic tastes, especially among the Latin races. Catholic service is the same all over the world, even in lan- guage, the Latin being its sacred organ, and the vernacular being only used for sermons which are subordinate. Its throne is the altar. It centers in. the mass, a communion service, which is regarded as a real though unbloody repetition or continua- tion of the atoning sacrifice of Christ on the Cross." The present pope of Eome, Leo XIII., is said to be seriously consideiing the propriety of removing his residence from the Vatican at Eome to some other sj)ot. Several places have been suggested as eligible capitals for the great hierarchy, Malta es- pecially ; but there is no immediate prospect of a change. The Vatican, which embraces St. Petei''s, is the grandest achievement of all architecture. There are said to be 11,433 rooms in it, not count- ing mere closets. All the churches not belonging to the Roman or Greek communion are Protestants, except a few remnants of the ajjostolic churches in Asia, the Armenian, the Nestorian, the Jacobite, and the still less important remnants in Egypt and Abyssinia. The Eastern churches, including the Greek, num- ber over 80,000,000 ; Protestant, something more than 130,000,000; Roman Catholic, about 300,- 000,000 ; making the grand total of Christendom over 400,000,000. After the evangelization of Europe the Christian world seemed indifferent to the further propagation of the faith, until late in the seventeenth century, when there was an awakening to " newness of life." The Dutch exerted themselves for .Java and Cey- lon, the Danes for India, Xavier and fellow-Catho- lics for .Japan, America and Africa. Very great progress was made apparently toward Christianiz- ing the pagan world, but the seed sown resulted in meager liarvests in permanent effects. Tlic evan- gelized portions of India, China and .lai^an are traceable to missionary labors belonging to the nine- teenth century. Speaking of modern missions. Dr. Hurst says : "The gosjjel was first preached in Madagascar by missionaries of the London Missionary Society in 1818. Their labors, joined chiefly to those of the Church and Friends' Societies, have resulted in the overthrow of idolatry. The Queen and her govern- ment accept Christianity ; and from the capital, by contributions of converted Malagasy natives, mis- sionaries have been sent to unconverted trilies in distant parts of the island. In 1830 the American Board began a mission in the Sandwich Islands, and in less than half a century of earnest, persistent work a nation was redeemed from barbarism. "Where there used to be only savages there are now Christians, wlio not only support their own churches but send missionaries to other islands. Wesleyau missionaries introduced Christianity into the Fiji Islands in 1835. Tlie Fijians were a most savage and degraded people, whose horrible caunibahstic feasts made their very name a terror. Cliristianitv, as preached by the missionaries of the Wesloyan, Loudon, and one or two other societies, have ef- fected a wonderful change among these cannibals. They have given wp their old practices, and become a Christian nation. Churches and schools succeed the bures or temples ; family worship is general ; marriage is sacred ; the Sabbath is obsen-ed ; and law and order reign. Many thousands arc commu- nicants in the churches, and devoted Fijians go to distant islands as missionaries and teachers. Some of them have recently fallen victims to the canni- bals of ISJew Britain. Before 1813 there were no na- tive Christians in Polynesia. Now there are no less than .340,000, of wliom 08.000 are comniuuicants." The aggregate mombershii) of mission churches in 1879 was 575,486. Tluis we have as tlie supreme plicnomonon of the world, the most notable feature of all history, tlie religion founded by a Roman subject, one who never opposed imperialism, but, on the contrary-, a--^'^H^"^- K-^(-' \ J\ CHAPTER XXXI. ^ The Youngest Nation— The Lomeakds— Italy in the Dakk Ages— The Fkee Cities— The ^ Chief Globx op Medieval Italt — Modern Italy — Victok Emanual and Italian Unity — Pio Nino — Present Government of Italy — Condition op the Country — Italian Liter- ature—Italy AND Art— The Italian Renaissance. 'HE Italy of to-daj' is the youngest member of the family of nations. It was not imtil Victor Emanuel, in the last decade, nnifled the country under one crown and one constitution that the present nation came into ex- istence. Prior to that time, church and state were inseparably blended on that peninsula, the former being in the mastery. The kingdom of Italy, as it now stands, has an area of 112,396 square miles, and con- 'sists of shcty-nine provinces. The principal cities, to name them in the order of their p)0 jiulation, are Naples, Milan, Eome, Palermo, Turin, Florence, Genoa, Venice, Bologna, Messina, Leg- horn and Catenia. Italy, as the peninsula once known as Latium is now called, may be said to the product of the Lom- bards, who poured into the country from the North, being to that peninsula what the Angles were to England. The very name was borrowed from a Lombard prince, Italicus, who, however, was less entitled to that honor than Albion, the king of the §S Lombards in Italy about the middle of the sixth century. The year 568 is the date for the division line between Ancient Eome and Modern Italy. Al- bion was the Columbus, Itahcus the Amerigo in the case. The Lombards were the bravest of the brave. From the heights of the Alps they beheld the pleas- ant valleys and fertile plains of the South, and moved over with their families. There was no devastation. They exercised squatter sovereignty without the shedding of blood. They formed a new tenantry. Some of the old inhabitants moved further south, others remained, and the two sets of inhabitants became mixed, as were the Saxons and the Normans in England. The Lombards adopted the civili^iation they found, including the Christian rehgion. Their sway did not extend to the maritime cities of the Adriatic and Mediterra- nean seas. The Latins who fled cherished bitter animosity to the Lombards in their southern re- treats, and so did the city of Rome, which, though nominally subject at that time to the Caesars at Constantinople, was realty ruled, even at that early period, by the Pontiffs. The Franks were sought in alliance by the older race, and Charlemagne, their greatest sovereign, conquered Italy in 774, re- ceiving his coronation at Rome Christmas-day, 800. ~7l- (184) ^ ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 185 During the darkest centuries of the Dark Ages Italy was almost constantly' the victim of petty and interminable -warfare. The Lombards iiiYoked German alhauces, as the Latins and Romans had French. In 961, Otho the Great restored temjiorary peace. The Lombards soon rebelled against the German yoke. In a generation or so, all was once more confusion, anarchy and bloodshed, remaining so until Barbarossa, entering Italy in 1154, made a and turmoil of the land and gave herself to com- merce. She was the Carthage of the period. The first Doge was elected in 007. The founding of Ven- ice near the island of liialto dates from 809. St. Mark is its patron saint, and the cathedral of tliat name is its most famous edifice. Istria and Dalmatia were united to this urban repub- lic in 997. Genoa and Pisa, on the other side of the Adriatic, FLORENCE. desperate effort to assert Teutonic supremacy. The bravery of tlic Italians was such that he was balllcd, and in 118-3, the peace of Constance rec- ognized the independent Tights of the Italian cit- ies. " Thus ended," says Mariotti, " the first and noblest struggle in Europe between liberty and despotism." And now comes into conspicuous prominence several cities of Italy, once mighty factors in the world's work. First of these was Venice, queen of the Adriatic, which was founded by lloinan citi- zens when Alaric and Attila invaded the country. That city avoided, as far as possible, the troubles wore free and indejwndent states from the begin- ning of the eleventh centim*. These three repub- lics are medieval in origin. Their early annals are shrouded in inipenctrahlc mysterj-, but their jietty contests and rivalries would not be of intcre.'it if preserved. Later, but similar, were the origins of Xaples, Ainalfi and Gucta. Genoa, the birt3i-plaa^ of Columbu.s, was long the queen of tlie ilce ad- ded, long bloody and tyraiiniciU, still chcrislies the pride of the Doges. Tlie Ka, now recetllug from the lagoons, renders hoiwless all attcnipta to regain \-|.^- - 1 86 ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. a footing among the mighty cities of Europe. Flor- ence, Milan, Pavia and Palermo each, are cities replete with interest to one minutely studying Italy. The real significance of Italian history is not in the rivalries of petty states and factions. The sov- ereigns who deserve atten- tion are the Popes, and not the Guelphs and the Ghibelines, the Borgias and the Medici. It was not until Victor Emanuel and Garibaldi arose that a single name, mihtary or political, acquired sufli- cient importance to merit consideration, beyond the sphere of the Papacy Italy presents no point of special political interest until the house of Savoy appears above the waves. In 1870 was accomplished the unification of Italy with Rome as its capital. In this illustrious house of Savoy, under which this grand result was obtained, there were three Charles Emanuels, three rulers bearing the name of Vic- tor Amadeus, and two ' Victor Emanuels, all creditable rulers and men of some genius, the most illustrious being the last of the eight. They raised the petty dukedom of Savoy to the kingdom of Sardinia, and later, to the kingdom of Italy. The crowning elevation was achieved by Emanu- el II., father of Hum- bert, the present king of Italy. He claimed the title of King of Italy as early as 1861, having POPE PUTS IX. been crowned King' of Sardinia in 1849, in the thirtieth year of his age ; but the fu.ll measure of his ambition was delayed until 1870. Louis Napoleon supported the Pope and kept him in the temporality of the Papal States by French bayonets. The king of Italy had removed his capital from Turin to Florence, but could not enter Eome. Victor Emanuel was so fortunate as to have the assistance of that great statesman, Oavour, and that grand patriot, Garibaldi ; and al- though excommunicated by the pope, he remained faithful to the Roman hierachy as a spiritual power. He kept the cause of Italian unity separate from religion. The Cri- mean war gave him oppor- tunity to distinguish him- self and gain for his nation the respect of the great powers. Italy derived honor and benefit, indirect, but great, from that war, and this was true of no other participant in it. Victor Emanuel had re- peated conflicts with Austria, and won some vic- tories at Austrian expense. He was in antipathy to France for barring his way to the Eternal City. Therefore he was in close symj)athy with Prussia in its war with both of those powers. From Prussian victory over Ijoth, Italy derived sub- stantial advantage, es- pecially from the fall of the Napoleonic empire. Rome then opened her gates to the great king as a matter of course, amid the wildest enthu- siasm. The people re- joiced exceedingly at the change in rulers. The dream of Italian uation- ahty had always been fondly cherished by the Romans, and they saw in Victor Emanuel the resurrection of old Rome in its better days. The venerable Pope, a good old man, one of the few real saints of the Pontificate, shut himself -ap in the Vatican, not from fear, but in the ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. i8: indulgence of what in boys is called ''• the sulks." There he remained, chosiug to play the roh of pris- oner and victim, until the serenity of death came to his release, when Pius IX. was succeeded by an- other old man, Leo XIII. Pio Nino was born in 1792, and came to the jiapal throne in 1846. Personally kind and just, he was a staunch upholder of the ancient spirit of despotism, and sought to projJ ujj the falling for- tunes of the Pontificate. He may be said to have enlarged the creed of Rome by two doctrines; name- ly, tlie immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary as well as her son, and the infallibility of the Pope in all matters of faith and morals, lie bluntly opposed a free press, free speech, liberty of conscience, and 2)opular and mod- ern ideas of civil rights, being thor- ouglily and consist- ently medieval. The Italians rever- ed his virtues, but disregarded his po- litical advice. His successor is a man of much ability, but thus far he has effected nothing to make his name remembered. Of him it can be said, that he strenuously clings to the old ways and ideas; but he gradually accej^ts, apparently in good faith, the inevitaljle and com- |ilete loss of temporal power. No dynasty in Europe has such a hold upon its people as the Italian, and all thought of restoring the papal temjiorality may well be dismissed. Tlic government of Italy is a constitutional mon- archy, with a senate appointed for life, and a eh am- ber of 508 deputies elected by pojmlar suiTrage. Tlie press is free and the people contented. 'J'lie national debt is large, but the country i.s, on the whole, pros- perous. Tlie educational system is good. The rail- roads and canals afford sufficient facilities for trans- [Kjrtalicin. The jn-esent population is not far from thirty millions. The great industries are silk culture, wine makiuL,'. and the ]iro(lnntion of works nf art. View of Rome, showing the Castle of St. Atigelo nnrt St. Peter's. Italy can boast a splendid literature, and an in- comparable art. The chief of its authors is Dautc, wliosc poetic representation of the Romish view of the future life is an immortal work. Under the guidance of Virgil he explored hell and purgatory, and then the spirit of his lost love, Beatrice, led liim through Paradi.se. Dante ranks witli fJoetlie, and second only t<; the incomparable Sliaks^jeare. His works have been translated into all tongues, and are tlie delight of a peculiarly wide circle of readers. Anotlier familiar name is Tasso. He was very highly esteemed in his day, but wi.ser after-judg- ment placedhim in the lower rank of genius. Boccac- cio, who.se tales would be rejected |jy a modern pub- lisher as indecent, occupies a conspic- uous place on ac- count of seniority. Like the two otlicr Italian authors just named, he was one of the pioneers of modern literature, and is dcerviug of great cretlit for doing so well at so early a ix!riod. Italy dill niucii for the Present at its dawn, and tlien sul)sided, the life of the nation sap])cd ajiparently l>y tlie evil influences of a clnirch which would sacrifice any and every- thing to build up and maintain ecclesia-stical authority. Its bust work was in the line of art. Painting, as it now exists, was brouiilit from Con- stantino])le to Italy in the eleventh ceutury, and thence it .spread over Eurojx?. Tiiere were many schools or styles of painting in Italy, nearly every town having its characteristic invention of which it could boast, its line of artists culminating generally in some great master. Florence could claim Da Viiu'i and Michael Angelo; Rome Inul Ra])luicl ; Hologmi, (Juido; Parma, Corroggio ; Venice. Titian and Paul Veronese. Not infrecpiently sculpture and painting went together. Germany and the Nctlicrlaiuls did great tilings for nuKlcrn art. and (rerniiinv. I'^ranre. and to snmo extent. Sjiain. hav. •v[p ^Li. ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. contributed very materially to the artistic wealth of the world ; but all combined cannot equal this one small country, the peninsula of Italy. What Greek art was to the ancients, that is Italian art to modern times. Italy sustains a pecuhar relation to ancient and modern civilizations as the great conservator and restorer of ancient literature. The chief service of that country in the domain of letters was not so mucli the production of original genius as of faithful restorers of the past. That was the supreme service of the Italian renais- sance. Petrarch and Boccaccio wrought most nobly in the res- toration of the ancient classics, and a bril- liant essayist observes "Their enthusiasm im- jjarted an impetus to research, and a uni- versal interest in manuscript and an- tiquities sprang up. Monasteries were searched, and monks were bribed, when no better way availed, to give up their treasures. Pilgrims traveled to Byzantium in search of MSS. as in earlier days they had of relics in the Holy land. No less earnest was the work of collecting and revising the MSS. thus obtained. No effort was spared to ar- rive at the original meaning of an author, and years were sometimes spent upon a single work." THE MODERN CAFiTuL A'J' JJOMK. It was most appropriate, certainly, that Italy, the heir of Kome, should thus reclaim and perpetuate the treasures of classic literature. Italy has been called a paradox, and from one point of view such it certainly is. With a vicious and deplorable financial system it enjoys industrial prosperity. The aggregate of industries rose 16 per cent during the last decade, and the average per capi- ta lO^Dcr cent. Exports increase more rapidly than imports. In man- ufactures great ad- vancement is being made. Taxes are high. Not less than thirty-one per cent of the earnings of the people is re- quired to support the government. In Prance it is seventeen and a half per cent, and in Great Britain twelve l^er cent. The increase in the wealth of the people during the seventh decade of this century was one hun- dred and ten million jjounds sterling, but the national debt increased during the same period 150 millions. The people suffer from the lack of food, or rather they are small eaters. The amount consumed is less according to population than that of any part of Europe, Portugal alone excepted. If the people ate more and heartier food their industrial capacity might be much greater. 7|F Jj -^^m^,-m^::^^\ /8)^.^at^ -M^ THE DARK AGES. %r^ -I^^::^^^' X'f!:^ ^^P=^^^ s*? ij]*;? <«*»> «■',? I CHAPTER XXXII. Medieval Chaos — Peudahsji— Feudal Tenures — Guizot on Feudalism— Chivalry— The Crusades — History op each in Chronological Order — Charlemagne— Dante — The Min- nesingers, Troubadours and the Troviers — "Witchcraft — Testimony op Lecky — Wesley ON ■Witchcraft- Its Survival of the Dark Ages. & ♦ L lil"^ p '¥^ '* 0i HE jjrinting press may bo regarded as the dividing line ill resioect to the dis- semination of knowledge, between the old world and the modern ; but in treat- ing of nations and peoples, the more natural demarkation is that neutral belt known as the Dark Ages. The Eomaii Emjiire was first divided, as we liave seen, falling ajjart of its own weight, and then the western half of it was dev- astated by barbaric Norsemen. A period of cliaos followed in the west, a night witli no liglit but "tlie liorned moon" of the Cres- cent, and as morning approached, a few stars twinkled in the heavens. That crescent queen of the Dark Ages was the Saracen empire, which will engage our attention in tlie next chap- ters, and the stars of the dawn were the modern nationalities of Europe which gradually emerged from tlie medieval night. Those nations, differen- tiated by tlie natural boundaries of language, are the Turks, the Russians, the Italians, the Germans, the Frencli, tlic Spanisli ( iiududingtlie Portuguese), the Scandinavians Mild Ihc l''.iiL'b<1i. Tbcso seven -T^ peoples are the nebulaj thrown off by the sun of imperial Rome. It shall be the purpose of tliis chapter to set forth the condition of Europe during the Dark Ages, apart from the Papacy, already con- sidered, and the empires wliicli are to Ijc severally brought out in subsequent chapters. During the entire period of historj-, uotliing so desolate and vicious can be found as this chiliad of darkness. It seemed as if civilization had lied from the lionies of men, and no morning would ever dawn upon Western Eurojx;. Tlie religion of Jesus of Nazareth had been jKlopted in theory, while the Cliristianity of actual jiractice was in the sharjiest possible contra.st to tlie l>enevolent and gentle teach- ings of the crucified Clirist. Violence, bloodsiied, brutality and crime made Euroi)e a vale of tears. The chief feature of the jicriod wa.s feudalism, and that was born of the necessity of seeking pro- tection at the price of liberty. Political institutions and national authority afforded no actual safe- guards against rapine and munler. Tlio farmer had no assurance that he sliouKl reap what lie liad sown, or enjoy what lie liad harvested. The couutry was evcr)"whcre so overrun with marauders, that neither person nor proi>crty was safe. Ilusbamls and broth- ers were slain, wives and sisters subjected to outrage worse than death, and the roblxTs iind despoilers werr iiitn'iiclieil in stroiiu'lioliK-. l-'inallv tlierc i-ami' (189) iil'r * .^ 190 THE DARK AGES. to be a truce betweeu the weak and the strong, by which the former put themselves under vassalage to the latter, serving them in war and paying trib- ute to them in peace, all in the hope that self-inter- est would dictate to the robber in his castle that he should protect the peasant in his hut. To such an extent did the lord become interested in the vassal that some security was afforded. Thus did barbar- ism work out a certain degree of reformation. Feudalism was a great amelioration of the condition of affairs to which it owed its own existence. It gradually developed into an elaborate system. For the most ]Dart, _ ^ the tenantry of Eu rope at the present times is a relic of feu- dahsm. The legal ownership of the soil rests in most cases upon no just title of purchase, but upon the corner-stone of rapine and violence. Gradually, as nations rose into definite out- lines of jurisdiction, the state took the place of the fief and the vassal became a subject, until, in mod- ern times, little remains of feudalism, except in the matter of land tenure. The reliance of the people for redress and protection is not upon the lord of the nearest castle, but upon the mag- istrate who represents the sovereignty of the law. In his History of Civilization, M. Guizot makes some extravagant claims for feudalism, but the fol- lowing passage is an admirable presentation of facts in regard to the system : " There was nothing mor- ally common between the holder of the fief and his serfs. They formed part of his estate ; they were his property ; and under this word property are comprised not only all the rights we delegate to the public magistrate to exercise in the name of the state, but likewise all those which we possess over private property ; the right of making laws, of levy- ing taxes, of inflicting punishment, as well as that of disposing of them — of selling them. There ex- isted not, in fact, between the lord of the domain and the cultivators, so far as we consider the latter as men, either rights, guarantees or society. * * This system seemed, however, naturally to pour in- to the mind of every possessor of a fief a certain number of ideas and moral sentiments — ideas of duty, sentiments of affection. That the principles of fidelity, devotedness and loyalty became devel- oped and maintained by the relations in which the possessors of fiefs stood towards one another, is evident." Another generic feature of the period was chiv- alry. It is said in praise of Don Quixote, that it laughed chivalry out of Europe, and that MAKCli OF THE CRUSADEKS was a great and good thing to do when done, for the morning of modern day had broken ; but in its way and time chivalry was very beneficent. It stimulated and cultivated the senti- ment of honor, and honor is one of the fundamental ingredi- ents of good charac- ter, both individual and national. Chival- ry was born in the reign of Cliarlonagne, although plain traces of its rudiments may be found in the early Teutons, the Germans of Tacitus. The knight-errant of romance, bravely redressing the wrongs of suffering innocence, without thought of reward or danger, was not a mjrtli. Pound in all parts of Europe in those times of universal wrong, chivalry was the highest ideal presented of real goodness. Often fighting in a tournament, which was about the same as a mod- ern prize-fight (only arms, armor and horses were allowed the combatants), still the knight was a mes- senger of avenging justice, an angel of succor to the unfortunate. Loyalty, courtesy and valor were the cardinal virtues of a true knight. The Crusades belong to the Dark Ages. There were seven of them, all substantially ahke in cause and purpose. They attest the monstrous folly with- in the range of universal possibility. Of nothing has the European branch of the human family -<" >V THE DARK AGES. [91 more occasion to be ashamed tluni of these frenzied efEorts to gain irossessiou of that empty hole in a rock called the Holy Seioulcher. Viewed iu the light of modern jjracticality, there was no occasion for that series of wars. The Saracens did indeed have possession of the tomb of our Lord, but even from the standpoint of Christian devotion, there was no reason why that fact should dis- t u r b the equanimity of all Europe. But Peter the Hermit, a crazy fanatic, conceived the idea of arous- ing popular zeal for the rescueofthat tomb from the Moham- medans, on the ground that Jesus Christ was to come again very soon, his second ap- Ijeariug to be on tlie sjiot made sacred by his pas- sion, resur- rection and ascensio n. The vast mul- titudes who left home and all local endearments, animated by a common purpose, mingled together as friends and brethren. For the first time the peoples of Europe met on a common footing of amity. They were not fighting eaeli other, and the narrow ideas of devotion to a petty sovereignty were forgotten. They came together on a basis of brotherhood as broad as the continent. They learned sonietliing. each from all. The sparse seed.s of civilization were scattered, to bear fruit and be the beginning of a new era. There was a commingling wliich proved Engines were framed by eome Genoese artists, who had fortunately hmded in the harbor of JalTa. Two movable turrets were constructed and rolled f or\vard with devout labor, not to tlie most acccs* sible, but to the most nei;lected, jiarts of the fortulcation. Raymond's tower was reduced to ashes bytbefireof the besieged, but his colleafruc was more vigilant and successful; the enemies were driven by his archers from the rampart; the draw-bridge was let down; and on a Friday, atlhrco in the afternoon, the day and hour of the passion, Godfrey of Bouillon stood victorious ou tho walls of Jerusalem. — GifjOon's Decline and Fall, chap. Iviiii. of incalculable advantage to Euro])e. Out, then, of the most gigantic folly of all times, grew one of the most beneficent imjmlses of all times, and if the Cru- sades had no justification, their horrors and devas- tations have certainly proved a Ijlessing iu disguise. Tlie first Crusade dates from 1096 to 1099. The leader, Peter the nerniit, had fur his first lieuten- ant, Walter the Penni- less. To their standard ral- lied in those three years six large ar- mies, num- bering, all told, 000,000. Several very distinguislied knights gain- ed renown iu thatCrusade. Godfrey of Bouillon, af- terwards the King of Je- rusalem, Ix;- longed to that crusade. So did Tau- cred, Kay- 111 iind of Tou- louse, and Hugh the Great. They besieged Je- rusalem, and in July.lO'.is. The objeci the success tho Moliani- tho holy city fell into their Jiands. of Peter had been gained, only was not jKjrnianent. In 11-17 medans took Edessa and prepanxl to attempt the recapture of Jerusalem. That called out tlie second Crusade, which continued two years. The Abbot of Clairvau.x, St. Bernard, was the great apostle of this uprising, and tho cxcitonicnt amounted to a mania. The king.'' of France ami (Tcrniany took the field in person, with an iiggrcgato army of 1,200.000. It seemed as if all Euroiic was 2 + JV' -»_-£j 192 THE DARK AGES. one vast mad-house. "Womeu and childreu insisted upon taking part iu wliat -v) as expected to be little less than tlie annihilation of the Moslem power. Horrible were the sufferings entaUed and utter was the failure of the moTement. After an ineffectual siege of Damascus the shattered remnants straggled back to Europe, demoralized to the last degree. The most stupendous delusion of all the ages was at an end, yet not at an end, for just forty years later began the third Crusade, which lasted three years. That renewal of hostilities between Cross and Cres- cent was occasioned by the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem, which terminated in 1187. The mighty Saladin, who reasonably aspired to universal Moham- medan empire, drove the Christians from the sacred city. That aroused the indignation of Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France and Kichard Coeur de Leon of England. Their ef- forts were not wholly fruitless. They could not re- store Christian rule, but they forced from Saladin a treaty exempting from taxes and special peril Chris- tian pilgrims to the Holy Sepulcher, and so numer- ous were these palmers, as the pilgrims were called, that this treaty was highly imj^ortant. In 1203 Pope Innocent III. tried to organize still another crusade. A shght beginning was made at Venice, but the movement was abortive. The fourth Crusade was a peculiarly tragic attempt of about 30,000 boys just entering their teens, and hardly that, to rescue the sepulcher of Jesus from infidel hands. These lads were led by a shepherd boy, Stephen of Vendome. They set sail by ship from Marseilles, intending to reach Palestine. Two of their seven ships were wrecked. Those who escaped the perils of the sea landed at Egypt, but on- ly to be sold into slavery. By some writers that mel- ancholy episode is called the fourth Crusade. Oth- ers apply that designation to the expedition of An- drew of Hungary, organized in 1317. He took a few Moslem fortresses on Mount Tabor, but in the second year of his expedition gave up and came home. For ten years only did the world have rest from Crusades. The fifth one was organized in 1228 by Frederick II. of Germany. After ten years of fighting and diplomacy a treaty was entered into be- tween the Sultan of Egyjit and the German Empe- ror, by which the latter acquired Palestine, and re- turned home with some substantial acquisitions to show as the fruit of his expedition. But in 1248 came the Turk, who besieged, captured and pillaged Jerusalem. Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis, tried to drive back the barbaric infidel, but was tak- en prisoner by the Sultan of Egyji t, who if as finally prevailed ujion in 1250 to accept a ransom for his roj^al captive. The last of the Crusades dates from 1270 to 1272. St. Louis began it, but he soon died, and the lead- ership fell upon Edward of England. No progress was made, however, toward dispossessing the Turks. For more than two centuries longer the idea of res- cuing the Holy Sepulcher from the Moslems was cherished as the dream of popes and devotees. The new world with its diversions put an end to all thoughts of an eighth Crusade. The Island of Malta acquired considerable prom- inence in the conflict between the Mohammedans and the Christians. Solyman the Magnificent, in f urtlierance of his scheme to annex Hungary to his empire, and extend Islamism to AVestern Europe, captured the island of Rhodes in 1521, wresting it from the Knights of St. John, who had held it undisputed since their retreat from Palestine. The knights retired from Rhodes to the Island of Malta, which was bestowed upon them by Charles V. of Germany. They fortified it, and that so well, that when in 1565 Solymau attempted its ca23ture he was baffled. One name towers so liigh during this black peri- od as to be immortal and illustrious. We do not refer to any of the brave knights and princes who won renown in the holy wars, but to Charlemagne, the emjoeror who will come before us somewhat in detail later, but who, because he made all Europe bow before his throne, deserves conspicuous atten- tion. Without touching upon subsequent history, it may be said of him here, that he had the genius to create an empire, but not to transmit it. Under him the Franks and the Teutons were united, his dominion embracing nearly all Europe, except the savage North. Pope Leo III., in the year A. D. 800, placed the imperial crown upon the head of this Alexander of medieval times. A rude and almost literally unlettered barbarian, he gathered about him the learning of every land, founded schools, col- lected libraries, and iu many ways sought to elevate the character of the people. His ideas were grand, but they availed little. Europe was not soil prepai-ed ■f THE DARK AGES. 19.3 fur the seed lie sowed, aud much of it bore uo fruit. Charles the Great was a juonster of vice, licentious, cruel and superstitious. He pronounced the death penalty against those who refused Christian Ijap- tisni, or ate meat in Lent. He was a strange mix- ture of gi'eatness and weakness, of iron and clay. Hallam says : " In the Dark Ages of European history, the reign of Charlemagne affords a solitary names may be mentioned here, such as Petrarcli, Boccaccio aud Abelard, but willi the one exception of Dante, all the distinctively medieval literature might be obliterated without so great a loss as cue jilay of Euripides or oration of Cicero. There sjjrung up during tliat period a class of minstrek called minnesingers, troubadours, and tro- vicrs, who rendered important service to the art - longs almost wholly to Uic historical in distinction fnnii tlin Mi'tunl world. Trjwps of it msiy )io found ^': 194 THE DARK AGES. iu the remote past, and perhaps in the present, but as a prominent factor in the affairs of men it was developed during the medieval period, finding its fullest life, however, during the stages of early Pro- testantism, being pecuhar to no church or countrj'. The translators of the King James version of the Bible were so full of this belief that the law of Mo- ses against poisoning was rendered by them, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch [instead of a jyoisoner] to live." And the woman of Endor who was con- sulted by King Saul was evidently a spiritualistic medium, and not at all a witch, in any proper sense of the term. There is no doubt a close connection between ancient magic, divination, Jastrology and necromancy, and medieval witchcraft ; but the latter term stands for a distinctive form of the unnatural, the abnormal and the mysterious, which was not regarded so much as supernatural as sub-natural, originating with the fiends of the world below. In 1484 Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against witchcraft, and commissioneii the Inquisitor Spren- ger to extirpate it. He put to death hundreds every year, and always and everywhere the more vigorous the prosecution, the more prevalent the mania — for such it was. Insanity was mistaken for demoniac possession. From first to last, tens if not hundreds of thousands must have fallen victims to this terri- ble delusion, the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries being the worst in this respect of all. Lecky tells us that the first apjoearance of the conception of a witch dates from the twelfth century. He describes a witch as " a woman who had entered into a de- liberate compact \*'ith Satan,, who was endowed with the powers of working miracles whenever she pleas- ed, and who was continually transported through the air [generally on a broomstick] to the Sabbath, where she paid her homage to the Evil One. The panic created by this belief advanced slowly, but after a time with a fearfully accelerated rapidity. Thousands of victims were sometimes burnt alive in a few years. Every country in Europe was stricken with the wildest panic. Hundreds of the ablest judges were selected for the extirpation of tlie crinre. A vast literature was created on the subject, and it was not until a considerable portion of the eighteenth century had passed away that the executions finally ceased." After giving many details of witchcraft in many lands, tliis same writer, the highest authority upon the subject, observes : " Witchcraft resulted, not from isolated circumstances, but from modes of thought ; it grew out of a certain intellectual temperature acting on certain theological ten- ets, and reiiected with almost startling vividness each great intellectual change. Arising amid the ignorance of an early civilization, it was quick- ened into an iutenser life by a theological struggle which allied terrorism with credulity,- and it declined under the influence of that great rationahstic move- ment which since the seventeenth century has been on all sides encroaching on theology." In no other country did it rage so furiously and persistently as in Scotland. That famous English Puritan, Ricliard Bax- ter, whose "Saints' Rest" is one of the classics of rehgious hterature, was an intense believer in the reality of witchcraft, and the duty of its extirpation. His writings on this subject did much to stimulate the mania in primitive Massachusetts known as Salem Witchcraft, in the last years of the seventeenth cen- tury. The last execution of a witch in Europe occurred in Switzerland iu 1783, and the last law against witchcraft, the Irish statute, was not repealed until 1821. It was in 17G8 that John Wesley wrote plaintively, " The English in general, and indeed most of the men of learning in Europe, have given up all accounts of witches and apparitions as old wives' fables. I am sorry for it, and I willing- ly take this opportunity to enter my solemn pro- test against this violent compliment which so many who believe the Bible pay to those who do not believe it. I owe them no such service. I take knowledge that these are at the bottom of the outcry which has been raised, and with such insolence spread through the land in direct opposition, not only to the Bible, but to the suffrage of the wisest and best men of all ages and nations. They well know (whether Christians know it or not) tliat the giving up witchcraft is in effect giving up the Bible." A delusion which could call out from such a man such a declaration as late as 1768, may well be called the deepest-rooted and most tenacious of all the poison-plants of the Dark Ages. JFT JVS .a#c/>%^, ^^xT, THE SARACEN EMPIRE. CHAPTER XXXIII, Medieval in Origin and Glory — The Term Saracen — Moiiammku''8 Early Days and Associa- tions—Mecca AND Medina — Death of the Prophet and Sketch op his 'Work— The Strength of Islam — The Great Empires op a Thousand Years Ago— MonAMM:EDAN Mor- als—The Koran— The Caliphate and the Ommiad Dynasty— Spread op Empire— Con- stantinople — Division of the Saracen Esipire — Fall op the Empire — The Saracens and Modern Cr'ilization — Saracenic Glory and its Eclipse. K-— ^OD^^-O-S ^F all the po-^vers and princi- palities of earth, whether temporal or spiritual, none are or -were so distinctively medieval as that strange mix- ture of the flesh, the spir- it and the devil, called the Sar- acen Emjiire. It may, indeed, be said to have had its root ill tlie far-away days of Abraham and Hagar, but from Ish- maelto Moliammcd, tlie root hardly put forth a shoot of real nationality, and Saracenic glory, which began witli the prophet of Mecca, was dimmed Ijy the dawning of modern civilization, to which, indeed, it made some valuable contributions. Tlie term Saracen is found in clas- sic literature occasionally. As used by the old writers, it applies to a particular trilic of Arabs and one of no sjiecial importance cither. But in these later centuries, it is often used to desig- nate all the followers of Mohammed, more proi>erly, however, those who constituted the nation founded by the prophet of Islam. It was not an orderly, regular and well-deliued empire, but in part an area and in part an idea ; a curious hybrid, half ambi- tion and half fanaticism. To get an idea of it one must first of all form a just con- ception of Mohammed, his sur- roundings and genius. j^Ioliammed was born at Mecca, in •■ Araby the Blest," April 30, A. D. 671. That city was the center of trade between Africa and India, carried on by caravans of cameLs. lie belonged to one of the first families, and was himself engaged ill tlie mercantile and transjwrta- tion business. Altliough aristocratic in connection and blood, liis im- mediate family was quite poor. Besides traveling and trading, he spent some time, as did tliat otlier greater founder of a nation. Moses, in tending flocks. AVhilc yet ob- scure, lie married K.idijah, a rich \rido\T, and insteafl of giving liimself up to fast living, lie de- voted his time to religious ini>ilii:ii!iiii. Ihi' dcMlop- ^ 196 THE SARACEN EMPIRE. ment of those ideas -which were destined to make him immortal, and for which he was largely in- debted to Christians lie had met while a commercial traveler. Like many another genius, he claimed to have derived his inspiration from some supernatural source. Mohammed was twenty-four years of age when he began this novel jDroceeding. The Arabs claimed descent from Abraham through that servant- girl whom " the father of the faithful " drove into the wilderness with her son Ishmael. They worshiped one God, but stood in mortal terror of the devil, and were tinctured somewhat with idolatry. A few of them were Christians but for the most part they held to the old worshijj with a half- dazed loyalty to ances- tral ideas. Judaism was embraced by many. The Arabs were in a state of rehgious fer- mentation. Moham- med began to preach in 609. He had eiDileistic flits and conceived him- self to be under some sort of spiritualistic in- fluence. He was wont to retire to a cave for prayer and communion of soul. His townsmen paid no heed to him, or if they did, ridiculed his pretensions, but his motherly wife had unbounded confidence in his claims, fully sharing his belief that his abnormal experiences were divine favors and not the result of physical and mental disorder. His pubhc career as a preacher or prophet began in 612. He was banished and his beUevers compelled to seek safety from the mob in flight. After three years he was allowed to return to Mecca and resume his preaching of the doctrine of one God, for mon- otheism was about all there was to his original doc- trine. He made some converts, especially among merchants or "traveling men," from the city of Me- dina. In 619 his first convert and good wife died. He mourned deeply, but not as one who refuseth to be comforted, as he married several other wives, event- ually establishing an extensive harem. The famous Hegixa occurred September 20, 622. That was the flight of the prophet and his followers from Mecca to Medina, two hundred and fifty miles north. The Mohammedan era dates from that flight, as the Christian era does from the birth of Jesus. At Medina he bnilt a mosque and set about estabhshing a distinct religion on a large scale. Hitherto he had aimed at refor- mation ratherthau sub- stitution. Not making very satisfactory prog- ress by moral suasion, he appealed to the sword and war was de- clared against sur- rounding tribes, Jews and Christians. In 623 he was successful in a battle with the Mec- cans, and later had some reverses, but on the whole made very considerable progress, and secured quite favor- able terms of peace in 628. About this time the sword-bearing prophet opened negotiations with foreign oriental courts and began to be a notable person in Arabia. The Meccans did not observe the terms of peace, and in the next campaign he succeeded in capturing the city. In 632 he made his last great pilgrimage to Mecca, this time attended by an army of forty thousand and a seraglio of ten wives (he had fourteen in all). In June of that year the prophet died at Medina, leaving no son to reap what he had sown, his only cliild being Fatima, the wife of Ali, of whom we shall speak later. At the death of this most remarkable man, his sV <5 «^ THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 197 follo-\rers were without a leader, and tlie religion lie founded might well have been thought to be in a very precarious condition, and no one cer- tainly could have indulged a dream of sjilendid empire for his disciples. But to-day those dis- ciples number nearly t\vo hundred millions, oc- cupying southeastern Europe, southwestern Asia, and the northern half of Africa, while the magnifi- cent empire which he founded fills a large place in history ; both religion and emioire having always had for corner-stone and inspirational belief the simj)le declaration, " There is no God but God, and Mo- hammed is his prophet." The real strength of Islam was in these two ideas ; first, the time of one's death is immutably fixed ; second, heaven is the reward of the brave soldier of the Crescent, and liell the destiny of the coward. Mohammed and liis immediate successors were able to muster armies of actual Iselievers in these two ideas. If one Avere fully convinced of the truth of those ideas, he would be undismayed by danger and afi-aid of nothing but cowardice. His bravery would be in jaroportion to the complete- ness of his faith. In the entire history of man- kind there was never an army imbued with convic- tions so peculiarly favorable to the martial spirit as were the disciples of Islam. The heaven and the hell of Mohammedanism are not dim and shadowy. On the contrary, the heaven promised was just such a paradise as the voluptuous oriental nature would most ardently long for. The angels were not harp- ists without passion or sex, but beauteous young women, all smiles and tenderness, while hell was torture, veritable, physical, endless and most excru- ciating. So long as the natural reason of the Saracen could be blindfolded by his religion he was absolutely invinciljle in arms. But sucli jireposter- ous notions cannot hold absolute sway always. Gradually the Saracen came to feel at heart, what- ever his surface belief, that life is worth living, and that to throw it away on an uncertainty would be foohsh. The original zeal and faith of the Mo- hammedans could not survive after the first heat of novelty had cooled off. At tlic time Mohammed was born, there were two powerful empires and emperors, Justin II., who iiiled at Constantinople over the Byzantine Empire, and Koshroes II., King of Persia. The Byzan- tine posspssinns in Asia cnnsistod of Afia Minor, S}Tia, part of Armenia, Southeastern Persia, extended over a vast and illy defined Eastern terri- tory and as far west as the Mediterranean and ^Egean seas. In one of these empires Christ was worsliiped ; in the other Zoroaster was revered as the great teacher of religion. Moliammed saw in both religious idolatry, and boldly did his Saracens attack both. The Arabian peninsula lay on the confines of botli empires, and the desert was the impregnable wall of protection from both. The Arabs were greatly improved in morals by Mohammedanism. They had been much given to drunkenness and gambling, but Mohammed radically and permanently cured them of botli. His disci- ples have always remained true to his teachings on temj^erance. It is only fair to add that Mohammed did more for the cause of temperance than all otlu i reformers in that Une combined have ever lieen able to accomplish. Those who see in di-unkenness the supreme curse of Christendom must be tempted to regret tlie failure of the Saracens, and later the Moors and Tui-ks, to overrun and possess Europe. Mohammed did something to lessen the social vice of his people. The old Arabs were grossly licentious. He did indeed allow a man to be the husband of four wives, but that wixs a restriction as compared with previous practices, and some improvement uji- on irregular libertinism. The Koran, which he jireteuded to receive by the inspiration of God, is held in the greatest possible veneration by his disciples. It is a jumble of pre- cepts and statements, without method and often without sense. It cannot be summarized. As Canon Kingsley said of it, " After all, tlie Koran is not a book, but an irregular collection of Moham- med's meditations and notes for sermon-s." It is neither a creed, a code, a diary nor a history. It is a scrap-book of otlds and ends put together some time after the prophet's death by Abu-Bekr. The Saracen's faitli, however, reipiircs the acceptauce of the Koran ivs the gift of God tlirough Moliammed to man, of an eternal, uncreated, perfect and all- sullicicnt revelation. Every true Moslem Ixjliever has alway.'^ held that the Caliph or Vicar of tlie prophet was tlie lawful lonl of the world, but the prophet died without ap- pointing a successor. It was exiwctcd tliat the lui.*- band of his only child would \k apjjoiiitcd for the snnepssion, hut ^roliainmed's favorite wife. .\veRlia. :r -nit THE SARACEN EMPIRE. defeated this, and brought in lier father, Abu-Bekr. The first four Cahphs belong to a distinct period. They were, to name them in their order, Abu-Bekr, Omar, Othman and Ali ; tlie one who should have been first being last. The selection was by no de- fined method, but made in a hap-hazard way. For twelve years after the death of Mohammed — 633 to 644 — the Saracens were harmonious, and swift was the march of empire. Persia fell, and the Eastern empire tottered and was shorn of her oriental prov- inces. As if by magic, the Saracen empire rose to pre-eminence. Jerusalem, Antioch and the regions round about accepted the Crescent. The wealth of Persia and Syria were emptied into the coffers of Abu-Bekr, but he used it only for the cause of Is- lam. His personal habits were simple in the ex- treme. Medina was the first capital. It was after- wards located respectively at Damascus and Bagdad. The accession of Ali was the signal for the first real dis- sensions, and vain were all his endeavors t o reconcile the factions, lie died at the hand of a n assassin, and his rival, M o s w i j a h, succeeded The great AlObque of Dama cus , . „, latter founded an liereditary dynasty, one which lasted in the East a century, and in Sj^ain, to which it was driven, nearly three centuries more. It was called the Ommiad dynasty. The motto of the conquering Saracens was, " Ko- ran, tribute or sword," and so fierce were their on- slaughts, that the Koran was generally preferred to the sword, or even to tribute. On the very year of the proj)het's death, the invasion of both empires was begun, and nothing could resist the fanatics who saw in the spirit-land liouris beckoning the brave to bliss. Egyjit fell without a blow almost, glad of an excuse to change masters, and Syria was subjugated in six years. The northern portion of Africa, called Latin Africa, withstood the Crescent sixty years, but finally Ctesar and Christ were both displaced on the dark continent by Mohammed. Early in the eighth century the Ommiad sway was extended to India, hitherto independent of both Russian and Persian despotism, and unacquainted with Moses and Jesus. In 710 the Oxus was crossed and India subjected to the encroachments of the Saracens. The religion of the desert seemed to be very well adapted to the wants and tastes of the Hindoos, and now began the conversion of those terrible Moslems, the subjects of the Grand Turk and of the Great Mogul. A Saracenic province be- tween the Oxus and the Jaxartes developed later into what Freeman calls " the region whence issued in future ages the -vvarriors who planted the standard of Islam on the banks of the Ganges and the shores of the Adriatic, the proud Mogul of India and the terrible and abiding Ottoman of Europe." It was not long before the will of tlie Caliph was supreme from the remote Jaxartes to the Atlantic, a reach of empire beyond the dream of Alexander or Csesar. But there was one mighty rock which' said to the Saracen, " Thus far shalt thou go and no farther, and here shall thy proud waves be staid." That was Constantinople. From the first it had been espe- cially coveted. Repeated efforts to cajDture it were made to no avail. The first siege was in 673. In 711 tlie opportune moment seemed to have arrived. That year the Justinian dynasty became extinct at Constantinople, and the Caliphat at Damascus at- tained its utmost extent. But the city withstood the shock. Six j^ears later another Saracen army laid siege to Constantinople, but to no purpose. The Caliphate never won the golden ijrize. The city of Constantine remained the caj)ital of the Ro- man, or Greek, or Byzantine empire until a fiercer race of Mohammedans than the Saracens besieged it, namely, the Turks, or Ottomans, in 1453. When the Ommiad dynasty fell (750) the Cali- phate was divided, nevermore to be joined together. Prom that time the Crescent was no longer the. horned ensign of a united empire. During the Crusades all believers in the Koran were exhorted to join in war against the believers in the Bible, each branding the other as Infidels, and there was much the same unity under one standard as the other. Nothing aiDproaching political autonomy was secured under either the Cross or the Crescent. Henceforth the followers of Islam were divided in- to sects or nationalities, hostile to each other, much as Christians were and are. To follow these frag- ^ ^ THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 199 ments in their jargouic details would be foreign to the purposes of this volume. The Eastern Sara- cens liad Bagdad for their capital, the Western, Cordova in Spain. Of the Moors, the Turks and tlie Tartars, all in a certain sense Saracens, we shall have occasion to speak more specifically in connec- tion with Spain, Turkey and Russia. The warfare in any religious sense between the Cross and Cres- cent was continued until Ferdinand and Isabella, the patrons of Columbus, conquered the Moors, or Saracens, in Spain, their only foothold in the Western Empire. It was then felt that the dis- grace of the fall of Constantinople had been oflset, and the blood of unholy Holy Wars, was washed from Cross and Crescent forever. There has been some prejudice in the sanguinary discussion of tlie " Eastern question," but no war ori that distinctive issue. The fall of the Saracen empire might be jjlaced at the overthrow of the Ommiad dynasty, or it might be said to still survive wherever Moham- med is revered as Allah's prophet ; but it would, perhaps, be more proper still to say, that as the Turk planted himself at Constantinople, and the Great Mogul in India, the Saracen empire gradually faded into one or the other, and became indistin- guishaljle and finally extinct. Much has been said in these later j-ears of the in- debtedness of modern civilization to the Saracens. There is just enough truth in the claims set up to entitle the subject to some consideration. The Arabs were not inventors or originators of anything. Even the numerals which bear their name were bor- rowed by them from India. They were judicious approj^riators and zealous propagators. They learned a great deal from all the peoples whom they subju- gated. They cultivated a native literature rich in sentimental poetry and storie-s, and studied with avidity physical and metaphysical science as taught )jy and embraced in classic literature. No jjeople ever held literary e.xcollence in higher repute, a fact of vast inportance in stimulating letters. In as- tronomy, medicine, logic and tlie arts, useful and ornamental, the Saracens were far in advance of the Christians of medieval Europe. In tlie blackness of the Dark Ages the abundant scholarship of the* Saracens was largely instrumental in rescuing from destruction the wisdom and writings of the ancients. It did vastly more in this regard tlian did tlie sparse learning of the Christian monasteries, and for that service at least, if for no other particular reason, the civilization of to-day should hold the Crescent in grateful memory. 25 CHAPTER XXXIV. ^ The Three Empires of the East — Btzanthtm — The Empire Established— Its Area and Con- ^ 3EKVATISM— Justinian and Belisakius— Justinian and the Civil La-^'— Leo III. and the Iconoclasts— B A ziL and his Dynasty- The Comnenians and the Latin Crusaders— Palj30lo«i and the Turks — The Byzantine Empire and Europe. k i^< T is now time to revert to the Eastern, portion of the divided Eoman Empire, generally known as the By- zantine Empire. Follow- ing streams of intelligence which had their origin in the Eternal City, or were so closely connected with Eome and Italy as to demand attention before taking leave of the city of the seven hills, we have traveled a long way from Constan- tinople and the empires of the East. Beginning with the offshoot of Kome, following with the medieval, which was finally swallowed np by the third em- pire, we shall see that these three members of this historical family of nations, the Byzantine, the Saracen and the Otto- man empires, sustain peculiarly intimate relations to each other. Some seven centuries and a half before the Christian era, a Greek colony estabhshed a city up- on the Thracian Bosphorus, on the site of the Mod- ern Constantinople. It was called Byzantium. It was a thrifty commercial town, and that is about all that can be said of it, never acquiring any real importance in history. A thousand years after its ►- ;H establishment, Constantino the Great saw its geo- graphical advantages as the capital of a great em- pire of inter-continental importance, and gave to it a new name and a new destiny. That was in the year 330. Then, for the first time, that now his- toric spot became worthy the attention of history. There was no Byzantine history of any importance until Byzantium ceased to exist. But it was still later before the Byzantine empire came into being. Constantine made his metropoli- tan namesake the cajjital of the undivided Roman empire. That empire was definitely divided by Theodosius the Great in the year 395, when the emperor assigned the western portion to his son Honorius, and the eastern to the elder brother, Ar- cadius. This eastern empire, sometimes called the Greek, sometimes the Eastern, and sometimes the Byzantine, proved the great conservator during the medieval ages, of both Greek and Roman civilization. While nearly all Europe was in the throes of a new life, and the rude barbarism of the North and West was amalgamating with the culture of the old world, thus forming a Modern Europe, there stood upon the Bosj^horus a mighty city which preserved Roman law and Greek literature until such time as the West had fairly started upon the highway of modern progress. The Byzantine em- pire was the great conservator of the joast, while ^- (200) ^V^ THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 20I the present was being evolved. The civil institu- tions were Roman ; the language emploj-ed, Greek. This medieval empire comjjrised, substantially, modern Turkey, Greece and Egypt. Sometimes the area was extended, sometimes contracted,accord- ing to tlie fortunes of war. The imperial crown was elective, and more than one great military hero found the army a stepping-stone to the throne. Owing to the natural strength of Constantinople, it was easy to defend it against assault. It is said to liave withstood no less than twenty sieges. The extent of its domain varied frequently, but for centuries, lost territory was generally recovered. The empire cared little for in- crease of do- main, but was pecuharly te- nacious in the maintenance of its natural ancient boun- daries. It was the object of envious attack on all sides, and to hold its own was quite enough, and, as it proved, even more than could be accomplished permanently. The first Byzantine emperor of renown was Jus- tinian. His uncle, Justin, had come to the throne early in the sixth century, rising from a Thracian shepherd lad to the imperial purple, through mih- tary genius. Justin was the David of the dynasty, and his nephew its Solomon. From 537 to 56.5, Justinian wore the imperial crown. It was a splen- did reign. By him was erected the magnificent edifice, the cathedral, now Mosque of St. Sopliia. In the field he had the services of Belisarius, who ranks with Hannibal, Marlborough and Wellington, if not witli Alexander, Gresar and Napoleon. Bcli- sarius lived to experience tlio ci-uol ingratitude of the govei-nment he had served so well, 'i'rnditioii represents him as a blind beggar in bis old age. Ho n-aiiied sjilcndid virtorios over the Persians in the East, the Vandals in Africa, the Goths in Italy, and insurgents at home ; but he was never popular with the beautiful but vicious queen Theodora, and his misfortunes were due to her machinations. Justinian enriched his empire with the .spoUs of conquered nations, and still more by the development of manufactures, agriculture and commerce. But the great glorj' of this illustrious reigu was neither miUtary, industrial nor commercial. It waa legal. That grandest of all monuments to and embodi- ments of the science of law. Corpus Juris CivilU, constitutes his higlaest claim to the gratitude of the world. Til at work is the Roman code, revised and edited by a corps of able lawyers, mth Tribonian as editor-in-chief. It consists of four parts, the Pandects or Digest; tlie Code ; the In- stitutes, and the Xovells, or supplemental edicts. It wa.s some five hun- dred years Ix;- fore the stupendous work became known to the nations west of the Byzantine empire, but for several centuries it has formed and still forms the basis of jurisprudence all over the couti- nent of Eurojie. England has always had a com- mon law peculiar to itself, and France is mainly guided in legal matters liy the Code Xapoleou, but the civil law, as expounded in the CorpuxJurU Cirih's, is to the rest of Europe what Blackstone's Commeu- taries are to English jurisimulcucc. In 71S Tjco III. ii^cended the Byzantine throne. \\"\\\\ him liegan the reigu of the Iconoclasts. For about one century there raged a fierce coutroversy over the worship of images. The priests and tlio peasantry clung to this sjiecies of idolatry, while tlic government sternly opposed it. Iconoclasm was, bowovor. :i ];v SERAGLIO POINT, CONSTAMTrNOPLE. bun as from the plague, taking their ci\ilization with them westward. The cajiture of Constantinoj)le was followed by other iinportant victories of the Crescent in East- ern Europe. During the next hundred years the Ottoman empire attained the summit of its power, and Greece and Arabia were soon added to the do- main of the Porte. The Saracen empire had cnim- bled away, and the Moors were being pushed out of Spain. The strength of Islam was this new king- dom of the Bosphorus. It was under the third Sultan of Staiuboul, Soly- man the Magnificent, that the Ottoman empire reached its jiighest point of greatness. His rule extended from 1520 to lofJO. He was a statesman with all wliich that implies. Educated, teniiieratc, patriotic and philosophical, he had llic fire and at times tlie ferocitv "f hi- rare He .picllcil insurrcr- pean conf|uest was baffled. He died during a cam- paign in Hungary, and witli his death the decline of tlie Ottoman empire began. From that time until nearly the close of the eiglitecntii century, tlie Turk w:i.s the almost con- stant terror of his Christian neighbors. lUussia, Hun- gary, Poland, Austria and Italy were frequently ini- broilcd in war witlitlie Ottoman, and all Euri>iH> felt somewliat ajijjreliensive of Crescent ascemlancy. Tlie records of those wars are monotonous uud un- iiistrnctivc, blood and misery licing terms suggestive of the jjcriod. Late in the cighlopiith century a groat cliango was wrouglit. Catharine of Russia sot lior licart upon ilividing Turkey with .\ustria. a-s slie had Poland witli .\ustria and Pru.-vsia, and waged relentless war in furtlieranco o£ tlii.s design. The rest of EuruiK! liad allowed a Christian country to lie dismcmiiornil. and siirclv. sbo thonglil. would iml 26 Jdl J- 208 THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. object to the expulsion of Islam from the continent. But that was a miscalculation. England and France became alarmed at the strides of Germany and Russia, especiallj' the later, and when Turkey was at the mercy of the Hapsburg and tlie EomanofE, they interfered and secured for the Sultan terms of peace whicli substantially guaranteed the autonomy of the Ottoman empire. From that time the Turk has retained his Eu- roptean foothold by the friendly interposition of the Anti-Eussian powers. Not that the Ottoman ap- peals to the sympathy of those nations, but simply tliat so long as the Sultan of a peoj)le who have lost all aggressive am- bition rules at Constantino-' pie, the " bal- ance of power" is safe. Turkey for the last cen- tury has sim- ply beena mere puppet, mov- ing as the great nations pull the string, and dependent for bare existence upon tlie suf- ferance born of mutual jealousy. Some show of in- dependent action is kept up, but it is the veriest show in the world. Turkey is a charity empire, a monu- ment of the sparing grace of its peculiar position. It admits of no division. That is, Constantinople does not admit of division, and its position is so very commanding, that the nations are not willing to have it added to the strength of any of their neigh- bors. Such in its history and prosjDCcts is Turkey, viewed from an international standpoint. The 23opulation consists mainly of Christians who abhor their masters and long for deliverance. Those Christians are nearly all members of the Greek church, or at least distinct from both the Papacy and Protestantism. There are a good many Protest- ant missionaries in Turkey Their labors are con- fined to fellow Christians, the Turk proper being impervious to the darts of occidental propagandists. Of literature, Turkey can boast nothing worthy of note, either in the |)ast or the present. In the higher ranges of civilization the Ottoman finds nothing congenial. The Saracen could fight as well and also easily enter into the intellectual life of the world. The reigning Sultan of Turkey is Abdul-Hamid II., who succeeded to the tlirone on the deposition of his elder brother, Murad V., in 1876. He is the thirty-fifth in male descent from the founder of the empire, Othman, and twenty-eighth since Constan- tinople was conquered by the Turk. The royal residence is the seraglio, or harem, and this residence, notwithstand- ing the bank- rupt condition of the imjjeri- al treasury, is maintained at enormous ex- pense. The will of the Sul- tan is absolute. Forms of constitutional limit- ations upon the arbitrary authority of the Sultan have been adopted recently, but in point of fact the legislative and executive departments of the government are in the hands of his sublime highness, and the functions of law are directed by two officers, the Grand Vizier, who looks after secu- lar affairs, and the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the head of the church. There is a body or class known as the Ulema which comprises the " Mufte," or inter- preters of the Koran, the judges and high function- aries of the law. " Bey " is a general term, applying to all important civil officers, while " Paslia " is the designation of tax gatherers and other officers who are both military and civic in function. A minis- terial council, or cabinet, called the '• Divan," exists, comprising eight ministerial departments, namely. NEW PALACE OF THE SULTAN, CONSTANTINOPLE. ■r .=k THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 209 War, Finance, Marine, Commerce, Public Works, Police, Justice and Education. Prior to tlie war with Russia in 1877, or rather to the treaty of Berlin in 1878, the area of the em- pire was 1,742,874 square miles and the population, something in excess of 38,000,000. That treaty gave Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria - Hungary, made the states of Bulgaria and Eastern Roumclia semi-independent, and added somewhat to the terri- tory of Roumania, Servia and Montenegro, so that now the territory is estimated at 1,116,848, and the population at 31,000,000. Turkey in Europe was reduced about one-half, in both territory and pop- ulation. It now consists of 63,038 square miles, population 4,375,000. Turkey in Asia comprises a territory of 710,.330, mth a population of 15,71.5,- 000 ; Turkey in Africa, 344,500 square miles, pop- ulation, 1,010,000. A recent writer says, "All con- sular and other reports agree in stating that the native population of every part of the Turkish em- pire is fast declining, in many provinces at sucli a rate that the formerly cultivated lauds are falling into the condition of deserts. Want of security for life and property, an anarchical yet extortionate administration, and a general absence of all nu)ral and material progress, are given as the prinei^jal reason for tlie rapid decrease of the population." The same writer, in speaking of education in the Ottoman empire, observes that " public schools have been long established in most considerable Turkisli towns, while ' medresses,' or colleges, with j)ubUc libraries, are attached to the ^-eater number of the principal mosques. But the instruction af- forded by these establishments is rather limited. The pupils are chiefly taught to read and write the first elements of the Turkish language; the class-books being the Koran, and some commenta- ries upon it. In the ' medresses,' which are tlae col- logcs (ir schools of the ulcmas, the pupils are in- stnu'tud in Arabic and Persian, and learn to decipher aiul write the different sorts of Turkish characters. Tlio instruction comprises philosojihy, logic, rhet- oric, and morals founded on tlic Koran ; and tliesc, with theology, Turkish law, and a few lessons on historv and geography, complete the course of study."' The railways of the empire have a total lengtli (if about 1.000 miles. The national debt is nearly ¥1,000.000,000, and the national credit is at an ex- ceedingly low ebb, and the paper money of the em- pire amounts to about ^jvl 50,000,000. In every point of view Turkey is in a moribund state. The coun- try is rich in resources, but for the most part those resources are undeveloped. We cannot better close this cliapter than by an excerpt from MacKenzie's History of the I'Jth Cen- tury. It runs thus : "The Turks conduct the affairs of the people whom they concjuered on the princi- ples of a hostile military occupation rather than a government. The deijotism of the sultan is abso- lute and unrestrained. All life and property be- long to him, and the Christian population must vindicate by an annual payment of money their claim to the elementary jjrinlege of living. AVlien tlio sultan requires theu' property he can send and take it. The people have no defense in law, and, by the principles on which the government is founded, none in right. But the sultan is not by any means their worst enemy. Men purchase from liim the privilege of collecting taxes, and having paid the purchase-money, they are at liberty to inflict upon their victims such pei'sonal violence as may be deemed necessary to enforce tlic yielding up of their available means. JIagistrates, judges, and government servants of every degree plunder at will for their own jwrsonal benefit. Everj- post, high and low, has been purchased by its holder, whose single aim in discharging its duties is to en- rich himself at the expense of tliose over wlioni he has gained atithority. Any trader who incurs the perilous suspicion of being rich, any proprietor of a good estate, may be put to deatli on a slight pre- text, and his pos.sessions ,«eized. Any Turkish rufliaii may mth impunity assault or munler a Cliristinu. A good Mohammedan reganls it as his right and duty to Idll a Cliristiau wlieu lie has opportunity. The evidence of a Christian against a Turk is not received in a court of law. A Turk can legally steal Christian children and forcibly convert theai to Islamisni. Tlie frightful jirinoiple of slave- owning law is j)ractically in force in the Ottoinau dominion — no Christian has any rights which a Turk is bound to respect. The only «!curity of the people is to conceal their wealth and simmu tolw poor. Under tho sway of the Turk the upiiearancc of poverty is rarely deceptive." ■^-. The Dawn of Eussian History— Novgorod, the Great Ebpublic— Grand Princes from EuRiK to Ibor— Olga's Eevenge and Piety— Vladimir and the Introduction of Chris- tianity — Yaroslaf and his Code — Four Centuries of Progress — Genghis Khan and the Golden Horde— The Itans— Peter the Great— Catharine the Great- Moscow and Na- poleon-Alexander I. AND the Holy Alliance— Nicholas and the Crimean War— Alex- ander II. AND THE Serfs— Nihilism— Siberia— Present Condition of Eussia— Greek Church in Russia. ^-^®^«-^ HE great territory of Rus- sia first j)resents itself to the historic ken in A. D- 862. All previous events in that vast region must forever remain matter of conjecture. The first ob- ject which greets the eye is the best. Russia's aurora fills with astonisliment the student of the past, unprejiarecl to discover in that far-away land and time a vigorous republic, Novgorod, call- ed "the reiDubhcan mother of a most despotic empire." This dawn of history was the slowly fading twilight of a liberty wliose day was clothed in mist, and whose last lingering ray was darkened by the night of des- potism. Novgorod the Great, not the great despoiler, but tlie great rej)ublic, preceded the great empire. Speaking of this period of early dawn, yet evening, Karamsin says : " At that time the great rejDublic had become so j)owerful that it was a common saying among its neighbors, 'Wlio can dare oppose God and Novgorod the Great?' Its commerce," he con- tinues, " extended to Persia, India, and to Constan- tinople." The nations around were its tributaries, but unfortunately between it and the Baltic Sea, which was its principal chaunel of communication with the rest of the world, were the unfriendly and barbaric Varangians, and the Baltic itself swarmed with Norman pirates. Novgorod dared not attempt unaided the subjugation of two such formidable en- emies, and weary of constant depredations upon her commerce, allied herself with one against the otlier. Rurili, Prince of Varangia — the first name in Rus- sian history — was invited with his two brothers to defend the Republic against the Normans. This was a dangerous e.Kperiment. Rurik used his power, as might have been expected, and became, after the death of his two brothers. Grand Prince of Russia, for from that time it really became a nation, al- thougli it was several centuries before the empire. Rurik's administration continued fifteen years. He was certainly a very great ruler, but unfortunate- ly imbued with the spirit of despotism ; a perfect specimen of barbaric greatness ; brave, crafty, insa- tiable, adventurous, and capable of the most savage treachery. He might well have been the ideal and model of most subsequent rulers of Russia, doing (2T0) RUSSIA. 211 all iu his power to supplant the arts of peace witli the ferocity of wai'. Iu liis reign began tlie agita- tion by sword and treaty of the never-ending East- ern question. Like all wlio came after liim, he wanted Constantinople, the key of the Bosphorus, and like them he failed to get it. His immediate successor, Igor, was his close imitator, and lost his life while collecting taxes in the usual way, by tak- ing au army around with him. His widow, Olga, became regent. Fal)ulous tales are told of her revenge upon the slayers of her hus- band. After gratifying her vengeance she visited her northern dominions, wliere her first enterprise was to build towns, a favorite pastime with Russian mlers. In other countries towns grow ; in Russia they are made to order. She regulated if she did not reduce the taxes, and most of all, she divided the land into commons. Here is the first men- tion of that famous institution, the Com- mune, and it is un- fortunate that more particulars are not given of its infancy, which contributed in l«ople by sacrificing not only a human being but a Russian. The choice fell upon the son of a Chris- tian. The father refusing to give him up, both were killed. They have been canonized by the Russian church as its only martyrs. It appears almost incredible that Christianity should have met with no .serious resistance among these pagans, when in all other lands it has caused or been the cause of streams of blood and misery unimaginable. Vlad- imir's greatness awakened the zealots of four relig- ious, the Greeks, the Romans, the Jews, and the Mohammedans; each striving to convert liim to tlieir own system of ceremonies — one can hardly say worship. He ap- pointed a commiitee of b(jyars — a class of noblemen — to in- vestigate them all and report. After due consideration this cool convert adopted the Greek faitli, influenced more by the example of his ancestress Ol- ga — who was called the wi.sest of mortals — than by tlie rejiort of the committee. Having made his de- KUSSIAN POST-HOUSE. After many other measures favor of the argument for woman in politics, Olga became desirous of em- bracing Cliristianity. In order to do so she repaired to Constantinople where she was led to the baptismal font by the emperor liimself. Tliere were already some Christians iu Russia, but even Olga's example failed to make it fashionable ; her own sou, who was to succeed her, holding her religion in contempt. He was, however, a noble character, as the chronicles at- test, but was early killed in war with their old and ever new enemies, tlie Turks. Tlie empire, or rather the nation, whicii was still composed of principalities and republics, was then divided, and civil war followed between the different rulers. One of these, Vladimir of Novgorod, con- quered the other princes, his brothers, and reunited and enlarged Russia. For his victories lie dcter- iiiiticd to return thanks to tlio ancient gods of hi-- cision, he experienced no little difficulty in getting himself baptized in a manner sufficiently sen- sational to satisfy liis barbaric highness. It was necessary to go to war, take a city, and abduct a bishop that the ceremony might be performed in his own country. Once in the church himself, his troubles were ended. A general onler was given that all should apjjear on the bank of the river and lie liaptized. Nobody objected — and so the ]iresent religion of Russia was establisheil. Tiio giiiiifnl national church recognizes S^ladimir, its founder, as co-e(iual with tlie Ajwstles. He is said to have raised Russia to its highest i>rimitive glory: but unwarned by the piist, unito other European powers, and bound the higli eon tracting parties to exclude forever every mom her of the Bonaparte family from any throne in Euroixj, also to stand by each other in tlie inaint«naucc of their royal ])rerogativos and the general peace. Ho affected great respect for pliiK)Sophy. It was during the reign of this czar that the city of JIoscow came prominently before the world. Tliis court capital of Russia lies 400 miles southeast of St. Petersburg. Founded iu the t\relfth ceutun" ■^" 214 RUSSIA. it was the capital until I'i'l.S when Peter the Great removed to the city which he built and named in Ms own honor. It is esteemed as a sacred city by the devout Cossacks. To its inhabitants belongs the honor of striking Napoleon a blow from which he never recovered. When he marched the French army tliither in 1812, expecting to winter there, they had the heroism to set fire to it and flee. It contained then nearly 10,000 houses and over 250,000 inhabitants. ISTajJoleon found barely 12,000 people clinging to the burnt city, and he was obhged to retrace his stejDs. No less than 8 75 can- nons aban- doned by the French when they retreated are now treasur- ed in the ar- senal at Mos- cow as tro- ^^,>< VIEW OF THE KREMLIN. phies of that triumph by fire. The central part of the city, the KremHn, stands upon a hill and is surrounded by a massive waU with lofty towers, and consists of churches, palaces and other public edifices. " As seen from a distance," says a recent visitor, "the Kremlin seems to form one gigantic but bewilderingly fantastic pile." The great conflagration already mentioned raged from the 14th to the 21st of September. It was not until the great fire at Chi- cago on the 9th of October, 1871, that the world wit- nessed another conflagration upon so large a scale. Upon the death of Alexander I.Nicholas I. came to the throne. This stern despot ruled from 1825 to 1855. He had an inordinate faith in Russian prowess, verily beheving that his country was able to defy all Europe. Under his influence the na- tional pride rose to an absurd heiglit. A pretext for a war upon Turkey, having for its object the capture of Constantinople, was sought and found. The war in the Crimea was the result. The Crimean war was a conflict in which were arrayed against Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy and Turkey. It began in the fall of 1853. The combined fleets of England and Prance entered the Black Sea, and the natural supremacy of Russia in those waters was permanently lost. Sevastopol, the stronghold of the Russians in the Crimea, was bombarded, and finally evacuated. On the 25th of October, 1854, was fought the battle of Balakla- va, and elev- en days later the victory of Inkermann was won. Hostilities continued until Febru- ary, 1856, when an ar- mistice was concluded, followed in March by the treaty of Par- is, which ter- minated the conflict. The su if eri ngs and the losses general won No of the Allies in camp were terrible, renown in that war. Florence Nightin- gale, an English la- dy of phi- lanthropic disposition becamefa- mous the world over for her ef- ficient zeal in caring forthesick and woun- ded. She AiEiANDEK II. (1855). may well be called the angel of the hospital. The "7 RUSSIA. 215 ereat Saiiitarv Comiuissiou of the American civil war was a sublime product of her kindly geuius. The first distinctive policy of the successor to Nicholas, Alexander II., was tlie liberation of the serfs, which was acconipUshed in 1861. To that great act of justice the Ozar was driven by two con- whicli in the spring of 1881, culminated in the as- sassination, after rei)eated failures, of tlie ven,' Czar whose fiat had liberated the serfs. Between eman- cipation and assassination occurred another war with Turkey, with no advantage to the Cossack. The other powers occupied a position of armed •? SEVASTOPOL DURING THE BOMB.VRDMENT OP THE ALLIED FORCES, + ^ ^ -r (sf-' Q siderations, in themselves hostile, — regard for liberal sentiment, and fear of the progressive nobility and educated class. Imperialism felt the need of the good will of the fifty millicjn laboring ehisses as a safeguard against the increasing and importunate demand for representative government. The absolutism of the throne was in danger. The emancipation of the serfs threw a halo around imperialism in Russia that blinded for a time the dimmed eyes of liberty, but tlie banisliment during tlic last twenty years of twenty tliousand subjects to the desolate wilds and liorrible mines of Siberia has dispelled all illusion, and created a state of affairs absnbU^'lv awful, and ^^ neutralit}', taking good care that tlie Russian bear sliould not make his lair in the city of Oonstantine. The latest phase of Russian affairs is Niliilism. To understand tlie creed of tlic Nihilists it is only necessary to recall the meaning of nihil — iiotliiii;/. Its father, Michael Bakumiu, says, " Our first work must be anniliilaiioii, and when once the floods rise take heed that no ark be allowed to rescue any atom of this old world which we consecrate to de- stniction." Tlie prominent victims of this destruc- tion arc Ood, governmeut, marriage, and proix?rty. and with these gone what would there 1x5 left? It is a frenzied anxiety to overtlirow absolute despot- -7 l\' J- 216 RUSSIA. ism, and can only be palliated by tbe reflection that " the destroyer of weeds, thistles and thorns is a benefactor, -whether he soweth gxaiu or not." The present Czar, Alexander III., is virtually a prisoner in the palace, so constant and great is his apprehen- sion of peril from the Nihilists. Dynamite is the Bastile -which deprives him of all real liberty. The northern portion of Asia, Siberia, is a dis- tinct and notable part of the Enssian empne. The Ural mountains and the river of the same name divide it from Eussia in Europe. On the south it has no -well-defined boundary, being pushed do-wn- -ward farther and farther upon every pretext. The Arctic Ocean is its northern limit, and the Pa- cific its eastern. It has an area of something over four niilhous and a half square miles, and a popu- lation of over three millions, three hundred thou- sand. Eussian and Polish exiles and their descen- dants form three-fourths of the population. As early as the seventeenth century the policy of ban- ishment to those desolate polar regions -was adopted by the Eussian government. At first heretics ivere sent there in punishment of their dissent from the orthodox Greek church. Instead of burning her- etics at the stake or massacring them, the Eussian government transported them. Entire communi- ties of Protestants (for such they really -were) -were sometimes forced to remove to Siberia and kept there. Then political ofEenders were banished there, and that pohcy is still maintained. Vast numbers of Poles have from time to time been com- pelled to cast in their lot with the Siberians. Nihil- ists, if not executed, are driven thither in large chain-gangs, suffering terribly on the long and ar- duous jou.rney. Ordinary criminals are consigned to the same fate. The Ural, Altai and other moun- tains are rich in the precious metals, and the mines are worked by the prisoners. Terrible are the hardships of these worse than galley slaves. The government derives large revenue fj.-om these mines. The trade in Arctic furs is very considerable. The native Cahnucks are rude savages. Eeindeers abound in Siberia. The balance of trade is in favor of Eussia, yet singarlar as it may seem, it is a liberal exporter of specie. The mints of the empire turn out on an average $10,000,000 in gold coin and $5,000,000 in silver coin each year. More than two-thirds of this coinage flows out of the country, and has done so for at least a decade. The paper money of the country amounts to $890,000,000. The national debt, inclusive of this paper money, is $3,410,000,- 000. In Eurojjean Eussia the death rate and birth rate are both higher than any where else on the continent. Russia produces food enough to feed 90,000,000 of people, or ten million in excess of the actual population. It has fifteen thousand miles of railroad, constructed, however, with reference to mil- itary necessity more than commercial convenience. The national churcli of Eussia is the Greek church. The Emperor is now the head of it , and next to him ranks the Holy Synod, composed of seven bishops. Originally the head of the church was the Patriarch at Constantinople. When the Ottoman empire superseded the Byzantine, and the Moslem took the place of the Christian on the Bos- phorus, a Eussian patriarch was appointed by the Czar. That was in the sixteenth century. But Peter the Great arrogated to himself supreme ec- clesiastical authority, abolishing the patriarchy and instituting the synod. No change has been made since his day in the spiritual rule of the country, except that other religious have been tolerated of late years. Strictly orthodox in doctrines, as judged from a distinctively Greek point of view, the Eussian church is entirely independent and national in polity. t^mi^A >\ 1^ ,(a^^ggfe(^;"^Cife.-^'^^^ufe. -^ '^Ufe. -c:> ^^^1^1 ^■■^JBBBCTiW ii i^POLAND rfA? POLES, f ^Jj^ZKiJ^JNJdKdiSEZC: CHAPTER XXXVII. Stmpatht for Poland—First Appearance of the Poles— Polish Age op Fable— The His- torical Era begins— Casimir the Restorer, and Casimir the Great— Feudalism in Po- land — Elective Monarchy or Monarchical REPtmLic — Mode and Place of Election — Foreign Influence— John Sobieski— Anarchy and Intervention — Stanislas, and the Neighboring Great Powers— St. Petersburg and Warsaw — Fall of the Republic- Kosciusko AND the 'War for National Life— Polish Characteristics— The Indignation OF THE World — Russian Policy — Pan-Slavonic Dream— Polish Literature — Paul Sobo- LESKi ON Poland— Polish Jews— Religious Persecution. 5^^-«-^oc^*-^ m 0. ^'. T is imjiossible to tliiuk of Russia without being re- minded of Poland. The cue will suggest the other ^ . to every intelli- t?»^ gent mind. On the map of the ^^)«or world Poland --"V'.Jwuo longer exists ; *=ji/ but the Poles are 3;^ a very positive \iU^ and distinctive fe^ people. They have a country, denationalized, crushed and despairing, still a sharply defined part of the territory iif Europe. Its history is full (.f jiathos, its fate euHsting the sympathies of every tender soul, or even approximately respectable lieart. Tlic Poles first came within the vision of liistory ;is the PoJani in the fiftli ccntun'. Tlicy are a prom- inent brancli of tlie great Slavonic family, and ])ri- marily occupied tlie broad plain between the rivers Odor and Vistula. The name itself means in its original root [poht^kd) a plain. Poland may be called tlio ]irairio of Europe, or rather, it is tlie nearest ap- proach to a prairie (except in some resjiects Holland), that Europe can boa.st. There are largo tracts of sand and morass, also broad reaches of forest, l)ut as a whole, the countr}- is well adapted to agriculture. Its waters flow into cither the Baltic or the Black sea. The area of the land of the Poles is about 282.000 square miles. At tlie time of the first dismemberment of the kingdom (1773) the population wsus estimated at 12,000.000, mostly farmers, enjoying a comparative thrift, feeding immense herds of cattle, liorscs and I - 1 7 ) ■V' 2l8 POLAND AND THE POLES. d^ swine, and cultivating a wide area of rye, barley and wheat. That such a people should have been so com- pletely subjugated, is one of the miracles of history. Like all countries, Poland had its age of fable. It dates from the ducal reign of Lech I., in the middle century. In some chronicles the country is called Leclda. About one hundred years later flourished Wenda, the Queen Elizabeth of the Poles. She was so tenacious of her sovereignty that she declined all offers of marriage. Her seat of government was Cra- cow, named in honor of Cracus, a ruler whose mem- ory is still revered in Polish tradition. There were many other legendary sovereigns, petty and shadowy. The historical era began in 962 with Miecislas I., the fifth prince of the house of Piast. He intro- duced Christianity, being compelled to do so as a part of the price of the hand of the Hungarian Princess Dombrowka. The marriage and the bap- tism occurred the same day. The nest step was to force the rite of baptism upon the peoj)le, and it was not a difficult thing to do. The old faith sat lightly upon the nation, and gave way almost without a struggle. The second of the Christian kings, Bo- leslas I., made the Pohsh arm feared throughout Hungary, Germany, and even in Italy and France. Eussia crossed swords with him, led on by Vladimir the Great. He has well been called " the true foun- der of his country's greatness." He was succeeded by Miecislas II., an idle and vicious imbecile. It was under his reign, however, that the land was divided into Palatinates, each presided over by a local judge. That was certainly an important step in the right direction. He died in 1034. For seven years the Poles were kingless. The interregnum was prolific of great evils. Despotism is better than anarchy, too much government than none at all. The late king had left behind him a queen and an infant son. The former tried to sway the scepter, but was so very unpopular that she was obhged to leave the country. She took with her the heir to the throne, Casimir. At first he was not much missed, but as the horrors of anarchy increased, the desire for the restoration of the royal family increased. After six or seven years the lost heir was recovered. It was a long time before the iiother would disclose his hid- ing-place. For three centuries the stream of Polish history flows ou, turbulent, turgid and monotonous. Dur- ing all that time nothing occurred, according to the records, which challenges special attention. From Casimir I. to Casimir III. was nearly three centu- ries, but nothing will be lost in crossing that dreary waste with eyes closed in sleep. The first Casimir was called the Kestorer, the second the Great, and great he surely was. As a reformer his genius shone resplendent. Brigandage was checked, and every form of violence held in some restraint. Casimir was not content with temporary measures. He es- tabhshed the reign of law. A convention was called by him to frame a code. This was a very impor- tant step. That system of laws had all the defects of feudalism, but was a very great advance over irresponsible and unbridled absolutism. The Poles were early divided into three classes : nobles, peas- ants and burghers, or town-folk, and for each the law was different. The laboring class felt the ex- treme rigor of serfage ; the nobles were arrogant, idle and lawless, the burghers industrious, independent and mildly aggressive. In the growth of the coun- try the cities took the lead. One especial reason of tliis was the fact that Casimir was the great patron of industry. The artisans flocked to the PoUsh towns and found profitable em^jloyment. From that time Poland found place among the more pro- gressive and prosperous nations of Europe. From the very first, feudahsm was exceptionally strong in Poland, and the nobility never neglected an opportunity to enhance the power of their class. The kings were gradually reduced in authority un- til they became little else than putty in the hands of the nobles. With the accession of Casimir IV., 1445, Poland may be said to have passed from a monarchy to a republic. To our political concep- tions it is inconsistent to speak of a country as be- ing both a repubhc and a kingdom ; but such the land of the Poles became in the middle of the fif- teenth century, so remaining until the nation itself was blotted out. Upon the death of a king the lords would meet to elect a successor. The first 'distinctively elective king (for so aggressive had the nobility become that the positive claim of right to determine the royal succession came almost as a matter of course) Casimir IV., was Grand Duke of Lithuania, and he did not want the crown. For a long time he evaded the unwelcome honors thrust upon him. It was not that he shrank from respon- sibility, but he hoped to extort concessions to the royal authority. In this he failed. The nobles a POLAND AND THE POLES. 219 compelled him to occujay the throne as their puppet rather than their ruler. And in all the subsequent history of Poland tlie kingly power was the shad- owy reflection of the aristocracy. Early in the sixteenth century a few burghers were admitted to the parliament of barons, and that was the recognition of the gi'owing iuiijortaucc of the citizen (using the term in its original signifi- cance.) In religious matters the influence of IIuss and Luther was very consideraljle, although re- pressed and finally sujipressed by ijersecutiou. Under the reign of Sigismund I. (1506 — 1548) leaders of the reformed faith were beheaded or ban- ished. That king lived to a great old age and was one of the great rulers of his age. Upon his death his son was chosen to fill his place. Hitherto the elective franchise was confined to a very narrow range. The kings were taken from the family of the Jagellos. "When the last member of that line died, the way was open to a wider range of choice. The nobles met in 1573 on the plains of Prague, on the bank of the Vistula, opposite Warsaw. Hereto- fore the selection of a new king had devolved upon delegates representing the aristocracy ; but now it was agreed that the entire body of the Equestrian order should be eligible to advice in the election. Thus tens of thousands of armed and mounted men were brought together to choose a ruler for life. " At the time ajj^jointed," says Ducloss, ''for the holding of the elective diet, such numbers of the nobles arrived that tlie circumference of the place (twelve miles in extent) where they were stationed by counties for the greater facility of collecting their suffrages, was scarcely able to contain them; and as tliey were all armed, they looked like men assembled to conquer a kingdom, rather than to exercise a peace- ful, deUberative privilege. In the center of a circle or koh, wa.s Lhe tent, cajmble of holding six thou- sand people, and in it the senators and ministers of the crown met for consultation." Tliis description applies specifically to the a-ssembly held upon the deatli of Sigismund H., the last of the Jagellos, but it is hardly less appreciable to the usual convo- cations at the recurrence of each interregnum. As a nuitter of course the meetinirs were turbulent, often bloody, and never free from imminent peril, ilany a titne before it finally fell the Republic of Poland tottered and rocked upon ils liaso, seeming to be on the verge of utter ilcstrudidn. Foreign as well as domestic princes were eligible to the throne. A Czar of Russia, Alexis, father of Peter the Great, was a candidate at one time. Tlie difficulty of an election was greatly increased by the veto power, inherent in the diet, by which the will of the majority could be nullified. Tliat fea- ture of the law of royal elections was finally aban- doned out of sheer necessity. For twenty-two years, from 1074 to 109G, Poland was under the rule of a truly great man, John Sobies- ki. He nobly earned tlie crown by having been his country's best defender in many an hour of danger. It was not so much hostile Christians as Moslems that iiarassed Poland. Turks and Tartars were very insolent, aggressive and powerful. Ibrahim the Devil, Pasha of Dama-scus, led a vast army of invasion. Another time Mustapha led three hundred thousand Mohammedans in a cnisadc ujwn the Christians, and, says Salvandy, "' Ger- many looked to Sobieski as its savior, and Europe as the bulwark of Christendom. The embassador of the empire and nuncio of the pojie were at his feet in importunate supplication." Tliat was in the year 1683. The Cross was in peril, and the Crescent seemed about to displace it. But Sobieski was equal to the emergency. Poland saved Chris- tianity from the last really formidable assault of Islaniism. It is no exaggeration to say that on tlie twelfth of Septeniljer, beneath the walls of Vienna, the last battle of the Crusade was fought, and Po- lish valor, genius and prestige won the day. From that time on, the conflict was a series of assured victories for the Cliristians. The name of Sobieski deserves to rank with tlie supreme warriors of all times, but as a ruler in peace he was weak and wicked. He was the Isist independent King of Poland, and incomparablj- the greatest sovereign his country ever knew. The Republic was on the brink of riiin, and if he did not save it, lie at least prolonged its life. Tlie eldest son of John Sobieski wa.s confident of his election to succeed liis father, but the no- bles were not at all disposed to favor liis candidacy, or that of any other member of tlie family. Tlio candidates were two licsidcs James Soliicski. Prince Coiiti, nephew of Louis XV. of France and Fred- erick Augustus, Elector of Saxony. The hitter won the prize, but he diil not keep it long. Charles .\II. of Sweden took the field against, him, and ^ 220 POLAND AND THE POLES. made short work of capturing Cracow, deposing the king and placing Stanislas, Palatine of Posnania, upon the throne, if throne it may be called. He was a great and splendid man, but fortune was against him. The republic of Poland was in a state of interminable turmoil and factiousness. A little later we find Stanislas a fugitive and Fred- erick Augustus back in power. The latter died in 1733. " He had a few virtues," says a native his- torian, " but more vices. His reign was one con- tinued scene of disasters ; many of which may be attributed to himself, but more perhaps to the in- fluence ofi circumstances." The diet which met to elect a successor resolved, first of all, not to place the crown upon a foreign brow. The dethroned Stanislas, now father-in-law to Louis XV"., was the choice of the nobles. Sixty thousand voices were raised in his support. But Austria and Eussia favored the candidacy of Fred- erick Augustus II., son of the late king. A Mus- covite army proclaimed liini king and marched to the enforcement of tlie proclamation. Stanislas had lost his ambition and energy. He was unsuited to the task of resisting foreign interference. The Czar was foremost in claiming protectoral power. ■ St. Petersburg," we are told. ■ was the gxeat focus by the middle of the eigliteenth century where the rays of Polish intrigue were concentrated, and where the more ambitious natives resorted to ob- tain, by flattering the imperial confidants, the digni- ties of tlie republic. Every intimation, however slight, from the northern metropolis, was an imperious obligation on the feeble king and his ser- vile minister ; and not on them alone, but on the great body of the nobles, who had lost all sense of the national dishonor, and who transferred their homage from Warsaw to St. Petersburg without sliame or remorse." Of course the republic could not long survive such a state of affairs. Famine, anarchy, rapine and desolation were everywhere. The population dwindled away, and poverty took the place of tlirift. Catharine of Russia resolved to end the shame, and erase the reiDublic from the political map of Europe. Stanislas Augustus fee- bly swayed the scepter of Poland during the expir- ing hour. The Poles had the bravery necessary to defense, but the uncongruous and unstable gov- ernment afforded unfriendly neighboring powers facilities for devising ways and means to dis- member the distracted nation. The evil came gradually. When too late the nation was aroused to the danger of the situation, and the cause of national independence found a grand leader in the heroic Thaddeus Kos- ciusko, one of the heroes of the Ameri- can revolution. He had rendered import- ant service in the cause of American Independence, and re- turning to his native land, made a grand effort to rescue it from the allied robbers. Cracow and, Warsaw Kosciusko, both opened their gates to him. Kosciusko was prudent and kindly no less than brave, but the frenzy of the French Revolution, rather than the calm patriotism of the Americans, pervaded the ranks of the nationalists. Wild scenes of blood were enacted, and the salvation of Poland rendered hopeless by these excesses. In 1795 the end came. Warsaw fell before a Russian army. Austria, Prus- sia and Russia divided the territory between them, the latter taking the lion's share. It was the Mus- covite who had done the fatal work, for the most part, and the other powers were made partakers in the infamy as the price of acquiescence. In his history of the Repubhc of Poland Ferrend says in contemplation of the erasure of the rejoubhc : " Perhaps no people 0)i earth can boast more per- sonal heroism than the Poles, but as it was virtually a country without a govennnent, without finances, a national army, or any central authority of binding force, the surprise is not that it fell at last, but that it stood so long. Valor, although almost superhu- man, could not preserve the proud nobles from un- bounded dissiiiation, nor consequently from temp- tation to corruption, from receiving bribes to repair their shattered fortunes ; it could not prevent the powers which lavished this means of corruption from interference with the affairs of the kingdom; it could not dissolve the union of these powers with the discontented parties at home; it could not in- spire the slow-moving machine of government with vigor, when the humblest partisan, corrupted by foreign money, could arrest it with a word ; it could POLAND AND THE POLES. 221 not avert the entrance of foreign armies to supjiort the factions and rebellions ; it coiild not, while di- vided in itself, uphold the national independence against the combined effects of foreign and domes- tic treason ; finally, it could not efi:ect impossibilities, nor therefore forever turn aside the destroying sword which had so long impended over it." The extinction of the republic of Poland aroused the indignation of the world. France, England and America were indignant to the last degree. Sweden and Turkey joined in the outcry. During the Napoleonic war, and the diplonnxcy which followed, there seemed to be some hope of restora- tion. To little purpose. The three robber jjowers never abandoned the idea which had so long been cherished. Napoleon's star set and the treaty of Vienna was made. By that treaty the kingdom of Poland was proclaimed June 20, 1815, with Cracow as its capital, but it was simply the district of Cracow with a popula- tion of 61,000, hardly a shadow of real Poland. Four millions of the peo- ple came iinder the direct sway of Russia. At that time Alexander was Czar, and at first he seemed disposed to rule the Poles ill justice and with great hberality. For some time all went well. The peo- ple were fast becoming loyal to the Czar at St. Petersburg. This state of things continued three years without signs of collajise. But it was an un- natural condition of affairs, and discontent on one side and repressive measures on the otlier, created a breach wliich widened continually. When the vicious Constantine succeeded Alexander almost all pretense of good feeling between Poles and Russians disap- peared. Conspiracy after conspiracy sprang up to empha.size the Polish discontent without alleviating tiie evils of foreign rule. By IS.'iO popular discon- tent had taken tlie form of insurrection, and failure then did not prevent subsequent efforts to tlirow off tiie yoke, and restore Poland to political autonomy. THRKE GREATEST POLISH POETS It would Ije profitless to follow the fortunes of tiiese unavailing efforts to restore the lost national- ity. Time seems to lessen the prospect of success, and to-day Poland is enveloped in a darkness un- relieved by a single star. The only apiiroach to hojie is the dream of a Pan-Slav(jnic nation, a na- tion which .should so far recoustnict the map of Europe as to make '_into one nation all the Slavs. Such a conformation to the divisions of race, lan- guage and traditional sympathies is not to bo ex- . pected. Bloody reljellions arose in Po- land in the years 1S30, 1840, 1840 and 18<)3, each having been crushed with unpityiiig rigor by Russian despotism. The Poles arc the Irish of the contin- ent in valor, perseverance, lack of unity, and repeated calamities. In a literary point of view Poland has never produced a genius so bril- liant as to attract the admiration of mauldnd. That nation boasts about fifteen hundred literarv- names, but one may search through all the productions of that literature, as made accessible to Engli-sh readers, without being rewarded with a single diamond of thought which shines with es- ])ecial luster. From Kochauowski to Olizcrowski the height-s of immortal poetry arc not reached. Often pa- thetic, the verse of Po- land is never Shakspeareau. The venerable Paul Soboleski, author and editor of "Poets and Poetry of Poland,"' says, "Prostrate, partitioned, suffering and blotted out as it were from existence, Poland awaits the fulfillment of her destiny. Fate some- times strikes nations a.'' it docs individuals, Init hojK; in her case, though it may seem futile to otiicr na- tionalities, never forsakes the sorrowing hcarta of her children. Scattered though they arc thoughom the habitable globe, they have never mn.lished schools, organized local gov- ernment, collected witcror by the sovereign voto.x of tlie German princes in ILW, and wore the crown until he was cut oil in one of the Cni.'sndos in the year 1107. He was a, Sunbiau, Suabia being then a ^^. 226 MEDIEVAL GERMANY. prominent G-erman state^, long since extinct. Bar- barossa did much to restore peace and Justice within his realm. He made repeated attempts to bring the Lombards into subjection, but no sooner would he return to Germany, than the standard of revolt would be raised. It was after his sixth expedition into Italy that the news of the Saracen capture of Jerusalem was heard, and the fanatical zeal of Europe, including that of Frederick and his knights, was aroused. Tills valiant king lost his life when near the bor- ders of Syria, drowned while bathing in a river. That was in 1190. After several troublous years, Barbarossa's grand- son, Frederick II., came to the imperial throne. In his reign the ambi- tious Pope Innocent III. established the Inquisi- tion, and determined to make Italy one of the crown diamonds of the church. The pontiff and the emperor played fast and loose with each other during the lifetime of the former, after which Fred- erick determined to make good his hereditary claim to Italy. For this he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. In 1338 he undertook a Crusade, and as the result of diplomacy rather than valor, secured possession of Jerusalem and the country round about for ten years, justly claiming the crown of Jerusalem as his reward. The pope did all he could to defeat that bloodless victory of the Cross. Upon the king's return the people were so generally in symiiathy with him and against the unjust pontiff, that the latter was driven from Eome and glad to regain the keys of St. Peter by remov- ing the anathema he had laid upon the sovereign. Frederick established his court at Palermo, Italy, and was essentially an Itahan rather than a German emperor. Boldly did he confront the arrogance of the church, and without being in design a religious reformer, wrought a great work in preparing the way for Luther and his co-laborers, being a protest- ant but not a Protestant. Brave, heroic, noble and persistent, his is one of FREDERICK II. PXITTING ON THE CKOWN OP JERUSALEM. the most illustrious names in European history. But the record of this Freder- ick has a stain. His life was largely spent in try- ing to crush the repub- lican cities of Italy. That great wrong was not, however, without its comj)ensating good. It operated as an important exemption of the German free cities from imperial intervention. So fully occupied was he in the south that the north en- ■ joyed beneficent neglect. He died in 1350, and, after a feeble and mel- ancholy struggle for ex- istence, the dynasty to which he belonged, the Hohenstaufels, became extinct. No other monarch of the medieval period de- serves mention. The elec- tors became corrupt to the lowest point, and openly sold the imperial crown to the highest bid- der. At one time the Duke of Cornwall, England, bought the prize, his revenue from the tin mines of liis duchy making him the Vanderbilt of his day. He did not, however, attemiot to exercise imperial jurisdiction. Tlae German people were far more respectable than the emjjire as such. By 1410 there were three claimants of the German crown, also three claimants of the papal tiara. It may be remarked parenthetically that the really significant event of this period was the Hussite war, which was the morning-star of Protestantism, ^ L ^k MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 227 or, as it uiight be called, the sigual-guii of tliut great conflict between papal authority aud the right of private judgment, iu Avliicli Germany took 'the leading part, and from the commencement of which dates the close of the medieval age. Luther was not the originator of the great movement which bears his name. That honor belongs to John liuss, with whom our next chapter will Ijegin. Before closing this account of medieval G-ermany notice must be taken of the Hanseatic League, and the state of civilization which produced the cities belonging to it. Late in the fourteenth century several commercial cities sprung up iu Germany, mostly iu the north. They were largely the result of the Crusades. Those expeditions had made the people of Europe acquainted with oriental luxuries, and created wants which could only be supplied by commerce. Lubeck, Hamburg and Bremen were the first cities iu importance to grow out of this de- mand. Those were marts of exchange for Eastern aud Western commodities. They constituted the '•■ Hansa," and drew into their alliance, among oth- ers, the cities of tlie Rhine. They constituted a vast commercial and naval power, bound together by the common tie of traffic. This Hanseatic League had its agencies in every commercial city, from Lisbon to Novgorod. Their vessels plowed the Mediterra- nean and wliitened the Baltic and the North seas. Carthage was outstripped, and a spirit of enterjjrise stimulated which was a cardinal factor in disijelliug the blackness of the Dark Ages. Then for the first time in Europe there were " merchant princes." The key to the Ilanseatic policy is well supplied in the saying of those princes, " If the emperor claims authority over us, then we belong to the pope ; if the pope claims any such authority, then we fjelong to the emijeror." The league was pohtic and thrifty. One of the emperors tried to destroy it, but failed ut- terly, and the exultant merchants said among them- selves, "' The Devil tried to shear a hog, but found it 'great cry and little wool.'" This league and the " German Grder in the North " cared neither for the pomp of kings nor the solemnity of ecclesiastics. The latter had an inde- pendent realm and was a gradual growth from the same r(jot of .secular thrift which gave rise to the br(jader league. Unfortunately both lacked the unity and system necessary to develop a ix'rnuinent political nationahty, but as a " power dif- fused " deserves very liigh rank. The German Or- der was an order of knights, gro\riug out of tlie Crusades as did the Knights of St. John and the Knights Templar (the two latter lielouging t<> Italy). Tiie merchants of Bremen and the other cities of Northci'n Germany fostered this order, and by tlieir jjatrouage gave it a commercial m- -1 , - ular spirit quite apart from the religious character of the other orders. But to the German Order must be accredited tlie honor of Christianizing the Prussians, the latest portion of the German jjeople to discard paganism. Their s]}iritual welfare was watched over by " the Brothersof the Sword," a branch of the German Or- der. Like the greater part of medieval evangelization, the conversion of the Prussians was wrought by force. The Hanseatic League dates from 1241, and in the same century German arcliitecture made great strides. So, too, did university education, but more particularly in tlie Italian part of the empire. Some idea of the political condition of Germany can be formed from the statement tliat at the end of the Ilohenstaufcn dynasty there were one huudral and sixteen priestly rulers, one hundred ruling dukes, princes, counts and barons, and more than sLxty independent cities, not counting, of course, the petty states and republican cities of Italy. JV5 '■ly.^ GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION CHAPTER XXXIX, The Great Tkansitional Pekiod— John Huss in Peague— The Hussite Wak— Fall oe the Byzantine Empire — Invention op Printing and Paper — Martin Luther — Diet of Worms — Translation of the Bible — Luther's Opportunitt and Policy — The Anabaptists— The Augsburg Confession — The Victory op Prudence — The Thirty-Tears War — Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein — The Peace of Westphalia — The Desolations and Results op the Great Conflict Between Protestant and Catholic — Lutheran Church in Europe and America. 'HE first definite and des- perate resistance to tlie es- tablished cliurcli in Ger- many was tlie Hussite War, and tlie peace of Westpha- lia which terminated the Thirty-Years War was the establishment on the partial ruins of Eome of Protestantism as the state rehgion of Germany. This transitional period extended from 1410 to 1648. It was a memorable epoch for the whole world in many I [^~^ ways. During it America was dis- ■f^ ^covered, gunpowder and the print- ing press invented, or rather intro- duced into Europe, making, with Protestantism, four great powers in civihzatiou, each adequate to a thorough and imi- versal revolution. The glory of the former must be shared by Italy and Spain, of the latter by Ger- many and England, while the other two belong to Germany alone. Gunpowder radically changed the methods of warfare, and thus proved revolutionary to an extent not generally appreciated. Curiously, the first Protestant war with its guns sounded the death knell of chivalry and gave promise of the era of heavy battalions, as against sword and armor. John Huss was born in 1369, and educated at the University of Prague, Bohemia, where he filled a professor's chair, and afterwards the rectorship. Before his day a few religious men had preached against the corruptions and abuses of the church, but Huss gave to the movement a tremendous impe- tus. He opposed the doctrine of absolution ; the worship of saints and images ; traffic in offices and indu.lgences from purgatory, and the practice of administering only the bread of the sacrament to lay communicants, reserving the sacramental wine for the clergy. The latter point was made specially prominent in the controversy, and conflict followed the teaching of Huss. The University was divided, the Romish sympathizers finally seceding and estabhshing the University at Leipzig. The emj)eror at that time was Sigismund. He was not partic- ularly interested iu the matter, but was dra^yn into the contest. An OEcumenical Council was called at the City of Constance, and Huss was guaranteed a safe conduct to and from the council by the Em- peror. He attended, in the hope of being able to defend his doctrines in such an august body. But he was denied the privilege, and condemned, with- ■f (228) GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 229 out a hearing and contrary to the pledge given liim, to be burnt at the stake unless he recanted. This he would not do, and so, ou the sixth of July, 1415, this great man suffered martyrdom. The blood of John Huss aroused a terrible furor, especially among the Bohemians. Nobles and peojjle united in indignant protest against the council. Tliat body stayed in session three years and a half, the burn- ing of Huss being the one thing accompUsh- ed. Soon after its dis- solution the Emperor departed for the East to wage war against the Turks upon the Danube, thinking lit- tle, apparently, about the Hussites. But they were terribly in ear- nest. They organized under the leadership of .John Ziska, a noble of rare militarj- genius and heroism. Having found the pledges of princes and prelates untrustworthy, they took matters into their own hands, resolved to protect themselves and command respect for their rights of con- science. Many of them were wild fanatics who anticipated the sjieedy second coming of Christ, but others were cool, brave champions of duty. Ziska introduced among his soldiers the " thunder-guns," small field-pieces which had iirst been used at the battle of Agincourt, between the Englisli and the French, three years before. He also introduced the use of iron-plated flails with which to crack the helmets of the knights. Be- tween the guns and the flails the peasants (for such the most of them were) of Ziska were an over- nnitch for the trained and disciphned regulars who rallied from far and near, at the call of the pope and the Catholic princes, to cruph ttie TTu>'sitos. John Hubs Lecturing in the University of Pratme. Tlie 2)apal authorities cared far more for the rebellion in Bohemia thaji for the Moslem inva- sion on the Danube. The secular princes would have given up the contest in 1420, but the legate of the pope forbade any compromise with the heretics. For several years the conflict raged. In 1426 a Catholic army "300,000 strong was utterly routed by the Protestants, variously called " Hussites,'' " Orphans," and "Taborites." Ziska was slain at last, but his followers ral- lied under another leader and brave- ly demanded their rights. Unfortunate- ly they were not al- ways united, and the enemy was swift to take advantage of any dissension. In 1434 the Catholic forces so far suc- ceeded in crushing the Taborites that from that date the Bohemian Reforma- tion ceased to Ijc dangerous to Rome, except as it had sowed the seed of Protestantism, and prepared the way for it. The next year Emperor Sigismund died, and willi his death expired the Luxemburg dynasty wiiich began with Rbodolph, successor to the Duke of Cornwall. A few years before (14.33) tlio Eastern or Byzan- tine empire had fallen. Tlie Roman empire of Constantino and Justinian, so long a bulwark againt the Saracens, fell at last, and Islam gained in Eastern Europe quite iis much as it had lost in the West — Turkey avenged Spain. The Roman church looked on with in> 238 NEW GERMANY. liberty to the people. They could worship as they pleased, and every state (there were 39 in Germany) was guaranteed a representative government. The educated class were especially encouraged by the liberty enjoyed to demand more, and be content with nothing short of self-government. Not that all felt that way, but that among the students there was a very great pressure for republicanism. At last, in 1848, there was an outbreak of democracy. It accomplished very little. Many of the young men enffaged in the vague and half-formed rebellion were obliged to seek safety in flight, and thousands found new and better homes in America. In Ger- many the uprising was mainly useful as j)olitical education, alike to subjects and sovereign. Indeed, all Europe received a most wholesome and bene- ficent development in the direction of larger liberty. To the United States that upris- ing piroved highly important. A new class of emigration coming to these shores per- cejjtibly raised the standard and improved the character of immigration from continental Europe. About that time, it may be added, the Irish fam- ine drove liither an enormous number of ignorant peasants. The German influx was some- thing of a counteractant. In 1857 the King of Prussia, Frederick William IV., a weak and feudalistic sovereign, was stricken with apoplexy, and his Ijrother William, then sixty years of age, was made Prince Eegent. At once the latter began the Inauguration of some reforms in administration, and when he became Wilham I. (1861) a new page was turned in German, and in- deed, European history. Although an old man, he was blessed with gTeat vigor of body and mind, and his reign became second only to that of Frederick tlie Great in point of influence upon the destinies of the people. He early recognized the consummate genius of Bismarck. Those two names must always be linked in fame. Neither ever showed sympathy with the cause of personal freedom, but souglit the aggrandizement of the nation in the interest of the EMPEKUR WILHAM dynasty. As we write, Germany is in a ferment over the imperial rescript, or official manifesto, of the Emperor, to the effect that Germany is not gov- erned by a ministry accountable to a parliament, but that the ministers are the mere tools of the sovereign, and that the sovereign is the state. In this document is seen the hand of tlie premier. Bismarck was born on the family estate April 1, 1815. He early showed a taste for public life. His career began in diplomacy, 1853, except that he had previously been a short time in parliament. Kaiser William was not slow in recognizing his intense loyalty to imperialism, and his consummate ability as a statesman. He had from the first two ideas — the for- mation of a German empire with Austria left out, and the humiliation of France. The first was never concealed. Bismarck attracted general attention for the first time in connection with the Schleswig- Holstein war. Tliat was begun December 7, 1862. At first Austria helped Prussia, ex- pecting to have one of the duchies, Schleswig or Hol- stein, for its sliare of the spoils. Against these two great German powers was arrayed, besides those little duchies, the feeble kingdom of Den- mark. Of course the end could not be doubtful. A diplomatic war followed the close of actual hos- tilities. In that cor- respondence and those negotiations Count Bismarck (for he was not then a prince) won the admiration of the world by what may proioerly be called deceptive truthfulness. He said what he meant, and meant et-iuhcb. what he said. So unusual a thing was that in dip- ^2 NEW GERMANY. 239 k^ lomacy that his utterances were misinterpreted. The result was a misunderstanding which served as a pre- text for Prussia to declare war against Austria, which it did in June, 1866. On one side of the Seven-Weeks War, as it was called, was Prussia with nineteen millions of peo- ple ; on the other, Austria with, including the allied German states, fifty millions. It seemed a rasli pro- ceeding on the part of Prussia to seek a quarrel aoainst such odds. But hardly had the war begun before it was over, resulting in the utter overthrow of Austria. The Prussian army was supplied with the needle-gun and Krupp guns. The former were a great improvement upon tlie musketry of the Aus- trians, while the latter were no less superior to the cannons of the enemy. The respective commanders- in-chief were very unevenly pitted against each other. Prussia had that Wellington of the period. Von Moltke, while Austria had only Marshal Benedek. It was on the second of July that both sides ralhed and met in full strength. " Mar- shal Benedek," says a recent historian, " after being forced back from the fron- tier, had taken posi- tion on the Elbe, with his front cover- ed by that stream and the Bistritz. His right was protected by tiie fortress of Josephstadt, and his left by the fortress of Koniggratz. Near his center was the village of Sadowa, and on the heights overlooking tliis village Benedek established his headquarters. His army numbered about 200,UUU men. On the morning of the 3d of July the Prussian army began the engagement, resulting in Austrian defeat all along the line. This battle and victory is some- times called Sadowa, sometimes Koniggi'atz." The vanquisiied lost -^O.OOl) killed, 1S,000 i)risoners. The victors lost 10,OU0 men. The batllo wa-s decisive. The Prussians followed up their advantage with swiftness, allowing no time for recuperation or alli- ance. Tlicro was no small likplihdml of I'^rcurb in- VON MULTIiE. tervention in favor of Austria. To head that off, the war had to be pushed to a speedy conclusion. When the work of reconstruction came, the real object of Bismarck was disclosed. Schleswigand Holsteiu were almost forgotten. Austria ceased to be the great central and imperial power of Ger- many, and Prussia more than took its place. In- stead of the old loose federation, with Austria at the head, came that close and really national union, the Xorth-Gcrman Confederation, and that not so much \vith Prussia as the head as with Germany ajv pended to Prussia. The people were at first de- lighted. The old dream of German nationality was realized at last. In December, 1867, the constitution of the new union was submitted to the several states and rati- fied. All the German states, except Bavaria, Wur- temberg and Baden, twenty-two in number, be- longed to the Union, and formed indeed one nation, under a common military, postal and linancial sys- tem, similar in unity to the United States of America. Since then the authority of United Ger- many has been so far extended that the Ilohen- zollerns may be said to have the hereditary title to a firmly consolidated empire which embraces all Germany except Austria. The new attitude of Prussia alarmed France, at least stimulated a desire to humiliate the " upstart" nation. The question of the Spanish crown fur- nished a pretext or occasion for war. There was talk of bestowing that ci'own, then without a head on which to rest, upon a Hohenzollern. The French professed to see in this a great indignity. For that family to be on two thrones not contigu- ous to each other, but on each side of France, was not to be tolerated. An imperious demand was made ui)on William that he should give a pledge to the effect that no member of his family should rule S]iain. The (U'niand was flatly refused. A decla- ration of war followed at once. The prince who hiid been proffered the . crown had declined it, but that was not enough to satisfy Louis Napoleon. The formal declaration of war occurred July !'•'. 1870. The French people were delighted. In a few days both France and Germany had their armies in the Held. On the fourth of July the Ger- mans crossed the French frontier, assuming the ag- gressive. A long war was almost universally antici- pated. King William was ;it the tioad of the German 3" JV< 240 NEW GERMANY. army, iu theory, but now, as in the war with Aus- tria, Von Moltke was the real commander-in-chief, with the Crown Prince, Frederick WilUam, next in rank. The Emperor, Louis Napoleon, was also the nominal head of the French army, giving the Prince Imperial his first baptism of blood; but Marshals MacMahon and Bazaine were the real lead- ers. For his blunders the latter was banished, while the former was accredited with doing the best that could be done and was subsequently hon- ored with the presidency of the French Repubhc. The first battle of the war was fought at W e i s s e n- burg Au- gust 4th, in which the French were defeat- ed. Two days later another de- tachment of the two ar- mies met at AVorth, with the same result. The main army of the French was also attacked at Saarsbrucken, and driven back upon Metz. The battle of A^'ionville, on the frontier, was fought on the 16th, neither army gaining any con- siderable advantage. The decisive battle of the war was fought August 18th, and is known as the battle of Gravelotte. Both armies fought desperately, but the French were compelled to give way. The i;tmost activity followed, the Germans steadily gaining up- on their adversaries until finally, September 1st, the battle of Sedan was fought. Before night came on Napoleon III., who was present with his army, wrote to King "William, " Not having been able to die at the head of my troops, I lay my sword at your majestjr's feet." The French prisoners num- bered 25,000. The entire army surrendered. The war seemed to be over, but events were trans- \7 — / / / / ENTET OP GERMAN ARMIES INTO PARIS. piring at Paris which postponed the final settle- ment for some time. Paris rose in political revolu- tion against the empire not only, but boldly defied the invader. The Emperor could deliver his im- perial crown, but not the nation, certainly not the capital. Henceforth the war was a siege, or a series of sieges and bombardments. Strasburg held out nobly, and Paris desperately. The besiegers cut off the sujjplies of Paris. Strasburg fell SejD- tember 27th, Metz a month later, and on the 38th of the succeeding January Paris formally sur- rendered. In the settlement which fol- lowed, the provinces of Alsace and Lor- raine were wrenche d from the power of France, to the great gTief of the people who are Ger- mans by blood, but French in theii' sym- p a t h 1 e s. France thus lost a territory of 5,500 square miles and more than one and a half millions of people. The siege of Paris and the reduction of the militarj^ spirit of the French people had occupied, all told, a period of seven months, and the losses of property had fal- len chiefly upon France. The terms of peace added to the losses of territory and perishable property the exaction of a money indemnity (cash in hand, too) of five thousand million francs (§1,000,000,000). The promptness with whicli the peojde rose to the demands of the occasion was astonishing. Con- vinced that the only way to rid Paris and France ~of the hostile army was to raise the indemnity, they took their hard-earned savings from their hid- ing places, poured them into the treasury faster than the o-overnment could issue bonds, and in excess of V NEW GERMANY. HI 4- the national requirement. In a few years it was found that Germany was injured far more than France by that indemnity. The increase in tlie national debt imposed no serious burden upon tax- payers, while the spirit of wild speculation crazed the Germans. It was a curious instance of " the biter bitten." The French people were enriched by the exchange of hoarded, unproductive coin for interest-bearing bonds — rentes. During those seven months there had been seven- teen gi'eat battles fought and fifty-six minor engage- ments ; twenty -two fortified places were taken ; 385,000 soldiers (including 11,.360 officers) were taken prisoners. The losses of cannon were 7,200, and of small arms 000,000. Such j^rodigious cap- tures and indemnity were never known before in the annals of war. We turn now to the reconstruction of the Ger- man Empire and its firm establishment upon a Prussian basis. What the Seven-Weeks War had fairly commenced the Seven-Months War rendered complete. Tlie Teutonic dream of liberty and union had now been one-half realized — the latter liad been secured. It was to a large extent at the expense of liberty, but it was not at first appreci- ated that unity meant imperialism. The present German Empire consists of four king- doms, namely, Prussia with its thirteen provinces, and Bavaria, Saxony and Wurtemburg ; sLx Grand Duchies, Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Slietitz, Oldenburg and Saxe-Weimar, Eisenach; five Duchies, Saxe-Meininger, Saxe-Co- burg-Gotha, Saxe-Altenburg, Brunswick and An- halt ; seven Principalities, Schwartzburg-Rudol- stadt, Schwartzburg-Sondershauen, ^^'aldeck, IJeuss- Elder line, Eeuss-Younger line, Schaumburg-Lippe and Lippc-Detmorc ; three free cities, Hamburg, Lubeck and Bremen, and the "imperial-lauds," Alsace-Lorraine. Tlie King of Prussia is by virtue of that kiugshij), president of tlie confederacy, em- peror or DeiUscher Kaiser. Corresponding to our Congress is a Bundesralh and Reichslwj. The former, or senate, has at Iciist one representative from each state, Alsace-Lorraine alone excepted, and some have several, the "empire state " of Prussia seventeen. The Keichstag lias one member for each district of 100,000 inhabitants. If no dissolution occurs, the Diet or Congress ex- l^ires by constitutional limitation iu three years. Each state has its own constitution and local self- government. Universal education is compulsory, and tlieieiii largely may be found the secret of Prussian suix.Ti- ority in war over botli Austria and France. The relative military strength of these nations, by num- bers and expenditure, are given in a subsequent table, but the power of education admits of no sta- tistical measurement. Every German is liable to military duty, and must enter the army at the age of twenty years. After three years of actual service lie is put upon the reserve roll, iu time of peace for four years. At the expiration of that time he is enrolled in the "laudwehr,"or militia, for five years, and then finally in the " landsturm," a home-guard, tintil the age of fifty. Prussia has an area of 137,060 square miles, and a population of about 25,000,000, wliich is about equal to the total of the other states constituting tlie German Empire, the entire area of tlie empire being 212,091 square miles, population December 1, 1875, 42,727,360. The system of military pro- scription is a constant incentive to emigration, and very materially lessens the jjopulation of the empire. k. 'O. Sk&u m .KkKk'k; (S/VA •vk Kingdom of the Mind— Tardy and Sudden Development of German Thought— An Intel- lectual Quadrangle — German Literature, Lessing, Klopstock, "Wieland, Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Richter and Heine— The Court of Weimar— German Music, Keiser, Handel, Bach, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Wagner — German Philosophers — Kant, Fichte, Shelling, Hegel, Buchner and Haeckel— German Univer- sities—Leibnitz AND Berlin— Halle University and the Halle School — Heidelberg University and its Library — German Specialists — Humboldt. K'-«^00^» N" following the ordinary course of liistory tlie proud- est claims of Germany to honorable distinction hard- ly attracted attention, be- ing entirely disconnected from political or military affairs. In all other coun- ■ the scholar in pohtics " has been a very considerable personage ; but In- tellectual Germany may be said to have constituted a world by itself, sublimely indifferent to and independent of the fortunes of state. " The Aborigines of German)'-," says Taylor, " had their bards, their battle- songs and their sacrificial hymns when they first became known to the Eo- mans." Charlemagne gathered those crude be- ginnings of literature, so far as possible, into a hbrary which his imbecile and superstitious son, Lud- wig the Pious, committed to the flames. lu the Nibelungenlied we have a no less crude attempt at poetical composition. That barbaric epic resembled Homer only as the jagged rock resembles the pol- ished statue. Poor in itself, it led to nothina; bet- ter. On the contrary, it was not until the magnetic genius of Luther set Europe aglow that any name worthy of mention appeared in the literary annals of Germany, and even Luther excelled more as a translator than an author of originality. The seed which he sowed perished as utterly as did the grain which Karl the Great had garnered. The cruel heel of the Thirty-Years War crushed the intel- lectual life of Germany, and it was not until the middle of the eighteenth century that it revived and became a power. We shall see that English literature was a gradual growth of many centuries ; but the darkness of Medieval Germany was unre- heved by any flashes of light. There was nothing precocious about its intellectual development. When, however, the light broke, it fairly flooded the land, nay, rather, the whole world. Hardly had the morning star appeared before the mid-day sun ruled the heavens. Herein Germany was phenome- nal and in the highest degree sensational. Intellectual Germany may be said to be quadran- gular, literary, musical, philosophical and erudite. Each side of this quadrangle has such marked in- dividuality as to require distinct consideration. German literature, in any high sense, began with and reached its summit in that splendid gal- el L (242) INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 243 k^ axy, Lessing (1729); Klopstock (1734); AVieLuid (1733) ; Herder (1744) ; Schiller (1759) ; Richter (17G2) ; Heiue (1799). The figures appended to each name give the year of the birth of each. It will be seen that they all belong to the eighteenth century, and in actual literary labors they were al- most contemporaueoiis. In them we have the great immortals of the purely literary j^hase of German thought. Lessing was a Saxon. His Minna Yon Bornhelm was the first national drama of Germany, and pro- duced a profound sensation. But it was as a critic that he excelled. He set in motion the critical fac- ulty of the nation, substituting intelligent doubt for blind credulity. He died in 1781. It has been pertinently said of Lessing, " To him rehgion was nut obedience, but insight ; morality not duty, but \risdom ; poesy not inspiration, but taste." His Laocoon, a series of critiques, was a prodigiously revolutionary work. Klopstock was also born in Saxony. Strange as it may seem at this day, it took great courage to even attempt, in his time, to build a German Utera- ture. Even Frederick the Great, with all his admi- ration for literary ability, scouted the idea. Klop- stock was not deterred by the absence of encourage- ment, and, it may be added, of genius. He was a poet of only mediocre power. " He was the father of German poetry, not because he created it, but because he made it possible — not on account of his genius, but on account of his standpoint." The pioneer poet of his country, he blazed a few trees as ho painfully picked his way through the Black Forest. He died in 1803. Wieland, like EQopstock, produced nothing which was in itself particularly meritorious. A prose translation of Shakspeare was the first introducti(in of the great dramatist to the German public. Obcron, a romantic epic, was Wieland's best produc- tion from 1772 until his death, 1813. He resided at Weimar, and with Goethe, Schiller and Herder rendered that otherwise petty court one of the grandest in all liistory. He w^is a natural poet, al- beit of no very high order. Weimar is a small city, the capital of the Grand Ducliy of Saxc-Wciiuar, which may be said to live upon the remembrance of the eminent authors just named. No other town was ever blessed with sucli an array of talent at one time. Herder w:i« a Prus-sinn. the son of a .aohonl- master, and very much of his life was spent in edu- cational labors. It may be said that teaching was his trade, literature his relaxation. He was more critical than creative. His central idea was that the liigiiest works of art, literary, or otherwise, are the most distinctively national. By instilling that conviction into the German mind, he, like Lessing, Klopstock and AVieland, contributed greatly to the development of a thoroughly national literature. Perhaps the best known of his works is Letters on Hetjrew Poetry. He too died in 1803. In all the chief cities of Germany may be found statues in honor of the most jjopular of all the jimts of that people, Johann Ohristoph Friedrich son Schiller, and upon the hundredtli anniversar ryof his birth, 1S59, a " Schiller - fund " of several hundred thou- sand dollars was rais- ed, the income from which is to be devoted to the maintenance of indigent authors. In him the Germans saw reahzed in a jn-e- eminent and peculiarly popular form the ideal national poet for whom Lessing, Klopstock, Wie- land and Herder jjrepared the way. He excelled in two lines, as a dramatist and a lyrist. His Rntthers and WaUenstcm are masterpieces of dramatic litera- ture. His minor productions are remarkable for ex- quisite finish and splendor of diction. A military surgeon by education, he made great sacrifices to his lofty art. He died at Weimar when only in his forty-sixth year. Three years before he had been made a baron of the I'calm by the Enijicror Fran- cis II. Carlyle says of Schiller, " He was a high ministering servant at (ruth's altar, and liore him worthily in the oHice whicli he held." John Wolfgang Von Goethe, a native of Frank- fort-on-the-Main, is acknowledged as the foronuist man of literary Germany. For many years lie was recognized as an almost autocratic authority. His great novel Wilhelm Mcixtcr is tlie most fiinious work of fiction in tlie German tougive, the only one. iu fact, which may be said to enjoy a world-wide ropu- tation, unless it be liis Sorrows of' Werthcr. Tie was a profound and viiriod student of nature. Iwing VON scun.i.EB. JV« 244 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. well-versed in many sciences. He liYed to the ripe old age of 83, retaining his superb and manifold faculties to the last. His was a life of luxurj^, his very labors being sources of delight to him. Born of wealthy parents, he never knew the hardships and dis- appointments of or- dinary expierience. In him we see the best re- sults of good fortune. Of his greatest work, Faust, Bayard Taylor, to whom the English- '^°^'^^- reading public is in- debted for a masterly translation, has this to say: '•' There is nothing in the literature of any coun- try with which we can compare it. There is no other poem which, like this, was the work of a whole life, and whicli deals with the profoundest problems of all life. It is so universally compre- hensive that every reader finds in it reflections of his faith and philosophy. * * The poem embod- ies all the finest qualities of Goethe's mind — his rich, ever-changing rhythm, his mastery over the ele- ments of passion, his simple realism, his keen irony, his serene wisdom-, and his most sacred aspiration. The more it is studied the wider and further it spreads its intellectual horizon, until it grows to be so far and dim that the physical and the spiritual spheres are blended together. Whoever studies Faust in connection with the works of other Ger- man authors cannot but admit that the critic is not wholly mistaken who asserts that the single ele- ments which separately made his compeers great have combined to make one man greatest ; that Klopstock's enrichment of the language, Lessing's boldness and clearness of vision, Wieland's grace. Herder's universality, and Schiller's glory of rhythm and rhetoric are all united in the immortal works of Goethe." From Goethe to poor Heinrich Heine is a long step ; but the latter name is too frequently men- tioned in general literature to be passed over in silence. A Jew by birth, he was by no means "a He- brew of the Hebrews." On the contrary, he was singularly deficient in the thrifty qualities of his race, and he hated business intensely. Audacious in ridicule, he paid no heed to the probable eifect upon his own fortunes of his merciless criticisms and lampoons. He was the poet of every-day life, his subjects being simple and his treatment brief. Fifty years ago he published his first volume of poetry. Its popularity was wonderful. Most of his time was spent in Paris, where he died in 1856. He was deeply imbued with democratic ideas and radi- cal principles. Indeed, he was more French than German in his type of mind and tastes. It was thirty years from the publication of his first volume until his death, during which period he may be said to have possessed without enjoying a wide popu- larity. With all his faults, Heine exerted, on the whole, a wholesome influence upon German htera- ture, especially in rebuking affectation and knock- ing from under it tlie stilts of romanticism. His later productions were not up to his early ones in merit, for his intellectual faculties were as prema- turely senile as Goethe's were abnormally vigorous at fourscore. It remains to speak of only one more member of the German family of letters, Kichter, better known by his literary name of " Jean Paul." He was the humorist |ja;- excel- lence of German auth- ors. His private life has been called " a long- inheritance of priva- ' tion." His death oc- curred in 1835. He was neither great nor small : he was unique. His admirers class him eichtee. with Hood and Douglas Jerrold. The Germans are remarkable for their love of and attainments in music. During the sixteenth century there were a few symj)toms of musical tal- ent, but that was all. In the seventeenth century the princes began to have operas performed at their courts. The first public performance of an opera in Germany was at Hamburg in 1678. In that pe- riod lived Keiser, a composer, who once enjoyed a splendid reputation. He wrote much, but his ope- ras and cantatas were harsh, and deficient in melo- dious strains. But the great name of this period 'V INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 245 was Handel, born in Halle, Saxony, 1685. Most of his life was spent abroad, espe- cially in London, where he died P"'^/'^ ^^ ^^ IToQ, but he was none the less /(t^"x.jM ^ thorough German. He com- posed much which was not of the very highest order, more particu- larly in the operatic line. His HANDEL. genius lay in the direction of ora- torio. The Messiah is his grandest work, and in all niLisic can be found nothing more sublime. Mo- zart declared it impossible to improve his choruses. The Messiah was written for the city of Dublin. It made him the musical idol of England, which he remained until his death. His bones rest in West- minster Abbey. Bach is an illustrious name in musical history. John Sebastian, born at Eisenach in 1G85, was fhe Bach, but for more than two centuries the family was distinguished as musicians. The first to gain a place in history was Veit. He was a Hungarian, and settled in Thuringia in 1600. The one mem- ber of the family to gain a world-wide reputation, served as organist and concert-master in various places until at the age of tliirty -eight he was chosen musical director of the St. Thomas School, Leipsic. There he spent twenty -seven years, and the promi- nence of Leipsic as a center of musical education is very largely due to John Sebastian Bach. He was a voluminous composer. " In nearly every field of his art," says Frothingham, " he was a discoverer, in some he was a prophet of future discoveries. The fame of Bach has been increasing since his death. For generations to come they who study the difficult science of music will go to him as stu- dents of literature or painting go to the grand niiusters." For the improvement of dramatic music the pub- lic is very especially indebted to Christopher Gluck, who was born in 1714. He was educated at Milan and spent much of his time abroad, but his influ- ence was most felt in his native land. After hearing Gluck's great opera of Iphir/cnia at Weimar, Schil- ler wrote, " Never has any music afEectcd me so purely, so supremely, as this ; it is a world of har- mony piercing straight to the soul, and dissolving it in the sweetest, loftiest melancholy." His death occurred at Vienna, November 15, 1T87. A still greater name in music is Joseph Haydn, the son of a poor Austrian wheelwright and sexton. He early drifted to Vienna. In 1760, when he was twenty-eigb'; years of age, his hitherto luckless life turned, arc for thirty years his circumstances were easy and ausi)icious. He was a very devout Papist. Haydn is accounted the father of sjTnphony and of the stringed cjuartette. Instrumental music receiv- ed from him its most rapid development. Tlie Creadon is one of his oratorios. The leading qual- ities of his compo- ions are said to be lucidity of ideas, symmetry in uheir treatment and finish in their development. Death came to him in Vienna, May 36, 1809. Among those who sat lovingly and docilely at the feet of the father of symphony was Mozart, who spoke of him as " papa Ha^'dn." He was born at Salzburg in 1756, and died at Vienna in 1791. Short as was his life it was long, musically speaking. He began to play the piano with very con- siderable accuracy as early as four years of age. He began mozart. composition at eight years of age. His older sister, Maria Anna, was also a remarkable musician. While they were very small children the father made concert tours with them, and everywhere they ex- cited amazement and admiration. Tlie last seven years of his life were given to composition, undis- turbed by the necessity of teaching or jwrformiug for a livelihood. The splendid operas, II Xozze di Figaro and Bon Giovanni, were the most illustrious of his compositions. Although ilozart lived and died in Vienna, was composer to the court, and is considered the greatest composer of the world, from the con^bined versatihty and power of his genius, Farnham writes of his burial, " On a dismal day of rain, unfollowed by a single friend, the bodies of ilozart and fifteen other dead were hurried through the streets of Vienna to the common burying- ground of the poor, and his grave is now unknown." Tliis was tlio melancholy end of one whose name is imperi.'ecially high in theology and cognate branches of learning. The great critical student of the Bible. Gcsenius, was one of its prof essors from 1810 to 1842. In those palmy days of the institution tlicre were over a thousand students. There arc about tliat number at the pres- ent time. The " Halle Scliool " is a term applied to the religious A'iews which long distinguished TIalle as the great seat of evangelical learning in Germany. The founder of that school was Spcner, wliile Fraucko,BTeithaupt and Lange were eminent uaiucs in it. Unlike most Germans, including the clerg\% the iiiendicrs nf the H:dli' Sclionl dcvoiitlv l)oliiVe V 31 •v< H8 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. iu special Providence, plenary inspiration, and are truly orthodox in belief. The oldest of the twenty-two universities of the present empire is that at Heidelberg, a romantic place, also famous for its schloss, or castle, founded in 1836 ; the youngest is that of Strasburg, founded 1872. About twenty thousand students attend these universities. The one at Heidelberg has a library of 200,000 volumes, a zoological museum, and other facilities for the study of scientific sub- jects. It is a famous resort for medical and divinity students. Many foreigners repair thither to perfect their education. Tlie pieculiarity of German scholarship is its exceptional thoroughness. The professors devote themselves to minutely small fields of research, and by exjDloring every nook and corner, are enabled to thoroughly understand them. It is this peculiarity wliich has placed modern G-ermauy at the front in erudition. Every branch of study, philological, his- torical or scientific, has received from that micro- scopical method a fullness of development which would have been impossible otherwise. By this careful and exhaustive method the Germans have been enabled to make many highly important con- tributions to the stock of human knowledge. To German erudition belongs the credit of discerning the path of civilization in prehistoric times by the clew of comparative philology, and this is only one illustration among man}'' of hardly less importance to the world. German erudition is not personal like the literature, philosophy and music of Germany. It was and is the all-jDervasive atmosphere of the na- tion in its intellectual development. We cannot better close this chapter than by re- ferring to Alexander von Humboldt, who, taking it all in all, deserves the very highest rank in intellect- u.al Germany. Born at Berhn Seiitember 14, 1769, it has well been said that he was to science what Shakspeare has been to the drama. He combined patient research into minutia with grand powers of centrahza- tiou, discerning the relations of nature's infinite parts to her grand totahty. Parbach, Mullerus and Copernicus, Germans all, contributed to astronomy in its mere infan- cy, but Hu.mboldt pointed auMBOLDT. out the connection between phenomena, astro- nomical precession, , geological transfor- mations, and botan- ical and zoological development, showing the inexorable reign of law. "We associ- ate the name of Hum- boldt," says Ingersoll, " with oceans, conti- nents, mountains and volcanoes ; ■with the great plains, the wide deserts, the snow-tipped craters of the Andes ; witli primeval forests and European capitals ; with wildernesses and universities; with savages and savans ; with the lonely rivers of unjjeopled wastes ; witli peaks and pampas and steppes, and cliffs and crags ; with tlie progTess of the world ; with every science known to man and every star glittering in the immensity of space. The world is his monu- ment ; upon the eternal granite of her hiUs he in- scribed his name, and tliere upon everlasting stone his genius wrote this sublimest of truths : ' The UKIVEBSE IS GOVERNED BY LAAV.'" COPERNICUS \ p-^^cTS^^JJ'^^f^S.^IJ' AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. CHAPTER XLII. German and Semi-Gekman— Date op the Dual Emtire— Austria as a County — ^Tire Haps- EDRG AND THE HOHENZOLLEItN — RhODOLPU AND OtTOCAR — TUE DuCHY AND ARCHDUCUY OP Austria — Modern Austria — Hungary and the Magyars — IIungarian History — The Hapsburgs in Hungary — Old and New Policy — "Kaiser" op Austria, and Emperor- King — Present Government of the Empire — Reichsrath and Reichstag — Religion and Education— Bosnia and Hervegoiina—Licutenstein— Cities op the Empire— Letters. >!5 >^'. -^k BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS, tiiriiiiliiiiiiffliiiiilia^^^^ CHAPTER XL 1 1 1. The Two Couktries CorPAKED — Belgium as a Separate Kingdom — Religion and Edvcation — The Kingdom of the Netherlands — Java — Dutch Government and Schools — Topog- RAPUT AND Resources — The Dutch in History — Isiperial and Medieval — The Nation AND ITS Great War— The Throes of the Dutch Republic — The Period op Prospeiutt- The Fall of the Republic — Dutch Art; Van Eyck to Arv Scheffer— Waterloo. ^^>:pTlyT^*S: ^--^^^--Ti ELGIUM and the Nether- lands are two distinct na^ tions in their present politi- cal existence ; but in the blending of the historical and the actual they cannot be dissociated. The provinces of Belgium are Antwerp, Brabant, Flanders (East and AVest), Hainault, Liege, Limbourg, Luxembourg and Namur, several of hese names being suggestive of tlie Dutcli Uopublic. The names Brabant and Limbourg are also found in the list of the Netherland provinces, besides Holland (North and South), Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Guclderland, Over- yssel, Drenthe and Grijnningcn. The Dutch of liistop,' constitute, for the most i^art, the past of both tbc kingdoms under con.sidcration. Neither of these kingdoms may be called a nor- mal development. On the contrary, the great pow- ers of Europe, hostile to republicanism, drew arlji- trary lines of national distinction and fixed tlic boundaries of each- nation to suit themselves. Be- fciiT revert iiiL'- In Ibe bi>tiivie;il iiiirt of the snb.iprt of this chapter it may be well to set forth the present condition of the two kingdoms now under consider- ation. Belgium dates from IS'M). It was then tliat it was cut off from t4ie Netlierlands. The immediate occasion of the secession wa.s a popular uprising in Brussels. The formal recognition of Belgium byall the governments of Europe did not occur until 1830. The iirst king was Leopold I. of Saxe-Coburg. The jire.sent king, Leopold IL, was born in 1835, and came to the throne when his father died, 180.5. The Idngdom has an area of 11,373 square miles and a population of about six millions. It is the most den.sclv inliabited country in Euroiw. Small as is tlie territory, the people are decidedly mixed. Ac- cording to an official report of 1878 there are 2,25().- 800 Belgians who speak French. •.>.i').")f).8 it« two branches. The executive jurisdiction belongs in 1iic ministers, each being responsible within the scope of his respective dcinirtmcnt. The memliers of lintli lion^ios (if the Icirisbitivo ]i;irt of the L-'ovprn- .32 U.^5) \] q «^ 256 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. ^ ment are chosen by the people, a property quahflca- tion being attached to the right of suffrage. The members of the lower house are elected for four years, of the upper house for eight. The number of the latter is one-half that of the former. Evidently the Belgian government is about as nearly reiaubli- can as it well could be and maintain the form and semblance of royalty. Nearly all the peojDle are Romanists in religion. There are not more than 13,000 Protestants, all proper it exceeds the rural population. Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague are large cities. This kingdom is second only to England in colonial en- terprise. These outside possessions are divided into three groups, namely, the possessions in Asia, or the East Indies; second, six small West India islands ; third, Surinam in South America. The South African possessions have slipped away from the mother country. The total population of these colonies is about twenty-three millions, and eight- told, and less than 2,000 Jews. Full religious lib- erty is guaranteed, by the Constitution, and the clergy of all denominations are paid in part from the national treasury. There are four universities in the kingdom, located at Brussels, Louvain, Ghent and Leige. These institutions are in the hands of the j^riests and Jesuits. Elementary edu- cation is sadly neglected, about one-fifth of the adult population being unable to read or write. Turning now to the Netherlands we find a people living imder a constitution which dates from that gTcat year of revolutions, 1848. The area is 20,537 square miles, the population about four millions. The city population is relatively large. In Holland een millions belong in Java alone, wliich is jnany times more important than all the rest of the colo- nies of the Netherlands. It has an area of 51,33G square miles. Most of the people are agricultural laborers, nearly all the land being held either by the government or non-resident Dutch capitalists. The revenue derived is very considerable, mainly from the sale of coffee, with some sugar and spices. Java is an island. The Dutch took permanent posses- sion of it in 1677. The Portuguese had visited it as early as 1511, and a Dutch settlement was effected in 1595, In the fifteenth centurj' the people em- braced Mohammedanism. Prior to that they ^^•ere Buddhists. The Javans are very industrious and ■^l >\ •V Q- BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 257 .k quite skillful. The island is governed as if it were an immense estate managed for the exclusive benefit of distant owners and their resident agents. Keturning now to the home government, we find it substantially the same in character as Belgium. The entire legislative authority is vested in a body called the States General, with two branches. In theory the king has the veto power, but his exercise of it is very infrequent. The present king is Wil- liam III. The present kingdom was reconstructed bv and dates from the Congress of Vienna, 181.5, road nor write. The rising generation will make a much better showing iu this regard. According to latest accounts there are 2, GOO public schools with pupils to the number of 400,000. Besides tliese pub- lic schools there are a great many private schools. The universities of tlie kingdom are four, — tliose at Leyden, GriJniugeu, Amsterdam and Utrecht. The Netherlands, as the name suggests, is a low and flat country, literally Mrested from the sea by the skill and industry of man. It is a delta witli the Khine, the ileuse and tlie Scheldt as its waten' VIEW OF THE HAGUE. when the sovereignty was vested in the ancient aud illustrious house of Orange. The first king of the present realm was William I. He was succeeded in 1840 by William II., aud he in turn by the king now on the throne. This house traces its origin to Count Waldam who lived in Germany in the eleventh century. Tlie prevailing religion is that of the Reformed Churcli, with about au equal number of Catholics. The government is impartial iu matters of faith and worship, but the moral influence of the government is wholly Protestant. Education is slowly making its Avay among the common people. It is estimated that among the strictly rural popu- lation of the Xctherhuids, one-fourth of the male adillN mill niii'-lliinl cif tlic wmncn cmii noillirr enclosures. Intersected by rivers and canals, much of the land is actually below the water level. Dikes and dunes protect the country from inundation. The result is a vast wealth of agricultural resources so rich indeed as to make the farmers of tlie Low- land preeminently prosperous. Turning now from the actual to the historical, we will follow the .somewhat involved and devious course of that Semi-Gorman people most widely designated as the Dutch. In the days of the Roman Empire tlie Belga-. Bataviaiis and Tuscans were a part of the great German and Gallic region conquered by Julius Cte- sar. In tlic Carlovingian empire they lacked UMliiinal inrliviflualitv. In the sMi)isliin<" and s-tonii -ei^ 258 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. of feudalism the Low Country grew into distinctive- ness. There were several dukedoms : Brabant, Lim- bourg and Luxembourg; countships: Artois, Flan- ders and Holland ; bishoprics : Mechlin and Utrecht. Being upon the outskirts of the continent, and in- halsiting a country then far from its present state of cultivation, even as compared to other parts of Europe, they were allowed to regulate their own affairs j)retty nearly in their own way. The rod of imperialism was lightly felt. The fierce conflict with the sea which the jDCople were obliged to wage cultivated boldness and energy of character. Lo- cated as they were ujDon the seaboard, having rivers which were arms of the sea, their position was pe- culiarly favorable to commercial development. --.. The feudal lords liad ^,J: their castles and arm- ed retainers, but side by side with them grew up and flour- ished marts of trade, fortified against inva- sion, jjrejDared for war without being devot- ed to it. The com- mercial spirit of the old Phcenicians pre- vailed, coupled with a heroism wliich would have done honor to Rome in her best days. The Medie- val Dutch were the pioneers of modern commercial thrift. Late in the fourteenth century the Duke of Bur- gundy became also Count of Flanders, the Union having been effected by marriage. In 1477 the house of Hapsburg absorbed the Netherlands, and a great stimulus was given to Dutch commerce. For a time Austria, the Netherlands and Sj^ain, with some minor possessions, owed allegiance to the same crown. They never formed one nation. "When the empire of Charles V. was divided the Netherlands and Spain went together, and this un- natural union produced the most important results. At that time both peoples were enterprising, and it was a very.great good fortune, so far as that went, to the Dutch that they were linked politically with the discoverers of America. The Spaniard sought gold and silver in the new world ; the Dutch were true to their strictly commercial instincts. But in any other regard tlie union was incongruous. A Feudal Castle. The Reformation, which found its chief ajjostle in Martin Luther, found its readiest acceptance in the Low lands. As Philip of Spain was the very prince of bigots, he saw in his Protestant subjects vipers to be exterminated. The result was a war which began in 1566 and lasted until 1648. A more causeless, cruel, devastating and heroic war never stained the annals of history. For eighty- two years, nearly three generations, the struggle continued. At first the several j^rovinces resisted oppression and held fast to their rights in an inde- piendent way, but in 1579 a union was formed at Utrecht ' between the seven Northern p)rovinces, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, GrSningen, Overyssel and G-uelderland. Spain so far recognized this union as to enter into an armistice of twelve years, concluded in 1609. That armistice was sim- ply recuperative for the final struggle. On the Spanish side were those monsters of cruelty and treachery, Alva, Parma, Don John and Alexander Farnese, while upon the side of the Dutch were William of Nassau, Maurice of Nassau, John Bar- neveldt, and others of heroic mold. The commer- cial cities proved capable of the most jjatient endur- ance of hardships. It was a noble matching of patriotism against fanaticism. Finally, in 1648, the peace of Westphalia recognized the independence of the states forming the Dutch Republic. The piresent Netherlands, with some modifications, embraces that rejsublic, while the present Belgium includes the Dutch provinces which Spain retained, and out of which Protestantism was stamped by the persistence of Spanish Catholicism. For a century the Dutch Republic was mistress of the sea and flourished beyond all precedent. Spain and Portugal were quite unable to maintain their maritime supremacy. Tlie business-like air which pervaded the Republic enabled the bold sea- men and merchant princes of the Netherlands to sweejD all before them, and it was with good reason that Admiral von Tromp paraded abroom at his mast- head as he coasted along the English channel. In 1667 DeRuyter sailed tip the Thames and blockaded the port of London. The Swedes and the Danes were awed into acquiescence. But England was not to be kept down. In the eighteenth century it gradually gained upon its repiublican rival. The wresting of New York from the Dutch was one of many instances in point. When the American ■f ■s- fv BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 259 colonies declared war for independence the Dutch thought to improve the opportunity for recovering their lost prestige. But instead of doing that, they lost still more ground, receiving a blow from which there was never any recovery. In the meanwhile party sjDirit ran high in the Republic. One faction would gladly have made the chief magistracy heredi- tary in the Orange-Nassau family, while the other favored a pure republic. In the winter of 1794-95, the French army having conquered the Si^anish possessions in the North (Belgium), marched into the Republic and was hailed by one party as deliverers. That foreign in- vasion may be said to liave dealt a fatal blow to the Dutch Republic. The Bata- vian Republic was declared in May, 1795, which lingered in ob- scurity until, in 1806, Napoleon hurled it aside and set up the Kingdom of Holland for Louis Bonaparte. Four years later he incorporated it with France. The Congress of Vienna re-estab- lished the Kingdom of Holland, with tlie Orange-Nassau family on the throne, Belgium being a part of it, as seen already, until 18.30. Siuce that time the Dutch have been content to quietly follow business pursuits. To-day they are notable for the vastness of their holdings of government and corporate bonds. Their surplus capital is enormous. Not given to ostentation, they seem to take a siwcial delight in mere accumu- lation. In no other respect can the Dutcli lay sncli liigh claim to preeminence as in art. Tlie pahitcrs of the Flemish and Dutcli schools are second only to tlic Italians in the iiuuiber of their great names and the Ijrilliance of their fame. The earliest of these was Huljert Van Eyck, wlio Uourishcd in the hwt half of the fourteenth century at Ghent and Bru- ges. Ho excelled in the depth, power, traiisiiarciu^ and liaviiionv in his colDriiiir. HI? brotlior .I:m ^fe«&:^^-^^ !\.11I{ VND NlMPnS—jjTEB Rubens. contributed much to the development of art in the Netherlands. The older brother invented, or perfected, a varnisli which was of great im- portance in the preser- vation of paintings. The nest preeminent- ly great name was Al- brecht DUrer of Nurem- berg, born in 1471. He is called the father ALiiKi.,!, ,,, i;k«. of the German school of painting. It has been said that his art was great because it was the natural outgrowtli of his own genius, race and time. The ac- knowleged head of the Flemish school of art was Rubens, born at Siegen, Westphalia, in 1577. "As a painter,"' says Jlrs. Shedd, " tlie qualities of Rubens consist in a truthful and intense feeling for nature ' and a warm and transparent color- ing. He had wonder- ful fertility of conception, and still more won- derful facility of execution ; his imagination em- braced every object capable of representation, and he could render with equal success the most forcible and the most fleeting ajijicarances of na- ture." A pupil of Rubens of liardly less fame was Anthony Van Dyck of Antwerp. He was a masterly painter of portraits. He was alike successful in delineating strong cliaracters and the simplicity of cliildhood. The next name to challenge attention is Rembrandt, born in IvCj'den, 1608. Truthful and pictures([ue, lie ])ossessed very remarkalilc power in all the technicalities of his art. Ilis lighting was iwculiar. On his canvas light is concentrated, and not diffused. Paul Potter, horn at Enkliuy.«en in l(i25, wa.t till' lir,-: vxvx yx v:/; yx va: vx vx y>: -, vz vz vx v>:'_« vx vx yx vx vx vx vx yx vx: vx vx vxvx -x/. wai)^, CHAPTER XLIV. Old and New France— Anxient Gavl— Clovis and the Franks— The Merovinoiax Like — Charles Martel and tue Saracens — The Carlovingla.n and Capetian Dynasties— The House of Valois with its Branches— From 8J3 to 1143— Abelard and IIeloise— St. Louis- Grand Master Knight Templar Molay — Serfs — Battle of Agincourt and Joan op Arc — The Renaissance and Rabelais — The Vaudois and John Calvin— Tue Massacre op St Bartholomew's Day. H^-— ^35>^--^ T is htirdly an exaggeration to say that the i^rojjhecy, " A nation shall be born in a day," was literally ful- filled in the case of Prance. When the mighty deeps of Paris were lashed into a fury which leveled the Bas- tile to the ground in one grand spasm of righteous indignation, old things passed away and New France was created. The French people of the ., present time are the product of therev- ^^7} olution of a century ago, and not, like the English people, the slow growth of many centuries. Home not only conquered Gaul, but did much to civilize it. AVhen the em- ])irc crumbled, the German and Gothic barbarians j)c)urcil down from tlie north, coming botli by land and water, and the country lapsed back into barbar- ism. The transition from Gaul to France was at first a reaction subversive of the progress mailo during the period fromOaisar to Clovis. Tliat prog- ress had two stages, religiously, but in actual civili- zation it was one grad\ial improvement. The sub- stitution of Olvmpio doitio> for tlie wilil fanaticism of the long-bearded Druids was a very beneficent step, followed later by a quite general acceptance of Christianity. By a wholesome process of growth the various institutions, idciis and methods of Ko- man civilization were adopted and thoroughly nat- uralized. There were prosperous cities, well-tilled farms and even colleges of some renown in Gaul. But in A. D. 481, the savage Franks, no longer held in check by the eagles of Rome, crossed the Ehinc and took possession of the laud, and tliat without a struggle. The Gauls had been greatly benefited by the llonian conquest, but were not at all loath to exchange masters. Not only the old Gauls, but the Goths who had preceded the Franks in forming settlements in GalUa, took kindly to the change. Clovis, first of the Frank kings, accepted Clu-istian baptism and seemed disposed to encourage the regular fiow of the stream of civilization. But his acceptance of Christianity proved a great calam- ity. He was surrounded liy orthodox priests and theologians, while in southern Gaul the Arian doc- trine had been espoused. The royal convert de- clared it a sliame tiiat sucli fair possessions sliould belong to iieretics, and soon a desolating war w;is in progress. The destruction attributable to Clovis and his j>o- Icmical advisors was trivial as compared with the T (261) ^ 4. 202 OLD FRANCE. desolation wrought by the rivalries of his four sons. When he died, 511, a long period of barbarism be- gun. The dynasty which he founded, called the Merovingian line (in honor of the otherwise obscure grandfather of Clovis, Meroveg) continued from 496 to 741, sixteen generations. During all that time tlie dreary waste was unrelieved by a single ray of hope. By sad and bloody steps the land re- ceded toward a savage condition. Gradually the bad became worse, but the royal family sank lower than the people, — so very low that it sank out of sight with Chilperic IV. The immediate occasion of the disappearance of the Me- rovingian line and the acces- sion of tlie Oarlovin- gian, was the inva- sion of Western Europe by the Sara- cens. The latter hav- ing defeat- ed Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, thinking to subjugate France and Germany, then substan- tially one country. The feeble king could do nothhig to check the invasion, but Charles, Mayor of Paris (an office which had gi-adually come to exercise almost regal authority), came to the front as general of an army composed of Ger- mans and Franks. He met the Saracens at Or- leans and crushed them. He is known as Charles Martel (the Hammer) and the savior of Western Europe from Islam. He miglit have taken the crown at once, but preferred a ducal title. His son Pepin enjoyed the regal fruits of that splendid victory. He was not a memorable sove- reign. His claim to distinction is the fact that he was the son of Charles Martel and the father of Charlemagne. The latter reigned over the Franks, but was a German in reality. The Carlovingian THE CORONATION OP HUGH CAPET. line has been set forth in connection with German history. In the disintegration of the Carlovingian emijire, which followed inmiediately the death of Charlemagne, Gaul (now become France) fell to the lot of a branch of that family which produced a series of rulers signally unworthy of sovereignty. Those imbecile and vicious kings followed each other in monotonous infamy until 987, when Hugh Capet came to the French throne. The pieople were no longer Pranks, a name suggestive of their Teutonic origin, but Frenchmen. The Capetiaii line held the scepter until 1328, through fourteen generations. We find little of note during this period. The elevation of Hugh Capet was the result of nation- al necessi- ty and pa- pal inter- vention. There had come to be a po- tent set- tlement of Normans upon the west of France, Norman- dy and Brittany. Under the Capetians these Nor- mans were fused largely with the Franks from ovei' the Rhine, and the French nationality consists of Gauls, Romans, Teutons and Normans amalgam- ated. The distinctive France is, therefore, a braid with four strands inseparably interwoven. By the time the dynasty founded by Hugh Capet gave place to the Valois branch of the royal family, the nation had still another quadruple character ; it consisted of the church, the king, the nobility and the people, developed in the order observed. The struggles and rivalries of these factors or pow- ers during the Middle Ages possess no marked pecul- iarity. Whether the king was of the house of Va- lois, Valois-Orleans or Valois-Angolenie, the dreary waste of centuries presents very few sterling fea- tures. But before proceeding with the Bourbons it & - OLD FRANCE. 263 may be well to pause in our dynastic sketch to note the really noteworthy events and historical land- marks of France up to the accession of the last of the French royal f amihes. The treaty of Verdun, 843, was the recognized date for the distinct creation of Italy, France and Germany. The coronation of Hugh Capet has been called "the triumph of German manners and feudal connections." Christian art and the burning of heretics in France began about the eleventh cen- tury. The conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy, a disgraceful victory of French arms, dates from this century, but as it never seriously modified French civilization, while it did the civilization of Eng- and, it belongs to the history of the latter country. Upon •both countries it and other causes entailed a long series of wars, during which the Brit- ish kings laid claim to France, in whole or in part, occasion- ally gaining a foothold in the land, notably at Calais. Prac- tically, it resulted in the pro- duction of that remarkable patroit and martyr, Joan of Arc, and a few interesting mili- tary episodes. That is about all, from the French point of view. The first Crusade was formally inaugurated at Cler- mont, France, and Peter the Hermit, who was its great apostle, was a Frenchman. So was the jiope of the period, Urban II., and the famous Christian knight, Godfrey of Bouillon. That Crusade dates from 1095. In the subsequent Crusades France bore a prominent part. It was specially conspicu- ous in the establishment and maiutcnanco of na- tional amity and royal heredity. During the darkest part of tlie Dark Ages, France produced a great intellectual luminary, and, pro- phetic of its future national character, intellectual preeminence was linked with love and romance. Thus Abelard and his fair Ileloiso are the first names in French annals to gain immortality, apart from the accident of rank. The former was a great scholar and dcbator. Having won distinction bv his learning and skill in dialectical subtleties, such as tlie medieval scholars were fond of, he was hired to teach Heloise Greek. They fell in love and were imprudent. To save him from disgrace (for he was a jiriest), she refused to be married, preferring to bear alone the burden of their mutual calamity. She suffered everything, but never wavered in her loyalty to him. He developed into a cold-blooded, selfish ecclesiastic, as mean as she was amicable. Their story is jjeculiarly pathetic, and to this day the French love to Ijedeck witli flowers and bedew with tears the one grave of this couj)le. It is a per- jietual shrine of sentimental- ism. But in addition to all that, Abelard did something to relieve the intellectual ster- ility and stupidity of his time and church. One sovereign in the lonjj list so rapidly passed over de- serves special mention, Louis IX., known often as St. Louis. From 123G to 1370 he held the reins of government, a truly great and good man. He loved the people, and was unremit- ting in his zeal to serve them. He convoked a parliament (or states-general) ; established in- stitutions of justice; issued humane edicts ; sought to maintain jieace ; endowed hos- pitals and asylums ; encour- aged art : practiced virtue in private life, and charity to the poor. Somewhat given to superstition, he was yet free from the character usually stamijed upon the human mind by credulity. Early in the fourteenth century occurred the trial and condemnation of Jacques Molay, Grand Master of the Knights Templar. He was a victim of the cupidity of Pliilip tlie Handsome, and the servility to that monarch of Pojw Clement V. The Order of the Temple had grown out of the Cnisadcs, and was possessed of great wealth. Molay was burnt lit the stake, and the order ci)mi>elled to ex- ist only in secret. Its present jirospcrous couditiou is of very modern date. The serfs of the royal domain wore lilior.itod July .'5, l.'il."i. I>v Tjduis X. lie w:i,< a i|iiiirrt'l.>-onie king. 33 r,4^ 264 OLD FRANCE. and needed soldiers to fight in Flanders. That, and not philanthropy, prompted emancipation. The development of the power of the people became by tliis time a prominent feature. The burghers or commons, acquired very considerable authority. Speaking of France at this period, Guizot remarks : " There have been communes in the whole of Eu- rope, in Italy, Spain, Germany and England as well as in France. Not only have there been communes everywhere, but the communes of France are not those which, as communes, under that name and in the middle ages, have played the cliiefest part and taken the highest place in history. The Italian communes were the parents of glorious republics. The German communes became free and sovereign towns, which had their own special history, and ex- ercised a great deal of influence upon the general history of Germany. The communes of England made alliance with a portion of the English feudal aristocracy, formed with it the preponderating house in the British government, and thus played, full early, a mighty part in the history of their country. Far were the French communes, under that name and in their day of special activity, from rising to such political importance and to such historical rank. And yet it is in France that the peojDle of the communes, the burgherdom, reached the most complete and most powerful development, and ended by acquiring the most decided preponderance in the general social structure. There have been com- munes, we say, throughout Europe ; but there has not really been a victorious third estate anywhere save in France." White declares that in the course of this sovereign's life the middle ages passed away and modern hfe began. From the accession of the first Valois King, Philip VI. to Charles VII. (1326 to 1453) France and England were almost constantly at war. The darkest day was October 25, 1415, when the battle of Agincourt was fought, resulting in a most terrible slaughter of the flower of French chivalry. The Eng- lish seemed to be absolute masters of the situation. Year after year the unequal contest was waged, in- vading Britons desolating the land with impunity, and laying successful siege to the cities. The first great check to English aggression came from the weird leadersMp of Joan of Arc. This strange girl was a peasant born. That was an age of wild hallucination. At the age of sixteen, 1428, she had a dream in consequence of which she fancied herself ordained by Providence to deliver her coun- try from the English soldiery, then ravaging the land. At first her '' mission " was too incredible to be seriously entertained. The idea of a rustic maid raising the siege of Orleans (which she promised to do if given command of troops) was preposterous. But the situation was critical in the extreme, and her enthusiasm inspired confidence. She was given an opportunity to try the experiment. It was a glorious success. Her faith bred heroism in those about her, and by a spasm of patriotism the Eng- lish were forced to abandon Orleans not only, but to siirrender many other advantages. Finally she was captured and subjected to treatment quite in keeping with medieval ideas of justice. The French made no effort to secure her exchange. They allowed her to be treated by the English as they saw fit. She was tried for heresy and witch- craft. For three weeks she was badgered by bish- ops and lawyers. Her sentence was inifirisonment for life. That was too lenient, and she was afterwards accused of wearing man's clothes, forbidden in the book of Leviticus, and on that charge burnt in the market-place at Rouen (1431). And still the French court and j)eople were indifferent. Later, her name was enshrined and held in highest honor. The dawn of modern day in Germany is called the Reformation, or the revival of religion ; in France, the Renaissance, or the revival of learning. The former clustered about the name of Luther ; the latter was less personal. The , great reformer was able to rally to his support a powerful political following. The cause of learning had the sympathy of Louis XL That monarch ruled from 1461 to 1483. He encouraged printing and scientific pur- suits. A monster of cruelty, the victim of super- stition and fear, he yet had his good points as a sovereign. Duclos says of him, " Louis XL was far from being without reproach ; few princes have deserved so much ; but it may be said that he was equally celebrated for his virtues and his vices, and that, every thing being put in the balances, he was a king. The term renaissance (pronounced ruhna- songs) is French for regeneration or second birth. A term which means in English a purely spiritual and religious experience of the individual soul, de- signates, in the French, an awakening of intellectual -711 OLD FRANCE. 26: activity, and this diiference fairly illustrates the representative characteristics of the two peoples. The first name in this movement is Francois Ea- bellais. He was born in 1495, and died at Paris in 1553. He was a priest by profession, a humorist by nature. His writings are grotesque, coarse and often tedious, yet learned, thoughtful and generally sprightly. They consist of the account of the life and experiences of " Gargantua "' and "Pantagruel." Through Rabellais' preposterous conceits runs a vein of sharp criticism upon the follies of his age, the corruptions of the clergy, the inanities of the school- men, the crime of despot- ism, and the evils of super- sti tion. His was a voice of laughter, but yet none the less "the voice of one cry- ing in ' the wil- derness. Prepare ye the ~~ way of the lord." The Renaissance was the fore- runner of both tlie Reformation and the Revolu- tion, of Calvin and Voltaire, of St. Bartholomew and the Fourteentli of .July. The name of Jolm Calvin is associated wiili the little Swiss stronghold of Geneva and the Presby- terian church in Scotland and later in America; but he was none the less a Frenchman. Born at Noyon in 1509 he came to the notice of the public through a treatise on Clemency, called out by the first persecution of the Freiicli Protestants. The latter were and still are called Huguenots. He re- ceived liis Protestantism from a Lutheran teaclier. But long before Luther, or even John IIuss, tlierc was a very considerable Protestant church in France. It consisted of the inhabitants of the small and somewhat isolatok! stfi^lt^ iajis. K- ' '] •nWN' n ^^1' M- .-'--'■.■ ^3<.. -^-.- \'iiXL BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF Till s.ULLES, TltE ItESIDEXCE OF LOUIS XVi'. Froncli became the court language of the continent. In intellectual jnirsuits the French made great strides during the latter part of the seventeenth and the early part of the eighteenth century. Jlon- taigne wrote his immortal essays, and Descartes his still gi'eater work on philosoi)hy. Brilliant dram- atists arose. The French language was brought to its iirescnt state of philological perfection. Archi- tecture flourished. Internal iniprovements of great importance were made. The land was cultivated intelligently and profitably. The nation prositerod in war and in peace. The golden age of royalty had come, and to all appearance luid come to stay. The glory of Versailles was world-wide. Even remote Siam w;is (laz/.li'il liv its splondoi-. T.ut tlu^ pirturr Great Britain, into alliance against the Freuch. It was this coalition which brought out the Duke of Marlborough and secured for England the " glori- ous victory" of Blenheim. Terrible was the slaugli- tcr of the French. It was Waterloo ou a small scale, so far jls glory and carnage were concerned, but peace did not come until nine years later. Blen- heim was fought in 1704. Tiio long and desolating series of wars waged by Louis XI\'. resulted in .some substantial gains to France, but involved the masses of tlie people in most extreme mi.sery. Jjiterature can lioast some illustrious names dur- ing this reign. The sweet-soulcd Fciielon and the eloquent Bossuet were the glory of theilnirch. The di>iini-itinn-- "f Foiu'lnn ni'oii spiriinal lifo iirf in- trty with a jicrsuasiveness which made his pen one of (he more potent factors of his time. But the supreme name in the list of pioneers of tho Revolution is that of Voltaire. He ranks as the great enemy of the ciirist.ian church, but the church whicli he as- sailed, be it remembered, wivs very different from the Christianity of tiie present time, and he himself was a believer in a jiersonal Deity and the futun» life. Voltaire, more than any other man, was the futlor of the French Revolution. "TTl 34 Triumph op French Monarcht— The STATES-GENKRAi— The Third Estate — National Assem- BLT— The Bastile— The Emigrants— Fmght of the Eotal Fajiilv— Eotaltt in Prison— The Legislative Assembly— Change of the Calendar— The Jacobins— Trial and Execu- tion op the King — The Girondists and Thomas Paine— The Reign op Terror— The Directory— St. Bartholomew Avenged— Napoleon and the Revolution- Notable Char- acters OF the Eetolutionart Period: Mirabeau, Marie Antoinette, Charlotte Corday, Marat, Banton and Robespierre — The Revolution and Napoleon. & ^^- "he triumph of .French monarchy over both feud- alism and the rights of tlie people reached its highest culmination in the dis- appearance from the poli- tics of the country of the States-General, or parliament of France. The king was then not only supreme,but single in author- ity, sharing nothing Avith any class, order or institution in the land. The reappearance of the States-General, the assembhng once more of that body, was a no less distinctive recognition of the decay of absolutism. The date of the former was 1644, while Louis XIII. wore the crown ; the date of the latter was 1787, when Louis XVI. began to feel the need of props for the throne. That period, 143 years, was one of splendid misery, of gilded and gorgeous in- famy. The States-General consisted of three estates, as they are generally designated, the nobility, the cler- gy and representatives of the citizens. The right. however, of the third estate to sit with the first and second estates was sharply contested. The former stood for the bourgeois, or towns-folk, whose import- ance was a gradual growth. Louis XVI. found that he had evoked a danger- ous power, resorted to a perilous expedient. The first and second estates were tractable enough, but the p)opular or bourgeois element had acquired a self-poise and independence which alarmed his majesty. Hardly had this parliament been convened before a royal decree was issued for its dissolution. But the sovereign was not sovereign. When the order came, Mirabeau, the Patrick Henry of the French Eevolution, boldly refused to obey the man- date. He belonged to and sj^oke for the third es- tate. The attemiDt was then made to disperse the body by the bayonet, but that plan utterly failed. Behind the bayonets were soldiers who were patriots, and they refused to obey orders. So far from breaking up the States-General, they formed a mili- tia called the ISTational Guards. At the head of this noble military body was the grand Marquis Gilbert de Lafayette, whose services in behalf of American liberty had endeared him to the friends of freedom in his own land. The organization had for its avowed purpose the protection of tlie National ^I<=- (272) THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. ■k. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 275 Assembly, the new and inij^roved name assumed by the undismayed members of the States-General. From States-Gen- eral to National As- sembly was a step of incalculable import- ance. It was with great reluctance tliat the clergy and nobil- ity joined the new body. The king tried ■ most assiduously to maintain the royal prerogative. All sorts of petty devices were resorted to, but all to no purpose. Mirabeau and his compatriots resolved to secure for their country constitutional LAFATETTE. t:r^i-\ government, and they were not to be baffled. The spirit of high resolve and heroic patriotism was absolutely dauntless. The first meeting of the National Assembly was held May 5, 1789, and it was on the 14th of the following July, that the Bastile fell, making a day forever fresh in the memory of every Frenchman. July Four- teenth is to France much what July Fourth is to America. Tlie Bastile was something more than an ancient jail, as the Declaration of Indepen- dence was something more than a disavowal of allegiance to tlie Britisli Crown. That prison was a Ijody animated by the spirit of despotism in its most hideous form. Built by Charles V., in 1370, it had been repaired, enlarged and made incrca.'ingly odious by subsequent monarclis. It was not a ])rison for criminals, liut for political offenders, uncnn- victed, but obnoxious to royalty, or to .some court fa- vorite. The only formula used in condemning one to the Bastile was the k//re cle cachet. The pris- oner was left in ignorance of the cause or duration of his punishment, and not allowed ti> ff)mni\nii- cate with friends. Voltaire wa.s once incarcerated there. On the fourteentli of July the populace lit- erally leveled the massive building to the ground, killed the governor, De Launay, and hberated the prisoners. Tlic real leaders of tlie mob were women, respectable but plebeian. Paris, it may be remarked, is notable for the iirominence of its women both in business and pohtics. The keys of the Bastile were sent to George Washington, and by him presented to the government of the United States, to be kept among tlie more treasured arcliives at the capital of tlie republic which French valor and gold had done so much to establish. Tlie destruction of the Bastile was so swift and complete that it terrified the nobility. Many of them fled incontinently from tlie country, and be- came refugees at foreign courts. They were called and are kno\ni in history as emigres, or emigrants. Tliey were very active throughout the Revolu- tionary period, plotting for the defeat of liberty and the reestablishment of despotism. The king and queen were very much alarmed liy tlie great uprising. They could not be wholly bhnd to the significance M'-'mm THE BASTILE. of tliat destruction. It certainly boded no good to monarchy. The royal family retired to Ver- sailles, in the hope of being secure from popu- lar indignation without an abandonment of tlie throne. It was a half-way measure and ill-advised. Presently a viist niob, with tishwomen and the like at the front, marched thither. Emboldened by tlie royal iliglit and aggravated by the journey, they would have slain the king and queen Inid it iiotljcen for the kindly and brave intervention of Lafayette. He shielded the leacemaker between tlie mob and the crown. The king wa.s now a prisoner in liis own palace, virtually, and the populace had absolute authority. The leveling jTocess begun at the fall nf the Bastile \' 576 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. was rapidly carried tp an iinprecedented length. Titles were abolished. The Idng himself was Citi- zen Louis Capet, and the queen merely a citizeness. They were not even free, but rather prisoners in the palace of the Tuilleries. In an evil moment the royal couple tried to es- cape, and join the Emigrants beyond the border. They were foiled. Recaptured and in confinement, their condition was pitiable in the extreme. Just one year after the Bastile fell, and in commemora- tion of its fall, the people adopted a Constitution. That was a most important step toward freedom, and would have been even if the constitution had been despotic in character. The bare fact that the people had secured an organic law was of the most serious moment. That constitution compelled the king to swear fealty to it. His attempted flight was regarded as a violation of his oath. For that un- availing endeavor to flee, the royal household were imprisoned in a lonely castle. In the meanwhile the Emigrants had not been idle. They sought to arouse the fears and enlist the sympathies of other European monarchs and monarchists. Their ef- forts were by no means fruitless. Soon an army of no mean dimensions marched into France towards Paris, sent thither from Austria and Prussia both. The object of these military operations was to put an end to the Revolution. But that only made a bad matter worse for the king and his friends. The revolutionists were abundantly able to repel inva- sion and suppress discontent. The National Assembly was not quite democratic enough to suit the popular demand, and the more truly representative body, the Legislative Assembly, took its place for a short time. On the twentieth of September, 1793, that too gave place to the still more democratic National Convention, as it was called. The latter decreed the total and perpetual abolition of royalty in France and the permanent estabUshment of a republican form of government. The French Republic began by making an un- wise change iu the calendar. Unmindful of the im- portance of uniformity among all civilized nations in the measurement of time, tlie revolutionists j^ro- posed to make a radical alteration. Not only was time to be measured by days and months bearing new names (in itself of trivial consequence), but the ■ establishment of the Republic was to supersede the birth of Jesus Christ for dating purposes. Instead of " the year of our Lord," common to all Chris- tendom, France was to measure time by distance from the culminating point of the French Revolu- tion. And in place of weeks of seven days were estabhshed periods of ten days. The folly and inconvenience of a provincial, in place of a cosmopolitan calendar, seemed to be quite over- looked iu a mad frenzy to break down the associa- tions of the Christian era with the new order of things. The Republican government was fatally deficient in conservatism, which is as necessary in reforma- tion as radicalism. The Anti-Christian and utterly revolutionary party was called Jacobins. The name applies, pri- marily, to a political society founded in 1789 and superseded in 1794. Car lyle calls them " Lords of the Articles," adding, " they originate debates for the legislative; discuss peace and war; settle be- forehand what the legislative is to do." This society, or club, had its branches in all parts of France. At first Lafayette and other moderate republicans be- longed to it, but later it fell under the influence of Robesj)ierre and Danton. Mirabeau died early in the revolution ; Lafayette was left behind in the march of radicalism, and a reign of terror was in- augurated. From the declaration of the Republic to the fall of Robespierre, the last of the Jacobins, was less than two years, but in that brief time was wrought a work which shocked the humane sensi- bilities of the world and has never ceased to be a reproach to the cause of self-government. The king, " Citizen Louis Capet," was brought to trial for complicity with the Emigrants in conspiracy against the republic, December 11, 1792. Upon his trial Thomas Paine, who had rendered the United States incalculable service as a journalist during the Revolutionary War, and who was then a member of the National Convention, made a pow- erful argument in defense of the king, or rather, in favor of mitigating his punishment to banishment to America. But the sentence of death was passed upon him, and he was guillotined January 21, 1793. The queen shared his fate, after a delay of a few months. The heir to tlie crown, the Dauphin, died in prison when about nine years of age, the victim of cruel treatment. The opposers of these extreme measures were called Girondists. A great may of them were -TH ~S) V J- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 277 guillotined for their moderation. Mr. Paine, who belonged to that party, owed his escape from death to a fortunate accident and the tardy intervention of the United States. The accident referred to was this : his door was chalk-marked for execution, as was supposed, but in reality the mark was on the inside of the door of the adjoining cell, and when both doors were closed no sign of death was vis- ible. That blunder, trivial in itself, saved the life of Thomas Paine, and it was during his imprison- ment, while waiting for death, that he wrote liis treatise on religion, called " The Age of Eeason." Had it not been for that chalk-mark blunder the most notable attack on the Christian religion ever penned in the English language, before the present generation, would never have been written. Him- self an extreme, if not a violent radical, in rehgion and politics, Paine was quite too conservative to suit the leaders of the French Revolution. The Eeign of Terror stands out in history as a horrid nightmare. For months Paris and France at lai'ge seemed wholly given up to the ravages of monstrous cruelty. In the name of freedom, equal- ty and fraternity the most outrageous and revolting crimes were perpetrated. The guillotine was kept con- stantly busy and bloody. It was not alone the ene- mies of the Revolution who were brought to the block- The mad frenzy of the period decimated the ranks of the revolutionists themselves. Many were the victims of their own policy. The most extreme radical of them all, Hebert, was brought to the guil- lotine by Robespien-e on the twenty-fourth of March, 1794, and on the fifth of the next month Danton shared his fate. July 28th of the same year Robespierre himself was executed, thus com- l^leting the circle and carrying the policy of terror to its logical sequence. The Convention was no longer put in the background by the leaders of the Ja- cobins. Early in the following year the National Conven- tion adopted a new constitution, and under that organic law the execiitivc authority of tlic govern- ment was placed in the liandspf a Directory, con- sisting of five members. The intractables resisted this substitution of regular authority for anarchical cruelty, and their resistance brouglit ?s'a[K)lcon Bonaparte to the front for the first time, who quelled the Parisian mob October 5, 1795. From tlnit time on. other far-tors of more or less ]ir()niiiipnco entered into the history pf France, besides the Revolution. The Reign of Terror was over, but revolutionary ideas remained, and have never cea.scd to be fruitful of great and greatly benefi- cent results. It is due to the truth of history to add that the honors of the Jacobin jjcriod were really insignifi- cant as compared with that one horror, the Massacre of St. Bartholomew in 1572. More blood was shed that one night than during all tJie period from the fall of the Bastile to the establishment of the Di- rectory. After two centuries the supreme crime of French history was avenged. The wars of Napoleon form a separate chapter. The desperate, resolution of the monarchical gov- ernments of Europe to prevent the establishment of a permanent republic in France furnished that "■ grey-eyed man of destiny " the opportunity to dis- tinguish himself, and out of the necessities of war erect an empire, transient, indeed, but none the less imjierial. The inevitable drift of war is toward abso- lutism. The executive functions of government were intrusted to a Directory which felt jealousy of Na- poleon's rising power. But between the reestablish- raent of the old monarchy and the peril of a new dynasty there was no choice but to give loose rein to " the man -on horseback."' Napoleon's first {»- litical oflice was that of First Consul, which title was bestowed upon him after the Italian and Egyj)- tian camjiaigns. That was just as the eighteenth century was closing. The Directory gave place to tluree Consuls, the Corsican being the first. The otlier two were little more tiian figure-head.*. With the dawn of the nineteenth centurj- the Re- public of France ceased to exist, in point of fact, as a vital force, and notwithstanding a few spasmodic movements, was dormant for seventy years. The empire followed the consulate. After Marengo and Hohcnlinden Na{)oleon was made Consul for life with power to name his successor. Tliat was the substance of imperialism. The full recognition of it soon followed. In 1804 he was elected Em]x?ror, not of France, but of tlie Frencii, a ilistinctiou witli some difference. The Grand Louis had claimed France as a family estate ; tlie greater Bona]>artc accepted its governnicnt a.s the gift of the jn'oplc. Pope liCo had crowned Charlemagne at Rome ; Na- poleon, after a la]).'!0 of numy centuries, suninionoer- iah in the furnace of his own construction, was a lawyer of Arras. In the early part of the Revolution he bore .-in inriins)m-U(ni-i ]i:irt. It was- .t-" the hp;id 35 A' 280 THE .FRENCH REVOLUTION. <> Robespierre. of the Jacobin club that he reahzed his ambition. He was an earnest advocate of the execution of the ^ s,^ king, and the prosecution of /^ , ~^ the Girondists. After the ' ^ execution of Danton and the assassination of Marat he was Tirtually dictator of France. Then it was that ^ he attempted to undo tlie is^^ atheistic influence of Danton by a speecli in honor of tlie Deity. He made himself ridiculous by posing in tlie cliaracter of a pietist, and to the laugh raised over his deism rather than to the de- testation of his cruelties, may be attributed his' fall and execution. His power and prestige were drowned in ridicule. When his arrest was decreed he tried in vain to lift his voice in self-defense. The privilege he had so often denied to others was refused him, and the next day after he had been hurried to prison he was guillotined. His name will forever stand as a synonjmi for the horrors of the Reign of Terror. It was his bad preeminence to be foremost in disgracing, perverting and retarding what was, despite all per- versions, the grandest and most beneficent revolu- tion the world ever saw. In his history o¥ the French Revolution, Lamar- tine, speaking of tlie period at which we have ar- rived says, " Tlie Revolution had only lasted five years. These five years were five centuries for France. Never perhaps on this eartli did any na- tion ever produce in so short a time such an eru}?- tion of ideas, new notions, characters, geniuses, tal- ents, catastrophies, crimes and virtues. Men were born like the instantaneous personification of things that should think, speak or act." While there were turmoil and terror at home, there were brilliant achievements in battle. Napoleon was not the only great hero. Hocke, Jourdau, and Moreau were commanders of consummate ability, but they were not only eclipsed by the subsequent splendors of Napoleon, but by the stupendous intellect of Carnot, Minister of War, the Stanton of France. His work for the armies of France in those days can only be appreciated by those who know something of the debt the United States owes Edwin M. Stanton. When Napoleon returned from Egypt (1799) the Directory had become very unpopular, and the way was prepared for that final crisis, known as the Revolution of the 18th and 19th Brumaire. That was the movement which supplanted the Directory with the Consulate. The fear of another Reign of Terror occasioned the transition. Napoleon was in command of the troops in and about Paris, and enter- ed the Council Chamber not togooutuntil he liadui effect revolutionized the government. The proceed- ings of that memorable occasion, as narrated by An- derson, may well close this chapter : " He addressed them [the Council of the Ancients] declaring that the constitution had been violated, that it was not strong enough to save France from anarchy ; he said that he had only accepted the command of the troops for the purpose of bringing the strong arms of the nation to the support of the deputies who constituted its head, and ended by promising to re- sign his power as soon as the danger was passed. He afterwards entered the hall of the Five Hundred with four grenadiers to make a similar speech, when the whole assembly rose as one man with cries of 'Down^vith the Dictator !' and crowded around him, one member even attempting his life ; but he was rescued by fresh arrivals of troops, and left the hall. In the confusion which followed, a report was cir- culated among the troops that the deputies had at- tempted their general's life ; and a detachment of grenadiers theii entered the hall, and cleared it at the point of the bayonet." ^ s " _k CHAPTER XLVII. Napoleon's Place in History — Bikth and Earlt Career— The Italian Campaios— Toe Egyptian Campaign — Napoleon and the Allies Join Issues — Marenoo asi> IIoiienlinden — AUSTERLITZ AND THE COLUMN VeNDOJIE— TRAFALGAR, JeXA ANT) VlENNA— ON TO MOSCOWl AND THE Resitlt— The Pall, Exile and Death of Napoleon. ^^— ^ut he was given command Paris. of the forces (2.SI) . -Vle- .yv 2«2 NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. The next spring Napoleon was sent to Italy to take command of one of the three armies engaged ill the defense of the Republic against the "' Emi- grants " and their monarchical allies. He was on]}- twenty-seven years of age, very short and slim. His troops early and always loved to call him " The Little Corporal." The Austrians whom he encount- ered there conceived contempt for his youth. At Monte Notte, April 12, ITOG, he won his first victory over the enemies of his country. It was with good reason that he afterwards dated his patent of no- bility from that battle. His next exploit was the passage of his army over the river Adda at Lodi. The battle of Lodi was a brilhant victory, won by bravery and skill. So remarkable were Ms move- ments and their results, that he soon attracted the attention of Europe, and was seen to be a gxeat soldier. He destroyed no less than five Austrian armies in that Italian campaign. So terrible was the destruction, that a year after he took command a treaty of peace was signed by which France gained great advantage and Vienna itself was spared the ravages of sack by the troops of Napoleon. Other treaties followed as fruits of that campaign. He returned to Paris to be received with the honors due his genius and successes. Napoleon was something of an eleiDhant upon the hands of the republic. To provide a safe outlet for the restless military energies of himself and his soldiers, who had fought just enough to want to keep on fighting, an expedition into Egypt was planned. It was indeed a wild-goose chase, if ever there was one. Soldiers and savans set sail from Tou- lon in the summer of 1798, mth no definite idea of what they did want. Turkish Mamelukes met them in hostile array. The " Battle of the Pyramids " was fought with success to the French arms. The British fleet, under Lord Nelson, attacked the French fleet at Alexandria, and won a naval victory which for a short time cut off Napoleon's communication with France, but he easily made himself master of Egji^t, except the seaport town of Acre, garrisoned by Eng- lish troops. He marched into Palestine, and returned to confront a Turkish army, and gained the victoiy of Aboukir, which closed his Egyjitian campaign. In the fall of 1799 he returned to France. The people hailed him as a glorious hero. His march through France was a mighty ovation, and the hon- ors and authority of First Consul came to him in the way set f ortii in tlie previous chapter. Europe saw in the new liead of the French government an exceedingly dangerous character. Previous appre- hensions ripened into certainty, and from hence- forth it was only a question of time wlien the com- bined power of the other nations of Europe would crush him or he them. For fifteen years the strug- gle continued, with only slight truces. Finding himself in hostility to all Europe, Napoleon seemed determined to conquer and reconstruct the whole continent, — not that either he or the allies clearly appreciated the irrejiressibleness of the conflict at the outset, but that from the time the hero of Lodi and Aboukir became the First Consul there was no alternative for either of the two parties but uncon- ditional surrender. In May, 1800, Napoleon crossed the Alps by a way supposed to be impassable and swooped down upon the Austrians. The battle of Marengo was soon fought and won. About that time another French army in Germany, under Moreau, gained the splendid victory of Hohenlinden. By mid- summer NaiJoleon was back in Paris, assiduously applying himself to the reconstruction of the gov- ernment of France. For several years he was en- gaged in developing the resources, improving the laws and political institutions of the country. In 1804 he was elected emperor. All this wliile it was evident that no real peace had been negotiated and on both sides preparations were being made for an- other encounter. Early in 1805 NajDoleon took the field. England made no secret of its hostility, andEussiaand Aus- tria formally declared war against France. In October Napoleon entered G-ermany, and on the 30tli of November he took jjosession of Vienna, occupying the splendid palace of the Schonbrunn. Twelve days later was fought the ever-memorable battle of Austerlitz. The energies wliich had been accumulating during the few years of peace were let loose. Napoleon won his most illustrious vic- tory on that day. Among the troiDhies of the bat- tle were twelve hundred Austrian cannons. They were afterwards melted down and used as the bronze for the famous column erected at Paris in memory of that victory in the Place Vendome. But the success of the French on the land had an offset in the defeat of the French navy in the battle of Trafalgar, fought in October of that year. ? J- NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 283 RETREAT OF TUB FRENCU FROM MOSCOW. NAPOLEON AXO IIIS CAMPAIGNS. 285 Lord Nelson very ueurly aimihilated the eueiuy. That did not, however, prevent Napoleon from be- ing absolute on the continent. It made England undisputed mistress of the seas. The French Em- peror none the less pro- ceeded to cut up Europe into king- doms, and jiarcel it out among his brothers and favorites as if it ■were a private es- tate. His el- der brother, Joseph, he made king of Spain, and another brother be- came the king of Hol- land. Prus- sia had been neutral and ■\vas reward- ed with Han- over, the old 2:)ossession of the present English dy- nasty. Sev- eral of the smaller Ger- man states were under Naijoleonie "protection." But Freder- ick of Prussia did not long remain neutriil. As.'^oon as he declared war against Napoleon the Eagles of France flew to Prussia. Tlie battle of Jena was fought, and the victorious French Emperor entered r.crlin in triumph. Still anotlicr Imilher was given a kingdom, and soon the royal family of Portugal look refuije in Brazil. There was disaflfectioii in Germany which was quelled by the victories of Eck- muhl and Essling, followed by another occupancy of Vienna, and the treaty of Vienna. Thus tlic continent was prostrate at the feet of "Tlie Lit- tle Cor])or- al." That was in tlie fall of ISOl). Napoleon's star had now reached its zenith. Flushed by his victories, he was em- boldened to undertake tlie conquest of llussia. As the winter of 1812-13 set m he set out for Moscow. After a long, weary march he came in sight of that ancient cap- ital of the Muscovite Empire. The city Avas in flames. The people had .set fire to the town, ratlicr than afford shelter from tlie wintry blast, for the enemy. It was a des- hcioic expedient. The desired effect was The army of invasion wsis compelled Tlie loss was terrible, the four Imiidred thousand French soldiers wlio .started on that exi)edition only about fifty Ihousaiid survived. That Wius the most disastrous expedition in :ill liisiory. It crippled tlie force "f perate but produced. to return through the snow, Of ■^ l\^ 286 NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. Napoleon beyond all recovery and made Waterloo possible. Fresh troops were recruited and a power- ful army was soon in the field. Napoleon had no idea of surrender. In August of 1813 he defeated the allies at Dresden, but was obUged, nevertheless, to retreat into France. Blilcher led 130,000 Prussians, and "Welling- ton was at the head of a powerful English army in Portugal and Spain. Those two gi'eat captains, destined to conquer the great conqueror, slowly moved toward each other. France was now for the first time since Napoleon came to the front the battlefield. On the heights of Montmar- tre, overlooking Paris, was fought a battle which resulted in victory for the allies, and on the 31st of March, 1814, Alexander of Eussia and Frederick of Prussia took posses- sion of Paris and dicta- ted terms of peace. The Emperor was obliged to abdicate and accept im- prisonment upon the island of Elba. That little island was to be his " empire." There he was to hold miniature court. It was a sweet revenge to think of the great dictator as " crib- bed and cabined" within such narrow limits. On the 20th of April Napoleon took his sor- rowful departure for that island but on the first of March next following he set foot upon the soil of France once more. He had eluded the vigilance of the allies. Tremendous was the popular enthusiasm. The Bourbon who had been placed upon the throne, Louis XVIII., was powerless. Popular enthusiasm knew no bounds. Everybody seemed to be in ecstasies of delight over PLACJb ^ tNl) iMli the return of the hero of Austerlitz. The sol- diers and people vied in enthusiasm. The king was glad to escape with his life, and Napoleon was EmjDeror once more. The war was renewed. The allies were not con- tent to allow the restor- ation of the empire. Early in June a com- bined English and Rus- sian army was quarter- ed at some distance from each other in tire neigh- borhood of Brussels un- der Wellington and Blti- cher. Napoleon raised an army of 150,000 men to resist them. On the 18th of June, 1815, was fought the battle of Water- loo. Wellington was al- iMltlLho V 'I JOMi. most beaten, but BlUcher came to his succor just in time to turn the scale. The defeat of the French was utter. On the twen- tieth instant Napoleon re-entered Paris, a van- quished fugitive. His plan was to find asylum in America, but he was arrested by the allies and sent to the lonely island of St. Helena from which he never escaped. Henceforth he was a close prisoner of war, the farce of a Lilli- putian empire bemg altogether abandoned. There he died. May 5, 1821, and with him perislied (it may be hoped for all time to come) the last ambition of the Universal Empire. '^- ~s> V NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. i'ife.-ii 3(> It. V — » ' • - — » II — T- !^ LATTER-DAY FRANCE. « « I * innr ni' CHAPTER XLVIII. .^y A Great Experiment and its Result— Louis Philiite— Louis Napoleos and bis Coot d'etat — The Empire — The Siege of Paris and the Avenging op Jena — The Crisis — Centraliza- tion IN France— Importance of Paris— National Contentment, Land and "Rentes"— Religion and Education — Colonlal Possessions- Contempobaby French Literatdre- 1^ ^ K-*^x^§-T^ 'ITH the fall of the Emperor Napoleon a reaction in favor of monarch)' set in. The French nation seem- ed to be tired of all tliat savored of newness, and to long for the old ways- Louis XVIII., a Bourbon in blood and character, was placed upon the tlironc. He did much to restore the ancient rc- rjimi'. His death occurred in 18"^4, and at that time the reaction seemed to be jicr- manent. The king himself had been less reactionary than the Council which sur- rounded liim. But no sooner had his brother, Charles X., succeeded liim upon the throne than the depth and strength of the sen- timent among the people for liberty began to assert itself. Charles was disjjosed to lie imperious and l^resumptuous. He carried things with a somewhat alisolute will, tlie monarchical and democratic par- ties getting warmer and mure bitter all the time; until ill 1830 tlie king was comjiellcd to give up the struggle. His inily safety, as an individual, wa.'f in abdication. The grim specter of Louis XVI. tcrri- linl biiii into abdicating in fivvor of his cousin of the Orleans familv. who was crowned Louis Pliilipi«. Tlie crafty cousin declined the scepter as a royal gift, thereby securing a popular confirmation of his authority, for so democratic a declination brought out, as expected and designed, an expression of the people. For eighteen years Louis Philippe nilcd Franco, careful ever to respect the constitutional limitations of his jireroga- tives. This king was not royal in vir- tues or vices- Without lic- ing quite what would be call- ed a bad nnm he was sorflid. avaricious and J tricky. Ilis^^^^^^^^^^^^H^gn^H^Ki^^ best trait oi- characteristic "" '■' imini:. was H sincere admiration for America and liigh ajv preciation of tlie just i>laco among nations of the United SUtcs. K mediocre in mind .ind ^. i. 290 LATTER-DAY FRANCE. uue-ventful in career, lie was remarkably mod- ern in his sympathies. King thongh he was, Louis Philipi3e was in every sense a part of Latter-day France. His reign terminated, as it began, in abdi- cation. It had fairly demonstrated that the French, unlike the Eughsh, would not voluntarily accept monarchy, however hedged about by popular concessions. That was the one significant thing about the reign of the three post-JSTapoleonic kings, more especially the last and best of the trio. The great experiment of royalty in the France of the nineteenth century was thoroughly tried, and the fact of incompatibility fully established. When Louis Philippe laid down the scepter the election of a President was the first public business in order. Choice fell on Louis Napo- leon, " nephew of his irncle," and that solely because he was the nephew of the mau who had made France bril- liant with military glory. He was looked upon as a hair- brained, weak and harmless young man. But beneath his placid exterior beat a heart ambitious of imperial power. His secret purpose was to be to his uncle what Augustus Csesar had been to Julius Caesar. He proceeded cau- tiously. His age at the time of his election was forty j"ears. He solemnly sworo to deliver the trust to his successor four years later, but had no intention of doing so. The peasantry idolized the great name he bore. A few conspirators were taken into his secret, and the force of the gov- ernment put in position to uphold his usurpation. The first overt act contemplated was to amend the constitution, under which the President could not be elected to a second term. Finding that he could not peaceably carry his point, he executed that great political crime known as the CouiJ cV etat of Decem- ber 2, 1851. Arrests and assassinations were made with a ruthless hand, and before the country knew what was being done the republic had been strangled, and all the machinery of the government. civil and military, was employed to enforce con- formity to the will of the usurper. Two weeks later the form of an election was invoked to give the semblance of popular sanction to what had been done. The people were not prepared to resist, and the " plebiscite," or election, passed off as the con- spirators desired. The assumption of imperial au- thority thus had the appearance of popular approval. " The empire means peace," said the new emperor, and he was right for a long time. Louis Napoleon proved a man of great talent, if not absolute genius. His reign extended until the disasters of the Franco-Prus- sian war broke the sjdbU of his power and revolutionized the government. Under him Paris was beautified as no other city ever was, and for the niost part the people prospered. The government was respected at home and abroad. However severely his method of coming to the throne was condemned, his use of power seemed to be in the main good, and it was generally thought that the empire had been reestablished upon a firm basis. Louis Napoleon was admitted into the brotherhood of royalty, and was perhaps more influ- ential for some fifteen years in the general affairs of Europe than any other member of that family. In the Crimean war the French bore a part commen- surate with the importance of the nation. Later, the bayonets of France protected the Pope in his temporality. Whenever the Emperor wanted the sanction of a " plebiscite" he had it. His first not- able failure was in trying to get England to unite with him in breaking the Southern blockade during the civil warinthis country, and the kindred scheme to establish Maximilian of Austria as Emperor of Mexico. His hand in the former plot was not dis- covered at the time, but his part in the abortive usurpation in Mexico was known from the first. The success of the United States in crushing rebelhon was a death-blow to Napoleon's intervention in 71 k. LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 291 American affairs. He was cliagriued and soniewluit humiliated, but not seriously weakened thereby in his hold upon the French scepter. To all appearances the emijire was strong and sound when the war with Prussia began. Its real weakness was the utter corruption of the govern- ment. With a criminal at its head there was no soundness in the body itself. The empire was honeycombed by swindles of all sorts, and needed only the test of a great war to disclose its rotten- ness and overthrow its very foundations. Tlie Franco-Prussian War has been described sufficiently, except the siege of Pa- ris, which was reserv- ed for this connection. The Ger- mans acted a svibordin- ate i)art in tlie great drama of that siege. AVithin the limits of the beleagured city was go- ing on the contest that gave espe- cial significance to that episode of war. Practi- cally the hostile environment was little else than a great opportunity for republicanism to arise from the tomb and throw ofE the cerements of death. The Coup d'etat had not killed it. The long sleep seemed to have been refreshing to the vigor of liberty. At first there was bewilder- ment. Dazed by tlie unaccustomed liglit of free- dom, the Parisians were ])recipitated, at first, into a frenzied communism. All the liorrors of the great revolution were revived. Leaders, nniddened by long suppression and disasters in war, sprang to the front with tlie inauguration of aiiotlicr reign of ter- ror. Some very worthy jieople were cruelly slaugh- tered. The outlook was gloomy in the extreme. Once more women of tlie luunlilrr class rushed Palace of the Tiiilleries. tl wildly about as if they were daughters of the three Furies. Petroleum was used as an agent of indis- criminate destruction. The Column Veudome was one of tlie more conspicuous objects of destmctive frenzy. But that delirium of retribution was brief, and not without its benefits. It served to show the depth and intensity of the sentiment for liberty. Humiliating as was the defeat of the French army, the fall of the empire was ample compensation to the j^eoplc, and in the darkest hours of the nation the hoix; of Republicanism shone as astar of the morning in the hori- zon of ix)p- ular opin- iou. !Naix)leon surrendered to the Prus- sians Sep- tember 4, 1873, and the siege of Paris was complete on September 19tli. Itwas on the sev- enth of the next month that Gam- betta, the one great statesman of France, then Minister of the In- terior, witli authority to act as Minister of "War, escaix;d from Paris in a balloon, and at once set about organizing an army of rehef. He hoped to break the siege by attack from with- out. But he could not. In Januarj' following Paris was obliged to open its gates to the enemy and submit to sucli terms as the conquering Ger- mans might dictate. Tiiose terms were the surren- der of Alsace and Lorraine and the payment of an indemnity of $1,000,000,000, the Germans to en- tirely evacuate the country only after all thoiniMioy had been paid. It was submission to tliese iiard terms and the removal of the Government from Paris to Versailles that cs]iocial1y fired the frenzy of the com- iniuiisls. It wasaiiroudihiv for Kai-iT AVilliam. who r N:,l,. Ml III. -*7- -*v -1^ 292 LATTER-DAY FRANCE. as a youth had witnessed Napoleon's march through Berlin, after Jena, to ride in triumph through the streets of Paris. France was humihated and im- poverished, and the latest (and probably the last) of the Bonapartes was a fugitive, destined to linger only a few sad years in his retreat at Chisselhurst, England, from which his son and heir was to go forth, bearing a British commission, to fall a victim to Zulu savagery, leaving the ex-Empress Eugenie desolate. Eetribution and revenge could ask no more. It is needless to follow the fluctuations of French politics. The prudence and patriotism of the people tri- umphed. The republic found in M. Thiers, the first presi- dent, a stateman equal to the emergency. As long ago as the reign of Louis Philippe he had risen to eminence. An author and a politician, he was trusted by the nation, and he did not betray his trust. His successor, Marshal Mac- Mahon, although in sympathy with the imperial party, re- mained true to his oath as President of the Eepubhc. At first the respective parti- sans of the Bourbons, the Or- leanists and the Bonapartists were hopeful, but as time wore on and the republic passed successfully through petty emergencies, the people settled down to the belief that the republic, no less than the empire, means pieace, and that self- government is adapted to the French nation. When M. Grevy came to the Presidency all serious appre- hensions of reaction disappeared. The crisis was really over. The Republic of France is thoroughly centralized. The political divisions of the country are, 36 prov- inces, 86 departments, 363 arrondissements, 2,700 cantons and 36,000 communes. The commune cor- responds to our city and town organizations. The maire, or mayor, is appointed by the national gov- ernment, and is under the supervision of the prefect of a department. There is an under-prefect f or eacli arrondissement. Cantons are divisions for elective. judicial and military convenience. The American and German respect for state rights is quite foreign to the French conception of politics. Paris and Lyons have some local self-government, but gener- ally speaking, France is a thoroughly centralized republic. Paris has an importance, as compared with the rest of the country, quite unknown to any other city on the globe. London is not England, New York is not the United States, nor Berlin Germany, to anything like the extent that Paris is France. In the great revolutions of the last century and in sub- sequent uprisings, the city took the lead and controlled events. The great names of France, whatever the department of thought and action, belong to Paris. Lyons can make silk, the vineyards of the rural dis- tricts slake thirst, and Havre harbors ships ; but Paris is the focal point of all French genius, glory and achieve- ments. All the railroads lead thither and all the aspirations of the people tend to its ag- grandizement. So old that Offisar rebuilt it, yet so new that it is the very flower of modern civilization, it is the most liTxurious city on the Jules Grevy— President of France, 1883. globe. The French may be set down as the most contented peopla of Europe. The emigration from there is almost none at all, except that the Basques of the department of the Haute-Pyrenees have, many of them, gone to South America to escape military proscrip- tion. The ordinary Frenchman prefers not only his native land, but his native commune. Eighty-five per cent, of the people are born, live and die in the same place. The real estate is divided among no less than 5,550,000 proprietors. No less than five millions of freeholders have less than six acres of land each. The pubho debt is also very widely distributed. In 1879 the total bonded debt of France was in francs 19,863,035,783, or nearly $4,000,000,000. The number of bondholders was 4,380,933, or, in rough numbers, one government ^^F >sr LATTER-DAY FRANCE. ^93 M^ bondholder to every 81,000 of the pubhc debt. The greater part of tliis debt draws tliree per ceut. in- terest, oue-third of it five per ceut. The total an- nual revenue, or rentefi, of the people from tliese bonds is 748,-i04,9.52 francs. There is no thought of paying the principal of this deljt. It is held at home and constitutes a permanent and perfectly safe investment. Transactions in rentes and other se- curities are conduc- ted on the Bourse. The population of Prance in 1880 was 37,166,000. The population of the provinces -svrested from France by Ger- many as a part of the results of the Franco-German war may be set down at a million and a half. The number of tlie depositors in savings banks and holders of rentes numbered in 1879, 7,454,86.3. The people are economical, industrious and cheerful. The French masses are quite illiterate. Setting aside four millions of cliildren under six years of age, and it may be said tliat thirty per cent, of the population can neither read nor write. Once Protestantism seemed likely to be the religion of the country, but by the latest census 08.03 per cent, of the people are Romanists, only 1.0 percent. Protestants. All religions are equal before ^•1 l(llMlll-,N''J :/lll-i!-,'.!- ;;MJtnjju,iii'ijiiji?!,--Uii; THE BOITRSE. PARIS. the law, except that state allowances for the clergy are confined to the Roman Catholics, Protestants and Jews. The jKeseut colonial possessions of France are utterlv insignificant. They contain a population of about two and a lialf million.s, but witlithe excep- tion of two thousand natives of France the colonists are barbarians, most of them downriglit savages. Slavery was abolish- ed in all the colo- nies in 1848. Tliere have been some great authors in France since Vol- taire, but none of those belonging to this century can claim the very high- est rank e.xcept Vic- tor Hugo. His Les MUcrahles may just- ly be set down aa the greatest novel ever written. Its popularity was prodigious and its influence incalcu- lable. Written for the purpose of sliowiug that knowledge is the great reformatory agency in the world, it has a strength and vigor of thouglit almost. Shakspearean. Dumas, f atlier and son, deserve hon- orable mention, as* does "George Sand" (Madam Dudovant), but their place in literature is not among the immortals. Taiuc and Louis lilanc must be ac- corded exalted praise as critics and that is all. 1!/ ^&M^.^^.^^^Jii-Am f ^2 1^^^. V^^^ J^^^ Jjfi:Sj^ J-^i. J-!^i- ^^^^ »^-*^*- '^'*^*- '^'*^*- K^-*.^.*- * -^mft. y-iSi^^y CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. ffiffiLffl!ffigToiffEOBfiiGm!affia^ ^ CHAPTER XLIX. i Ibeeia and the FiKST Age of Spain — The Gothic Period — Theological Animosity — Invasion OF THE Moors — The Moorish Kingdom Established — The Light of Cordova — Zarah the Luxurious — The Moorish Civilization— Akrevoes and the Religious Reaction — Fall of Cordova and Rise of Granada — The Alhamera — The Glory and Shame op Spain — The i,7^ Fall of Malaga — The Conquest of Granada. ; HE present nation of Spain comprises, in its home ter- ritory, an area of 225,600 square miles. The term Spanish Peninsula, or The Peninsula, is used to des- ignate both that country and Portugal. The latter did not have a separate existence until a comparatiA'ely late date, and the old name Iberia aj)plies to the entire peninsula region. The first inhabitants, called Iberians, were Celts. The Phcenicians were' the first to introduce civilization into the Peninsula. They estab- lished several trading posts along the coast. These were followed by colonies, and later still by Cartha- ginian settlements. During the second Punic Wars Spain was the base of operations for the Cartha- ginians under Hamilcar and Hannibal, tlie Romans under Scipio. After that it became a part of the Eoman Empire. Then for the first time the leaven of civilization began to permeate the country. As a part of the great Eoman Empire, Iberia produced many men of note. It was the birth-place of the several Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius and Theodosius, also of the great moral jDhilosopher Seneca, the poets Lucan and Martial and the accomplished rhetorician Quintilian. Very early and readily it accepted Christianity. It is thought by some that it was introduced by St. Paul himself. When the Northern horde overran the Roman Empire the Iberiau Peninsula was a peculiarly tempting field for spoliation. That was at the be- ginning of the fifth century. Three kingdoms were formed, the Gothic or Visigothic, the Suevic and the Vandalic. The Vandals were soon driven across the Mediterranean, and their present descen- dants are called Berbers. During the century the Suevic kingdom was absorbed. The new order of things which succeeded the Roman sway was Gothic. There were thirty-six kings of the latter line, none of them deserving esj^ecial mention. Toledo was the chief capital of Gothic SjDain, but Cordova and Seville were flourishing cities. For a time the Gothic kingdom included France. It rose to its highest degree of splendor under Euric who fixed his capital at Aries, where he died in 485. In the days of Gothic supremacy theological war was waged with the greatest fury. Euric was an Arian, as were the other earlier kings of his race, but the Franks were Athanasians. Finally, how- (294) CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN'. -y^ ever the power of Rome was felt and the Ariaii faith was supplanted by the doctrine of the trinity which Western Europe denominates orthodox. The clergy acquired more power in Spain than any- where else. The synods were petty parliaments and the bishops exercised judicial functions. The church could hardly have asked for more power than it enjoyed in Spain under the Goths. No meritorious liter- ary works belong to the Gothic period. It was a season of barbarism and retro- gression. Slaver}' ex- isted in its worst forms and the land was one dreary waste of misery and crime, a vast moral and in- tellectual desert. The chajjter on the Saracen Empire served as an intro- duction to the period of Spanish history upon which we now enter. The Moors with their Crescent and "good Damas- cus blades," were invited to cross over and lend a helping hand to one of the factions in a civil war wliich was rag- ing between the G-otha over the crown, which was elective. W heu they got there they proposed to stay. Their leader, Gebal-Tarik, had all the heroism of the best days of Islam. Like Cortez at Vera C'raz, he burnt his ships, and thus compelled his soldiers to protect themselves by the scimetar against the Goths (for liardly had they come over Ijcfore the factions united to drive them back). A three-days' Ijattlo was fought which resulted in the complete victory of the Moors. In a very short time the invadera liad driven the Christians to tlie mountains and taken possession of all the fertile plains and pros- perous cities of the Peninsula in the name of the Prophet. Gebal-Tarik was soon joined by ilusa, the Governor of Is'urlh- ern Africa, as Emir, (jr representative of the Cahph at Da- Miiiseus. During the Ommiad dynasty Spain remained a province of the Sar- acen Empire ; but when that dynasty fell and there was division among the faithful as to the rightful leadership of Islam, it became independent, under 'he royal sway of a ilescendaut of the old djTiasty of the Omniiads. The Moors had crossed the Straits of Gibraltarin April, 711, and twenty-two years later Charles JIartel won the great victory which saved Eurojie north of the Pyrenees from the invasion, and made that chain of moun- tains the boundary line, in the West, for some seven cen- turies, between the two religions of modern times. Twenty-two yean- later the kingdom, in distinction from tlie dejiend- ency, was established, witli Cordova ajs the capital The first Moorish King of Spain was Abdorahman, who reigned thirty years, and was a great soldier, a real statesman and a humane gentleman. The hst was Abdallah the Unfortunate, sometimes called Boabdil. It wiia in the middle of the eightli ceu tur}' that the former came into his kingdom, M 296 CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. and almost the close of the fifteenth century when the latter withdrew from his, and the Moorish invasion of Spain was at an end for ever. During that long period there was almost constant war between the Moslems and the Christians, and these diflerent religionists were at war among each other. Indeed, the Moors were fatally weakened by internal dissensions, rather than by the hostility of the Cross and the Crescent. middle of the ninth century. He encouraged all the arts of industry. The poor found profitable employment, especially in building and adorn- ing the capital, constructing roads and bridges, planting vineyards and raising grain. Men of distinction were invited to the court without re- gard to race or religion. To him succeeded a series of kings who were kept busy in trying to supjiress insurrections and maintain what had been be- The question of final supremacy rested not so much on which church was the stronger as which was least rent and torn by its own rivalries, hates and ambitious. It was in Spain that the civilization of the Sara- cens attained its most glorious results. The best blood of Arabia and all the Moslem lands flowed thither and built up a nation of brave soldiers, eru- dite scholars and skilled artisans. Cordova was long the seat of empire. The Christians were driven back and only allowed to establish themselves in the province of Asturias, about the Bay of Biscay. The second king to reflect honor upon the throne at Cordova was Abderahman II., who flourished in the queathed to them. In 913 another Abderahman, in name and character, came to the throne, under whom the kingdom was harmonious, but against whom a very formidable Christian army marched. Under Ramiro II. the two armies met near Sala- manca and a terrible battle ensued. The Christians were greatly discouraged if not utterly defeated, while the Moors were left in undisputed jjossession of their magnificent and fertile possessions. This king added greatly to the glory of Cordova. The city of Zarah, named after his favorite wife, was built as a suburb of Cordova, and if we may give any credit to Moorish chronicles, it was the most luxurious city of palatial residences ever ■i' CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. >97 reared upon this earth. Built at the base of a mountain, it enjoyed a deUghtful climate almost uninterruptedly. It was profusely supplied witli fountains, gardens, parks and bouleviixds. The houses were built on one model and surrounded by gardens, terraces and every conceivable apf)liauce of luxury. The central beauty of Zarah was a pal- ace \vith a roof sup- jjorted by four thous- and pillars of varie- gated marble, inclu- ding not only sombre shafts from Egypt, and white shafts from Italy, but state- ly malachite from Russia, jirocured through iSie com- merce of "Novgorod the Good." The floors and walls were of the same material, all polished to the highest degree. Gold, burnished steel and precious jewels em- Ijellished the ceiling. It was luxury cai'- ried to the loftiest heigiits. But the chief glory of Cordova and its suburb was not ar- chitectural or ma- terial in any sense. Poetry, liistory, the exact sciences, geog- rapliy, cliemistrj', medicine, inventions, discoveries, and all that go to the composition of culture, found its natural center there. The value of tlic literature developed cannot be measured with any degree of accuracy, for the vandalism of the Cliristians who finally expelled the floors, spared nothing. Whatever was written in Arabic characters was assumed to 1x3 tlie Koran, and doomed to the flames. The palaces were torn down, the gardens desolated, and tlie real treasures of the city destroyed But much which made the Kenaissance possible and beneficent may Ijc traced to Cordova. Not that the Moors in Spain, any more than the Saracens generally, were actual creators of a distinctive civilization, but that they found, conserved, and to some extent fused, the civiliza- tions of Greece and India. They were apt scholars and faitliful transmit- ters. The most illustri- ous name in Cordo- va's crown of glory is Aven'oes, a rijx; scliolar and pro- found i^hilosopher. lie was what would 1x2 called an agnostic in our day, too broad and liberal to be tol- erated even in toler- ant Cordova. II is philosophy seems to have opened the eyes of the devout be- lievers in the Pro- ]iliet to the danger of religion from science. He was persecuted as a her- etic. His genius was the glory of the twelfth ccutun,', and his persecution was tlie triumph of tlio Koran over free thought and scien- tific in>|uiry. tlie turning-point, in fact, of the Moslem. Had his spirit of progress prevailed, the regeneration oi Eurojic by tlie Moors would liave been probaljle ; but ortluKloxy triunipheook havinsr no scientific virtue, and AveiTtioism was obliged to await encouragement and development iu Christian lands ages later. The Moors in Sjiain, like the Saracens iu tlie Eivst, marched nobly .lud r J^ k. 298 CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. swiftly to the very door of modern civilization, but only to pause upon the threshold and draw back for- ever. 'No second Averroes came to lead the Moslem intellect out of bondage to a Book. In the year 1234 the Christians took Cordova, the Moors no longer being succored by their breth- ren in Africa, nor able by themselves to withstand the assaults of their enemies. Granada then became the capital of the Moslem power in Spain, and so contmued to be to the end. Tliere the Mohamme- either. Jews and Christians were made welcome. If Granada could not boast the Mosque of Cor- dova, the Giralda of Seville, or the palace of Zarah, its Alhambra was even a more wonderful triumph of architecture than any of these. Its foundation is ascribed to Mohammed I., who died in 1273. It was a group of buildings with their surroundings, rather than one edifice, with the royal residence as its center. It- was peculiarly Saracenic in this, that it combined the characteristic merits of every kind of WW I dans rallied and maintained themselves for two cen- turies and a half. A recent writer, speaking of the kingdom of Granada, says, " Its fertile valleys em- braced the garden of the Peninsula ; its industrious population carried agriculture to a degree of perfec- tion unknown to modern times; its mountains yielded great quantities of the precious metals ; its manufactures of silk and porcelain found a ready market in the courts of semi-barbaric Europe ; the commerce of Alcmena and Malaga, its principal sea- ports, extended to the Indies," and he might have added, to every port of trade. "Within that succes- sor of Cordova, Granada, gathered a population of a half a million people, not all Mohammedans known architecture, Eoman, Babylonian, Phoeni- cian, Persian, Greek and . Egyptian. It was not only a royal residence and seat of government, but it was alsQ a home of learning and intelligence. The barbarism of Christian Spain has wholly de- stroyed much and greatly defaced all, but enough remains to testify that the Alhambra was one of the marvels of the world, and its destruction a vast public crime. As in Condova, so in Granada, dissensions made conquest possible. The territory of Islam was gradually narrowed by Christian encroachments. New states of considerable jDOwer arose. Portugal came into existence in 1145 ; Navarre extended ^?TF ~s V -^! CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIxX. 2y9 both Korth and South of the P^Teiiees, and stron- ger than either were Castile and Aragou, especially the former. The two latter were iinited when Fer- dinand, King of Aragou, married Isabella, Queen of Castile. Each reigned in his or her own right, but being happy in their marital relations, they formed one sovereignty. Together they set about overthrowing the Moorish Kingdom, and they were successful. The glories of Columbus are thus blended, in a sense, with the shame of Boabdil, the lionor of discovering a new world with the reproach of quenching the brightest light in tlie old world. The first campaign of destruction was directed against Malaga. That Liverpool of its day fell in 1487. Tlie people were sold into slavery or par- celed out among the victors as prizes of war in the most barbaric manner. The more Ijeautiful females were sent, in large numbers, to Rome, Paris and other centers of power, as gifts, in accordance witli the monstrous concejition then common of inter- national comity. The captured city was rejieopled with Christian Sj)aniards, and the conquerors were encouraged to plot further spoliation and slaughter, robbery and outrage. In the spring of 1491 Ferdinand raised a power- ful army and encamped witii his host witliin a few miles of the battlements of Granada, determined to complete the work of conquest. Abdallah, or Boabdil, the king of the Spanisli Moors, wasinijcr- sonal command at Granadji. The city was well adapted to defensive warfare ; but even in the pres- ence of impending ruin there was dissension, and to that cause, hardly less than to the prowess of the besiegers, the teleagured city owed its fall, for fall it did. On the second day of the year WJ'i it wa-s obliged to capitulate. Tiie soldiers of the Cross took possession of the Alhambra in the name of Christ, and the vanquished king withdrew witii iiis people to a, small mountainous territory in the midst of tlie Alpu.xarrus Mountains, where he was allowed for a short time to rule as governor, and vassal of the Christian monarch. But tiie Moors were unequal to the task of building a third king- dom upon Spanish soil. Not long after, Boabdil crossed tlie straits of Oibraltnr and was lost among the Moors of Africa. Witli him did not, however, disappear the Arab from Eurojje. Tiiere lingered much of the old stock, but its a separate and jiuis- saiit political power the Moor cciised to e.xist in Europe with tlio fall of Oraiwida. /ll-ir^^^^^ ^i-i>^iiU& ^1^ CHAPTER L. Spain and Poktugal— The Mooks and Mokiscoes— Persecution of the Jews— The Inquisition AND AuTO-DA-Fe — XlMENES AND T0KQUE3IADA — BiKTH AND EaRLT EXPERIENCES OF CHRISTO- PHER Columbus — The Great Discovery — Subsequent Career of the Great Discoverer— I-riAN and African Slavert— Last Days of Ferdinand and Isabella. HE marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469) was the union of two loving and ever faithful hearts. For thir- ty years they liv- ed together in harmony, and in their marital re- lations were mod- els of domestic virtue and grace, t Never was there a better illustration of the adage, " In union is strength." The fall of Granada was the first great result of their cooperative energy. Castile and Aragon were then and throughout in practical unity, and out of that unity grew modern Spain. Neither kingdom lost its individuality at once, but the conquest of a splendid country like Granada by their united effort rendered any separation of interest imj)rac- ticable. A new name was only a question of time. Before a common heir to both Castile and Aragon came to the throne, other important additions of area were made, and it required only a matrimonial alliance with Portugal to prepare the way for the complete unification of the Peninsula under one throne. Ferdinand and Isa- bella made the necessary pro- vision for such a consummation by tiie marriage of their daugh- ter with the heir of Portugal, and their son with a daughter of the King of Portugal. But in both cases death prevented the success of the plan, and instead of uniting all Iberia, the country became two king- doms as now, Sjiain and Portu- gal. In the fall of Granada, Castile and Aragon had no assistance of moment, but all Europe was delighted. Christendom felt that the overthrow of the Saracens in Spain was an offset for failure in the Crusades, and for encroachments ui^ou the Greek Church on the Bosphorus and along the Danube. Only one thing marred the satisfaction of the pious, and that was that the treaty of Granada guaranteed to the Moors the free enjoyment of their religion. Under that arrangement many thousands of Mos- FERDINANB ANB ISABELLA "7 (300) FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 301 lems remained in the laud, worshiping God accord- ing to the Koran. But the perfidy of ecclesiastical counselors was equal to the eniergeucy. A spiod of bishops and other dignitaries of the church de- cided to '•■ solicit " tlie conversion of the Mohamme- dans by ordering those who did not embrace the Christian religion to leave the country, taking with them neither gold nor silver. Confiscation and ban- ishment, ijractically, were the penalty of fidelity to Islam. And this policy was rigorously carried out. A great many accepted Christianity, receiving bap- tism and abstaining from every form of Moslem worship. To recant in any way was sure death. Those who were thus converted became known as Moriscoes. The more liberal and educated class cared little for their religion. Those who clung to the old faith of Mecca were obliged to cross the Mediter- ranean. Some of them settled along the northern border of Africa, but many pushed boldly southward and established their seats of learning and other in- stitutions in Soudan. The Cres- cent owes much of its present power among the Africans of the interior to the Ijanished Moors of Spain. But their civilization succumbed to the adverse pressure of a tropical climate, and long since lost its vitality. It should be added that not a few of the more heroic Moors were either burnt at the stake or sold into slavery by Ferdinand and Isabella in their terrible and relentless policy of ex- tirpation. Not content with such perfidy, Ferdi- nand, near the close of his reign, sent an army over into iyrica to plunder the Moors by wasting their country and committing every species of outrage. Black and infamous as is the record of Spain's treatment of tlie Moors at this time, it is not so ut- terly detestable as the record of Jewish pert^ecution. The Moors were looked upon as intruders and ene- mies of the country ; the Jews were an integral, loyal and useful part of tlie native popuhition. They had been in the country many centui-ies, for the most part, and were in all respects homogeneous, ex- cept tliatin the one matter of rcli.gion they reinaiii- CAIIDINAL XIMENES. ed true to their ancestral faith. The spirit of perse- cution was stimulated by the fall of Granada, and in the same year an edict was issued reciuiring those Jews wlio would not recant to leave the country, taking neither gold nor silver with them. Tlie de- cree was issued in March to go into effect in July. Very few of the people recanted, and they were hunted down pitilessly. Vast numbers jxirished, and those who escajxid suffered terribly. Some laid down to die on the sands of Africa ; others jxjrislied of disease contracted iu overcrowded sliips in whicli they took passage for other parts of Europe. At that time the new continent had not been discovered, and nowhere was there a welcome retreat for tliese distressed i>eople. Tliey had enjoyed liberty under the Moors, and acquired large landed estates. Granada was the medieval para- dise of the Hebrews. To Ix; u])- rooted and desolated without cause, and contrarj- to treaty ol> ligations, was one of the greatest crimes of history. There were probably half a million Jews iu Spain at that time. They were hunted down like wild beasts, and even the King of Portugal was not allowed to harbor them. The great instrument of this destruction of two ixjoples, tiie Moors and the Jews, was the In- quisition. It had existed for some time in a lanquid way, but the austere Ferdinand and his pious wife were persuaded that it was their religious duty to ])]y that agency of conversion unsparingly. The belief of the time was tiiat submission to the rite of baptism was salvation from hell, and that lieresy, of whatever kind or degree, was the worst form of crime. The church had always been exceptionally influential in Spain, but now it was absohite, and the In(|uisition ("bed of justice") was the supremo tribunal, and the lurid lire of the ai(/o-cing a model ruler. The jiolicy of the government toward Moors, Jews and heretics was cruel and unjust. She herself was the victim of sui^erstition, and so far miscon- ceived the sphere of civil authority as to devote herself largely to the regulation of the religious affairs of her subjects by mcaTis of persccuMon. Hut all which she diil or sanctioneil in tluit lino seems triv- ial iu comparison wiili what followed. She was justly styled the Catliohc Queen, but it was not until after her deatli thai Catholic Spain, in the most i)rn the only throne now occu i)ied by a Bour- bon, was ' Philip IV. This arrangement did not suit Austria. England and Holland, who wanted Cliarles, Archduke of Austria, to succeed .-is Charles III., appreliensive that France and Spain miglit be consolidated. The War of Succession which followed continued tliirtoen years. It was during this war that Marlborough won immortal fame ;is a soldier, and tlio British navy un- der Admiral Kook of England took Gibraltar. Fraiuv assisted Philip, but in the end he was obliged to part witli a very considerable ))ortion of his kingdom. England took the pillars of Hercules for her portion, and that gateway to the Mediterranean lias proved the very key to maritime, and. largely, to Euro]wan suiircmacv. Austria :ir'iuirod bv the troatv nf 4,Q 310 CATHOLIC SPAIN. Utrecht as her sliare of Spanish phinder, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, and what remained to it in the Netherlands. Sicilj- was given to Savoy. Tlie reign of Philip was a long one. He held the scepter un- til 1746. The country improved somewhat under him. The loss of possessions in Europe beyond the national limits of the kingdom was highly bene- ficial. Philip IV. was succeeded by Ferdinand VI. This are told, during all that period. He was not popu- lar, liowever. The clerical infiueiice was entirely and bitterly hostile. The priests kept the people from sympathy witti jirogressive and reformatory ideas. When Charles IV. came to the throne, 1788, the ecclesiastics resumed their former sway over the affairs of state. It was this king who in 1 795 ceded to France the island of Hayti. The year following weak and inefficient sovereign wore the crown thir- teen years. During that period the country de- clined once more. At the time he came to the throne war was being waged between the great i^ow- ers of Europe, as usual, but two years after his ac- cession the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was negotiated, and after that Ferdinand lived iu j^eace. He could not be induced by even the offer of Gibraltar once more to join in the general war which raged. At the death of Ferdinand, Charles III., his brother, came to the throne. For twenty-nine years he occupied the throne, and tried to improve the condition of the country. The Inquisition was held in check. Only three victims were burned by it, we an alliance with France was negotiated which re- sulted iu enabling Napoleon to employ the mili- tary and naval forces of Spain to further his own ambitious designs and, ultimately, to appropriate the kingdom itself. In the great naval battle of Trafalgar Lord Nelson very nearly annihilated the Spanish iieet. About that time Trinidad was lost to Spain, and acquired by England. It was during this same reign that Spain ceded Louisiana to France. In March, 1808, there was a revolution which dej)osed Charles and raised to the throne Ferdi- nand VII. Both appealed to Napoleon, who settled the matter by ordering them both to abdicate. ■i' -^ CATHOLIC SPAIN'. 3" k. -*r which they did, whereupoii he appointed his elder brother, Joseph Bonaparte, King over Spain. This apiiointnieiit was made June 5th. Joseph entered Madrid Jnly aoth. The opposi- tion rallied around Ferdinand and drove the amiable Joseph out of the capital. Thereupon Napoleon himself took the matter in hand. He restored his brother in -December. A new element in the conflict of Napoleon with Europe soon de- veloped itself. The Duke of Wellington came on from In- dia, and coming by way of Portugal, carried the war against Napoleon into the Span- ish jjeninsula. The disaSection of the country rallied around WelUngton, adding materially to his strength. Ferdinand was restored to the throne in 1814. It was in the year 1809 that the Peninsula War began. AVellington won a victory at Talavera in 1809, but for the most part was obliged during the five years to fall back upon his Portuguese base, until the Kus- sian disaster of Napoleon. Af- ter that, Welhugton made rapid progress in the expulsion of the French from Spain. The treaty of Valencia, by which Napoleon formally abandoned all claims to Spain was signed in Decem- ber, 1813. The Cortes promptly invited Ferdinand to take the reins of government, and rule in accordance with a constitu- tion which had been formed nearly two years previously. The reign of Ferdinand VII., ■which really began with the year 1814. extended until 1833. He Ijelonged to the Dark Ages, and both disregarded the constitution and persecuted those who had invited him to the throne. He ruled in accordance, however, with the average public sentiment of the country. The jwople were better pleased with him than they would have been with 39 f0gB^-~,. a: '^% ^ 4h . '^& J i^''^^W~ '"'' ^^K m^^^& -: WtJlll^l^^^lflfeHK- V v'l^sSi ^Sm^^^l ^^ ^^^^v'' Xs^-^^ |i^^--'-- '■'''■ FERDIN.^XD VII. a IjelitT ruler, so complete and demoralizing was the clerical domination. The inquisition was re- stored with all its attendant abominations. It was during this reign that the colonies, which had made some progress toward inde- l)endeuce during the rule of the Biinajiarte, achieved indejjend- ence. It may be stated here that Joseph Bonaparte came to the United States, and u}x)n a jjleasant estate in New Jersey sjient the last years of his life quietly and resiwctably, leaving behind him a reputation as a worthy gentleman of no special force of character. In 1819 Spain sold Florida to the United States for 4!5,000,000 and the recognition of certain boundary clauns on tlie Mexican frontier. Witli all his medieval and ecclesiastical tenden- cies Ferdinand was not reactionary enough to suit the priests. They wanted the " good old times " of the Ilapsburgs restored. They formed •' The Apostolic Junta" and incited the Carlist insurrec- tion, which, with'somc interrujv tions continued for half a cen- tury to be au element of discord in Spain. We have useil the name Charles thus far in this chapter, because it is generally employed, but the name which is Charles in English and Karl in Ctcrman is Carlos, or Don Carlos. in Sjtain. Pnii in Sjianish and Pniii in Portuguese, originally meant lord, although subsequently a mere projicr name. Witii this much explanation we proceed with tlie Carlist movement. When Naiwleon's star set and Ferdinand VII. came to tiie throne, tlie latter had a younger brother, Don Carlos. The king was a de- bauchee of the lowest tyjie. Ho had several wives and no children, and having (luarreled witli his brother, he'was sorely distressed by tlic thought that =sfsr •? JV< 31- CATHOLIC SPAIN. Don Carlos would be his successor upon the throne. The counselors of the royal household persuaded the king and queen that for the sake of bafliing Don Carlos it would be right for the queen to be untrue to her marriage vow. The fruit of that suggestion was a daughter, Isabella. The dilemma was as great as ever, however, for by the Salic law, which had been introduced by the first Bonrbon and was binding upon that dynasty, whether in France or Spain, only males were heirs to the crown. A sec- ond child was also a daughter. The king then, 1830, proclaimed the repeal of the Salic law, and that the elder daughter, Isabella, was the heir ap- parent. There was repugnance to the repeal of the Sahc law throughout Spain, and extensive prep- arations for civil war followed. Both sides were jjrepared for the struggle, thought to be inevitable upon the death of the king. The clergy and peas- antry generally espoused the cause of Don Carlos, while the more liberal element was won over to the side of Isabella by the promise of respect for the constitution. In the meanwhile Louis Philippe came to the French throne and espoused the cause of Isabella, it being agreed that she should marry a husband chosen for her, and in case of failure of issue the crown was to go to the children of the other daughter. The wily French King provided an im- potent imbecile as the husband of Isabella, marry- ing Isabella's sister to his own son, thus hoping to secure the crown for his own family, upon the death of Isabella, who, he well knew, could have no legit- imate offspring so long as her husband lived. Kendered desperate by this trick, the queen con- tracted a morganatic marriage by which she had several children, the present King Alfonso being the elder. A new and more liberal constitution was promul- gated in 1834, and the Inquisition was abolished, the hberal party rallied to the support of Isabella, or rather, of her mother, the queen regent, and what was more helpful to her, English, French and Port- uguese troops heljjed her suppress Carlism. By 1840 the first Carlist war was over. Isabella II. was a mere child when Ferdinand VIII. died. The regency fell to the queen-mother, Maria Christina, a woman of great ability. For some time the royahsts were called CJiristinos. She was not at heart a liberal, and as soon as the Oarlists were vanquished she made no concealment of her true nature. The constitution was ignored. But in a few months she was obliged to lay down the reins of government. The Cortes made Espartero regent. He devoted himself to the material im- provement of the country, building roads, working the mines, etc. In 1843 the Cortes declared Isa- bella to be of age. Maria Christina, who had been living in France, soon came back, but her suprema- cy was short lived. Gen. Narvaez was prime minis- ter of Spain from 1844 to 1851 with some interrup- tions. He was a truly great statesman, almost the only one Spain had produced since Ximenes. Through the perilous times of that period, especially the revolutionary uprising of 1848, he carried the kingdom successfully. The guileful marriages of the queen and her younger sister, already mentioned, occurred in 1846. Don Francisco de Bourbon was the withered trunk to which the queen was tied. The sister Louisa was married to the young Duke Montpensier, who was destined to be an important factor in Spanish politics. The queen was justly indignant at the trick played upon her by the Citizen King of France, and her career was deejjly disgraceful. In jDublic ajid private life she was a reproach to her sex and her nation. Many of the best men were banished. The greatest leafier of the liberals, how- ever, O'Donnell, was for some time a tremendous power. From 1858 to 1863 he was at the head of the government, distasteful as he was to the queen. For several years thereafter Spain was in a state bordering on chaos, and resulting in the expulsion of the royal family. " The act," says a recent his- torian, " which led to the immediate exile of Isa- bella, then enjoying the sea-baths of San Sebastian, was the pronuncianiento of Cadiz, of September 19,, 1868." That declaration of reform was signed by Duke Torre.Marshal Prim, Admiral Topete, and other leading men of the kingdom. So strong was this movement t■^^ that the queen had to accept the situation without a blow. A provisional government was formed with Serrano at the head as regent or president of the ministry, and Prim as war minister, Lorenzana as foreign secre- SERRANO. V CATHOLIC SPAIN. 3K tary, Ortiz minister of Justice, Topete minister of the marine, Figuerola finance minister, Sag;ista minister of the interior, Zorilla minister of com- merce, Lopez de Ayala for tlie colonies. After some hesitation the Cortes finally decided npoii a mon- archy as the form of government to be atlopted. The Duke of Montpensier, Don Fernando, King of Portugal, and Prince Leopold of Ilohenzollern, were put forward as candidates for the vacant throne. The latter was Prim's candidate. His candidacy occasioned the Franco-Prussian war. His name was withdrawn by his father in July, 1870. In November following. Amadous, sou of Victor Emanuel, and Duke of Aosta, was elected king under the title of Amadous I. Just before his arrival Marshal Prim was assassin- ated. That was a deatli-blow from which the prin- ciple of constitutional monarchy in Spain never re- covered. Amadeus was an amiable young man, and that was about all there was to him. He wore the crown from January, 1871, to February, 1873, when " the republic succeeded the monarchy as quietly as one sentinel succeeds another." The first " president of the e.xecutive power " was Senor Pi y Marzall, a scholarly gentleman of the press, also a jurist and reformer on general princi- ples. After five weeks he resigned, and Nicholas Salmeron took the reins of government for a few weeks, to be succeeded by the really great and splendid Emiho Castelar. He held sway for some months. Hopes were entertained of a permanent reiiublic ; but the nation was unprepared for it. In 1S74 Serrano came into power again as re- gent, and in .January, 1875, tlie house of Bourbon was JiARG.VLL. CASTEL.UI. rcstorcd in the person of Isabella's oldest son, the worthy Alfonso XII. He was born in 1857. Of the government as now constituted, Harrison says : "Under him Spain enjoys an hereditary, consti- tutional monarchy. The king is inviolable; tlie executive rests in him, the legislative power in kin :^m^ CHAPTER LII. Portugal, Old and New — Lisbon, its Capture, Eartuqcake and Population — Last Days or Alfonso — Maritime Supremacy — Zabga and Madeira— Vasco da Gama, the Azores ^nd Cape op Good Hope— Da Gama asi> India— Portugal and Brazil— Dom Sebastian and Sebastianism- Subseqlt:nt Portuqusse Events — Port Wine — Cauoens' Lusiad. S^i— ^x^*-Ti HE distinctive history of Portugal dates from 1095, witli a subsequent jieriod of mergence in Spain. Prior to that time it was an indistinguishable part of Spain (using tlie modern term for the Iberian Pen- insula). Before that time it had teen subject, in turn, to the Ro- mans, Visigoths, and Moors.' At the close of the eleventh century Alfonso v., King of Leon and Castile, wrested from the iloors ^T^that part of their European posses- sions lying between the Minho and the Douro, and gave it to his son- in-law, Henry, who called himself Count of Portugal. Tlic name was suggested by the capital, Porto Cale. Henry's son Alfonso had tlic title of king conferred upon him by the pojic, in reward for his gaining a victory over the Moors at the battle of Ourique, 1130, iu consequence of whicli vic- tory his possessions were extended to the Tiigus. By the middle of the following century the king- dom comprised substantially the same territory its it does to-day. The area of Portugal is 36,510 square miles, and the population a trifle over four millions. The period of luergcnce iu Spain was from 1580 to 1640, during which time three sovereigns of that country, PliiUp II., III., and IV., ruled over the en- tire peninsula. There have been thirty-five sover- eigns of Portugal, not counting the Spanish usurp- ers, the present king, Louis I., coming to the throne in 1861. The Portuguese call the jDeriod of the tliree Philips, "the Captivity." When once the scepter of the Spaniard was broken the country l>c- came singularly free from both foreign intervention and domestic revolution. But those years of tran- quillity have l)ecn years of utter insignificance, llie just pride and real importance of Portugal goes back of "tlie Captivity." For the most part Portu- guese liistory is a dreary wilderness, but a few epi- sodes of interest are found here and there in its record, like oases in a desert. 'I'lie first Piir(ngueso king was a ver}' remarkable man, the incon.sequential nature of liis realm, ratlier than his iicrsonal cliaracter, being Hie exphi- nation of liis comparative obscurity. His conquests over the Moors were the first important steps to- ward their final subjugation. Li order to extend Ills dominion to the moutli of the Tagus he was obltged to take Ijisboii, tlien a Moorish city, and the ricliest, most jiopulous and Ijcst fortifici>lc he found to te less barbarous than the negrws of tlie west ; at Ica.st he came upon some evidences of semi- civilization, and traces of iutercour.>!. TTo wa.^ absent from Lislwn '-^ 318 PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. two years, returning with a rich cargo of Indian goods. A rcTolution in oriental traffic was now inevitable. The Isthmus of Suez had long been closed, ex- cept for caravans, and intercourse between the far East and Western Europe was partly by land and jDartly by the Mediterranean. But henceforth an easier and less exj^ensive route, thanks to Vasco da G-ama, was practicable. Portugal was in a position to make good use of the discovery made, for it had a large merchant ma- rine and for a long time was ruled by a pubhc-spirited monarch. The Portuguese carried on trade in In- dia without rivalry or check during a period of many years. But in 1525 King John III. became more interested in crushing out Islam heresy and Judaism by the Inquisition tlian in developing the Indian trade. The general character of the country was seriously impaired by this policy, and the way thus prepared for the displacement of the Portu- guese in the East by a more intelligent and secular people. The rise of the British Empn-e in Hindoo- stan, and of the supremacy of the British flag upon every sea was made possible by the baneful influ- ence of the church in Portugal. As that empire rose, Portuguese commerce dwindled until now it is hardly the shadow of its former greatness. This same King John established a kingdom in America, Brazil, which is now a very considerable jjower.. It had been discovered in 1510 by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, who entered with zeal into the pro- ject of Christianizing that portion of the new world. The Brazil of to-day is the proudest living monu- ment of tlie golden age of Portugal. King John was succeeded in 1557 by his infant son, Dom Sebastian. When this sovereign came to years of independence (he never reached years of discretion) he was absolutely eager to subjugate the Moors across the Mediterranean. He gathered a magnificent army, and in 1577 set sail from Lisbon, resolved to carry the war into Africa and accom- plish a great deliverance for Christendom. He had powerful auxiliaries from other nations of Europe. A great battle was fought August 3, at Atcacer Quibir. The Europeans were utterly defeated, and Dom Sebastian himself, who led his forces in per- son, was lost. He is supposed to have been killed, stripped and mutilated beyond recognition. But his fate proved to be one of the most remarkable mysteries of all history. All sorts of stories were told by those who pretended to have seen him alive after the battle, and his subjects were disposed to believe that he had escaped and would return. So strong was this belief that it developed highly inter- esting results. A body supposed to be his was bur- ied with all possible honors in the monastery of Be- lem at Lisbon, but the hope of his survival was still cherished. One especial cause of Sebastianism (as this curi- ous hope came to be called) was the danger of na- tional annihilation, which his death involved. He had no direct heir, and Philip of Spain claimed the throne. His claim could not be disputed, and " the Captivity " followed, during all which time the credulous Portuguese persisted in expecting Sebas- tian's return. The church fostered the delusion that he was on a distant island, and would some fine day sail up the Tagus with a splendid and irresistible fleet. This hope has not entirely died out even yet, and all through " the Captivity " served to keep alive the national sentiment. It contributed largely to the preservation of a patriotism which made Portu- gal improve the opportunity afforded by the utter imbecility of the court at Madrid to regain its indi- viduality as a nation. The revolution by which Portugal escaped ab- sorption into Spain occurred in 1640, and was effected with very little bloodshed. The kingdom held on the tenor of its way, suffering little from war and much from superstition, until the Napole- onic wars. Obliged to take sides, the government formed an alliance with England and the other Allies. Napoleon sent a small army into the coun- try, declared the throne vacant and the country a part of France. That was in 1807. The nominal head of the government was Queen Maria, but she being insane, the regency had been conferred vxpon John Maria Joseph, Prince of Brazil. That was in 1 792. When the Frencli soldiery came, he set sail from Lisbon, for Eio Janeiro. When the empire of Napoleon fell. Prince John returned to Spain, leaving his son, Dom Pedro, Regent of Brazil. It was in 1823 that the latter became Emperor of Brazil, and complete sei^aration occurred, and that without any bloodshed. In a few years Dom Pedro came into jiossession of the crown of Portugal also, but he soon surrendered it to his daughter Donna Maria, preferring to remain at Rio -^ V PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 319 Janeiro. Before, that, however, he had granted the people a constitution. Not long, after civil war arose in Portugal, furnishing an excuse for Britisli interference, which reduced the country to a condi- tion of semi-subjugation to England. Its foreign policy has ever since been what the British desired it to be, except as there were occasional " perfidies, " as the English writers brand every attempt at self-as- sertion on the part of Portugal. The Portuguese can boast only one really great name in literature, Cainocns, author of that grand and truly classic epic, the Lusiad. Tlie old Roman name for Portugal was Lusitania, and the poem which boars a name derived from the same root re- counts the proudest achievements in tlie historj' of the nation, for the epic is founded on the maritime exploits of Da Gama, who is its hero. Camocns' own life was one of adventure by land and sea, es- Portugal is famous for its wine. Its vintage and the country itself both derive their name from the seaport town of Oporto. This wine was brought in- to prominence by the British policy of encouraging its importation into England, while discouraging by heavy duties the importation of French wines, a policy which grew out of the fact that in the early years of the present century France and England were at war, while Portugal was the passive ally of the British. Besides, the English preferred port to claret and other light wines. pecially in the far East. He was fully imbued with the spirit of entcrpri.se, and his elaborate ver.se is the noblest literan' monument over raised iu honor of the dominant spirit of that age. The great man drained to the dregs tlie cup of ingratitude. lie died a pauijer in the city of Lisbon. After liis death the Portuguese became aware of his genius and liavc ever ciierishoil liis memory. lie is the one lit^ erary man of that country deserving of even men- tion. Ilis Lusiad belongs iu the best of the world's classics. 40 .-V' CHAPTER LIII. Iceland, Denmark, Norwat and Sweden, the Countries Embraced — Iceland and its Liter- ature—Denmark — The Danes ik History— Hamlet— Norway and the Norwegians- Area, Population and Emigration — Climate, Soil and Productions — The Birth op a Literature — ^Sweden and Protestantism — GusTavus Adolphus — The Swedes in America — Decline OF Sweden — Present Government and Condition op Sweden — Natural Resources of the Country— Scandinavian Mythology— Greenland, and the Norsemen in America. HE term Scandinavia is no longer in use, except liistoricall)-, but the in- habitants of Sweden, Nor- way, Denmark and lee- land are still called Scan- dinavians. Although not living under one govern- ment, they form, substantially, one jDCople. Distinct yet insepar- able, they are several nations, but one people. In immemorial times and until about the eleventh century the Scandinavians spoke one tongue. The language now has two branch- es besides the original, the Dan- ish and the Swedish. The original speech is preserved in truly pristine purity in Ice- land, and that frigid land must have peculiar inter- est for every student of ISTorse history. It was in the ninth century that the country was settled by Scandinavian colonists. That bleak island now has a j)opulation of less than one hundred thousand persons, but during all these ages it has preserved the songs and stories of their ancestors in the primi- tive language of Scandinavia, enriching the litera- ture with much which commands the admiration of scholars. For something more than three hundred years (928 to 1363) Iceland was a happy republic. The people are still remarkable for their intelligence. They are brave, pure and amiable. " The old tongue," says Peterson, "which is the foundation of the three Scandinavian languages, they have kept during 3000 years in its original purity, and the humblest workman can read and write, and iis thoroughly conversant with the Sagas, the history and the laws of his country and the Bible." Ice- land is 600 miles from Norway, 350 miles from Greenland and 500 from Scotland. The long winters give ample leisure for study. Once a depen- dency of Denmark, the country is now entirely inde- pendent, only the King of Denmark is the heredi- tary head of the Icelandic government. To all intents and purposes the country is a republic in which all citizens are equal before the law. The climate admits of very little agriculture. The pur- suits of the people are pastoral and piscatorial. The country is of a volcanic formation. The Hecla is the cliief volcano of the island, and in its neighborhood is the great Geyser or Hot Sulphur Spring. The houses of the people are built of lava blocks and moss. In everything but climate and (320) ■~s \ THE SCANDINAVIANS. 321 soil, which could hardly be worse, Iceland is au earthly paradise. The once proud, but now insignificant, kingdom of Denmark consists of the peninsula of Jutland and several adjacent islands of the Baltic Sea. Copenhagen is the capital. The government is a limited monarchy. The present king. Christian IX., is best known as the f atlier of Alexandra, Priu. cess of Wales, Maria Dagmar, Emjjress of Russia, and Georgios I., King of Greece. The executive power is vested in the king ;tnd his ministry, ' the the ninth century. In the eleventh centitry they very nearly completed the conquest of Britain, their kuig at that time being Canute, the greatest sover- eign of his age. It was under him that Denmark was Christianized. Xear the close of the fourteenth century Queen Margaret the Dane effected the con- quest of all Scandinavia, uniting Sweden and Nor- way to Denmark. That consolidation was called " The Union of Calmar." Margaret died in 1-111, and her nephew Eric was appointed her heir, but each nation chose its own ruler. Thirtv-seven vears VIEW OF COPENHAGEN. law-making power being vested in the Rigsdag, with its senate, called Landsthing and its lower house, called Tolketiiiug. Tliese branches of the legisla- ture represent, as their names would indicate, respect- tively the landed aristocracy and tjio people at large. The- state religion is the Lutheran. Alisolute freedom of worship is enjoyed, but there are very few dissenters from the estabHshcd church. Protestant- ism in Denmark dates from 15;3(). Elementary educa- tion is universal and obligatory. There is a pros- perous university at Copenhagen and thirteen col- leges located in the different large towns of tlie country. The Danes appeared first upon the surface of his- tory as piratical invaders of England. That wtvs in later Denmark chose Ciiristian I., Comit of Olden- burg, its king, and the liouse of Oldenburg wore the Danish crown from 14-18 to 18(33. There were .six- teen kings of that dynasty, witli au average reign of twenty-six years. The present sovereign belong.* to the Multiplex hou.se of Sclileswig-Uolstoiu-Sonder- Ijurg-Gluckstnirg, to whicii name might proi^rly be added, IIe,«.«e-Cas,sol. For many generations Denmark avoided complic- ity with general Euroixmn affairs, but it Ijccame somewhat involved in the Naix)leonic Wars as au ally of France. Tliat alliance re.«nltod in the loss of Norway. The groat ujirising in Euni|)o against des- potism in 18-18 extended t^^ that kinir"!"!)) Mi.d r.'- J^s 322 THE SCANDINAVIANS. suited iu securing for the people a truly liberal cou- stitution, one under which the real authority of the crown is reduced to the mmimuni. The latest ap- pearance of Denmark upon the international stage of action was in the Schleswig-Holstein War set forth in German history. ■ The highest distinction of Denmark is not histor- ical, but histrionic. The genius of Shakspeare made use of a semi-historical, semi-mythical episode in the annals of the Danish court as the canvas on which to paint his masterpiece, Hamlet. The Danes have a vivid tradition of the melancholy prince, and point with pride to his supposed grave at Elsinore. There was an old play of Hamlet which Shakspeare re- wrote and into which he infused the life and light of genius. The historical basis, so far as there is any, belongs to the six- teenth century. When the allies, after their victory over Napo- leon at AVaterloo, de- prived Denmark of Nor- way, in punishment for French alliance, they pro- posed to cede the latter to Sweden ; but the Nor- wegians made such an earnest and manly pro- test against it that Nor- way was recognized as an independent kingdom, although under the same dynastic head as Sweden. The union with Denmark covered the long period from 1387 to 1814. In the early days of Scandina- via the Norwegians were the leading element and the land conquered by the Scandinavians in France (912), was called Normandy. With an area of 122,869 square miles, Norway has a population of about 2,000,000. It is an agricul- tural and pastoral country, especially the latter. It has two large towns, Christiana, with a population in 1880 of 116,801, and Bergen about one-third the size of the metropolis. Great numbers of the people emigrate to this country. In 1873 the emigration reached 13,865. It has fallen off somewhat since, but is still great and constant. The State of Minne- sota has a very large percentage of Scandinavian population. Norway can boast the largest merchant marine, m proportion to population, in the world. At the end of 1879 the shipping of that country numbered 8,125 vessels, of a total burthen of 1,509^477 tons, manned by 58,609 sailors. There, as in Denmark, the Lutheran church is everywhere predominant, and education is compulsory. The legislative author- ity is vested in the Storthing, divided into two branches, the Lagthing and the Oldenthing. The executive authority is exercised by the king nomin- ally, but really by a council of state composed of two ministers and nine counselors. Norway extends 1,080 miles from north to south, with a breadth varying from 270 to 20 miles. The coast line is fringed with islands and indented with fjords. The chief river is Glommen, or Stor-Elven, as one part of it is called. VIEW OF BERGEN. Owing to the gulf -stream the country is not as cold as the latitude would in- dicate. But for that ocean river, Norway would be uninhabitable. The chief source of revenue is timber. The pines, firs and birch of that land are of great value. The fisheries and mines are also very con- siderable sources of reve- nue, especially the for- mer. The iron, copper and silver mines yield less than a million dollars a year, all told, while the annual catch of fish exported, including oysters, cannot be worth less than ^5,000,000. The rivers fairly swarm with salmon and salmon trout. Since its separation from Denmark Norway has developed a distinctively national literature, and can boast one name of world-wide fame, Bjornstjern Bjornson. Hans Christian Andersen is the best known Scandinavian author. The Synmve Solbak- Icen, published in 1856, is regarded as the beginning of Norwegian literature. Sweden is really the major part of Scandinavia, of which - Gustavus Wasa was the first great sove- reign. That monarch did much to strengthen the nation and weaken the clergy. His reign began in 1523. The country was at that time torn and tor- mented with ecclesiastical strife, and so it continued to be until early in the seventeenth century, when s \ _V]Q THE SCANDINAVIANS. 323 Lutheran Protestantism completely triumphed there, as in Denmark and Nonvay. The Scandinavians never had any real affiliation vrith. Eome on the part of the people. The popular heart was not enUsted by popish devices. The last Catholic king of Swe- den was Sigismund. He was succeeded ui 1600 by Charles IX., a zealous Protestant. Eleven years later his great son, Gustavus Adolphus, known as the " Swede of Victorj^" ascended the throne and reigned twenty-one years. That reign was a splendid period in Swedisli history, a memorable one in the history of the world. In the terrible war between Protest- antism and Catholicism, in which nearly all Christendom was enlisted, he took a consjDic- uous part. The history of the Thirty-Years War has for an in- tegral part of its record the ex- ploits of that great soldier and majestic man. He gave his life to the cause of Protestantism. Gusta\'us Adolphus was re- markable for the breadth of his symj)athies and the vastness of his plans. Not content with conserving the mterests of Swe- den, and helping in the religious disenthrallment of Eurojie, his thoughts went out to America. It was in his day that the most beneficent settlements on this continent were made, and that the seeds of the United States were sown. Acting in a wholly independent way, he projected a settlement ui the new world, which he hojDcd would be the nucleus of an ideal nation. The first Swedish colony in America dates from 1637, five years suljsequent to the death of Gustavus, but none the less the idea was his. That colony established itself on the land between Cape Henlopen and Trenton Falls. Dela- ware is a part of what was then New Sweden. The Swedes had very little to do, as it proved, in the civil- ization of this continent, but the dream of their great king has been more than realized. Although Gustavus Adolphus had the honor of raising Sweden to rank among the great powers of Europe, the kingdom attained its liighcst glor}' un- der Charles XL (16G0 to 1697). The peace of West- phalia (1648) had added largely to the territory of the kingdom When Charles XII. came upon the throne he had beneath his sway a magnificent em- pire. He left it almost in ruins. Many victories were won over liis enemies, but the countrj- was im- poverished. His reign extended from 1697 to 1719. His successor was his sister, Ulrica Eleonora. Un- der her a constitutional government was formed. Gradually the area of Sweden was narrowed until very little remained except Sweden proijcr. In 1.S14 Norway came, as we have seen, to form a d^Tiastic iinion mth Sweden, but tiiat was not an iuipurtant union. The union is declared to Ije ix3rj)etual, "with- out prejudice, however, to the separate government, constitu- tion and code of laws of either Sweden or Norway." The law of royal succession is the same in both. In the event of an absolute vacancy of the throne the two Parliaments assemble for the election of a common king. The present organic law of Sweden dates from 1SU9, al- though liberal changes were made later, the latest being in 1866. The government is sub- stantially the same as that of Norway, including religion and education. There are two Swe- dish universities, the one at Uji- sala being tlie chief. It numbers among its alumni Emanuel Swedenborg, the great scholar and author who founded what is known as the Church of the New Jerusalem, and was, besides, a great scientist. The area of Sweden is 170,979 square miles; the population in 1879 was 4,568,901. The emigration from there to this country, which may be said to have lx!gun in I860, reached it^ maxinnim in 1869, during which year it reached .'59,064. The Swedes are numerous in the Northwest. Stockhobu and Qotcljorg are the two largest cities of Sweden. It is estimated that 49 jkt cent, of tlie country is produc- tive soil, including pji^turagc. Wlieat is raised in the sputliern part of the kingdom, rye, oats and jwlatoes being, however, the chief products of the aralile land. The iron mijics arc of great value and imiwrtiince. The Scaudiiiaviaus of to-day can certainly boast J- ^ ^^ t^ 324 THE SCANDINAVIANS. no originality in religion. Even their modernized form of Christianity was borrowed from Germany, the Lutheran church being everj^where prevalent.- But that people may well be proud of the f uUness, defuiiteness and originality of their old mythology. Its record is contained m two collections, called the Eddas. The Elder Edda is in verse and dates back to 1056 ; the younger is a prose work and dates from 1640. In those books are preserved the religious concei^tions and myths of ancient Scandinavia. Odin dinavian divinities, their wars, loves, drinking bouts and various exploits. Poets find in these stories rich material for verse. Mention has been made of the part taken by Sweden in the early settlement of this country. It is claimed by the Scandinavians, and ^vith good rea- son, too, that their ancestors were really the first dis- coverers of this continent. In the nuith century an Icelander, Gunbjorn, discovered Greenland. He was soon foUowed by Eric the Red. Eric the f t ?S bTOCKHOLM, is the Jupiter of that mythology, yet he has strongly marked individuality, showing an origin quite inde- pendent of classic mythology. The universe, accord- ing to the Scandinavian theory, rests on the gxeat tree, Ygdrasill. The gods dwell in Asgard, and there stands Valhalla, the great hall of Odin. Thor, the Thunderer, is Odin's mighty son. Jotunheim is the home of the Giants. Frey is the god of sunshine and rain, seedtime and harvest. His sister Freya is the goddess of love. The English names of the days of the week were derived from and are perpetual memorials of Scandinavian mythology. Loki is the deity of evil. Many are the legends told of the Scan- country he found the name of Greenland, his ac- count of the country agreeing with the name he gave it. Two settlements were made ujDon the western continent. It was generally sujDposed, until recently, that Greenland only was explored ; but it is now highly j)robable that the adventurous keel of tlie Norsemen plowed along the American coast as far south as New England, and perhaps farther, but in the middle of the fourteenth century came that terrible scourge, the plague, which destroyed the sur- plus population, killed the germs of colonial enter- prise and utterly uprooted whatever may have been already planted on these shores. I ia^i{=^i^)ft^B^igsiitgaK§aitgai^is^B^i^B^i^%)8s$iig%)ff^ig%)Bjsag^^i^)^iK jr IK . is iis u.u m. iil WW I5^^' S^SsS&Qm®mQMj^EC^®MD s CHAPTER LIV. The Home of the Glacier — The Helveti — Medieval Switzerland — The Stort of William Tell— The Aips— Glaciers and Avalanches— Zwixole. Calvin and Ser%'ETCs— Swiss Heroism and Local Self-Government — The Federal Go\t:rnmest— Education and Indus- try IN Switzerland — The Republic of Andorra— San Mariso, the Paradise op Oppice- HoLDERs— Monaco and Gambling — RoumaVia — SER\nA— Monteneoro. I f^. ^. =i*y*< ^ HE name Switzerland is de- rived from Schwytz, one of the twenty-five cantons of the Confederatiou. It is the very pinnacle of Eu- roi^e, nestling in tlie Al- ^^'fi 5H% pine cratjs, protected from France, Germany, Austria and It- aly by mountain barriers. With an area of 15,988 square mUes and a population of two millions and a half, only 69 per cent, of the land can be called productive, and not much of that is really good soil The stupendous mountain ranires are pecuiiiarly valuable mainly as tliey attract visitors. Grain-raising and cattle breeding furnish em- ployment and support for the bulk of the peoi>le, but tlie chief source of Swiss revenue is the entertain- ment of strangers. The Aljis are visited every season by tourists from all over tlie world, men and women seeking pleasure in scaling the lofty peaks which may Ijc said to bo the natural homo of the glacier. In the days of Eonian conquest the iuhaliitauts of that moimtainous region were known as Helveti. In the wars between the Gauls and the Romans, and later, tetween the Romans and the Germans, they bore some part, occasionally rising to a good deal of prominence. They were brave soldiers, and once gained supremacy over the wamors of Rome, but tlieir triumph was of short duration, and bore no fruit. The Helveti repeatedly sought to cliango their sterile mountain fastnesses for honies in the tempting valleys east and west of them, but they were cimipelled to fall back upon their strongholds. In time their land became u Honiau province, and served as a barrier for the protection of Rome from the Teutons. After the northern horde had overrun Italy and destroyed the Empire of the West, tlic Os- trogoths, Alemans, Franks and Burgundiaus swept over Switzerland with the besom of desolation. In 819 the first kingdom of Burgundy was organ- ized, including Switzerland, but after a century and a half of inglorious inde|iendcncc the Carlovingian dynasty aljsorbed it. Tiic ])eople were not averse to being under the imperial yoke, but the bailiff or vicegerents of the emperor were very distasteful. The only noteworthy rulers were the dukes of Zah- ringen, who held sway during the twelfth tx^ilury. One of the dukes of Zahriugen instituted the house of Hai)slmrg, (he protector of the forest lands of the duchy, and out of that jjrotcctoratc grew the rule of the Hapsburgs in Switzerland. TH A^ 326 SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. ikn As long ago as the days of the Helveti we hear of " Confederates," but the present Confedei-ation is of much Liter origin. Its first organization dates back to 1291 when the three forest cantons of Schwytz, Uri, and Unterwalden formed a league. Out of that association grew the Confederation, much as the American Union grew out of the confederation of the original thirteen states. Napoleon was right when he said to a Swiss deputation, " Nature made you to be a federative state," at least such seems fated to be the case. , . With oc- casional interrup- tions the cantons have al- ways'been free and united. The national hero was William Tell. His very ex- isten ce has been question- ed, and certain it is that all known of of him is more le- gendary than historical. The story is this : Tell was a hunter living in the canton of Uri in the early jDart of the fourteenth century. At that time the Haps- burg dynasty claimed sovereignty over Switzerland. An Austrian bailiff named Gessler raised a cap on a pole in the market-place of Altorf to which every- body was ordered to bow in token of submission to the government. Tell belonged to an organization formed for the purpose of throwing off the yoke of oppression, and he refused obedience. Gessler con- demned him to death, but reprieved him on condition that he would shoot an apple from the head of his own son. Being a remarkable bowman, he ventured the shot, and hit the apple without harming the boy. The tyrannical bailiff noticed that Tell had two ar- rows, and asked him why he had more than one, to which the intrepid archer replied, " If I had hit my son I should have shot you." The critics pronounce this story a legend common to all Aryan nations, found, with slight variations, in Persia, Denmark, Iceland and elsewhere. But the chief interest of Switzerland is that vast system of mountains which culminates in Mont Blanc. The Alps extend from the Mediterra- neanSea, between Marseil- les and Nice, ir- regularly eastward to about 18° east longitude and 45° 30 'north latitude. T h e Rhine, R h on e and the Danube are the great riv- ers whicli VIEW OP BASLE. rise m those mo u n - ' " ' tains. The Alps cover an area of nearly 100,000 square miles, extending some 700 miles from east to west, varying in breadth from 50 to 300 miles, with an average elevation of 7,700 feet. There are no less than seven hundred peaks which tower into the re- gion of perpetual snow. Among these are Mont Blanc, 15,784 feet high ; Grand Ceroin, 14,815 ; Fin- steraarhorn, 14,025 ; Schreckhorn, 14,815 ; Mont Cenis, 11,785, and Jungfrau, 13,114. There are six- teen passes, the most notable being the great St. Ber- nard, between the valley of the Rhone and Piedmont. Napoleon crossed it in 1800. More than two thou- sand years before, Hannibal the Great had crossed what is now known as the Little St. Bernard pass. SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 327 wliicli coiiuects Geneva, Savoy aud Piedmout. lu S^vitzerlaiid the Alps are not enriched witli minerals, coal only being found there ; Ijut in some outlvin" portions of the gi-eat chain iron, lead aud quicksil- ver abound. The distuictive Alpine animals are the chamois, the ibe.x, the goat, and the famous dogs of St. Bernard. The vast accumulations of ice and snow in tlic Alpine jjeaks, called glaciers, have been carefulh- rough aud undulating, not uufrequently scarred by deep clefts. Toward the lower end these ice masses are usuaUy strewn witli sand and coarse gravel, and trains of large blocks that disguise the natural color. In former conditions of the earth's surface they at- tained enormous dimensions, but, if we except those of Greenland, not yet explored, none are known that exceed about 30 miles in length and two or three miles in breadth." These stupendous ac- VW.W OF GENEVA. f^^ ^ m 4 «# studied by geologists. It is scientifically certain tliat glaciers once extended over countries where they are no longer found, and that the traces of them throw light uf)on our knowledge of the earth. Tlie Alps are the chief arena for the present display of tliis kind of phenomenon. They are described by Ball as " continuous masses of ice that originate in the region of jierpetual snow, but extend far below the snow-line, often reaching the zone of forests, and sometimes descending into inhabited districts ui the midst of corn-fields and fruit trees. Tlio ice is verj' dilTcrcnt in appearance from what is commonly seen ill winter on streams and lakes. The surface is cumulations of ice and snow are a iH-Tiietual men- ace. They occasionally slip from their moorings and rush downward, carrjnng doatli and desolation as they go. Sometimes tlie slightest cause, as the vi- Ijration of air, will precipitate a ghicier. A glacier ui motion is called an avalanche. The mere soimd of a bell lias been known to turn a ghicier into au avalanche. Some parts of tlie Alpine valleys are uninhabited on ijccount of the frequent occiirrenoo of these avalanclies. The first real triumph over the AIjm was acliievod when the Mont Ceuis tunnel was comjiletod. That grand work of engineering is one of the wonders of 41 ^' 328 SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. the modern world. It was begun in Angust, 1857, and completed as a tunnel in December, 1870. It was tliroOTi open to traffic in the following Septem- ber. It lacks only tliirty yards of being eight miles long. It cost $15,000,000. Trains rmi through it in about twenty minutes. It comiects Italy and France. We may now return to a consideration of the peo- ple, their ways, history, condition and ' industries. The Swiss are a very simple-minded people. Their one prominent native name, aside from the mythical residence there dates from 1541 to 1564, the latter date bemg the time of his death. During that time his mfluence was almost autocratic. His austere theology and cruel bigotry found their most extreme exj^ression in the burning at the stake of Servetus for the crime of being a Unitarian in theology. Many ineffectual attempts have been made to cleanse the skirts of Oalviu from the blood of Servetus. The former was indeed opposed to burn- ing the jjoor heretic, jjreferring to kill him in a less horrible way, but his execution was apjjroved by Oalviu. MOUNT CENIS TUNNEL. Tell, is Zwingle, one of the illustrious names of the religious Reformation. He was a contemporary of Martin Luther and contributed much to Protestant- ism in its infancy. About one million and a half of the population belong to the Protestant church, leaving a million for the Catholic faith. But Zwin- gle did less, however, for the Protestant cause than John Calvin. The latter was a Frenchman, but he resided for a long time in Geneva, an-d may fairly be claimed as a part of Switzerland. Born in 1509, he fled to Geneva from the jDapal persecutions in France in the year 1536. His first residence was short. He pushed on to Strasburg, but in 1540 he was invited by the senate of Geneva to return. His permanent The Swiss have always been good soldiers. One of the most brilliant victories of history was their triumph over the Austrians at the battle of Morgar- ten, in 1313. It has well been called the Ther- mopylae of Switzerland. Their bravery, reinforced by the admirable natural facilities for defense, has pro- tected them from conquest. For a long time now the great powers of Europe have abandoned all idea of irlterference with Switzerland. The French Revolutionists attempted to regulate the affairs of those cantons, but the Congress of Vienna (1815) acknowledged and guaranteed the ind'ependence of the Swiss. Each canton has its own constitution and local self-government, and three of the cantons 3 \ SWITZERLAND AND LEbiiEK EUROPE. 329 are dinded eacli into two states. '• Tlieir coustitu- tious," says Niemann, "range from purely democratic to perfectly representative systems, but each constitu- tion must he sanctioned by the federal assembly lieforo it can come into force. The ecclesiastical authorities in the Eeformed church are the sjniods, assemljlies of the whole clergy ; and at their side stands in each canton, as the highest administrative authority, an ecclesiastical council — in Geneva a consistory." The Eomau Catholic church has five bishoprics. Any jjersou eligible to tlic assembly is also eligible to the council and the presidency. There is also a federal court, ha^-iJlg jurisdiction over all cases aris- ing between the confederation and tlie canton, between canton and canton, also between the govern- ment, federal or local, on the one side and an indi- vidiud or a corporation on the other. The comitry has three universities, Bern, Zurich, and Basic ; and three jirofessional schools of emi- nence, Geneva and Lausanne theological semijiaries and law schools, and the law school at Freiburg. The central government has a constitution wliich has undergone many changes. The present organic law of the confederation dates from 1S74. The con- gress of Switzerland, the federal assembly, consists of a luitional council with one member for every 20,000 inhabitants, and the coiincil of states, corresponding to our national sonat/>. Tliorc is a ferleral council exercising executive functions, comjjoscd of seven members, elected by the federal assembly. The pres- ident of that council, chosen annually by tiio council itself, is president of the Confederation. The president is not eligible to re-election until after he lapse of a year from the expiration of his term. W'atcli-making is the chief industry in Switzerland. It remains to speak of the Ilepublics of Andorra and San Marino, also the Principalities of Monaco, Pomcrania, Servia and .Montx?ue,gn). Andorra is the name of a valley antl a rc])ul)lic which nestles like an eagle's eyre far up araon^ tlio mountains. It is situated among tiio Kastom Pyre- nees, between the French department of Ariegc luid the Spani.sli jiroviuoe of licrida. Ever since tlie days of Charlemagne it lias Wvu indejx^ndont, forming a lino of demarkation iK>twccn Spain and Fraiuw There were not more than 12,000 inliahitaiitfl by the latest census. They are very primitive, kindly and M 330 SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. hospitable inouiitaiueers. The area of the republic is 149 square miles. The government is entrusted to twenty-four consuls. There is nothing worthy of note m the history of Andorra. San Marmo is at once the oldest and smallest re- pubho in the world. The area is 23 square miles,, the population a little less than 10,000. There are five villages within its narrow limits. The largest has the same name as the repubhc, and is the capi- tal. San Marino is situated in eastern central Italy. It dates back to the fourth century when St. Mari- it is not the least among the nations. That distinc- tion belongs to Monaco, which is as indeiDendent as if it were the first power on the globe. Monaco is a village of less than two thousand inhabitants. With its surrounding territory it has an area of six square miles, the total population being 3,137. It is situ- ated on a high promontory in the Gulf of trcnoa. It has two claims to distinction. As a watering-place its mild climate makes it a resort for consum23tives and other invalids. But its chief notoriety is due to the fact that it is a legalized gambling-place, famous nus, a pious stone-mason, fled thither with a few fol- lowers to escape the Diocletian persecution. The country has some good pasturage, and produces fruit, silk-worms and wine. San Marino is the par- adise of ofliceholders. Its little army of] 819 men has 131 officers, and the political affairs of the re- public are intrusted to a senate consisting of sixty life members, an executive counsel of twelve, elect- ed annually, and two presidents, elected for sis months. This has been the form of government since 1847. Although San Marino is the smallest of repubhcs. the world over for the extent, variety, and openness of its games. Professional gamesters and respecta- ble tourists are there found upon a common level, the former habitues, the latter constantly coming and going, the players of to-day being for the most part different persons from those of yesterday. What is done with more or less secrecy in the rest of the world may be called the sole employment and industry at Monaco. Speaking on this subject, a recent writer says that the Prince receives about $350,000 per annum for allowing the gambling to be conducted within his principahty, and that the SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 33^ present prince is entirely under the luflueuce of the Jesuits. This least country of Europe is great only as an evil. The Prince resides in Paris. Rouniania was formed as a province of Turkey in 1861, out of the union of two minor principaUties, Wallachia and Moldavia. The representatives of the jDCople met at the capital, Bucharest, May 21, 1877, and proclaimed absolute independence of Tur- key. The Berlin Congress, in the following year, confirmed the proclamation. Its area is 48,307 square miles ; pojxilation something over 5,000,000. Bucharest is a city of over 220,000 inliabitants. The people are, for the most jjart, Greek Christians. The government is an elective and strictly limited constitutional principality. The present prince is Karl I. Servia gained independence of Turkey at the same time and in the same way as Roumania. It was vir- tually free, however, as early as 1829. The jDresent prince, Milan II., is tlie fourth of his dynasty, the house having been founded by Milos, leader in the Servian war against Turkey, which lasted from 1815 to 1829. The Servians are Slavs, of the Greek church, except in a small district mainly peopled by Mohammedans. The area of Servia is 20,850 square miles ; population nearly 2,000,000. Tlie country and the iieople are wild and rude. The government is similar in form to that of Roumunia. Belgrade is the capital, with a population of less than 30,000. Montenegro is a small and barbaric principality near the Adriatic sea, serving as a wall between Turkey and Austria, the Moslem and the Christian. The Turk was never able to subdue the Montcne- gi-ins, who are a tribe of Servians intensely devoted to the Greek church. The population is not over 250,000, but the Prince, or Ilospodar, can raise an army of 20,000 at any time, esjjecially if the object is to war upon tlie Turks. Russia has often found great iwlvantage in Montenegrin sympathy. Tlie reigning prince is Nicholas I. The country has a constitution of the modern sort. By tlic treaty of Berhii, Jlontenegro gained from Turkey the town and district of Dulcigno, on the Adriatic, which s^ir- render was not actually made until 1880, and then only under the pressure of the great powers. The area of this principality is 3,550 square miles. The country has neitlier roads nor villages. Forests abound, and aooru-fed swine are the chief source of revenue. The agriculture is carried on, the little there is of it, in a very primitive way, and that almost wholly by women. It may be jidded that the same is true as regards women and agriculture, only in a less degree, of the entire conti,iieiit of Europe. 'H^ ^^m^^Mm ^ I H @ 1 1 ® 1 1 ® 11^ ^^ll^li^ «^, CHAPTER LV, English Greatness — National Terms — Early Britons — Julius C^sar in Britain — The Druids — Roman Conquest of the Island — Independence — Advent of the Anglo-Saxon—Chris- tian Evangelization — Irish and Koman Church Influences — Synod of Whitby — Danish Incursion — Alfred the Great — Canute and the Anglicization of the Danes — Dunstan — Edward the Confessor — The Norman Invasion — Harold and William — Battle of Hast- ings — The Conquest of England — Domesday Boox and Realty — Henry I. K" ITH this chapter begins the history of the most re- markable people ill the world, historical or actual. -5i having in it the promise of a still more vast future. England, Scotland and Wales constitute one island, Great Britaui ; and by " the British Isles " is meant not only that island, but Besides mother coun- try, great in itself, is that Greater Brit- ain, which in- cludes the United States. This republic is indeed peopled by the representatives of many lands, still it forms one mighty nation, sjieakuig the English language, in- heriting its traditions, and governed in great part by its common law. Eestricted and insular as is the term England, it is certain that the word English is the most comprehensive term in any speech, besides Caesar Landing in Britain. Ireland and the minor specks of land in the adjacent waters, subject to the British croivn. The proper designation of all those islands, in a political point of view IS the United Kingdom. The term British Em- pire is much broader, including as it does all the outlying possessions under the rule of the English crown and the British constitution, and upon which, liter- ally speaking, the sun never sets. As the Ko- man Empire was the growth and outgrowth of the city of Eome, so the British Empire is the gTowth and outgrowth of England, a country of hardly more than fifty thousand square miles. In "Tl" {?,r-) OLD ENGLAND. 333 4> a senii-historical, lialf-poeticul way the couutry is sometimes designated iUbioii, sometimes Britannia, or Britain. The original inhabitants of the country were Brit- ons, from whom the present TVelsli claim descent. Celts and Picts, hardly distinguishable from the tlie Britons, may fairly be classed among the first settlers of Great Britaui, as well as England jiroper. In the ancient world that jjart of the globe b(;re no important part. Tlie Phoenicians arc supposed to have been the first to pass the pillars of Hercules, and dis- cover the great isl- and of the North At- 1 a n t i c . Learning of the ex- istence of the rich tin mines of Corn- wall, they carried on quite an extensive trade with the Corn- ish miners. But it was not until tlie eagle eye of Julias Coesar looked acro.ss the chan- nel and conceived the puri]ose of annexing Britain to the Roman Empire that it really became a part of the hist^irical world. lie crossed the straits of Dover in B.C. 55. His commentaries give a somcwiiat glowing account of the people and of their progress towards civilization. Of their religion, Druidism, he wrote, "They teach that the soul Ls in^jeri-nliahle, passing at death into another body. They consider this belief a imtmt incentive to bravery in battle, removing us it docs the fear of death." Tlic priests were called Druids, and they were not only miniskTS of roliginn, but also ministers of justice, and in goin'ml the in- SAXON DIVINITIES FORMERLY WORSHIPED IN BRITAIN. Siindfiy. 2. Monduy. 3. Tuesday. -1. Wcdiiradoy. Tlmrsdny. 0. Friday. tcllectual aristocracy of the country. The religious rites observed were horrible, for they jjracticed hu- man sacrifice, sometimes immolating many victims at one time. Julius Cajsar crossed to England twice during his Gallic and Germanic Wars, but he did little more than to gain and disseminate information about the country. It was in A. D. 43, that England wa.s really annexed to the empire. The attacking army was first led by Plautius, but soon the Emiwror 1 Claudius h i m s c 1 f appeared upon the s c e 11 e . When he returned to thecon- tincntVes- l)asian (af- terwards emperor) was left in command. The i.-l- anders de- f c n (1 e d tliemselve.< with brav- ery, but of course they were impotent as against such an 7. Saturday. Gueiuy as Rome at the zenith of its power. About twenty ycais elapsed when a reliellion broke out. The leader of the Britons was Boadicea. (|iieon of one of the tribes or counties of Britain. This brave woman rallied tlie natives to her standanl of revolt, reganl- less of tribal fealty, and she gained some verj- con- siderable successes. She took Ijondon, then .is ever the chief city of the island, and laid it in iishes- But the Uon.ans rallied their forces, and in a deci- sive battle slew no less than eighty thousand Britons. Seeing that all was lost, tiie gallant Boadicea com- mitted suicide by taking poison. Ill A. D. 7S, Airricnbi w;i< >cni to Britnin. rom- ■r -=- ^5 334 OLD ENGLAND. missioned to comiDlete the conquest of tlie island and then to undertake in a thorough and humane way to civihze the people. They were not far be- hind their conquerors in civihzation even then. He was so far successful that a yery considerable part of England was made thoroughly loyal to the Ro- man Emperors. The intractable and irreconcila- ble took refuge in Wales, Scotland or the north countries. It was a difficult task to hold the rude outside barbarians in check and protect Eomish England from predatory incursions. Large forts were built and great walls along the friths of Forth and Solway. Towns sprang up in which Latin was spoken, and the literature of that language was read. Classic mythology largely supplanted Dru- idical barbarity. Gradually the island grew in favor and importance. Helena, the mother of Constan- tino the Great, was a Briton. She was also a Chris- tian. The introduction of Christianity occurred early in the present era, but just when and by whom the first seeds were sown is uncertain. It was upon Enghsh soil and by British soldiers that the first Christian emperor, Constantine, was proclaimed emperor. The Emperor Honorius released the Brit- ons from imperial allegiance. That was in ,410. A few months later Alaric entered Rome in triumph, and the Empire of the West fell. The most west- ern portion of it, however, may be said to have escaped the humihation of Gothic conquest by hav- ing first been set free from the yoke of Rome. Independence of the emjDire was a dabious bless- ing. The Scots and Picts of Scotland and Wales made themselves very troublesome. London, York and Lincoln, more Roman than British, could not defend themselves from the rude barbarians. The townsfolk were wealthy and cultivated, but their wealth seemed to draw upon them desjDoiling ene- mies, and culture was no match for brute force. Their condition soon became unendurable. Before the fifth century was half gone, they felt compelled to seek protection from without. In their distress they applied to the sea-rovers of Scandinavia, and the cry for help was heard, the jjrayer for succor answered, but not in the spirit of kindness. It was the wolf and the lamb. In 449 Britain became England, or, rather, the transformation began then. It occurred in this wise : In response to tlie call for help the Angles of Schleswig, and the Saxons of Holstein, with some Jutes from Jutland, crossed the angry waters be- tween their land and the fair island of distress south of them. The event seemed trivial in im- portance, but it proved of the most far-reaching consequence. Much of the blood of the Britons courses in British veins to-day ; but the language and national characteristics of the people are almost wholly Anglo-Saxon. The rehgious and other institutions of the Britons were obliterated from the country. There were several petty kingdoms and much dissension among the new comers ; but they were so far harmonious that they succeeded in destroying the cities, churches, schools and agricultural improvements of the Romanized Britons and holding in awe the savages beyond the border. Essex and Wessex, Bercia and Deira, were the names of those kingdoms, with a fifth, Mercia, more powerful than any of the rest. The people were divided into two classes, earls and churls. The former held land and were the aristoc- racy ; the latter were the jjeasant class. A promi- nent feature of those times was local self-govern- ment. The villages and towns, for the most part, governed themselves. The town rulers were called ealdermen or aldermen. The Britons, properly so called, never again exercised any very considerable influence over the affairs of that island. The name of England soon became and remained entirely ap- propriate. The chief wars which followed were waged by different branches of the Anghcan family, or its near kinsfolk. Late in the sixth century some of these Anglo- Saxons appeared in the slave market ad Rome, and attracted the attention of that eminent pope, Greg- ory the Great. Finding whence they came, and that the gods of Scandinavia were worshiped there, albeit the Cross had once flourished in Briton, he re- solved to evangelize the English. St. Augustine of Rome (not the supremely eminent saint of that name) was delegated to the important task. That was in 597. The first convert was the King, or Earl of Kent, Ethelbert. His wife was a Christian Frank. The first English bishopric was established at Canterbury. Thirty years later, Edwin of North- ximbria accepted the new faith. He was the founder of Edwinsburg or Edinburgh. In 633 the kingdom of Mercia undertook the championship of the old faith. Many a bloody war was waged in the cause of these rival religions. In 680 all England became -711 OLD ENGLAND. 335 Christian. This complete triumph of Jesus over Thor was largely due to the intelligence and zeal of mis- sionaries from Ireland. The latter island was far more civilized than England a thousand years ao^o. Schools and churches flourished, and the Irisli church of that day had no connection with Rome. It was somewhat in rivalry vrith it, esj)ecially as re- gards spiritual authority in England. It became necessary to convoke a synod to determine which the English church should ally itself with, the Irish and adventurous Norsemen were tempted to invade England by the thrift of the island under its An- glican masters. A very considerable civilization liad grown up, and where Roman towns had been razed to the ground in whole or part, new cities had come to attest a renewed prosperity. In scholarship and letters the Venerable Bede won a high place by liis learning and genius as early as the eighth century. The England of the original English had gradually attained to a fair degree of national unitv and en- or the Roman church. That council, the Synod of Wliitby, met in 664, and its decision wa.s in favor of Rome. Tlie great royal champion of Rome, Eg- l>ert, King of Wessex, succeeded in conquering all England. lie belonged to the first year.s of the nintli century, and was a coteniporary of Charle- magne. Egbert may bo said to have foundeil the English crown, and was thirty-six degrees removed from Queen Victoria by lineal descent, or ratlier ascent. We must now turn back to a great crisi.s wliich arose in English affairs in the eightli century. This was the incursion of the Danes. Tliose powerful ligbtcnmcnt when tlio disturbing clement fmm Den- mark was introfluced into the country. That inir- I tion of the island whidi wius Englisli witliout Ix'ing j directly .and originally suliject to Wessex. did not I seriously object to a change of sovereignty. After I a contest of nearly a century the Danes succeeded in est.iblisliing themselves in tlie Ciistorn part of ilio island, but they made no imirked impression U1K)U the future of the country. In the year S7I .Mfred the Oroat succeeded to tiio throne. His reign extended to tlie second year of tlio tenth centur}-. Tho« tliirty yeanp were os- jwcially memorable, for small as was his kingdom, 42 >5 33^ OLD ENGLAND. Alfred better deserved the title of Great than did any other medieval sovereign unless it be Charle- magne. During the first of his reign he was in constant -warfare with the Danes, succeeding in narrowing their area and sub- jecting them to a degree of vas- salage. One battle, however, proved a brilliant Danish victory, and the king was obliged to take refuge in disguise. It was dur- ing that period of eclipse that he served as house-servant, a}Kl was whipped for letting the bread burn. But he soon rallied his forces and regained his losses. Alfred was a skillful, brave and powerful warrior. His real claim to greatness rests, however, on his statesmanship and his zeal for learning. He was the most civilized age. "' ruler of the The laws were reformed, more especially in their administration, and schools established. Al- fred was the founder of the British navy, and the especial patron of strictly English liter- ature, to which he made valu- able personal contributions. He was especially eager to advance pojiular education. He trans- lated several works from the Latin into English. These were mainly historical. His palace- schools for the instruction of the sons of the nobility, may be said to have laid the corner- stone of university education in England. The next British sovereign of note was Canute the Dane. His reign was from lOlG to 1035. From vassalage to the Saxon crown he rose to su- premacy over both the English and the Danes of the island. His policy was to harmonize the people, and he treated the Enghsh with justice. On his mother's side Canute could boast descent from Alfred. With him the dis- tinctive mark of Denmark was obliterated forever literature, he was f ^^k/^^SMB IMSfii^^i 1 P ^B^^ ^^^^S^ l^^^aH^^^i^^S^^i eIh ^^^^s^^^HK^ nUH "■ "^^^^^sSSS^SEfev ^« ' A Vv\ SS^i WILLIAM I 1 from Britain, for albeit a Dane, he was in spirit a thorough Englishman. Alfred's son, Edward the Elder, was tlie first to take the title of King of England, but tlie England of Canute was a stej) in advance, for it merged into one (with the English as the one) the two Scandinavian elements of the people. He was the only great sovereign the land enjoyed from Alfred to William of Normandy, but not the only great ruler, for Dunstan, altihough a subject, ruled the destinies of England under several kings, and was a man worthy of the highest honor and deathless gratitude. The kings under whom "Dunstan flour- ished were Edmund I., Edred, Edwy, and Edgar, the period covered being from 940 to 975. A devout monk with a passionate- fondness for music, poetrj' and none the less a man of affairs. His aim was to make England united and great. The kings witli whom he had to do could not appreciate him, and his la- bors were made doubly arduous by their imbecility. It must be conceded that Dunstan was somewhat hampered as a re- former by superstition, and he weakened his influence for good by zeal for ecclesiastical regula- tions, especially clerical celiba- cy. He did much, however, to improve the laws and encour- age education, herein nobly sup- plementmg the work of Alfred. Fiom Canute to William was a swift descent. A few troublous years succeeded the death of the great Dane, when Edward the Confessor came to the throne. His early life had been spent at the court of Nor- mandy, and he was more Norman than English in his tastes and ideas. During the twenty-four years of his reign (1042 to 1066) the higher offices of the government were largely filled with foreign- ~« ■^ --•k, OLD ENGLAND. 337 ers. Weak in mind, he was swayed by others. For- tunately there was one patriotic Englishman who exerted a powerful influence over him, Godwin, earl of Wessex, and after him his son Harold. It was during this reign that Scotland was the scene of those bloody deeds made immortal in the drama of Macbeth, and England's part in the overthrow of that foul traitor is fairly set forth by Shakspeare. And it may well be remarked here that the histori- cal plays of that su- preme genius are of in- calculable value from the standpoint of Brit- ish history, afEording as they do wonderful insight into the spirit of the times. But Edward's most mem- orable act was not succoring Malcolm of Scotland. It was be- stowing his kingdom upon his cousin Will- iam of Normandy. Such was his partial- ity for the Normans that he wished to be succeeded by one of their number. At least William himself set up this claim, and not without some show of truth. However, in his last hours Ed- ward bestowed the crown upon Earl Harold, son of Godwin, but, unfortunately, tlie latter had once l)een shipwrecked upon the Nor- man coast, and while held a prisoner he signed a complete renunciation of all claim to tlie En- glisii crown in favor of Duke William. When, therefore, Harold came to the throne William dc- numded compliance with the promi.se made. The Saxon persisted that the pledge was exacted of him under duress and was not binding. William there- upon gathered his forces and inviiiK'il Kii_'l:inii. The BATTLE OF IIASTINfiS, DEATH OF HAROLD. battle of Hastings was the result. That battle oc- curred in lOGG. In it Harold was slaiuand his army put to utter rout. Tlie Saxon cause was lost, irrev- ocably. What the folly of Edward the Confessor had begun the sword of William the Conqueror linished. We have now seen the Briton give place to the Anglo-Saxon, and the latter assimilate the Dane, and now still anotlier element was introduced into the English race, tlie last of all, for the Nor- man was the final really foreign ingredi- ent in the strictly En- glish blood. In the task of making one ])eople out of many England has shown a wonderful power, and the work of as- similation is still going on ill otlier jiart-s of the British islands, es- pecially in Scotland ; but the Saxons who were so ingloriously conquered at Hastings have proved the real masters of tlie situa- tion. Notwithstand- ing the political change nuwle, England remaineiHho]i of ^r ^2 338 OLD ENGLAND. York officiating. The new king professed great respect for the laws of England, and was ratlier lenient in his treatment of the vanquished. After a few months, during which all went smoothly, William returned to his Duchy of Normandy, to look after his affairs there. Hardly had he sailed away when the spirit of insubordination manifested itself, and it became evident that the battle of Hastings had not really subdued the nation. The duke returned with all the force he could command, and then began a long, bitter and desolating war. Inch by inch Wilham conquered England, and terrible was his revenge upon those whom he branded as rebels. Frigiitful tales of horror are told, and large tracts of culti- vated fields were utterly devastated, the slaughter of the people being ruthless. These waste -places he maintained as hunting grounds. Game laws were introduced for the preservation of wild beasts at the expense of the conquered Saxons, that the conquerors might have the pleasure of killing. The people, to a large extent, were reduced to a state of serfage little better than downright slavery. To render the conquest more secure, William caused his English kingdom to be surveyed, and a record to be made of the survey. That record is called Domes-day Book, and detestable as was its ori- gin and object, it may be called the beginning of an incalculably important system of land records. The present practice of keeping public records of all real estate titles is of quite recent introduction, still, tlie fundamental idea of the system 'is found in that vestige of the Norman conquest. The lands taken from the vanquished Saxons were either re- tained or parceled out among the barons from Nor- mandy. To a very large extent the present English titles to lands are traced back to the Conquest. The king did not bestow those estates absolutely, or in fee simple, but conditionally, on the feudal plan. If the landholder or his heirs, failed to render satis- factory service to the crown, the land itself could be reclaimed by a decree of forfeiture, or escheat. It fol- lows that the lauded property of England conld now be largely redistributed by law without the vio- lation of any " vested right " or infringement upon the British constitution. Possibly the land tenure system introduced by AVilliam may eventually prove the lever of a most radical reform in English realty. William was a man of war apart from his cam- paigns in England, but his continental struggles were not important, and he was not a really j)oteut factor in the affairs of France, to which his duchy belonged. While engaged in devastating the town of Nantes, belonging to his liege lori, Philip of Prance, he was thrown from his horse and killed. His death made glad the hearts of his subjects. He had even quarreled with his own sons, and the elder, Robert, had raised the standard of revolt. In the struggle that followed William came very near being slain by the sword of his own son. He was overthrown, but filial regard saved his life. When tlie career of William came to an end, Rob- ert inherited Normandy and his brother William Rufus, England. To a third brother, Henry, was bequeathed the maternal fortune, whic-h was very con- siderable, but no part of either the kingdom or the duchy. About this time the Crusades began, and Robert mortgaged his duchy to Rufus to raise money to join the expedition for the resciie of tlie Holy Sepulcher. A¥hile the Knight of the'Oross was in " Paynim land " his royal brother was accidentally killed in the chase, and Henry at once claimed both England and Normaudy. There was none to dis- pute his claim, until Robert's return, and then it was too late. Henry I. held fast to both possessions, being a skillful politician, a brave soldier and an un- natural brother. Robert died in prison. Tliis first of the Henrys reigned thirty-six years. He was call- ed Beauclerc, or "the good scholar." Under him the country made some progress, but not much, and almost none at all under his successor, Stephen, a grandson of William the Conqueror, his motlier be- ing Adele, Countess of Blois. For twenty years Stephen kept the land in a state of anarchy and misery. The crown really belonged to Henry's daughter, Maude, who had been the wife of the G-er- man Emperor, Henry V., and later of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, but the English of that day did not take kindly to the idea of a queen, and Maude was singularly destitute of tact. After several in- effectual attempts to gain the crown, she retired to a convent and ended her days as a pious nun. The basis of the compromise was the agreement that Stephen should wear the crown until death when Henry, the son of Maude and Geoffrey, should suc- ceed him, an arrangement which was carried out in good faith. The death of Stephen occurred in 1154, and the accession of Henry II. proved the beginning of a new series of events. ■i' l\r ^P^::#^ 3^ OLD ENGLAND PLANfAGENEfs. f "li' cfej OTT.- 'i^ '^'-^fi AND THE j^i9ii.*l^i^ CHAPTER LVI, The Sprat of Broom-Blossom — Thomas a Beckkt— Strongbow and Irisu Subjugation — The One English Pope of Rome— The Sorrows of Henry I[.— Richard Cceur de Leon— Kino John and Magna Charta — Uenrv III. and Parliament — Prince Edward and the Barons — Roger Bacon the Medieval Scientist— The Two Bacons Compared — Wejitminster Abbey — Architecture and Freemasonry — Retrospect of Old England. ^^* kkkk r---\ ^ T'^ < ,ITH the coronation of Hen- ry II. begins the rule of the Pluntagenets, sometimes called the An- geviue dynasty of En- glish kings. The Planta- genets held the scepter from 1154 to 14S5, or until the battle of Bosworth gave the ascendancy to the Tu- dors. The Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos continue to call themselves Plantagenets. The term originated in the fact that ITenrys father, GeofErey of Anjou, was accustomed to wear a spray of broom-blossom in his hat, the French name for which is gmei. It is not propos- ed in this chapter to follow the course of history to the Tudors, but only to the accession of the first Edward, whose broad statesmansliip raised the na- tion into so much move j)r()niinLuico than the dynas- ty, that he constitutes a great landmark iu English history. Henry liad extensive continental possessions. Be- sides the dukedoms of Anjou and Normandy, he was, through his queen, Eleanor, Lord of Aquitaine. The three possessions constituted aliout one-half of the present France. Tlie first notable reform wliicli ^ he introduced was a well-directed lilow at the clergy. Hitherto a jjriest was amenable only to an ecclesiastical tribunal, however heinous his crime, but he abolished this un- just "benefit of clergy." Thomas a Becket, Arcli- Ijishop of Canterbury, the first Englishman since the Conquest to hold that high office, refused to obey tlir law. He appealed to tin' pope and took refuge at the French court. Tlir pope espoused the cause of the clerg}' and tiireat- encd ilie king with cxroin- munication, but he sinoi firm. A partial recoucili ation was finally offecti'i and Becket returned t the see of Canterlniry. That was in 1170. The arehhisliop snowea no disposition to obey the law. Tlie result was that four barons, at tlic instigation of tlic king, iussjissin- ated him. Three years later he was canonized, and Ills shrine at Canterbury hiis ever since been a < 3oV.) ^^ 340 OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. sacred spot to those who sympathize with liis views of clerical independence of secular law and justice. To allay the tempest raised by the ecclesiastics, Henry consented to do penance at the shritie of the " martyr " after he was sainted. It was during the reign of Henry II. that England gained her first foot- hold in Ireland. The Earl of Pembroke, called " Strongbow," led an army of his own immediate follow- ing across St. George's Channel and carved out for himself a pet- ty kingdom which he claimed to hold in the name of the British sovereign. The foot- hold thus gained was the Province of Lein- ster. From that time to date England has asserted a fictitious claim to rule a peojDle persistently unrecon- ciled to any interfer- ence with home rule. That usurpation dates from 1173. The reign of Henry the Second continued forty years, during which time much was done, be- sides the abridgment of clerical authority, to correct abuses. The rights of the barons ~~ were respected, wnile their arrogance was re- stricted. It is safe to say that the principles of jus- tice found more recognition in him than in any ruler of that century. He was also a patron of learning. It may be remarked that it was about this time that Nicholas Breakspear, an English prelate, was made pope, being the only Englishman to hold the keys of St. Peter. He took the name of Adrian IV. Henry had enough Saxon blood in his veins to be satisfactory to that element of the people. With the Norman barons he was less popu- lar. His reign was largely a struggle for the cur- tailment of baronial power. It was under him that the august judicial system, or, as Green calls it, '' the fabric of English judicial legislation," commenced, and a glimpse is afforded of the great charter granted by his son John. His reign was an education, pre- paratory to the su- MURDER OF THOMAS A BECKET. preme event at Run- nymede, of which we are presently to hear. This great king died with the clouds of ad- versity thick and thickening about his head. His two elder sons were dead, and the remaining two, Eichard and John, en- gaged in a plot against their royal father, whose last days were filled with sadness. The older of the two sons of Henry II. is known in his- tory as Richard Coeur de Leon (Richard of the Lion Heart). He was a bravo Crusader. Many a romantic story is told of his personal prowess. With a touch of poetry in his nature, he was a great patron of minstrels and trou- badours. But apart from the glamour of romaiice,Richard lives in history as a i-oyal knight-erraut, and that is about all. The younger brother, John, who succeeded to the crown in 1199 and wore it until 1216, was treacher- ous and despicable, yet sagacious and brave. He was a great general, a powerful king, but he is best known for something which he was forced to do in sjiite of himself, and to which he never intended to be faithful. We refer to the Great Charter, or Magna Charta, wrung from him by the barons of the realm at Runnymede. John is sometimes called 7 "^ OLD ENCiLANU AMJ 1 HE FLA.NT AGE.NETS. 34^ Laeklaud. His reign extended from 1199 to 1210. The charter was signed June 19, 1315. It was in effect a royal pledge to respect the rights of the bar- ons, the clergy aud tlie people. That truly august document constitutes the fundamental part of the Briti.sh constitution. A council of the clergy and the nobility was held two years before the charter was signed, for the purpose of devising ways and means to secure that safeguard against royal usur- pation. Cardinal Langton fairly earned the honor of organizing this important victory over absolut- ism. For once the church was on the side of i)rog- ress and liberty. The king had the support of the jjope, Innocent III., but Langton i:)ersisted in his patriotic purpose. The charter as originally signed by King John contained sLxty-one articles. It was frequently renewed with ad- ditions by subsequent sov- ereigns. The right of trial by a jurj' of one's equals, or [leers, is, perhaps, the most imjwrtant guaranty of the entire charter. No taxa- tion without the consent of the taxed was another great principle, and one which developed int(j the right of the House of Commons in England and the House of Representatives in the United States to originate all revenue bills. Notwithstanding the fact that King John was a very brave and able man, he not only failed utterly to liold in check his English subjects, but he lost the dukedom of Norn)andy, which was seized by the French king, and henceforth the title became ex- tinct. His reign was singularly inglorious, and his name is exceptionally infamous in royal annals. But had the one notable act of his life been vol- untary, it would liave made him to the English jxio- plo much what Abraham Lincoln is to tiie colored people of America. As it was, he neither re- ceived nor deserved the slightest credit for allixin;; the royal sign manual to the charter. The death of this baffled despot left the crown to his son, Henry, then only eight years of ago. For A^'L '^^S^P^BT^m^ S^r^/: r ^ I r m- H '9 '^jfc J ^^^SiH!B ^ f^^^^^^gR ^'-'^'•^^^liii^Tyr^Hin w 1 RICHARD CfEUR DE LEON. L three years the kingdom was ruled by a regent of patriotism and statesmanship, Earl Pembroke. The king was declared of age when sLxteeu years old (1323), taking the title of Henry III. It was during his reign that the great council of the nation became known as the parliament, and began to assume its proper function as tiie really supreme authority in the land. Henry wius a weak king, and that fact was fortunate for the nation. It was farther fortunate that he was a spendthrift. Ho needed money, and had to apply to parliament for appropriations. Every application, whether granted or denied, served to em- phasiw the parliamentary jurisdiction. But the church of Kome was quite as eager to take atlvantage of Hen- ry's imbecility as the people were, and during this reign ecclesiastical usurpation made considei'able huiulway. Parliament showed a piti- ful incapacity for govern- ment. For many years the country was in a state bor- dering on anarchy. The reign of this king extend- ed from 1210 to 1272. The nobility seemed infatu- ated with a sense of their own importam-e, andtinally, in 12(>4, they deprived the king 1)1' all auilKirity, holding him aud his fam- ily, with one exception, prisoners. That excep- tion was Edward. This prince was a brave and able man, and a good sou. After a long strug- gle he succeeded in breaking the ]K)wer of the barons and rcstormg his father to the throne. The leader of the barons was Earl Leicester. In itself considcro^iK^^ii^^jifc.x-)«x^ifei»^ MODERN ENGLAND f, , ? fr^-r'^^^'^^y.c'^:*/-r^^/^'Z^^y;z^^y-:t^ ^ x r- i ^.^fL < v-i^- .1-- -y ^^,... PLANTAGENEfS. I S, &. |jANDThe:| SSM^gHM®QME®ME:M(5Ma S CHAPTER LVII MoDERK England — The Asibition of Kdward I. — Conquest of "Wales— Llewellen, and the Welsh Policy of Edward — Prince of Wales — Arthurian Legends — TEiiroRAitv Subjec- tion OF Scotland — William Wallace — Kobert Bruce — The Death of Edward I, and Scotch Independence— The Chief Glory of the First Edward- Treatment of the Jews — Edward II. — Edward III. — The French War and the Black Prince — General Character of the Edwardian Age — Geoffrey Chaucer — John Wycliffe— The Black Plagl't: — Richard n. and Wat Tyler — The Last of the Plantagenet8. !^-^aDfs|i-TH 'ITH the reign of Edward," says Greeu, '■' begins Mod- ern England." This ep- och is unmarked by any revohitionary cataclysm. "From that time," heex- l^lains, "kings, lords, com- mons, the courts of justice, the forms of ])ublic administration, local division and provincial jurisdictions, the relations of churcli and state, in great measure the framework of society itself, have all tak- en the shape which they still essentially retain." For more than half a century all connection -with Normandy had ceased, and long before that, fear of any further incursions of barbaric hordes from the North had disappeared. French was the language of govern- ment and Latiii of literature, but the people clung tenaciously to English, a tenacity which was des- tined to triumph completely. The age of tlie three Edwards was a grand epoch in England's greatness. AVhcn the troublous and long reign of Henry III. closed, Edward I. was fighting the Moslem. Upon learning liis father's death he returned home. His first tliought was tn have a reckoning witlv the land- ed aristocracy, many of whom were enjoying posses- sions not vested in them hy provable title. But he soon abandoned that idea. Any such " new ver- sion" of Domesday Book would arouse a teinpe.t.— Henbt VI.— End of the One Hundred Years' War— The ENOLieii Re- gency — Jack Cade and his Insurrection— The War or the Roses- Edward IV.— War- wick "The King-maker '—Edward V.— Richard III.— Boswortu Field — The Hlendisg or THE White Rose and Red in the House of Tudor. ^P-: K— ^3>^^-Ti HE first of the Plantage- iiets,rieuryII.,cametothe throne in 1154 ; the last of the house, Richard II., left it the last year of the fourteenth century. Then followed three Henrys, the Fourth, Fifth and Si.xth, fornnng the House of Lancaster, and covernig tlie period from 1399 to 1461. To tlie Lancaster.? succeeded three reiiresentatives of the house of York, Edward IV. and V. and Richard III., ex- tending from 1461 to 1485. Those eighty-si.x years, the period of the roses, will now engage our atteu- tention. Ten years after the coronation of Ricliard II., the youngest and ablest of his uncles, the Duke of Gloucester, took up arms in rebellion. He was so far successful that he dictated terni.s of settlement to tlie king, for a time, but soon the royal power so far gained the ascendancy that the duko was im- prisoned at Calais, then an English possession in Franco. r;i()\u:i'sl('r soon thorcafter died of a]m- plexy, according to tlie governor of the city ; of poi- son, according to current and subsequent opinion. Among the adherents of Gloucester were two dukes, Norfolk and Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Here- ford. The latter was the son of John of Gaunt. In 1398 these ducal dignitaries had a quarrel wliich they ])roposed to settle by a duel. Hearing of it, and glad of an excuse, the king banished them both, the Duke of Xorfolk for life and IJoliugbroke for ten years. At that time the venerable father of Henry was alive. He was Duke of Lancsistor. He did not long survive the banishment of his eldest son and heir. At his death the king seized and aj)- propriated to the crown the dukedom of Lancaster. Hereford watched liis opportunity, and when Rich- ard went to Ireland in the summer of 1390 to con- duct in ix-rson the Irish war, Henry Bolingbroke lauded on English soil with a small but iiitrei)id following. The returned exile had no designs upon the throne, but simply, as he pmtestoil. came l)!ick for the purpose of claiming his inlicritance of f>an- caster. But the king had a great nuiny enemies and the times were riix.' for dynastic revolution. On the nortii avsis Scotland and across the English channel was Fraiuv, both eager for revenge, and irhid iif :ni iip]ii>rnuuty to assist a n')>el. Thi* Per- ^ (349) ^ 350 LANCASTER AND YORK. cies of Northumberland brought their forces to the support of Bolingbroke, who soon found himself at the head of an army of 60,000 men. Even the re- gent who was in charge of the kingdom while the king was in Ireland, the Duke of York, went over to Henry's side. Eichard came back with a very considerable army, but his soldiers deserted and he was taken prisoner and conducted to London. There he executed a formal abdication. That was the people iu forgetfulness of the flaw m his title, he plunged into foreign war, managing to retain his crown until in 1413 death claimed him. No sover- eign ever held fast to his scepter and yet had more occasion than Henry of Lancaster to say, " Uneasy rests the head that wears a crown." During the reign of Eichard II. the incipient cause of Protestantism had made a great deal of headway. It was in 1398 that parUament passed September 29, 1399. The next day parliament de- posed him by due process of law on the ground of malfeasance, and the banished duke who had re- turned to claim a duchy was duly installed as king of England under the name of Henry IV. A crown thus won was not retained without con- stant effort. On the north Avas Scotland and across the channel was France, both ready to assist insur- rection, and the spirit of faction ran so high that the opposition did not hesitate to seek foreign alli- ance. To gain the especial support of the church, Henry inaugurated persecution, being the first En- glish king to burTi lieretics. In the hope of igniting the '■ Statute of Prermmire," which provided that " whoever should procure from Eome or elsewhere, excummunications, bulls, or other things against the king and his realm, should be put out of t'lie king's protection, and all his lands and goods for- feited." The leader in this anti-papal movement was John Wycliffe, a very learned professor in Ox- ford University, and translator of the Bible into En- glish. During Henry's reign a strenuous effort was made to suppress and undo the work of Wycliffe. In 1401 it was enacted that " all persons convicted by their bishops of holding heretical opinions, and who should refuse to a1;)iure the same, should be LANCASTER AND YORK. 351 burned to death," and this statute was not allowed to be a dead letter. Wj'cliffe himself, " The Morn- ing Star of the Reformation," died peacefully in the year 1384. In the days of Richard II. and Henry IV. the Protestants were called '•' Lollards." Henry V. was just ripening into manhood when upon the death of his father, March 20, 1113, he was called to the cares of state. The wild pranks of his youth and the coarse tastes of the times are well set forth by Shakspeare in connection with that unique character, Sir John Falstaff. Rising superior to the evil omens of his boyhood, the young king showed a masterly genius for public affairs. In the liope of curing factiousness he entered with great zeal upon the prosecution of war with France. The brilliant victory of Agincourt, a repetition of Cressy, made every loyal English heart true to his cause. The British sword seemed invincible, and France was at the mercy of Henry Y. Stej) by step the French Unicorn receded before the British Lion. In 1420 the famous treaty of Troyes was made, in accordance vrith which Henry married Catherine, daughter of the King of France, and was pro- claimed regent of France, the French king of that day, Charles "VI., being insane. The force of this treaty was not recognized by the Orleanists, how- ever, and real peace was not secured. For nearly two years the king continued to be engaged in war upon the soil of France, when he died, leaving a son nine months old. In two months Charles also died, and thus the infant heir of two kingdoms, Henry VI., became king of England and France. Many of those who disputed the regency of the father conceded the validity of the claim of the son to the throne of France as well as England. But there was in France a party which supported the claim of the son of Charles VI., in ijreference to tlic grandson, holding the treaty by which the Daupliin, the Piince of Orleans, had been deprived of tlie royal inheritance, null and void. Before proceeding with the reign of Henry VI. it deserves to be noted that Henry V. was the founder of the British na-v^. Prior to his reign the govern- ment had no ships of its own, but relied upon tem- porary loans of vessels from maritime towns and the merchant marine of private subjects. The fifth of the Henrys inaugurated a very important change when he built the first really formidable man-of- war EnEfland could ever boast. To return now to the course of events under the infant heir to two thrones, we find trouljlous times. No doubt but that if Henry VI. had been of ma- ture age and a sovereign of moderately good abilit}- and character, the dream of Franco-English unity might have been realized. But this prospect was soon dashed to the ground, the possibility even never returning. By the terms of the will the Duke of Bedford was made regent of France, a man of commanding abil- ity. Paris was in his liands, and the only consider- able French town not garrisoned Ijy Englisli troops was Orleans. Tlie continuance of the strusrgrle on the part of the Orleanists or French patriots seemed useless ; but just when all was lost, Joan of Arc, more specifically mentioned in the liistory of France, came upon the field of action, inspiring jiatriotism by her fanaticism, and reversing completely the for- tunes of tlie war. Bedford died and the English were obliged to abandon the continent. The ilaid of Orleans sought to deliver France from foreign rule, but she suc- ceeded in doing tlie still better thing, saving En- gland from tlie danger of having its nationality compromised and perhaps lost. The savior of two nations, she was, as we have seen, the victini of the unutterable meanness of both. Charles VII., un- cle of Henry VI., mounted the throne. England had lost all contmental possessions except Calais. The Hundred-Years ^Yar between the two nations came to an end in the year 1453. Returning now to English soil, we find the coun- try profoundly disturbed. There was constant fric- tion during Henry's minority Ijetween the young king's uncle, Humphrey of Gloucester, and Cardinal Beaufort. Each claimed the regency. Gloucester was foully murdered, but the iidvantage did not ac- crue to the cardinal. Two years before that the king, always weak and almost imbecile, married Margaret of .Vnjou, and she, together with lier s])e- cial friend, William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, ruled the realm after Glouccsters taking olT. The utter failure of the English in France occasioned the banishment and subsequent murder of Suffolk, and the fall of that royal favorite wa.« soon followed by several insurrections. The most formidable of these (not counting the War of the Koses) was the rising in Kent of twenty thousiind men led by John Mnrtimcr, letter known as Jack Cade. The insur- 352 LANCASTER AND YORK. gents marched to Loudon and encamped upon Blackheath. They demanded certain much-needed reforms in the laws relating to labor and taxes. The city council of London recognized the justice of the claims made. The king was removed to Ken- ilworth castle, and there was every prospect of a sat- isfactory settlement of the demands made. But Cade could not curb the plundering disposition of his followers, and the Londoners were obliged to take up arms against them in self-defense. The re- sult was Cade was obliged to flee, many of his fol- lowers being slain. In his flight he was himself killed, and all the reforms promised were defeated. The loss of Prance embittered the English nation and served as a sort of blood poison. The suppura- tion from the Lancastrian wound poured its deadly pus into the veins of both rival factions, and pro- duced that terrible civil war, the War of the Roses, so called because the faction of Lancaster wore a red rose and the adherents of the house of York a white rose as their respective badges. The first out- break was at St. Albans in 1455. For forty years the conflict raged with occasional truces. The year following the expulsion of the English from France, Richard, Duke of York, was appointed Protector of the kingdom by Parliament. The Duke of Somerset, Edward Beaufort, was the leader of the branch of the house of Lancaster which opposed this protectorate. In less than a year Henry re- sumed the reins of government, a triumph of Som- erset. Thereupon York took the field in hos- tility to his rival. The battle of St. Alban's (May 33, 1455) followed, resulting in the defeat of York. A partial peace was then effected, but in 1459 the hostilities were resumed. This time the white rose of York was in the ascendancy, and the king was captured, his queen and son finding refuge in Scot- land. The Duke boldly claimed the crown, but Parliament compromised the matter by providing that Henry was to reign iintil death, when Richard of York, instead of Henry's own son Edward, should succeed to the throne. This adjustment was not at all satisfactory to the Lancasters. " Many of the great nobles," says a coteraporary historian, " rallied to the support of the young Prince Edward, and the Duke of York was defeated at Wakefield a little later. The duke was killed in the action, and his head, ornamented with a paper crown, was placed over the gate of the city of York. His son. the Earl of Rutland, vras captured and murdered in cold blood by Lord Clifford. Edward, the eldest son of Richard, was now Duke of York. He at once took up the cause of his house, defeated the royal forces at Mortimer's Cross, and followed up his victory by a renewal of the bloody executions begun by the rival party. Queen Margaret won a victory over-the Yorkist force in the second battle of St. Albans, and rescued the king from them. She failed to improve her advantage, however, and the Duke of York marched boldly into London, where he was declared king by the people and a large as- semblage of nobles, prelates aud magistrates, March 3d, 1461." Edward IV., first of the three kings of the house of York, was born upon French soil, Rouen, in 1441. Although he was made king in 1461, the War of the Roses had not , ceased. The Lancastrians cherished the hope of dethroning him until the bat- tle of Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471, when Edward was completely victorious. But before that time his for- tunes were various. Three years after his corona- tion he married Elizabeth Woodville, which served as an excuse for an outbreak, under the lead of the Earl of Warwick. This earl is one of the more not- able characters in English history. Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, known as "the king-maker," was first cousin of Edward IV. He was the wealthiest Englishman of his day, at least he enjoyed the largest revenue of any subject of the realm, and rivaled Hie king himself in the magnifi- cence of his mode of living. He had done more than any other one man to place Edward upon the throne of England, and he made no secret of his greatness. He assumed to be a power behind the throne mightier than the monarch who sat upon it. At the time the king married Elizabeth, one of his own subjects, the lordly Warwick was at the French capital negotiating for his sovereign the hand of a princess of France. He was so much incensed at this that he gave his daughter in marriage to the king's younger brother Clarence, without royal per- mission, and upon an uj)rising in Yorkshire against certain levies in 1469 he and Clarence put them- selves at the head of the insurgents. In the battle of Edgecot which soon followed, the royal forces were defeated, the father and brother of the queen beheaded. A brief reconciliation followed. In 1470 hostih- ^ ^ LANCASTER AND YORK. 353 ties broke out agaiii. This time Wanvick was obliged to seek safety in flight to France. There the famous king-maker entered into negotiations ■\Titli Queeu Margaret for the restoration of Heurj- VI., to the English throne, the marriage of Priuce Edward of Lancaster with his own daughter and the recognition of Clarence as the heir presumi)tive to the prince. By that arrangement he would make it reasonably certain that the cro\ni would be in- herited by the Warwick blood. Louis X. was then upon the French throne. He favored "Warwick, and Ijer of the house of Neville for two generations perished by the sword, with the solitary exception of George, iVrclibishop of York. Tlie daughter of '\Var^rick, who liad married Priuce Edward, wa* wedded in 1473 to Richard, Duke of Gloucester, af- terwiird Richard III., Ijut even then none of the blood of the '• king-maker " ever flowed in the veius of royalty. This last euterjirise of the great Warwick paved the way for a renewal of hostilities between France and England. In 1475 the English again invaded tlie jjlan worked well. The seemingly invincible earl returned to England, marched upon London, took it and restored poor Henry the Sixth, Edward flee- ing to Holland. But Warwick's career was nearly at an end. Some six months later Edward returned with a force of Dutch and Flemings, and the battle of Barnct was fought, April 14, 1471, in which tlic great earl was slain. A few weeks later Queen Margaret and Prince Edward were both taken prisoners, and the latter slain. In the following June Henry liiniself, the last of the Lancasters, was put to death in tlic Tower of London. That ended tlie War of the Roses. It is said tliat in tliat war cvcrv male incm- )K LUNDII.V. the French territory for the purpose of subjugation. Nothing came of the exjxjdition, however, except that Louis agreed to pay a jiension to the English crown and l)ctrothed liis lieir, the Daupliin Charles, to the eldest daughter of the king of England, a conclusion and result quite unsatisfactory to the English jicople, who still clung to the hope of cou- tinental possessions. The bctrotlial jusb mentioned was not carried out. Louis afterwards secured for his son and heir the hand of .Vnno, dauglitor of the German Emix;ror, JIaxiniihan. Edward rosolvoil to avenge this insult, and itjtrievc his popuLirity with his own jieople by another and more erxt4aisivo invasion of France. But in the midst of liis projv ¥ I— -*- '-^ 354 LANCASTER AND YORK. arations, April 9, 1483, he died, leaving his two sous Edward, aged thirteen years, and Eichard, who was only ten years old. Edward V. can hardly be said to have reigned at all. Upon the death of his father he departed for London, but before he had reached his destin- ation his uncle, Eichard of Gloucester, whose hideousness stands re- vealed in the dramati- zation of Shakspeare, had him seized and lodged in the Tower. Soon after, his name- sake, the younger brother of the young king, was jjlaced hi the same royal prison. The poor boys were soon murdered and the un- natural uncle became king of England. Richard III. assumed the kingly office July 6, j'eigning two years. During this period he may be said to have assiduously tried by good government to purchase pardon for the crimes with which his coronation robes were stained. In this he sig- nally failed. The dis- affection was too great to bo resisted. The Earl of Eichmond, Henry Tudor, became the leader of the dis- affection. He was the grandson of Owen Tudor and Catherine, widow of Henry V. On the ma- ternal side of the house he was the heir to the Lancastrian claims to the throne. Fortunately for Henry, he was an exile in Brittany, and his confederates on Enghsli soil were discovered, arrested and executed before he had crossed the channel. But the spirit of rebellion could not be kept down. Many nobles u.nited in invit- ing the exiled earl to return and claim the scepter. He was saga- cious enough to pro- pose to put an end for- ever to the cruel and senseless War of the Eoses by marrying Eliz- abeth, daughter of Ed- ward IV. Landing on English soil at MiHord Haven early in August, 1485, Richmoud joined battle with Richard on the 22nd of that month on the field of Bos- worth. Eichard com- manded his own army in person, was defeated and slain. Richmond was p)roclaimed king upon the battlefield, and the entire nation acquiesced, amid uni- versal satisfaction that the bloody rivalries of the Lancasters and the Yorks had at last ter- minated happily in the union of both houses, and their disappearance from the royal annals, equally absorbed in the house of Tudor. 3) "71s- J 3 Henkt Vn. AND HIS Times— The Times and Chakacter op Henry VIII.— Domestic Life OF "Bluff Hal"— Befoem and its Limitations- Henbt's Will — Edward XI. and Ladt Jane Grey— Bloody Mary— The Accession of Elizabeth— Her Fibst Suitor and THE Armada— Mary Queen of Scots — Elizabeth and her Friends— The Elizabethan Age— England Under the Tudors— Ireland and the Tudors. K-^^OD^-^ HE long reigii of Henry VII. (1485-1509) was sub- stantially free from civil strife. By marrying Eliz- abeth of York he made assurance of the close of the Wars of the Ros- es doul:)ly sure. Some ^ jirctenders '^Ijyjl-, there were, 'i\^^ but no very formidable claimants- Tliis king was exceedingly avaricious, although not witliout brcadtli of mind. If lie did not secure fur his country the honor of pat- ronizing Christojihcr Co- hunbu.s, as he had the opportunity to do, he was not slow to take advantage of the great discovery WP made by that navigator. No sooner had the ex- istence of America become known than English maritime enterprise began to give promise of its incomiDarable future. As early as 1-49U Henry com- missioned the Cabots, of Bristol, father and son, to go on a voyage of discovery, and after them came Gilbert, Drake, Frobisher and Hawkins. It is true that the immediate results of those expeditions were not important, but the spirit of adventure was stimulated and the seed sown came to a jjlentiful harvest eventually. The War of the Roses had de- stroyed serfdom, or villan- age in England, for sub- stantially tlie same reason tliat the civil war in tl)e United States destroyed American slavery, and thus the way was })rcpared for commercial and industrial thrift. The king's greed for money had au indirect tendency in the same direc- tion. It was during the reign of tlie first of tlie i.355; ^ 356 THE TUDORS. Tudors that a French writer declared, " Of all the states in the world that I know, England is the country where the commonwealth is best governed and the peojole least oppressed." By the time Henry the Seventh gave place to his son, Henry the Eighth (1509), all questions as to the succession were at an end, and the latter entered upon his inheritance under the most auspicious cu'- cumstances. Marrying Catherine of Spain, he may be said to have made the most brilliant matrimonial alliance possible at that day. The reign of this sov- ereign extends over a period of thirty-eight years, and occupies a large place in the historic thought of the world. His was a many-sided career, full of varied experiences. To appreciate the cir- cumstances which con- spired to make the career of Henry the Eighth and the En- gland of that period illustrious, one must call to mind the dis- coveries of Columbus and Da Gama ; the invention of Guten- burg ; the rise of the Ottoman empire upon the ruins of the Byzan- tine empire ; the Re- formation in Germany, and the Eeuaissance in France. A new day had dawned upon Europe. The wealtli of India and the Montezumas was begin- ning to pour in upon "Western Europe, and new op- portunities to arise. England was no longer the outer edge of creation, but the center of the world. It was a time to expand the thoughts of men, and ■svithout being a man of the finest parts, Henry VIII. was certainly a ruler of far more than ordi- nary ability, and his especial vices as an individual were the occasion of his chief virtue as a king. Licentious and heartless, he piit aside Queen Cath- erine to marry Anne Boleyn. That was in itself an inexcusable crime, but in its consequences the great- est of national blessings. His character thus had compensations even where most reprehensible. This reign was early drawn into war with France and Scotland, some French towns being taken on MAERIAGE OF HENRY VTU. AND ANXE BOLEYN. the continent, and the brilliant victory of Flodden Field being won across the Tweed. But war was neither the business nor the pastime of this king. To get rid of his lawful wives seemed to have been his chief occupation for some time. Cardinal Wol- sey undertook to bring this about in the case of Catherine within the pale of the Catholic church and with the connivance of the pope. But that was impossible, so strong was the Spanish influence at the Vatican. For failure herein the magnificent cardinal fell into disgrace and finally died. The pretext for the application for divorce was that Catherine was the widow of Henry's older brother, Arthur, who had died two months after mar- riage and prior to the death of Henry the Seventh. With the hypocrisy not unusual in those days he feigned conscientious fear that he was displeasing God. What Wolsey failed to do was essayed by ajU- other ecclesiastical tool, Thomas Cranmer, af- terwards burnt at the stake by Bloody Mary for the part he took in these divorce proceed- ings, and for Protes- tantism. Cranmer's idea was to get an opinion from the universities first, in the hope that the pope would be influenced by the judgment of the learned. Here was a significant, if tentative, recognition of the growing power of education. It may be remarked that the king had shown con- siderable sincere sym- jDathy Avith the jjro- gressive tendency of the day, the New Learning as it was called, although in his desire to win favor with the pope he had written a treatise in denunciation of Luther and his doctrines. Some of the universities gave the desired CEANMER. ^1 Sr -4 THE TUDORS. 357 opinion, but the poutifE of the church remained ob- durate. Kesolved to be rid of his wife, come what would, Henry defied the pope and unconditionally cut loose from Eome. Catherine was swiftly dis- posed of then, and Anne installed in her place. The king soon tired of Anne Boleyn also, but in- stead of a divorce, had her beheaded, marrjing one of her maids-of -honor, Jane Seymour, the Tery next day. She died within a year. Three other wives followed during the libidinous life of this monster, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard and Catharine ing of the great and upright chancellor. Sir Thomas More, his offense being that he remained a devout and consistent Romanist. Henry's severance from the churcli of Rome, wliich occurred in 1533, re- sulted in stripping monasteries and churches of their vast wealth. He was not, however, in sym- pathy with the more radical ideas of the Reforma- tion, and the sword of persecution fell heavier on dissenting Protestants than upon persistent papists. He seemed to take Rome as his model, ratlier than Geneva, only he wished to have the head- rra&rrffwfl n m If! HAMPTON COtTRT PALACE, EESmENCE OF CARDINAL WOLSEY. Purr. The three children wlio came to the throne were borne to him by the tliree earlier wives. Edward VI., who was tlie third Tudor sovereign, was the son of Jane Seymour ; Mary, of Catherine ; Elizabeth, of Anne Boleyn. Such was the life of him wliom his subjects were wont to call " Bluff Hal."' The policy of the crown was to magnify royal authority and curtail the jurisdiction of parliament. Wolsey ruled without parliament as far as possible, and Thomas Cromwell who succeeded him in iwliti- cal influence, sought rather to use that body as a subservient tool, filling it, as far as ho could, with the mere creatures of the crown. One notable disgrace tn this reign was (he beliead- ship of churcli and state the same, strictly national. By act of parliament Henry the Eighth had been allowed to settle the succession in his will. The lirovisiou ho made was that Edward should be the immediate successor, and if he died without heirs, his older sister, Mary, should be the first to succeed, and if slie too died cluldless, the younger sister, Elizabeth, shoaild inherit the kingdom, and if she also passed away williout heirs, tlie crown shouldgo to the heirs of Henry's younger sister, Mary, Duch- ess of Suffolk, in jircference to the family of his elder sister. Margaret, wife of James IV. of Scot- land. All those contingencies arose. Edward wa.s ten years old when his father died, and in si.x years Aj<^ l_ 358 THE TUDORS. he too passed away, leaving no heir. His sisters also died childless. The family, too, of the Duchess of SufEolk became extinct. The will was carried out, and yet its jmrpose was singularly defeated when James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary, Queen of Scots, came to be J ames I. of England, he being a descend- ant of Margaret Tudor Stuart. Edward VI. was a very pious boy, wholly under Protestant influence. During his reign the church of England was brought quite near to the Lutheran standard. Mass was abolished, the reading of the Bible encouraged. The religion favored by the st-ate may be said to have become thoroughly mod- ernized. So feeble was the jjoor young king that the succession early became a matter of intense so- licitude. It was known that Mary was a zealous pa- pist. In their solicitude for the church the advisers of the king persuaded him to name the grand- daughter of the Duchess of SufEolk, Lady Jane Grey, his successor. For this he had no lawful authority, and much as the ruling class deplored the accession of a Romanist, they resolved to uphold the law. The result was that the unfortunate and per- sonally innocent Lady Jane was beheaded, with the instigators of the movement. With the death of the last of all the Edwards, and the swift punishment of the G-rey party, Mary came to the throne filled with b igo try, eager to be revenged upon the faith that had had so much to do with the troub- les of her mother. In addi- tion to this, was ^UEENMARY. ^gj. ,^^,^^_ riage to and eager love for Philip of Spain. During the five years of her reign (1553-1558) nothing was left undone which could be done to restore England to harmony with Eome. Many Protestants were brought to the stake. But all her efforts were futile. Blood enough she shed in reaction, but her success was temporary. The really permanent result of her reign was the loss of England's one remaining foothold on the continent, Calais. The French recovered that town, to the almost fatal chagrin of the queen, and the fierce indignation of the English people. It was to En- gland a blessing in disguise. We have reached now the reign of the last and in- comparably the greatest of the Tudors, " the Virgin Queen," Elizabeth. It began 1558 and closed 1603, thus covering the most brilliant and glorious period of English history, with reference to which she her- self might well say, " All of which I saw and jDart of which I was." Twenty-four years of age at the time of her coronation, already disciplined in the school of adversity, keenly alive to the perils of her position, she proved the right woman in the right place. Masculine in form, massive in intellect, im- petuous in temjDer, she was a remarkable adept in all the arts of government. Elizabeth early announced to Parliament her piur- pose to live and die a virgin queen. The first suitor for her hand was Philip of Spain, actuated no doubt by motives of policy. His suit was not so much as entertained. From that time on there was implac- able enmity between the two sovereigns, culmina- ting in the " Invincible Armada." Spain was the most ijowerful kingdom of Europe at that time, es- i:)ecially on the high seas. It was on the 31st of July, 1588, that tlie one hundred and thirty shijDs of Philip's Armada were seen off the British coast, in- tent on repeating the story of William of Normandy. The English ships were small and few, but the "ruler of the Queen's navee" was the dauntless Drake. The invading squadron was compelled by him to sail northward, and was struck by a terrible storm which shattered it into hopeless wreck. That was the culmination of the last attempt to " beard the lion in his den." Since then England has been secure from invasion, free to regulate her own af- fairs. Philip reduced England to an extremity which, ivith Elizabeth at the helm, was her oppor- tunity to establish the principle of national security upon an impregnable Gibraltar. Other suitors, whether foreign kings or lordly subjects, were easily disjjosed of; but she had a world of trouble with her beautiful cousin, Mary V .lottiug for the overthrow of Elizabeth, it is hard to say. Beautiful in person and captivating in manners, she was regarded as a dangerous rival. She had a ^ mw^ checkered ca- reer ; married first to the French Dau- phin, after- wards Francis II., and later, upon her re- turn to Scot- land as a ■wid- ow, she became tlie wife of Lord Darnley, the grandson of Margaret Tudor, daugh- ter of Henry VII. In Mary Queen of Scots vested the re- siduary title to the EngUsh crown, and she was the hope of the papal party. If she had no sinister designs upon that crown, it was certain that a very considerable party in England stood ready to employ unlawful means to precipitate her com- ing into the kingdom. In the meanwhile trouble came for Mary at her owu court. Her favorite, Rizzio, was killed by Darnley, and not long after Darnley liimself was killed by tlie Earl of Bothwell, to wliom slie gave her haml in a few weeks. This marriage provoked a popular uprising whicli re- sulted in her being forced to sign her abdication in favor of lier sou James, with a regency. Not long after she escaped and took refuge in EngUmd. Elizabetli afforded lier asylum and professed sym- ])athy, liui lier ministers of state were apprehensive W-^i i QUEEN ELIZABETH. of treason, and after long years of waiting brought Mary to trial for complicity witli Phihp in the exjie- dition of the Armada. Her complicity in the mur- der of Darnley had been proved before. Convicted of treason, Ehzabeth signed lier death-warrant, and she was beheaded. Mary Queen of Scots has long been a favorite object of romantic interest, but in strict justice she' hardly merited special commiseration. Among her subjects Queen Elizabeth had two favorites at different times, the Earl of Leicester and tlie Earl of Essex, nei- ther of whom deserve es- pecially the prominence generally giv- en them. In Lord Burleigh and Sir Walter Kaleigh she had realstates- nicn and fast friends. Sir Francis Drake, who sailed around the world, received the order royal hand on board his own ship. Her mariners showed wonderful enterprise in the New ^\'orld ami India. Tlie comniiin people might well bo classed among her friends, for during her reign th6 condition of the agricultural and in- dustrial classes inipnivei of knighthood from her »IR WALTEII RALSIOn. inanenselv. The EHza- 45 360 THE TUDORS. bethan Age was the golden age of English litera- ture. During that period flourished William Shak- speare, who scaled all the peaks of thought and flooded the land and age with glory. But we re- serve all further discussion of literatui-e for a sub- sequent chapter. There was much which was barbaric in England when the last of the Tudors died. She herself was coarse and rude to a shocking degree. In profanity she could vie with " our army in Flanders." It is none the less true that during the reign of the great house of Tudor the nation rose from the mere rudi- ments of greatness to rank with the foremost na- tions of Europe. Once rid of the idea of becoming great by continental conquest and possessions, Brit- ain set about in right good earnest becoming in deed as in name, Great Britain. As early as the reign of Henry the Second, En- gland cast covetous glance across the channel and sent an army into Ireland for its subjugation ; but it was the Tudors who really decided the fate of that unhappy island. There was no centralization. Britain became great because the petty kingdoms were consolidated into one nation, while Ireland, which in the eighth century was far more advanced of the two, dwindled away and lost its splendid op- portunity throiigh the calamitous influence of the tribe and the clan, in distinction from the country. For a long time the " English Pale," or the area of actual British rule in Ireland, was very limited. Henry VII. determined to extend it, but pursued his purpose only feebly. Henry VIII. was more fully bent on Irish subjugation. Under his reign nobles and people felt the hand of a master. The last of the Henrys took the title of King, instead of Lord of Ireland, and his successors upon the throne have never ceased to hold fast both the shadow and the substance of Irish sovereignty. To supj^ress the national sentiment, the language, dress, customs and laws of the country were prohilD- ited. The fact that Henry was at enmity with the pope made loyalty to Kome an expression of patriot- ism in Ireland. Edward the Sixth was actuated more by zeal for Protestantism than by political considerations in his endeavors to extend English authority in Ireland. When Mary came to the throne and Protestantism lacked the support of the government, it almost immediately melted away. She was not disposed to abandon the island to itself, by any means, but her personal sympathies were with the Irish in matters of religion. Elizabeth was in sympathy, of course, with the Protestantism of her brother, rather than the papacy of her sister ; but she took a secular view of the Irish question, and under her the power of the British crown was felt throughout the entire island. " Every vestige," says Green, " of the old Celtic constitution of the country was rejected as barbarous. The tribal authority of the chiefs was taken from them by law. They were reduced to the position of great nobles and landowners, while their clansmen rose from subjects into tenants, owing only fixed and custom- ary dues and services to their lords. The tribal sys- tem of property in common was set aside, and the commercial holdings of the tribesmen turned into the copy-holds of English law. In the same way the chieftains were stripped of their hereditary' jur- isdiction and the English system of judges and trial by jury substituted for proceedings under Brehon, or customary law. To all this," he blandly adds, " the Celts opj)osed the tenacious obstinacy of their race." After giving many details in regard to the colonization of Ulster, which was the culmination of the Irish policy of the Tudors, Green observes, " The evicted, natives withdrew sullenly to the lands which had been left them by the spoiler ; but all faith in English justice had been torn from the minds of the Irishry, and the seed had been sown of that fatal harvest of distrust which was to be reaped through tyranny and massacre in the age to come." Parnell in solitary confinement for words spoken in parliamentary debate, and that by the orders of a Liberal ministry, is a continuation of what might be called Tudorkm in Ireland. ?« JV< k ^Ka*^^;^^':*'^:*'^'^^'^^-';^^-^'^^^-^'^'^''^^^'^^'^*^'^^^'^^^ '■^^ '-^^'-^f-'-o 7iur^Mi\ir'\irt'jrj'jri'Jri'M>tff>unur^t/fiurrjrirffiurtUr''/r.'Jr^ -jr..i/^jr.;tri 4 r s/ls STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. .**«■«*« •! r ur-'Ur^jr-^M--rM^jri'jr^jT--.fr.ur'^xr,'M^u^-J7i-M-^^ r:''jn^jri'/riU/^ur'M''-Jr^/rr^nur.-j/^ur'r/r^jr.ur'Ur'Ur'-^^ ' ^. CHAPTER LX. James I. and the Gunpowder Plot— Sir Walter Raleioh — Tobacco and Potatoes— King James' Version OF THE Bible— Virginia AND New England— Charles 1. and the Royal Pre- rogative— Eliot, Pym, Hampden and Cromwell— The Long Parliament— Cavaliers and Roundheads- Regicide— The Commonwealth- The Protectorate- Charles II.— James II. —William and JIart— Ann-e and Marlborocoh- The Stuarts, and England at the Close OF that Dy'nasty'. K-i^OD^«-T^ T was on the 34th of Marcli, 1GU3, that " Good Queen Bess," as the English often called lier, passed from earth, and in accordance J|& ., Z_-^ A ,". / ^. . _ ^^L with her wish, J'anies, the •^ .«rr,» t ; ♦"V ^ ■sy-^i\\ king of Scotland by that name, succeeded her, his title as King of England being James I. Then at last was accomj^lished the union of Scotland and England. The new sovereign had been carefully nur- tured in the Presbyterian faith, albeit his mother was a staunch papist, but his synipatiiies were with neither of those eluu'clies. Episcopacy suited his taste. Both the Presbyterians (or Puri- tans, as they were called in England) imd the Catholics had c.xi)ected his countunauco iind support, and he disappointed them both, 'i'lio disaffected factious were intense in their indig- nation, and tlic king's friends seriously approheiulcd trouble, and not without reason. A little more than a year after his coronation the famous Gunpowder Plot was discovered, a cons})iraey wliich lias never ceased to fill tiie average British lieart with a holy liorror of Hie papacy. This plot was devised by Kobert Catesby to blow up the parliament house while that body was in session. A cellar beneath it liad been liired, and filled with thirty-sLx barrels of gunpowder, concealed beneath a pile of wood. The session was delayed, from various causes, until No- vember 5, 1G05, and tliat day was finally fixed for the explosion. It was the most diabolical conspir- acy ever hatched. A few days before the session began, a Catholic member of the House of Lords was warned not to take his seat at the oi>ening of the session. This was a suspicious circumstance, and served to put tlie government on its guard. Guy Fawkes, who was to light the fatal matcli, was .seized in the act of entering the cellar on the morn- ing of the session. A search soon disclosed the horrid conspiracy. The sensation produced was profound, and to this day Guy Fawkes is annually burned in eiiigy ou the night of November otii l)y the populace, and tlie papal cause in England lias never recovered from the injury it then received. One of the first acts of James was the arrest and conviction of Sir Walter Pakngli on the false charge of conspiring against the king's life. Tiiat brilliant ornament of the Elizabetlian age may well be called the father of English America. To him belongs the lionor of founding a colony of liis countrymen in Virginia in 1.">0G. It did not remain permanently. (361) _3l^. 362 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. but it none the less laid the foundiition of the colo- nial policy of England, and to have done that was glory enough for any man. He introduced the In- dian i^lant, tobacco, in Europe, at least in England, where it speedily gained popular favor, notwith- standing the king was bitterly opposed to its use. James went so far as to write a book called' " A Counterblast to Tobacco," but to no purpose. The weed grew iu favor, and the demand for it had much to do with the renewed and successful attempt to establish a settlement in Virginia. Tobacco fact that the so-called authorized English version of the Bible, the one used by the Protestants of all denominations, bears his name. He had nothing to do with making the translation, except to favor and con- voke the assembly of learned divines at Westminster which made that august translation. Some fifty persons were employed four years at the task. The death of James I. occurred March 27, 1635, when he was fifty-nine years of age, and had been upon the throne of England twenty-two years. The great events of his reign were the establishment of MoT^ertr ^^^^^ Wright/ Thomas Guido Robert Thomas Wivtc-^ '7 Fcwk^s Cotes by Winter THE GUNPOWDER CONSPIRATORS— From an Old Engeaving. would not grow to advantage in England, and if se- cured at all must be cultivated in its native land. But Sir Walter found that another American prod- uct, the potato, would thrive on English soil, or rather, " on Irish groimd," for he planted some brought from America upon his estate in Ireland, and from that experiment came the use in that country of this great staple of food. King James was a noted pedant. Utterly desti- tute of genius, hardly blessed with average talent, he had an inordinate opinion of his own ability. He conceived himself to be an author of brilliant parts. He wrote much, but nothing of any value. In the literary world his only claim to distinction is the the two leading Anglo-American colonies, Virginia in 1607 and New England in 1620, of which we need not further speak here, except to add that the for- mer was due to the love of tobacco, the latter to the love of God. The laws, during the reign of James I., against all religious dissenters, Puritans and Catholics, were very severe, but his son, Charles I., who came to the throne July 16, 1625, was filled with a determina- tion to assert still more strongly the royal preroga- tive in matters of taxation, faith and worship. Louis the Grand of Prance had no more exalted opinion of royalty than did this second of the Stu- arts. He conceived it to be the privilege of the king A^ tnH THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 363 5^ ,i#'l'lll,. Jk 'T^', \ \\ to do iibout what he j)leased. But the British jyav- hanieut was uot the French States General. By liis day the House of Commous liad become a tre- mendous power. During the first half decade of liis reign he called three parliaments, in each one of which the Commons demanded the redress of grievances in accordance with the princijjles of the Great Charter, before making appropriations for the public service and the royal household. There was a deadlock in eacJi case, and the parlia- ments were dissolved without legislative action. The queen was a French princess, and the chief counselors of the crown, Buckingham, Strafford, and Laud, attempted to play the role of RicheUeu. It was in the third parliament of Charles that the famous Petition of Rights was offered, and secured from the king some concessions, afterwards viola- ted. One of the first and most con- spicuous leaders of the Commons was Ehot, ancestor of John Eliot, the great Indian apos- tle. He was be- headed before the popular cause had gained much liead- Associated him were Hampden Cromwell. latter fill Cromwell's first .'speech in the Conimnns was made in 1G29, and Hampden's resistance of illegal taxa- tion dated from 1638. All TRANSLATING THE BIBLE, I:03IWELL. HOUSES OF PAIiMAMENT. way. with I'ym, and The twi the larger place in history. John Hampden stoutly refused to pay taxes unjustly and unconstitutionally levied by the king in disregard of parliamentary authority. Ills resistance was made a tost case and ]iroved a wonderful advantage to tlio |in|iul,ii- cause. ilie whilj Llie contest gained in stubbornness on both sides. There was trouble in Scotland and Ireland also, especially the for- mer. The Icing tried to force Episcopacy upon the Presb}-terians across the Tweed, and they were fired with indignation. The Irish were less rebellious, for once, than the Scotch, and were easily pacified by Strafford. That statesman Wiis so elated vrith his success in Dublin that he persuaded tlie king to call still another par- lianientjthefifthof his reign. It met on the 3d of No- vember, 1640, and is known ;is the celebrated Long Parliament. One of the first things it did was to im- peacli Strafford. He died upon the scaffold the fol- Laud lowing year- was sent to the Tower ; a bill passed providing for triennial meetings of parliament, and the abolition of tiiat verj' odious .secret tribunal, the Star Chamber. The more the king conceded, the louder I bo demands for redress, and the more r&so- 1^^=^ A' >>. 364 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. more arrogant did Charles lute the Commons, the become. * Open war broke out in 1642 between the crown and Parliament, the Episcopalians adhering to the cause of the king, the Puritans quite as warmly es- pousing the cause of Parliament. The former were called Koj-alists or Cavaliers, the latter Roundheads. The Presbyterians of Scotland allied themselves Charles then fled to Scotland. He was given up, tried by the Commons for treason, found guilty and beheaded January, 1649. The court which tried him was extra-constitutional and in the nature of a court-martial, although composed of members of parhament. Many of the Roundheads disapproved the regicide, but the king had forfeited his right to the crown, and his execution was another long CROMWELL DISS0L\T[NG THE LONG PARLL-VMENT. with the Roundlieads on condition that Presbyteri- anism should be established in England. Such was the Solemn League and Covenant, as it was called. -Now Cromwell came more prominently to the front than ever. In parliament he had been less conspic- uous than Pym, but in war he was the master mind. His " Ironsides " were terrible in battle. In 1644 tliey won the victory of Marston Moor and the next year the decisive field of Naseby was won. step toward tlie rule of the people by the people. The Commonwealth was now declared, that is, a government by the Commons without king or House of Peers. In Ireland Charles II., son of Charles I., was declared king, but Cromwell soon crushed out the Irish rebellion, practicing horrible cruelty in so doing. The royal cause struggled on a little longer, but by 1651 the contest was over, and the younger Charles found asylum at the -% irr- THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 365 French court. For two years more the Long Par- Hameiit remained iu session, performing the func- tions of government, Cromwell being merely the liead of the army. In April of that year the blunt soldier marched with troops into the Ilouse and dispersed that body in an unceremonious manner, and the i^arliament wliich had begun thirteen years before and had previously lost its upper house or head, and was well called " The Rump," passed out of existence into j^erpetual history, memorable for justice rather than law. In 1G.53 began the Protectorate, and it continued until IGGO. A jiarliament summoned by Cromwell conferred upon him the office of Lord Protector, af- terwards made for life, with power to name his suc- cessor. This wonderful man held the reins of gov- ernment until 1658, singularly indifferent to the forms of law, an autocrat -without being a tyrant. His rule was little else than martial law on a grand scale, but under his sway thi nation progressed rap- idly and was a tremendous power in the world. During that irregular period England wrested the mastery of the Channel from the Dutch fleet, and thus gained a naval ascendancy of inestimable val- ue to the commerce of the country. Cromwell was a patriot aud a benefactor, if somewhat lawless and high-handed. He failed mainly in not adajiting liis government to the constitutional traditions and re- specting the established order of things. His sou, Richard Cromwell, whom he named his successor, was neither fitted for the cares of state nor ambi- tious of public honor. In 16G0 the Protectorate ceased to exist without a struggle. Charles II. was in Holland when the Cromwellian fabric of government fell asunder. He puljlished a declaration of amnesty and toleration, returned and was received with every demonstration of public sat- isfacti(m. His reign extended to 1685. and was un- eventful. The court was noted for its profligacy. Charles himself was an easy-going, pleasure-loving time-server, secretly accepting a pension from the King of France, caring little for the jiublic or his iiwn lionor so long as he could " cat, drink and be merry." The nation got on very well with such a king. He was at heart a Catholic, but no bigot. The fate of his father exercised a wholesome re- straint upon his inclinations. He longed to hel[) tlio papal cause on the Continent, but was too timid to do so. His death occurred iu Feliruarv. 1685. When Charles the Voluptuary died he wy.s suc- ceeded by his austere brother, James II., whose reigu of three years was a futile eudeavor to restore the papacy. This king was conscientious in his devotion to the mother church, and felt it to be his sacred duty to revive the ancient worshiji. To this end, in the spirit of the Inquisition, he inaugurated the " Bloody Assizes," a series of trials held by Chief Justice Jeffries, proverbial for liis injustice. The nation was in no mood to tolerate this policy, and an invitation was sent to his daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, to come over and take thescepter. The invitation was ac- cepted, and a revo- lution of the great- est importance ef- fected -without stain- ing Englisli soil with blood. James was so' very unpopular that he was glad to escape with his fam- WILLIAM uf UI;ANGE. ily in disguise. Mary was indeed a Stuart, but her husband was coequal with her iu authority, and he was thorough- ly imbued with the sjiirit of Protestantism as it had been develoiied in the Dutch struggle with Spain. The only real strength of James was his continued recognition as king of England by Louis XIV. of France, and the sympathy of the Catholics in Ire- land. To tlie latter island he made his way with a small army supported by French gold. On Irish soil was fought the famous Battle of the Boyne, the cel- eliration of which has occasioned so many riots be- tween Orangemen (so named from William of Or- ange) aud the Irish Catholics. That battle occurred July 1, 1600, and was a .«ignal victory for AVilliam and the Orangemen o-vcr James II. aud the Irish, his supporters. In 1G94 Queen Mary died, but Wil- liam continued to hold the reins of government until his deatli, 170-2. During the previous vi'ar parliament had passed the Act of Settlement (for William and Mary were childless) by which tlie .succession was conferred up- on Mary's sister Anne, wife of Prince George of Denmark, she being a Protestant and the wife of a Protestant, wliile the sou of .Tames, who was after- wards known as the Pretender, was a papist. After ¥* JV 366 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. Lk. Anne and her chilcLren the succession should go to "71 QUEEN AKNE. the dowager, Electress Sophia, a granddaughter of James I., " and her heirs being Protestants." The reign of Anne, from 1703 to 1714, was memorable for the splendid victories of the English army in Flanders, under the command of that greatest mili- tary genius of his age, the Duke of Marlborough. To him England owes ISTova Scotia and Minorca. It was also memorable as a jjeriod during which many famous authors lived ; the postofSce system was adopted, the country prosperous, and the union of the " United Kingdom " made stronger and more equable. Eor a little more than a century the Stuarts wore the English crown, except as it was temporarily ta- ken from them. As a dynasty it was inglorious and mediocre; but the nation steadily advanced in all thatconstit^tesnationalgreatness,andfrom being an insignificant island, a mere ajipendage to Europe, it rose during the era of the Stuarts to the very front rank, Marlborough and his troops being hard- ly less potent in continental affairs than Wellington and his troofis were a century later. But it was even more to the general prosperity of the country than to military genius and valor that the England of that period owed its commanding position in the family of nations. ^^^^i '^^^i^^ iM 01 00 @) i(g)i J 19 r ^|Q S2^Mre than a century' old, numbers in communicants be- tween four and five millions of souls. Dr. Samuel Johnson is fairly entitled to tlie dis- tinction of being tlie Fatlier of the Dictionary. > a •- t^ 370 PRESENT ENGLAND. Born ill 1709, educated at Oxford, he was an author by profession. From 1747 to 1755 his time was mainly devoted to his gi-eat work, " The Dictionary of tlie Enghsh Language," an incomparable service to the cause of letters. Attached to him as a sort of literary lackey was Boswell, who preserved and published the most minute details of the hfe and conversation of the great lexicographer. It may be remarked that important as was the service of John- son in defining the right spelling, pro- nunciation and meaning of En- glish words, the reallysupreme hon- or in the line of lexicography be- longs to an Ameri- can of that same and the succeeding century. Dr. jSToah Webster. In the depart- ment of legal liter- ature no name can be compared to that of SirWilliam Blackstone, whose Commentaries, written about the middle of the eigli- teenth century, were the first clear, intelligible and sci- entific presentation of the English common law. His work is still a text-book, studied by every law student, and to be found in every law office in Great Britain and the United States, wherever, in fact, the common law prevails or is a subject of study. One more Enghshman of the eighteenth century deserves mention, William Wilberforce, the great Emancipator. He was a man of immense wealth, and in early manhood an ordinary member of the House of Commons ; but in 1787, when about thirty years of age, he resolved to devote himself to the cause of abolishing the African slave trade. Burke, Pitt and Pox, tlie great political triumvirate of that day, nobly seconded his efforts, and after a struggle of twenty years his philanthropy was crowned with success. In the course of that struggle the British pubhc sentiment upon the infamy of slavery was raised to a standard so high, and made to rest upon a foundation so secure, that British influence, where- ever felt, has always from that day been brought to bear (with inconsequential excepitions) in opposition to the hideous traffic and the horrible institution of slavery. And it is very largely due to this British sentiment that it may now be said that slavery has been wiped from the face of the globe, its few re- maining vestiges being in process of extinction. As the wars be- tween America and England belong to the history of the United States, so the campaigns which resulted in Waterloo belong to French history. It may be well to ob- serve'here, however, that each produced a radical influence U15011 the policy of England. George III., yielding to the influence of Lord K"orth, sought to compel the colonies to remain de- pendencies, quite irrespective of public sentiment in the colonies ; but for a long time now it has been un- derstood in England and the colonial portion of the British Empire that the question of national independence really rests with the colonists them- selves. The New Dominion and Australasia remain in the United Kingdom from actual war for independence would be necessary to sep- aration. Thus, it may be said that the Thirteen LOED NORTH. choice, and no ^ PRESENT ENGLAND. 371 Oolouies securedfor the colonies of the jiresent Great Britain the right which they secured for themselves, its exercise being discretionary with those who ought triumph of the free trade policy' in England, a policy which grew out of and proved helpful to the manufacturing interest of the countrj'. The regu- t in all justice to decide it. The Kevolutionary War was thus a great lesson of non-intervention in colo- nial affairs. Tlie Napoleonic war, on the contrary, was a great lesson of ijitervention. It made England, in a certain high sense, master of Eurojje, and more disposed to dictate to other nations than to her own colonies. With the con- sideration of one more topic the reader will be pre- pared to take an appreciative sur- vey of the present Great Britain. That subject is the corn laws and free trade. Those statutes for the regulation of tiie grain trade date back to 1360, and their abolition in 1846 was the jiWr^"^ lations had been changed from time to time, but their constant object had been to protect the manu- facturing mterest of tlie country. In the final strug- gle over the re- peal, a struggle lasting several years, and in which Richard Cobden took the leading part for reform, the prin- ciples of political economy, the laws of supply and de- mand, were dis- cussed with great fullness and spirit. Miss Harriet Mar- tineau rendered the cause of free trade immense service hv political tracts and novels whicli brought the arguments of the reformers down to tlie under- standing of the iwoplc. Sir Robert Peel, originally Sn^ ik^ 372 PRESENT ENGLAND. a protectionist and a leading statesman during the second quarter of the present century, came gradu- ally to adopt the veiws of Cobden, Bright and Mar- tineau. From that time on, the national sentiment, with great unanimity, has been hostile to tlie doc- trine of protection, and at one time the indications were that the enlightened sentiment of the ciyihzed world was undergoing substantially the same pro- cess of change wrought in the mind of Peel ; but at the present time France and the United States Whiggs, Of Whigs. The term Tory is of Irish ori- gin, and was first applied to Catholic outlaws in the reign of Charles II. About the time that the roy- alists dubbed their opponents Whigs, the latter re- torted by applying to their adversaries another no less opprobrious nickname. Gradually each party came to take pride in its name, and all sense of re- proach was lost sight of. It was within the present generation, and in designation of their respectiTe characters, that the two parties came to be known BUCEtNGHAM PALACE. are strongly protective, and Germany is becoming more and more so. Even in England there are some signs of a reaction. It is now time to speak of the history of parties in England. There are, and long have been, two great political organizations in England, each with a duly chosen and recognized leader. The original names of these organizations were Whig and Tory. The present appellations are. Liberal and Conser- vative. Whig is a contraction for Whiggamore, southwestern Scotch for drover. The term was in- troduced in 1648 to designate certain Covenanters from that section of Scotland. In 1679 the oppo- nents of the Court party in England were first called as Liberals and Conservatives. The British Empire of the present time, the Great Britain of to-day, has been un- der the rule, at dif- ferent times, of two very remarkable po- litical leaders, Wil- liam E. Gladstone, who still lives and is at this time Premier of Great Britain, and Lord Beaconsfield, lately deceased. The former is a Liberal, the latter GLADSTONE. -Tti PRESENT ENGLAND. 373 UlbUAKLI. (Earl of Beaconefleld.) ■was a ConservatiYe. Mr. Gladstone is also kuowii as a learned scholar, especially in all matters relating to Homer. Beaconsfield, long plain Benjamin Disraeli, achieved some fame as a uovehst. Hardly, if any, less deserving of mention is John Bright, the great Commoner, too liberal to be a leader, even of the Liberals. Entering parliament in 1843, jjossessing rare eloquence, he has always been the especial champion of free trade, free speech, free institu- tions and progressive ideas generallj'. During the American Civil War, when many English statesmen, including even Mr. Gladstone, faltered and wavered, he Remained the stalwart friend of the TJnion cause, rendering the United States immense service by his eloquence. Insignificant as the crown is in England, there is one resjject in which it is a very important reahty. The expense of maintaining it is very considerable. The annual revenue of the royal family from direct appropriation and from estates is about three mil- lions of dollars. The royal palaces are Buckingham, St. James, Kensington, Windsor Castle, Balmoral and Osborne House. The parliament consists of two bodies, the House of Lords, or Peers, and the House of Commons. The former, which is hereditary, so far as concerns the lay membership, consists of 492 members, inclusive of two archbishops and twenty-four bisliops of the established, or Episcopal, cluircli. The number is subject, however, to cbange, as the creation of new lords is always in order at the pleasure of the sov- ereign, that is the ministry. The Lord Chancellor is president of the House of Lords. The House of Commons consists of 654 members. Of these 487 are Enghsh, including "W^elsh ; G'^ Scotch, and 105 L-isli. A further chissification of the body is this: representatives of boroughs, .3G0 ; of counties, 283 ; of universities, 11. Li j)arlianientary elections there is a household and property qualification, but the right of suifrage has been greatly extended, and manhoo 374 PRESENT ENGLAND. of large area, with very few inhabitants; fifth, Guinea, on the continent of South America ; sixth, the Honduras, on the continent of Central America ; seventh, Jamaica^ to which are annexed, by an Act of Parliament, passed in 1873, the Turks and Caicos Islands ; eighth, the Leeward Islands, comprising the formerly separate colonies of Antigua, Montserrat, St. Christopher, Nevis, Anguilla, the Virgin Islands, and Dominica, the whole united under an Act of Parliament passed hi lS71 ; ninth, Newfoundland, not yet included in the Dominion of Canada ; tenth, the Island of Trinidad ; and eleventh, the Windward Islands, comprising the formerly separate colonies of Barbadoes, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada and To- baffo. In Africa, and nearest to the African conti- uent, the colonial possessions are, first, the Island of Ascension, in the South Atlantic Ocean ; second, the Cape of Good Hope, including British Kaffraria, and other annexations made from 1866 to 1877; third, the Gambia settlement, on the west coast ; foarth, the vaguely limited Gold Coast territory, enlarged in 1872 by a cession of old Dutch settlements ; fifth, the South African settlement of Griqaaland West, proclaimed British territory October 27, 1871 ; sixth, the Island of Lagos, and territories on tlie mainland, ceded under treaty of August 6, 1861 ; seventh, the Island of Mauritius, and its dependencies hi the In- dian Ocean ; eighth. Natal, separated from the Cape of Good Hope in 1856 ; nhith, the Island of St. Hele- na, in the South Atlantic ; and tenth, the territory of Sierra Leone, on the west coast of Africa. In Asia, the colonial possessions are, first, the town and port of Aden, in Arabia, at the entrance of the Red Sea ; second, the Island of Ceylon ; third, the Island of Hong Kong ; fourth, the Empire of India ; fifth, the Island of Labuan, on the coast of Borneo ; sixth, the Island of Perim, hi the Red Sea ; and seventh, the Straits Settlements, comjmsing the Islands of Smgapore and Penang, with the territory of Ma- lacca, in the Indian Archipelago. Fmally, in Aus- tralasia, the colonial possessions embrace, besides the Fiji Islands east to the mainland of Australia, ceded to Great Britahi in 1874, the seven, at pres- ent separated, but in all probability to be united, colonies of New South AVales, New Zealand, Queens- land, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia." It is with good reason that Great Britain, boasts that upon it the sun never sets. We are now about to leave England and soon the British Isles, when, for a short time, our course will be among the lands more remote from the sun of modern civilization. For the most part; for several chapters, we shall still be hi the British Empire, or in lands virtually controlled by British men-of-war. On every continent the United Kingdom has its possessions. Those in Asia, North America, and the continental islands of far Australasia, wiH be separately considered, while those hi Africa, South America and the West Indies, without as distinctive recognition, will yet receive such attention as their importance may justify. ^1 ^" oTv iiiiiitiiiii!i>iiiiiiiii:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJli!!lilJiii!liliilii iJ^yiMkLgjiMmaiMu^^ CHAPTER LXII. English Literature in Gekeral — Dawn of Literature in England — Saxon Alfred — Chau- cer AND Canterbury Tales — Spenser and the Faery Queen — Percy's Relics and Minor Old English — Shakspeare — CoTEMPORAErEs .of Shakspeare — Bacon — Milton and his COTEJrPORARIES — LITERATURE OF THE RESTORATION — DrYDEN — LoCKE AND NeWTON — POPE AND Swift — Defoe, Hume and Gibbon — A Literary Group— Hymn ology — Addison and **The Spectator"— Steel and Tristram Shandy — Letters of Junius— Goldsmith. Cowper AND Young — Literary I^ipostors — Byron and his Peers — Hood and Browning — Lake School of Poets — Gallery of the Sis Intellectual Titans of Modern English Let- ters — Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre — Thackeray and Dickens— Minor No^*elist8 — Contemporary English Men op Letters — Latest Type of Literature is England. the Saxous when in company with the Angles and the Jutes, they first established themselves in Britam. The old Britons had no hteraturc, at least, if so it perished utterly. The first indubitably English poet was Cajdmou, who died in 680. He loft a metrical paraphrase of parts of the Bible. His manuscript was lost, and not recovered until 1654. It has no intrinsic merit. The same is true of the oldest En- glish prose. King Alfred's translation from the Latin of the Venerable Bede's ecclesiastical history. Bede belonged to the eighth century and Alfred to the ninth. One line on the title page is suggestive of the relation of old English to modern, also to Latin, or " boclaeden." This line reads, ''Aelfred Kyning waes wealhstod tliisse bee and hie of boclaedeiie on Englise wende" — King Alfred was the translator of this book, and turned it from book-languago into Enghsh. Bede's history of England was an impor- tant work for the information it affords, but it is hardly a part of English literature. The same is true of the somewhat apocryphal biography of Al- fred by Asser, the last of the ante-Norman authors. Asser belonged to the first years of the tenth ccn- tiir\'. Threo centuries later Layamou produced a 2v one sense the English lit- erature is not simply the literature of England, but it includes all the literature of the English language, in whatever land \vritteu. But the literature of England only will be considered, re- servins American literature for a subse- juent chapter. Some Enghsh writers ac- quired such iirominence that they have apjxiared in previous chapters in con- nection with the events of their times, l)ut before taking leave of England it will be of interest to take a comprehensive view of the grandest galaxy of authors the world has ever produced, for classic literature, Greek and Latin combined, contains less real genius and intellectual grandeur than our own vernacular, even apart from this con- tinent, can boast. The earliest name in the literary record of En- gland is Ihmndf, a long and utterly stupid epic. It is supposed to have been lirnught to tho island by 47 (375) Ji Q ±\^ 376 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. CHAUCER. narrative in verse of Celtic traditions, called Brut, and Orm, a series of dull homilies in verse, called Onnulum. Some idea of this poetiy may be gath- ered from the comjolet, — "Thiss boc is nammed Orrmulum " Forrthi that Orrm itt wrohhte." The first really meritorious English writer was Geoffrey Chaucer, born in 1328, died in 1400. He is called " the Father of En- glish Poetry." He •was more than that, for England can hardly be said to have had any litera- ture, prose or poetry, before his day, cer- tainly nothing of real value. His writings were somewhat voluminons, but liis Ganterhurij Tales stands incomparably higher than any other of his works. It derives its name from several pilgrims on their way to pay homage at the shrine of Thomas a Becket, and who, being guests at the same inn, beguiled the time by telling stories. One verse will serve to illustrate the nature of Chaucer's Enghsh and the plot of the Tales, In Southwerk at tlie Tabard as I lay, Redy to wendea on my pilgrimage To Canterbury witb ful devout corage, At night was come into that hostelrie Wei Nyue and twenty in a companye Of sondry folk, by aveuture yfalle In felowschipe, and pilgryms were thei alle That toward Canterbury wolden ryde. It will be observed that the variations from good modern English are mainly in the matter of orthog- raphy, and it was not until the printing press was invented that uniformity herein began to prevail. It was not until the middle of the sixteentli cen- tury that the second truly great name ajjpeared in Euglisli literature, Edmund Spenser, the author of The Faery Queene. Before his day Bishop Percy had collected the ballads of the language, and Percy's Religues of Ancient English Poet?-ij is a delightful vol- ume, but the ballads themselves are anonymous. Sir Thomas More, a famous jurist in the reign of Henry VIII., wrote an ever-notable description of an ideal republic ujjon an imaginary island, Utopia. The work was composed in Latin. Cotemporaneous with Spenser was Sir Philip Sidney. He was a writer of much elegance, but no very marked power. Spen- ser's masterjDiece was in part an imitation of " Piers Ploughman," a cotemporary of Chaucer who was very highly esteemed, but whose poetry is more homiletical than poetical. But in power of imagi- nation and variety of allegorical conception it is a remarkable production. It is very long without be- ing complete. It cannot be read cursorily with profit, but its careful perusal yields an ample reward. There are only three English books older than Shakspeare which are much read, even by the schol- arly few, Canterbury Tales, Percy's Keliques, or Rel- ics, and The Faery Queene. All else might be oblit- erated with comioaratively slight loss, except as they may be useful in historical research. It was on the 26th day of April, 1564-, in the small town of Stratford-on-Avon that William Shaks- PEAEE was born, and his death occurred on the 23d day of the same month just fifty-two years later. His fam- ily was humble and his education limit- ed. According to all accounts he was the most contradictory character in all his- tory, the supreme enigma of mankind. At the age of eigh- teen he was married to Amie Hathaway, seven years his senior, an altogether commonjDlace woman. At twenty-two he left his native village for London. He had a keen eye for business, and when he had ac- quired capital enough to return to Stratford and be one of the first men of the town he did so, evincing utter indifEerence to Hterary fame. At Loudon he secured employment at a theater in some humble capacity. As au actor he did not excel, but he was a cajiital manager. Wanting better plays than he could procure in any other way, he set about re-writ- ing and then writing dramas liiniself. He wrote as the demands of his own theater required, and it is said that he never revised his work. If a play served the purposes of his stage, that was enough. Besides a large number of sonnets, some of them very ex- quisite, and several long but minor poems, Shaks- SUAKil'EAItE. W^ ■^ LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 377 pearc produced tliirty-seveu dramas. Ten of these plays are based on English history and bear the names of English kings from King Jolm to Henry VIII. Li no play, it is said, did the great dramatist take the trouble to invent a plot for himself, or scruple to use old material if it suited his purpose ; but under the touch of his genius the commonplace was transformed and transfigured. Ilallam wrote of liim: " The name of Shakspeare is the greatest in our literature — it is the areatest hi all litera- o ture. No man ever came near him hi the creative powers of the muid ; no man ever had such strength at once, and such variety of im- agination. Coleridge has most felicitously ap- plied to him a Greek epithet, given before to I know not wliom, cer- tainly none so deserv- ing of it — /ivpiovmts, the tJio umnd-souhd S h aks - peare." Harlowe, Green and Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher, Ford and Shirley, are ranked as Shakspearean drama- tists, but it was only be- cause they were contem- poraries. In point of Tomb of SbaUspeare in tile Church of Stratford-on-Avon merit they are not ab all comparable. They adiled somewhat to the lionors of that golden ago of En- glish literature, but not much. The Eliz- abethan Age was rendered illustrious by two naiiics,Shaks- [icarc and Bacon, representatives of very different ele- ments of society iu their origins and of widely dif- ferent dc])artmcnts of thdught in tlip development BLN JUNsn of their intellectual resources. The drama was not even respectable, and no doubt Shaksi^are was ashamed of his calling, and when he had accumu- lated a competency \risjied to ignore and keep out of sight the means by which he had acquhed it. Bacon, on the other hand, belonged to the nobility, and as an author was a jxjer in the aristocracy of letters. Francis Bacon was born in 1566, and died iu 1636. His father. Sir Nicholas Bacon, was Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of England, a high position at court. The son chose the pro- fession of law, and at an early age was appointed as the Queen's Counsel under Elizabeth. When James came to the throne he was knight- ed, with the title of Bar- on Verulam, and later. Viscount St. Albans. In the line of his pro- fession he rose succes- sively from Queen's Counsel" to SoUcitor- Geueral, Attorney-Gen- eral and Lord Chan- cellor. Li the latter position of Chief Jus- tice of the realm, he was accused of taking bribes and the charge was sustained. He was deprived of his office, fined, and rendered in- capalile of holding any office thereafter. His ambi- tion to shine at court and hi the society of those whci had more money tiuui brains, whelmed him iu ruin and misery. His last days were sad and desolate. Uut liiiwever bitter Ills failure from the standpoint of \^GV- sonal ambition, his life was an ci>och in tliought. His writings are vi'luniinons, but the cliief hook from his jhmi was. or FB^NCIS OACOK. "*^r' -&jv' ■^ K^ 378 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. is, Noimm Orgammi, fitly described by himself when he says, " Tliis New Instrument is the science of a better and more perfect use of reason in the investi- gation of things, and of the true aims of the under- standmg." It eifected a revolution in philosophy. The Baconian method, as compared with philosophy prior to his day, is well suggested by Prof. Backus in the following observations : " Twenty centuries had elapsed after Aristotle had shown his method of searching after truth before Bacon undertook to in- troduce a new method. Aristotle made thought active ; Bacon aimed to make it useful. Aristotle made logic the fundamental science, and considered metaphysics of greater importance than physics. His theory, carried into practice, produced twenty cen- turies of f ruitlessness ; two centuries and a half of Bacon's theory m practice have revolutionized the literary, the commercial, the political, the religious, the scientific world. The ancients had a philosophy of words ; Bacon called for a philosophy of works. His glory is founded upon a union of speculative power with practical utility, which were never so combmed before. He neglected nothing as too small, despised nothhig as too low, by which our hap- pmess could be augmented ; in him, above all, were combined boldness and prudence, the intensest en- thusiasm and the plainest common sense." To the same age as Bacon, only a little later, be- long Francis Quarles and George Herbert, quaint writers of deeply pietistic poetry. Sir Thomas Browne, who wrote prose, was really more poetic than they, for his Religio Medici is one of the most f aci- nating of essays, often vague but always charming. The Civil War and Commonwealth which followed so soon after the Elizabethan age pro- duced a plentiful crop of earnest prose writers who contri- buted much to the formation of the En- glish language as a suitable vehicle of gTand thoughts. Jer- emy Taylor and JOHN MILTON, Tliomas Fuller, the royalists, Richard Baxter and John Milton, the non- conformists,, discussed the politics and theology of their day (very nearly the same in many respiects) with great ability and fullness. Milton's essay on liberty is one of the finest pieces of prose composi- tion in any language. But the literary glory of that period was Milton's Paradise Lost. It was composed after the poet had become blind. The two great epic poets. Homer and Milton, were both of them sightless. The latter sang the war in heaven between the loyal forces of heaven and the rebellious Angels, led by Satan. That supposed conflict, together with the fall of man, furnished the basis of the great structure. Wordsworth has happily characterized Milton in these Imes : Thy soul was like a star and dwelt apart; Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea — Pure as the naked lieavens, majestic, free; So didst thou travel on life's common way In cheerful godliness ; and yet thy heart The lowliest duties on herself did lay. The Restoration under Charles II. brought to the fore a different class of writers. Samuel Butler was the most notable poet of that period. His Hudibras is a brilliant satire upon the Puritans and Puritan- ism. The wit is keen and pitiless. To the same period, but on the opposite side of the religious and political issues of the day, stands Jolni Bunyan, whose Pilgrim's Progress is^ still widely read for its wealth of allegory and its depth of I3iety. He was a martyr to hisrehgion, and while languishing in jail composed the work which has made him immortal. A stroUing tinker by trade, some think him a gipsy by descent. Another noted writer of this period was Izaak Walton. His Oomjilete Angler is refreshingly free from theology, politics and ethics. It is simply what it professes to be, a treatise upon fishing, but so capitally done that whether one be mterested in pis- catorial sport or not, one can not fail to be delighted. After Milton the next really great name in English verse was John Dryden, born in 1631, died in 1700. In character he w'as a time-server, a piuritan under Cromwell, a papist under James II. He was the latter's jjoet laureate. His writings were voluminous. He was the first real critic in English literature. His mfluence was very great, and upon the whole very good. He lives in the literary records of his country more for his usefuhiess in forming the literary style of the language than for the intrinsic merits of his writings. The nest great name in English literature was the philosopher, John Locke, a cotemporary of Dryden. -711 V LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 379 His E^say on the Human Underdmiduig is justly ranked as secoud only to Bacon's Novum Organurn. la the metaphysical world his work is, as Hallani expresses it, " the first real chart of tlie coasts, wherein some may be laid down incorrectly, but the general relations of all are joerceived." Locke was born 1633 and died in 1704. Sir Isaac Newton was born in 1643 and died in 173?. The latter effected a revolution in natural science equal to that of Bacon in philosophy. His Philosophue yaturaUs Princijna JIaiheinatioa, may be set down as the corner-stone of modern science. The work of Eoger Bacon had been forgotten, and had to be done over again, with read- justment to the times, and that not by an imitator, but Ijy an original genius, and Sir Isaac met the re- ciuirement. lu poetry the eighteenth century oi^ened with Alex- ander Pope. His easy flowing rhymes and sharp wit have been greatly admired. In his day he was thought to be a prodigy, but he lacks staying qualities a,s a poet. He is not much read at the present day, except by those who do so from a certain sense of il u ty. His translations of Homer have been eclipsed. His friend, Jonathan Swift, was something of a poet but whether he wrote in verse or prose, he was a ter- rible satirist, the fiercest that ever held a pen. His Voycifjes of Gulliver is the greatest of his works. He produced a great many pamphlets on current topics. His style was intensely Saxon ; his life detestable and miserable. The first great English novelist was Daniel Defoe, born in 1661, died 1731. His Robimon Crusoeis &i\\\ read with undiminished interest by each new genera- tion, and seems to bear a charmed life. His imag- inary history of the Great Plague in London is a strangely realistic and fascinating narrative. Field- ing and Smollet who followed him may have sur- l>assed him in genius for invention, but they soiled their pages with imijurities which put the novel im- der the ban until redeemed by the unsullied |x;n of Sir "Walter Scott. But i)rior to Scott came another Scotchman, David Hume, of groat power. He wa.s a master of philosopliical reasoning and historical narration. His Moral ami PhihiKojihiral Essaijs and ills Ilishiry of Emjland a,v(i the two pillarsof liisfanie. Edward Gibbon, who was born in 1737 and died in 1704, was the second great historian of English lit- erature, as Hume was the first. His DcrUiw. and F(tll (f the Homan Empire was accepted as a standard work almost from the first, and time does not dim the luster of his great name. In the latter half of the eighteenth century flour- ished a group of ethical, pohtical, theological, crit- ical and poetical writers wlio, without reaching the high plane of really first-class merit, deserve honor- able mention. These were Dr. Samuel Johnson, the lexicographer ; Edmimd Burke, the political orator and essayist; Adam Smith, the father of the science of Pohtical Economy. Smith's most important work was Inquiry into the Nature ami Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Bishop Butler and William Paley wrote in defense of revealed religion against the attacks of the skeptics treatises which are still used as text books in our schools, and arsenals from which are drawn weapons used hi fighting for orthodoxy. Tlie eighteenth century was rich in sacred poetry and didactic prose. The hynms in use in the church were largely comi^osed in that century. Isaac Watts belonged to the first jjart of it. Montgomery says of Dr. Watts, "He was almost the mventorof hymns in the English language." The intense reahzation of religious truth which marked that period deeply colored its literature. It was the fashion to assume piety, in verse especially, and cater to the tastes of the pious, as in the case of Watts' contemporary, Dr. Young, who though a frivolous man of the world was the author of the lugubrious but once very popular Niylit Thouglds. Joseph Addison, the accomplished essayist, was born in 1673 and died in 1719. He was a very pop- ular poet in his day, but his poetry soon dropjx>d out of sight. His real claim to honorable mention rests ujDon his contributions to and estabhshment of the Spectator, the Talkr and the Guardian, especially the former. Those publications were forerunners of the more modern newspaper. Tliey did not give much news, but they discussed questions of current inter- est much in tlie method of t,\\e present editorial of the better sort. Those essays have been read aud sfciulied as models of good, unimpassioned and pro- saic prose ever since their jiublication. Addison's friend, Richard Steele, was a co-laborer with him in the.se enterprises, ^lany of the papers were contrib- uted by others. Swift and Berkley among the num- ber, for to this i^eriod belonged the famous divine and pliilosopher who called out Byron's brilliant sally : " If Bishop Berkley says there is no mutter, It is no matter what he says." ^ 380 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. A little later came Laurence Sterne. He was of Irish descent, borniu 1713, died in 1768. His Tins- tram Shandy, published in 1761, was the best novel ever written in English until the days of Sh Walter Scott. His Sentimental Journey was designed as a supplement to the great novel, but it was not by any means its equal in merit. In 1769, and from that on until 1773, with occa- sional interruptioais, appeared in the Public Adver- tiser, a London journal, a series of letters on politics signed " Junius." They produced an immense sen- sation. It was never known who wrote them. Vast research and elaborate arguments have been ex- pended on their probable authorship, but to little purpose. Sir Philip Francis is generally thought to have the best claim to the honor, but the mystery is really insoluble. Those letters were tremen- dously influential. To this day they are unrivaled for power of invective and incisive criticism. Oliver G-oldsmith was a very remarkable charac- ter. Like Thomas Gray, who wrote the elegy which has im- mortalized his name, he wrote a little good poetry, " The Deserted Village " being the best ; but his best production was that charming romance, llie Vicar of Wakefield. It is a most delightful picture of a country parson and his family in the eighteenth century. The popular comedy. She Stoops to Conquer, was also from his pen. William Cowper was a profoundly religious poet of that period. The intensity of his belief nearly unsettled his reason and brought upon him a melancholy akin to mania. But his muse was capa- ble of sublime flights, and once, in John Gilpin, struck a humorous vein. The latter part of this century was notaljle for literary imposition. The most successful was that of James Macpherson, author of Ossian. That elaborate poem has very great merit, and is held in liigh repute, being still much read. It purports to have been the work of an Irish bard of the far- away days of Celtic tradition. Macpherson strenu- ously insisted that he merely translated an epic GOLDSMITH. which was composed originally in the Gaelic or Else dialect. Thomas Ohatterton, the poor boy- poet who starved to death in a London garret at the age of eighteen, was strangely infatuated with the mania for imposture. He wrote some very delight- ful verses at the age of eleven, and might have de- veloped into something grand had he not fallen a victim to the passion for literary deception. Kobert Burns and Sir Walter Scott were the crowning glory of English literature in the eigh- teenth century, but they belong to Scotland rather than- England, as Thomas Moore does to Ireland. The most famous name in the early part of the nineteenth century was Lord Byron, born m 1788. He was only thirty-six years of age at the time of his death, but he left behind him a large body of poetry, very much of which bids fair to be incorporated into the immor- tal part of English literature. Like his friend Shelley, the author of Queen Mai and other deejj- ly emotional and somewhat fantastic poems, he was mor- bid in the extreme. His Childe Harold, Manfred and, Bon Juan, and in fact, nearly every thing he wrote, fairly teem with emotion. John Keats, author of Endymion, who died of a broken heart, the victim of cruel criticism, belonged to the same class, in both time and type of geniiis. There was a circle of poets of sentiment in which Byron, Shelley and Keats were foremost, but which was enlarged by the presence of Leigh Hunt and Walter Savage Landor. They did much to mfuse into modern thought Greek ideas of culture. They drew attention from religious subjects to the higiier ranges of mundane thought and activity. Thomas Hood, born in 1799, died 1845, belonged to no set. His genius was strictly individual. His Bridge of Sighs and Song of the Shirt are most ex- quisitely pathetic. But he excelled in wit. His humor is of the very highest order. Mrs. Browning, the most wonderful woman in the whole list of poets, was born in 1809 and lived until 1861. Her Aurora Leigh is a masterpiece, and many of her LOKD BVllUN. ■yo- LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 381 minor poems are marvels of beauty and power. Her husband, Robert Browning, still lives, and is a poet of high rank, but curiously obscure in his ex- pressions. During the pii'es- ent century England has had three poets laureate, or poets of the court, nainely, ALFitEu TENNYSON. Eobcrt Soutliey, Wil- liam Wordsworth and Alfred Tennyson. The lat- ter has held the position thirty-two years. Southey held it thirty years, namely, from 1813 to 184.3. He was a prolific writer and his poetry has good points, but it is weak and thin. At the present time it is seldom read. Wordsworth and Coleridge formed, with Southey, what is known as the Lake School. They were free from indeli- .cacies, and did much Ito cultivate a whole- ) some taste and a kind- ly appreciation of the metic in little every- day things. Coleridge occasionally struck out TiiACKKHAY. iuto thc marvclous. His Ancient Mnriiu'f and Ohristabel are inexplicable. Charlotte Bronte, the invalid daughter of a coun- try clergyman, produced in 1847 a story which created a profound sensation, Jam Eyre. She was then twenty-nine years of age. She lived eight years longer and wrote two other good novels, / ^■w^::*>-«„^/Mfn \ Shirk}! ^'^'i VilkUej Itut upon the first rests her claim to a niche in the temple of immortal fame. Thackeray, wlio was born in 1811 and survived until 1803, sliares with Charles DickoiLS, wlio was born a year later and survived his great jicer seven LILUILL-^ ]'li_ years, the honor of being the gi-eatest of novelists. Those two names tower above all oth- ers. The former set foi-th English high life; the latter En- glish low life. Such, I in a general way, is | the difference be- tvceen them. No one before or since has reached the altitude of their creative fac- i.E.>it,.n ki.k.t. ulties. Not far from them, however, stands "George Eliot," a woman of most marvelous powers as a novelist and very considerable ability as a poet. Charles Reed, Wilkie Collins, Anthony Trollope,Bulwer and Disraeli are to be ranked among the better of our second- class English novel- ists of this century. There are many writers of note who have made valualile contrilnxtions to En- ghsh literature dur- mg the present per- jobn ptuabt mtli.. iod. Thomas Carlyle, the fierce hater of shams and democracy, John Stuart Mill, the great apostlo of Agnosticism, or positivism, Herbert Sjwncer, the i)hilosopher of science, and Tyn- dall, Darwin and Huxley, the disci- ples of pure science, are only a few of the great contem- porary names of English men of letters. Macaulay beliinged to the middle jj^riod of this century. The literature of En- gland, once a mere rivulet has now widened out int IT A 111, r» n. nAR^mi. a vivst gulf. A lUh CHAPTER LXIII. Scotia and Nova Scotia— The Picts— Indirect Connection of the Eaklt Scotch and the Anglo-Saxons — Conversion of Scotland — Fergus the Scotch-Irishman— Edwin and Edin- burgh— St. COLUMEA AND THE ScOTCH NaME— SCOTTISH BlOOD—CoNSTANTINE II. AND SUB- ORDINATION TO England — Duncan and Macbeth- James I. — Progress and Feudalism — Robert Bruce and Independence— Robert the Steward and the House of Stuart — David II. — James I. — James V.— Henrt VIII. of England and the Scotch Crown— Mary <4uEEN of Scots — James VI, of Scotland, James I. of England — A National Parados — John Knox— Union of the United Kingdom Comtleted- Some Scotch Characteristics- Scotch Literature — Burns, Scott, and Carlyle. ^0 the ancients. Great Brit- ain, by whatever name called, was one country. The name Scotland was not used to designate the northern portion of the isl- and until about a thou- sand years ago. The Latin term Scotia applied originally to Ireland, and at one time was not distinguishable from Mbernia. Indeed, Scotland was known as JV^ova Scotia originally. Caledonia was another primitive title for that part of the island. Like "Wales, Scotland gradually acquired dis- tinctiveness as the old Britons or Picts retreated from their conquerors, Romans, Saxons, Angles, Jutes, Danes and Normans. The Picts preferred independence in the back country to dependence in the native portion of their island. The Romans never at- tempted to push beyond the frith of Pay, and the wall they built between the Porth and the Clyde finally served as a dividing line between the primi- tive Scotch and the English. When the Romans withdrew from Britain, the Scotch, or Picts, thougth it was no robbery for them to reoccupy their former lands, and so strong were tliey that the Romanized Britons felt compelled to seek succor from abroad, and called to their aid, as we have seen in the chap- ter on " Old England," the Anglo-Saxons. Never was an invasion fraught with more importance, and the Scotch might justly claim that there would never have been any English people, i^roiDcrly speaking, had it not been for their predatory ancestors in the last years of the fifth century and the first of the sixth. The introduction of Christianity into Scotland is placed by some as early as 446. But when the more civilized Celts of Ireland, who had previously been converted to Christianity, crossed over to Scot- land in 503, and under the lead of Fergus estab- hshed a kingdom on the western coast, the country was for the most part given up to rude paganism. The records of that period are exceedingly vague and unsatisfactory, but Fergus must have been a brave and wise ruler, for his little kingdom was per- manently established, and finally developed into the chief state or tribe of the country. ^1 (382) 5^ SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 383 Half a ceiiturj- before Fergus, the Highland chief Edwin had founded Edinburgh, and in 83 G a de- scendant of Fergus, Kenneth, became King of the Lowlands, transferring his cajjital from Celtic Tor- tevoil to Stratheme, the ancient capital of the Picts. Between Edwin and Fergus appears no name of note, and between Fergus and Kenneth only one. fact that a few emigrants should have thus taken from the motlier country its very name. It is as if the term New England had gradually changed to England, and Ijy some inexplicable jugglery old England itself had been compelled to adopt a new name. It may be set down as a remarkable instance of "unconscious robbery." The Scotch have otlier blood in their veins besides VIEW OF KI)INI)ri;i:lI-F.»iM'.ri;(.ii Castlk in tim: Tii^tance, St. Columba, the Irish saint who spent liis life in evangelizing the Picts. From 563 to 597 he labored untiringly and with gi-eat success. The ivloption by the primitive races of the religion brought over by 11 ic Celts did much to bring about the complete coahtiou of the two races, and to give the ascend- ancy to the invaders. It may be obsen'cd that the Celts of Ireland long protested against the applica- tion of the term Scotch to tlic combined people, in- sisting that they alone were Scotch. It is a curious the two strains mentioned. From the Danes and other Scandinavians they received large svceretions, also from the Saxons and the Normans of England. The Teutonic clement is not ]iredominant, but it is very considerable. No people of Enro]x) have such variety of ancestry as the inliabitauts of tlie Lowlands of Scotland. The Higlilandors are descended almost wliolly from the Driguial or preiiistoric inhabituuts of the island. Tlie next rovai name of note after Kenneth was 48 -S>\J- 384 SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. Constantine II., great graudson of the former. His reign extended from 900 to 943. He acknowledged subordination to the Englisli crown as the price of assistance in the interminable wars of the period, but only to retract his fealty vihen the im- mediate cause of it was removed, and then a conflict with England resulted. Constantine laid down his crown voluntarily, repaired to a monastery to pre- jDare for death, leaving the throne to a near kin, Malcolm I. The grandson and successor of Malcolm was the King Duncan of the play of Macbeth. The mon- arch of the latter name was not the false friend Shakspeare represents, nor was the real Lady Mac- beth the monster of the stage. The historical ac- count differs widely from the histrionic representa- tion. Her brother, the lawful heir to the throne, had been cruelly put to death to make room for Duncan the Usurper. A battle was fought in 1040 between the two factions, terminating in the defeat and death of Duncan. History says of Macbeth, " He governed Scotland with a firm hand and great wisdom, and his reign was a period of great national lorosperity." He and his queen were liberal friends of the j)oor. In 1057 he shared the fate of Duncan, the son of the latter coming to the throne. About this time William the Conqueror subjugated En- gland and placed Scotland under vassalage. The next noteworthy name in the royal annals of Scotland was David, who flourished about the mid- dle of the twelfth century. Under him Scotland made much progress in civilization. The wars of Wallace and Bruce for Scottish mde- pendence form a jDart of English history, and were recorded in a previous chapter. That struggle cost the country a vast amount of blood, but from a na- tional jjoint of view it was a good mvestment, for it so far broke down the barriers of clan that Scotland became in reality one country. The treaty which terminated that long war dates from 1.338. Thir- teen years later the parliament of Scotland admitted tlie commercial towns to representation. From that time to the consummation of the union with England, nearly four centuries, the " the third es- tate " was a great power in Scotland. The death of Eobert Bruce brought to the throne his son, David II., then only eight years of age. War soon broke out afresh between England and Scotland. In the battle of Neville's Cross, fought in 1346, David was defeated and taken prisoner . His final ransom cost 100,000 marks. Otherwise his reigu was uneventful It extended to 13 70. At his death, there being no son to take the crown, it passed to his sister's son, Robert the Steward, who took the scepter as Eobert II. With him began the dynasty of the Stuarts which became best known in comiection with England. The first Stuart to distinguish himself was James I., who reigned from 1424 to 1436. He was abreast of his age at its best, and did much to systematize the government and advance the interests of the j)eople. He was a poet of some merit. A few fugitive pro- ductions attributed to him still exist to attest his talent. Under him the baronial power was at its height. Douglas was the leader of the defiant feudal lords. James II. succeeded in breaking the power of the chiefs. The genius of Sir Walter Scott has clothed with perpetual radiance the struggle of that jDeriod. From the standjioint of history, di- vested of tlie glamour of romance, the Scottish an- nals of those times are simply the record of inter- minable civil and border warfare. Generally the Englisli crown claimed and received some slight recognition of sovereignty beyond the Tvi^eed, but otherwise the Highlands and the Lowlands were alike free from foreign domination. Scotland should hold the memory of James I. in profound respect and lively gratitude. He was as- sassinated hj a base conspiracy and a brilliant reign closed in darkness. It was a great calamity to the nation. Political assassinations generally are. A long series of civil wars, a chronic state of an- archy almost, followed. The chiefs of clans would brook no authority. FeudaUsm had nowhere a firmer hold than in Scotland, and the nobility lived for the most part in hostile isolation. It was not until the reign of James V., a contem- porary of Henry VII. of England, tliat really ami- cable relations between the crown and the nobles were established, and that by ailability ratlier than force. About the court of James the Fifth at Edinburgh gathered luxury, and the chieftains found it more agreeable to bask in the courtly sunshine than share the vicissitudes of war, as depicted in the Scottish lays. Many of them plunged wildly into dissi^sa- tion, but even their vices were public benefactions, for while they revelled the common people were left to the pursuit of the paths of peace, and Scotland, ^" SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 385 hitherto frenzied with contention, enjoyed conteut- nient. Fisheries were encouraged, a navy built, and commerce sprang up. The king married Margaret, daughter of the Tudor Henry VII., and thus laid the foundation of the union of the two kingdoms of the island. All went smoothly lantil after tlie accession of Henry VIII. to tlie English crown. That Mug hated Scotland, or rather covet- ed the sovereignty of Scot- land. In an evil hour James was provoked into war with his more power- ful neighbor. The result was disastrous. The Scotch luivy was destroyed and the army signally defeated at Flodden Heights, Sep- tember 9, 1513. The slaughter was terrible and the overthrow comijlete. The great king himself was among the slain, leaving an infant to inherit the throne, James V. The queen mother, Maro-aret, was made re- gent. The old feud be- tween the crown and the nobility soon broke out with renewed virulence, secretly aggravated and intensified by Henry, wlio was as bad a brother as husband. It must be ad- mitted that ^largaret was as unfaithful to her marital vows as her brother, and her jiersonal vices, and the crimes to which they led, served to keep the country in a state of misery. But all that was no excuse for her brot'.icr Ilcnry. At last the child became a man and was allowcil as early as seventeen years of age to be liis own master. We now return to .Tames V. He wa-s a ruler of groat aViility. lie strove assiduously to free his coun- try from foreign dictation. It had become little better tluiu a .';huttlecock for French and Engli.sli battledore. .Tames .succeeded in commanding the respect of hir! royal jiocrs and gaining for Scotland au honorable rank among nations, and all this while yet a youth. He could have married Ilenrrs daughter, Mary, or another Mary, the Spanish Prin- cess of Portugal (Spain and Portugal then beuig one), but he jircferred an alliance with the daughter of the king of France. The fruit of that marriage was the beautiful and unhapi^y Mary, Queen of Scots, whose melancholy career forms a jKirt of the history of England, and was nar- rated under the Tudors. Her sou, .James VI. of Scotland, was .James of England, the first British sovereign of the house of Stuarts. Li him was se- cured the " married calnr'' of a perpetual union be- tween England and Scot- land, no longer two na- tions, but two made one, England beuig the one. It is hardly too much to say, paradoxical as itmav sound, that when Scotland ceased to exist its existence began. So long as it was a kingdom, with its inter- minable feudatory and border warfare, it wiis little better than a heroic bar- liariau. But when those civil wars were over the energies of the people took ;i ilirectiiin which reflected the highest honor up- on tlie nation, prepar- ing the way for splen- did achievements. The fir.st prc-eini- nenco of Scotland was in the line of church reform. AVith Henry VIII. and hi,s motive tlie Scotch had mahv. vji-ken or scot.h. no sympathy, but with the reformation a.s jiuslied l>y Luther, and above all by r'alvin. it had the deepest ^A\ JV' ^ 386 SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. symiDathy. Among those who sat at the feet of John Calvin and imbibed his austere theology and reiDublican polity in matters ecclesiastic, was John Knox. He returned from Geneva to Edinburgh to be the great defender of Protestantism, tlie bold assail- ant of the Eomish church with which Mary the queen was iu close affiliation. Out of the movement in which he was the acknowledged leader grew not only the Kirk of Scotland, but Presbyterianism in Amer- ica, with its many branches and mighty member- ship. Wherever a Presbyterian bell calls to prayer or spire points to heaven there unconscious homage is jjaid to the religious genius of Scotland. Perse- cution could not stay the jDrogress of Presbyterian- ism, and the nation soon became substantially united in the rejection of all iutervention from Eome. The Confession of Faith was adopted by the Scotch Par- liament in 1560, and to-day Scotland stands m the- ology substantially on that creed, except that a somewhat liberalizing tendency is manifest. Scot- land is the most evangelically orthodox land on the globe, and of all Christian people the least given to heresy. They are especially distinguished for the strict observance of Sunday as a day of rest. The crowns of Scotland and England were united forever iu the year 1603. Separate parliaments were maiatained for' a century. The union, the complete consolidation of the countries, dates from 1707. At that time the population was 1,060,000. It is now about three times that amount. The great vice of the people is drunkenness. The ratio of illegitimacy is also exceptionally large. In the eig'h- teenth century vagabondage was something appall- ing, " tramps " being the curse of the country ; but with good laws came industry and thrift. At home and abroad, especially abroad, the Scotch have shown remarkable ability in the prudent manage- ment of great business enterprises. It only remains to speak of the literature of the Scotch people, which, as already observed, is a part of English literature. The supreme name in Scottish literature is Robert Burns, whose works have well been called "The Songs of the People." He touched and won the heart as no other singer ever did. For the most part, he followed the Gaelicized English of the com- mon people in his own country. His genius lifted a form of speech from the level of provincialism to the lofty eminence of a classic. Personally tlie vic- tim of misfortune, his life darkened by poverty and misery, he is now in the enjoyment of a most envia- ble posthumous fame. Burns was born in 1759 and survived until 1796. His life was unspeak- ably sad. The son of a humble peasant of Ayrshire, his early advantages were ex- ceedingly meager. Through life he had a hard struggle with poverty. He died with the shadow of the jail for debtors eobert bukns. on his heart. His somewhat voluminous correspon- dence shows him to have been a master of exquisite prose. It has been said that Shakspeare gave us the Bible of secular literature and Burns its hymn-book. Sir Walter Scott is the second great name in Scot- tish literature. Burns em- ployed the jjrovmcialisms of his country m his songs, while Scott wrote the pure English, but in both his poetry and his novels he showed himself to be a loyal Scotchman. He was born in 1771 and died in 1832. He was educated at Edinburgh university. He was raised to the jDCerage in 1830 in recognition of his literary services. In the domain of the his- torical novel he has never been equaled. Scotland can boast great eminence in met- aphysics. The i:>\n- losophers Hume, Eeid and Hamilton were Scotchmen. But the greatest of Scotland's sons, after Burns and Scott, was Thomas Carlyle, critic and his- torian. In him are seen the strengtli and aoute- ness which characterize the nation. He was born in 1795 and died in 1880. He spent many years in Lon- don, but never ceased to be a thorough Scotchman. SIU WALTER SCOTT. THOMAS CARLYLE. a) '^^ Js^ k TrmTrTTiiiriiTTTtiiirirTTTTT-r IRELAND AND THE IRISH. i^i^m— rrn—i CHAPTER LXIV MM .1 MA Situation, Area, Koads and Products op Ireland— St. Patrick— LAKonAOE and Literature — Counties and Provinces — Irish Linen — English Rule in Ireland — The Battle of the BovNE — Dantel O'Connel and Paknell— Revolution and Reform— Emigration from Ire- land AND Immigration to America — Irish Land Law — Irish Cities— Education in Ire- land—Emmet AND "The United Irishmen "—Fenian Brotherhood— The Land League AND the English Constitution, ±0^'.± ^. ^X** ^ HERE i.s no more fertile land beneath the suu than Ireland, known to the Ro- mans as Ilibernia, to the Celts as Erin, or Scotia. Its area is only 31,874 square miles,or, includ- ing the nearly two hun- dred less- • er isles belong- ing to it, 32,531. The Irish Sea separates it from England, with St. George's channel bu- tween it and Scotland. The soil is too moist, the rainfall too abundant for grain raising to the best advantage. The bogs of the low lands are a pronunent feature of the island, lint grass grows Inxuriantlv. and Iho yioM of pota- ':^P <^"%£^ ST. PATUICK l.N IktLA.ND, toes is enormous. The only danger in the case of the latter is that the wet soil will breed decay, or the seeds of it, before the crop can be secured. Flax is a prod- uct for which the country is well adapted. These three, grass, potatoes and flax, have been pecuharly significant in makuig Irish history, as will appear presently Irish history can hard- ly be said to extend far- ther back than the fifth century when Christian- ity was introduced. Be- fore that time the barbar- ic tribes of the island were almost unknown, or if known, little regarded. Tiie conversion of the island was undertaken by St. Patrick, who is its patron sauit. Ue was a Frenchman according to some, a Scotcbman ac- cording to others. Taken cajitivc ui war, he was sold into Ireland where he remained six years. Dur- ing' that time he seems to have conceived a strong interest in tlie pco])le, for some twenty years after (3«7) -Jt^ 388 IRELAND AND THE IRISH. leaving there he returned as a missionary of the cross, spending over thirty years in his holy work. Dates are obscure, but all this was certainly in the fifth century, probably in the early part of it. His death is fixed for March 17th, with wide variations in the year, and that day is observed by the Irish people as sacred to his memory. Confused as is the biography of this man, there are extant two undoubt- edly genuine jiroductions of his pen, the chief being his " Confession," wherein he affords an interesting view of his theological opinions. Curiously, none of the dogmas pecuUar to Romanism, as compared with Protestantism, find a place in $t. Patrick's Confes- sion. An absurd tradition at- tributes to his miraculous pow- er the banishment from the isl- and of toads and snakes. W hat- ever else he did or failed to do, he surely succeeded most re- markably in his mission as a Christian propagandist. The original language of Ire- land was Gaehc, now spoken, with some variations, in the Hebrides and Highlands of Scotland, in the Isle of Man, and in some sections of Ireland. There are about 100,000 of the people who speak nothing else, and many more who speak both it and English. There is a small rttJ£15'^, Ifeh ,fci #^f^ THE TOWER DUBLIN C \sTLE body of literature in this language, but it is devoid of much merit. The Irishmen who have excelled as authors have used the English language. Thomas Moore and the historian Lecky may be mentioned as Irishmen who have enriched literature. The island is divided into thirty-two counties and the four provinces of Leinster, Muuster, Conuaught and Ulster. The latter is in the north and largely settled by Protestants, many of them of Scotch descent. The relations of landlord and tenant are regulated in that province by just customs having the force of law. There is no mining of any consequence in Ireland, and very little manufacturing. Belfast spins a great deal of flax and makes large quantities of linen, but that once-flourishing industry was crushed to death in other parts of Ireland by the British government in the mterest of Protestant manufacturers. At one time southern Ireland displayed remarkable aptitude for this branch of skilled labor, and if events had been allowed to take their normal course, Irish lin- en would have made that island rich and contented. The policy of the British government was protective to one section and prohibitory to another. Once England imported its linen from that part of the island. Heavy export duties ruined the busi- ness where the people were Catholics, Avhile Prot- estant Belfast was exempt from this restriction. This unjust discrimination extended from 1699 to 1838, when its object had been completely effected. Irish hnen thus affords a striking instance of both sectional and sectarian iniquity. From the eighth to the elev- enth century was the period of Ireland's greatest comparative civilization. During- that pe- I 1 riod it was more advanced in learning and culture than En- gland, and certainly not inferior to any part of the continent ex- cept Moorish Spain. Colleges flourished and the arts were carried to a high degree of per- fection. In education and re- ligion it was indeiDcndeut, pro- gressive and potential. The church of Rome became jealous of the Irish church and insti- gated Henry II. of England to make a war of subjugation upon the smaller but more advanced island. The Irish were not united under a strong central government. On the contrary, they were divided into petty kingdoms having no secure bond of union. This fact facilitated conquest. Hen- ry made his raids in 1172. From that time to the present England has claimed Irish allegiance. Sometimes the yoke would be thrown off briefly, but only to be made all the more galling. The most memorable struggle between oppressor and oppressed was the Battle of the Boyne, fought July 1, 1690. The Catholics of Ireland had esjDoused the cause of James II. after his expulsion and the coronation of William and Mary, and that battle was the result. The anniversary of the victory achieved by the Or- angemen on that occasion is still observed m some sections as a day of rejoicing and occasion of secta- rian riot. Numerous have been the attempits of the V IRELAND AND THE IRISHo 389 Irisli, eveu in later times, to achieve iudei^eiidence, the abortive Fenian uj)rising being the last armed rebellion against British authoritj'. The more im- portant details : and general facts in this re- gard have been given in jjre- vious cliapters. The greatest of Irisli pa- triots was Dan- iel O'Gonnell. He was a phe- nomenal ora- tor, the su- preme agita- tor. "No rev(j- lution is worth one drop of blood" was his motto. Con- vinced of the futihtj'of arm- ed resistance, he sought to secure by iJarUameutary process the mitigation of Irish grievances. His efforts were not without much success. Many infamous laws were repealed in consequence of his agita- tion. The latest and most for- midable re- bellion oc- curred ill 1798, ami raged for two year.s. When suji- pressed tlic Irish Par- liament at Dublin was abolished, and now Ireland is represented m the British Parliament. By far the greater part of the population of Ire- land is Gathohc ; but until 18(J9 the Episcopal church was the state church. In that year, after a BANK long contest in parliament, it was disestablished and disendowed, and the endowment, except as iised for annuities, was dedicated to educational and other secular pur- poses. That reform was not satis- factory, how- ever, wliereup- on a powerful movement was i naugurated forsecuringre- form in the ten- ure of land and the relations of landlord and tenant. The leader in this movement is Mr. Pamell, a large land own- er and Protest- ant who has shown himself to be a great organizer, parliamentarian and de- batei'. Reform within the constitution is his aim and scope. The present ministry and parliament have been almost ab- sorbingly occupied mth this subject, and the reform- ershave rea- son to take heart, there being some chance that the Irisli may yet Ix^ placed on a political and industrial equality with the English and Scotch, althougli much remains to be done. Tlie statistics of Irish population arc vcni'remark- al)lo. In 1750 the population was a trifle over 'i.OOO- 000. and in sixtv voars it lacked onlv a tritle of three IRELAND AXD TRINITY COLLEGE. -• B V y- 390 IRELAND AND THK IRISH. times that number ; by 1841 it was over 8,000,000j Before another census, came the terrible famine, when thousands died of starvation, and vastly more sought relief in emigration to this country, some to England. It is estimated that over 2,000,000 came to America between the years 1851 and 1873, and that there are more Irish, including their children, in the United States than in Ireland. There are certainly more in New York City than in Dublin. The English and the landlords do not regret this loss of population, for they prefer cattle and sheep that reasonable men among them expected, or even demanded, down to the year before its passage. It secures to all tenants throughout the sister island the right of free sale for which Ulster was wont to be envied. It gives them the privilege of getting the 'fair rent' of their holdings fixed by the court, and of obtainmg what is in fact a statutory, or lease for fifteen years, renewable at the end of the term. It extends the authority of the tribunal created to ad- mmister the new law over contracts of the most sol- emn and stringent character, so that leaseholders to men and women ; butter and beef, wool and mut- ton, to potatoes. In this country the industrious citizen, irrespective of nationality, is a public bene- factor, whatever his employment. Thai; the Irish immigrant is welcome here and the Irish emigrant bidden godspeed there, is a difEerence largely due to different economical conditions and circumstances of nature. The London Times thus briefly sums up the Irish land bill, which became a law in August, 1881, after one of the most memorable of parliamentary strug- gles, extending over seven months : " It gives the tenant farmers all, and more than all may not be excluded from the benefits of the Ijill. It greatly enlarges the opportunities for the creation of peasant j)roprietory with the aid of public funds." The chief cities of Ireland are Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Limerick, Londonderry and Queenstown. The river Liffey, flowing through Dublin, divides it into two nearly equal jiarts. The population is about 250,000. The former cajDitol of Ireland, situated there, is now used as a bank building. Belfast, 100 miles north of Dublin, is the chief city of the Prot- estant j)ortion of the island. It has nearly 200,000 inhabitants, very few of them being Romanists. Linen manufactories were established there as early IJ J-Lj I ILJ.l.jj - IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 393 as 1637. It is still the center of Irisli textual niauufactures. Cork is almost wholly Cathohc, aud its niauufactures are glass and other minor staples. It is situated 136 miles southwest of Dublin aud has an excellent harbor. Limerick has the honor of be- ing the last place to surrender to William III., in 1694, on which occasion it secured jmportant con- cessions for the Catholics within its limits. It is the chief city of Muuster. Londonderry, like Belfast, is in the north of Ireland, and an important center of Protestant influence. It was once a fortified town. Very numy of the peojile are of Scotch descent. Trinity College, Dublin, is the principal university of Ireland. It was founded in 1330, but it fell into decay, until revived by Queen Elizabeth in 1593. Her successor, James I., granted it representation in pariiament, and munificent endowments. It is a very rich institution and its rank is with the best universities of Europe. Among its graduates are numbered Swift, Goldsmith, Burke, Berkeley and Sheridan. Queen's colleges,Cork,Galway and Belfast, are somewhat important centers of liberal and pro- fessional education ; but not as well known as May- nooth College. The latter is designed for the educa- tion of jiriests. It has provision for about five hun- dred students. It was founded in 1795. It has a state endowment and is the only state endowment of any kind in Ireland for the benefit of Eoman Catholics. In Irish aifection no name has a more tender place than Robert Emmet, born in 1780. He was a leader of tlie United Irishmen, a great organiza- tion, having for its object the hberation of their na- tive country from British rule. In 1803 he and his associates were engaged in an uprising which was premature, to say the least of it. Young Emmet was arrested, tried, convicted and executed. His speech in his own defense on the trial is a very re- markable piece of eloquence. His sad fate mspired the must; of Thomas Moore, whose " Irish melodies" give voice to Irish patriotism. The latest formidable and avowed organization in favor of Irish nationality is, or was (for the society seems to be a thing of the past), the Fenian Broth- erhood. In medieval and legendary Ireland there was a tribe by the name of Finns or Finians. The mod- ern society of the name was started in 1859, in both America and Great Britain. It held a " Congress " at Chicago in 1863. That first gathering attracted much attention. Another, held at Cmcimiati two years later, was more important. It re^ffesented a constituency of 80,000, and seriously tlireateued trouble. The next year two military companies of Fenians crossed from the United States to Canada. to strike at England through the New Dominion, The raid was abortive and uiglorious. Several Fe- nian riots occurred in Great Britain durmg 1867, but they accomjjlished nothing directly, but indirectly they wrought a great work for Ireland, impress- ing upon parliament the necessity of Irish reform. In that point of ^^ew the Fenian Brotherhood de- serve's much credit. The Land League is a radically different organi- zation. It aims at British reforms within the limi- tations of the British constitution, rather than the dissolution of the union. It has secured very much through the land bill and the rea^ljustment of rents thereunder, and it is still a tremendous power in Ire- land and the British parliament. f A' CHAPTER LXV. Extent of Canada — Census Returns of 1881 — English Discovert of Canada — French Set- tlement OF Canada — Acadia and the Acadians — Old France in "Net\' France "—Cham- plain AND HIS Policy — British Policy in Canada— The Perpetuation of National Types and Old World Prejudices — The Canadian Indians — Manitoba — Hudson Bay and the Hudson Bay Company — Political Sy'stem op Canada — Virtual Independence — Reciproc- ity — The Cities of Canada — Education — Railroads — Labrador and the Esquimaux. NTIL the year 1877 the term Canada applied sim- ply to a tract of country some 1,400 miles long and from 200 to 400 miles wide, just north of the United States, divided into Upper and Lower Canada, and foimmg the better, but by no means the larger, part of British America, and now known as the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. But the term now has a much wider import. What were so long the distmct provinces of the Atlantic coast, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward's Island and Newfoundland, are now included, also British Colum- bia, Manitoba, Labrador, the Hudson Bay region, in fine, " the whole boundless continent " north of the United States, except Alaska, reaching to the North Pole and from ocean to ocean, formerly known as British America. The comjolete consolidation of the Dominion was not effected until 1873, Prince Edward's Island being the last lorovince to join the confederation. The total area of the Dominion is about 3,500,000 square miles. "SA The Canadian census of 1881 may be summed, up in its more important features thus : 680,498 are the figures for the total increase during the last decade immediately preceding the enumeration, and the to- tal population is now 4,350,533. The inhabitants of Ontario now number 1,913,460 ; of Quebec, 1,358,- 469; of Nova Scotia, 440,585 ; of New Brunswick, 321,139. The population of Prince Edward's Isl- and is 107,781, and of Manitoba 49,509. British Columbia and the territories are estimated at 160,- 000. As compared with the census of 1871 Ontario shows the largest increase, the percentage being 18.05, Quebec, 14.03, Nova Scotia, 13.61, New Brmis- wick, 12.44 and Prince Edward's Island, 14.63. It was in the spring of 1497 that John Cabot, a foreign merchant of Bristol, England, set sail with a fleet of five vessels on a voyage of discovery in the new world. Henry VII. commissioned him. His son, Sebastian Cabot, commanded one of the vessels. They reached the Newfoundland coast in June, and were the first Englishmen to behold America. They returned to England almost immediately. No settlement was effected. Two years later the younger Cabot conducted a second expedition across the Atlantic, but this time came to anchor in the Grulf of Mexico instead of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. ^^ (394) w J- . THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 395 The Cabots accomplished nothing, beyond the dis- seniLiiatiou of New- World knowledge. The first practical discovery of Canada occurred in 1534. Jac- ques Cartier, a French navi- gator, reached the mouth of the St. Law- rence, and as- cended that lordly river as far as the site of Montreal. It was two years before Cartier returned to France. Prior to that time the New Foiuid- land fisheries had tempted the French, English, Spanish and Portuguese across the Atlantic, but Cartier was the first permanent settler. lie brought to these shores a very considerable colony from the west of VIEW OP MONTREAL FROM jrOUXT ROYAL. -- ■i*' I France, men in Avhose veins there coursed the blood of the old Norman rovers and robbers. A little prior to Cartier's explora- tions a French fleet had sailed along the American con- tinent from Florida to Canada,dubhing it " New France," but doing nothing to really justify the appellalion. The first French settlers had for their main olijcct trade in furs and fish. Gradually they formed jicrmancnt settle- ments, near tlio coast and along the St. Lawrence. Oneof tlip iirimitive opttlcmonts of " Now Frunco'' "■■Srtc was Acadia, or Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and a jiart of Maine. The first Acadian settlement was in 1604r. Its close proximity to the fishery banks rendered it especially im- portant. In 1713 France ceded Acadia to England. The peojile resolutely re- fused to take the oath of al- legiance to the English crown. Tiiere were eighteen thou- sand of them, and the rutli- less liaud of British power removed them, in many cases separating families. The melancholy fate of the Acadians fnrnished and suggested Longfellow's great and substantially historical poem of " Evan- gehne.'' The French of Canada belong to the old regime, the France wliich pre- ceded the Revolu- tion. They are and always have lieen siiigularlv out f i^>ucl)oc. is iiilial)ited by a few French Canadians who thrive by iisliing. Labrwlor proper e,\pert only in fishing or hunting. TJiey are sup- posed to number about 50,000, including those found in Greenland and Alaska. Their domestic animal is the dog, and their principal food is the blubber of the whale, walrus or seal. Tlieir color is a light 1>rown. Originally tliey were almost wliolly destitute of religious sensibilities. Christian missionaries, Mo- ravian and Danish Lutheran, have done sometliing ill the line of their couversiou to Cliristiauity. 5° CHAPTER LXVI. Imperial India — The Birth-place of the Aryan Race — Ancient Ruins — Alexander in India — Portuguese and Dutch India — British Expulsion of the Netherlanders— The French IN India — Lord Clive and Surajah Dowlah — "Warren Hastings — Lord Corntv^allis — Se- POT Mutiny and its Results — Viceroys of the Crotvt? — "Owen Meredith" and Lord RiFON — The Mogul Empire — Benares the Holy City — Sanskrit and the Possibilities of the FuTURa UEI!NG the iDremiership of the late Lord Beacons- field the Queen of En- gland added to her titles that of Empress of India. That country, sometimes called Hindustan, is in- empire, containing as it does no lessthan350,000,- 000 people, not savages either, but the inheritors of a splendid civ- ilization, effete, it is true, but not wholly lost and wasted. In pop- ulation this im- perial possession is "H pire at its best. With the Himalaya mountains on the north, and the Indian Ocean on the south, it is a land by itself, rich in resources and under a high state of cultivation in many parts. Such a country contributes greatly to the wealth of England, both by its imports and its exports, furnishing the raw material and consuming the manufactured article, all to an extent which may fairly entitle India to the designation of the -^^ backbone of Brit- ish prosperity. By a careful comparative study of lan- guages it has been ascertained that the present great nations of the world came, for the most jiart, from the Aryan race, which can be traced to In- dia. The Brah- min, the Greek, the Roman, the double that of tlie Eoman em- | Englishman, the German, the Yankee, all belong (400) ^ NATIVE LIFE IN INDIA. BRITISH INDIA. 403 to the same stock. But the coiuicctioii is too re- mote and o)3SCure to be traced hi this volume. It is enough for our purpose to follow the footprints of liistorical devel- opment. India is splen- did, yet mournful ill ruins. Fallen temples and de- caying pagodas attest aj)ast which is sealed from the vision of history. Eventually their mysteries may be explored and the gold of facts sep- arated from the dross of fiction. Now those mon- umental ruins are surrounded by the wall of mystery. The first ap- pearance of India in history dates from B. 0. 327, when Alexander the Great attemp- ted its conquest. His intrepid army was flushed with victory over the Persians, and eag- er for " more worlds to con- quer." India was httle more to the Greeks than a vague rumor, a fabulous land of wealth and lux- ury, a veritable Eldorado. P>ut the march itself was exhaustive. The Ganges was his goal, and no serious human obstacle impeded his course ; but the heat of the country melted the lieroism of the brave Greeks, and the sand choked their enteiiirise. L.\L.Hbll UlL The iutre^jid and dauntless Alexander spent two years in the country including the time spent in the march thitlicr and ))ack, returning without a per- manent foothold. The invasion was not whoUy fruit- less, however. Greek culture ac- "juired some ad- vantage from con- taot with what may probably be set down as the oldest of all ex- tant or known civilizations. But no vital connec- tion was formed between the two, and India soon dropped out of the great world with which an- cient history has to do, leaving be- hind hardly a smgle landmark or trace of any kind. The first Euro- pean, after Alex- ander, to jiene- tratc to India and estabhsh relations with it was the en- terprising Vasco da Gama, whose exploits were told in connection with Portugal. For u century tlie Por- tuguese enjoyed a monopoly of ori- ental commerce, and then came the in great measure. Antwerp, .Imstcr- grcw rich in the J.NUJA. Dutch to wrest it from tiiciii During the seventceth century dam and other commercial cities Indian traffic. The Dutch East India Company •rlir J^l ^.^ 404 BRITISH INDIA. was formed in 1602. The English were not slow in trying to gain a footing, and the Dutch, who had succeeded in eclipsing the Portuguese, found a for- midable rival in the British. That rivalry was sharp and bloody until 1689, when the accession of Wil- liam of Orange to the English throne brought com- parative j)eace. Before that time the iinion jack of England had successfully defied the Dutch broom in Indian waters, and Lord Olive had laid firmly and broadly the foun- dations of British India. The decisive blow was struck in 1758. But it was during the period when Europe was the theater of almost constant warfare, from 1781 tolSll, that England succeededin expell- ing the Dutch from India. Even Java, afterwards restored, was wrested from the Hollanders. By the last census returns the Dutch population in In- dia proper had dwindled to seventy-two. Many houses and some canals remain to testify that the Netherlanders once possessed the land, or the sea rather, but they themselves have gone. When Ad- miral Duncan, of the British navy, almost annihi- lated the Dutch fleet oif Camperdown, on the eleventh of October, 1797, that was the virtual end of Dutch East India. The East India Company, chartered by the En- glish parliament in 1600, may be said to have be- gun England's connection with Indian affairs. It took about a century to dispossess the national rivals already mentioned. A third rival was Erance. To the French belongs the dubious honor of origina- ting the policy of employing native soldiers under foreign officers, to conquer the country. They were called Sepahs, or Sepoys. England soon adopted the same policy. About the middle of the eigh- teenth century the Indian rivalry of the two nations was very sharp. Eor a time it seemed that the En- glish were to have meted out to them the same judgment that had been awarded to the Portuguese and Dutch. The honor of arresting the progress of the French and finally insuring British supremacy, belongs to Robert Olive, afterwards Lord Olive. He entered the service of the Company as a clerk. He never enjoyed the advantages of a military or lib- eral education. His first exploit was the recapture from the French of the city of Arcot, having at command only 500 men. He held the city against a besieguig army of 10,000 natives. Dupleix, the French governor, was held m check and defeated in several engagements. A decisive battle was fought June 23, 1757, on the field of Plassey. Olive had 1,000 English and 2,000 Sepoy troops, and with that handful he defeated the native Viceroy of Bengal, who was the ally of the French, Surajah Dowlah, at the head of 65,000 men. That gi'eat victory shattered the French rule and broke the pow- er of the Viceroy. The French rapid- ly dwindled away, but did not aban- don all hope of re- gaining lost ground until in 1801 their expulsion was com- pleted. The final outcome of the Na- poleonic campaign surajah dowlah. made assurance doubly sure. In the battle of Wa- terloo the last remnant of Indian hope for France disappeared forever. Lord Olive was something more than a brave sol- dier. He was the first Governor -General of the country. His administration of affairs was only for the period of two years, but during that time he succeeded in crusliing out all European rivalry and in making highly important inroads ui^on native rule. The Viceroy Surajah Dowlah was a powerful jDrince, but he was destroyed. He it was who in 1757 took Calcutta from the English and crowded 150 of the prisoners taken into the dungeon rendered famous as the " Black Hole of Calcutta." All ex- cept twenty of the number died the first night of suffocation. But his cruelty was trivial and mild as compared to the relentless despotism of Olive, whose policy was to terrorize the Hindoos into sub- jection. In 1773 the British East India Company under- went some changes, and the notorious Warren Hast- ings was appointed Governor-General. He pursued the policy of Lord Olive. To cruelty was added rapacity of the most ravenous sort. The corpora- tion which they served was a commercial organiza- tion and judged everything from the standpoint of revenue only. Vast fortunes were accumulated by private individuals in their employ, and expenditures -7T s "V BRITISH INDIA. 407 ^ for pensions, bribes and subsidies were immense ; but- so long as the Company received the lion's share in net profits abuses were unchecked. But jjublic sentiment was at last aroused. Warren Hastings was impeached by parliament. His trial was one of the most memorable in all history. It called out the eloquence of Burke and others. Hastings was acquitted by the peers before whom he was tried, but convicted by the court of public opinion, which also sat in judgment uj)on his case. The result was a ref- ormation in Indian affairs. Under the lead of Wil- liam Pitt, loarliamentm 1784 made a radical change in the political system of India. Hitherto the Com- pany had been absolute and despotic, but henceforth a board of control was to have supervisory power. It was not un- til 1858 that the govern- ment took up- on itself large- ly the manage- ment of the country, doing away with the Governors- General be- holden to a cor- poration, and substituting for them was in the hands of the Sepoys from the first, and the fall of that city was fatal to the mutiny. Strong was the provocation of the mutineers, and not in vain was the bloodshed in the struggle. From sub- jection to a soulless corporation to the rule of an empire which is based largely upon regard for the welfare of the people^was a most beneficent revolu- tion. During that war General Havelock became famous as the ideal Christian soldier. The utter inabihty of the natives to cope Math the Enghsh was so f uUy shown, and the British policy so far reform- ed, that since the fall of Delhi there has been no in- surrection, nor any serious manifestations of disaf- fection. Under Beaconsfield the viceroyship was held by Lord L}i;ton, son of Bulwer TOWN HALL, BOMBAY. Viceroys of the crown. There were twenty Gover- nors-General during tlie nuiety-three years of Com- pany rule. Earl Camiing being the last. Among these was Lord Cornwallis. After his inglorious career in America, upon Indian soil ho achieved sub- stantial victories which sliowed that his surrender at Yorktown was not the cowardice of a poltroon, but the wisdom of one who bowed to the inevitable. The Marquis of Wellesley, or Duke of Wellmgton, was another of the governors and soldiers who preserved and extended British rule in India. The East India Company, which ranks as the most gigantic monopoly of aU historj', received its death-blow from the Sepoy Mutiny. The first out- break occurred Jtay 10, 1857. It sjiread like wild- fire over the country, the central jioints being Cawn- pore, Lucknow and Delhi. The Europeans in the former were slaughtered, men, women and children ; in the hitter they held out until relief came. Delhi 51 E. Lytton, the novelist. His rule was devoid of sjiecial in- terest. It must be admitted that as ''Owen Meredith," author of Lu- rille, he won far more hon- or than he did or could as Viceroy. Mr. Gladstone appointed as his successor Lord Ripon, one of the framers of the Treaty of "Washington, which settled the " Alabama claims."' Without going into wearisome details, it may be added that the present Britisli policy is to allow the native population to be governed in accordance with their own system of laws and methods ol justice, so far as such lilierty may be indulged without endan- gering English sujiremacy. In that way can the interests of the British jntbhc be best conserved and jiromoted. Having traced the course of events in India from the standpoint of foreign intervention, showuig the relations of that country to the rest of the world, it will be of interest to ascertaui its history from an indejrcndent standpomt. The gi-eat Hindoo epic, Ramayana, not inaptly called "The Iliad of the East," is supposed to be at least three thousand vcurs nld : liut its statcmcuts ■V s ik. 408 BRITISH INDIA. « f /-., are self-evident fiction, for the most part. The first kmgdoni of India within the range of authentic liis- tory was the Mogul Empire. Mogul is a corruption or abbreviation of Mongol. The dynasty was founded by Baberiu 1556, a descendant on his mother's side of that great Tartar, Tamerlane. These Mogul emper- ors, fifteen in number, were all Mohammedans. They were fierce warriors and terrible bigots. Their zeal for Islam was only equaled by their slakeless thirst for plunder. They ravaged India and gathered the rich spoils of the more civilized but less warlike "heathen round about." The empire was at its height in the last half of the seventeenth century. Delhi was the capital. The Europe ans, whether Portu- guese, Dutch, French or En- glish, avoided conflict Avitli the great Mo- gul. The great Sejooy rebellion was abetted by Bahadur, the emperor at Delhi. The empire had al- ready been greatly weak- ened by schism and dissen- tions, and that Sepoy alhance was fatal. The English shot his sons and grandson, and trans- ported the emperor himself to Burmah where he died. Thus with the close of the Sepoy rebellion the Mogul Empire disappeared, and has since shown no symptoms of life. In 1878 the total railway mileage in India was 8,215. There had been expended \\\ the construc- tion and equipment of these railroads over $500,000,- 000. The population of British India, classified according to religion, is Brahmans, 140,000,000 ; Mohammedans, 40,000,000 ; Buddhists, 3,000,000 ; Christians, 900,000 ; various forms of aboriginal be- lief, 6,000,000. In Southern India the missionaries have met with some success. Buddhism is a reformed i - IT ■I I'V-' • JUwiyi^fj; • , fl P" \ 1 1 IglV JBHI'BfllHflBa'i g|IHL'^^.yy.JA;; .' ^.,. !'?:'?':i?^! ^^■b '■ " .:.'!,'''^3 3 Jl| ■nniinitrHUmtCPl l[ wk ':•■ "f II-: ■ *4 Hm ntHwine^j "^1 " "'ilH! wm |||if! lilE Iv^HE M*^ ^1 ^■^^ L-'"' '.^ii'"'^''. - ■'•;.fV. 1= -. --.K L H %^S«l?k,.!- . ..■■ '■;!■: '•■ '■', '.'c^^'''ll^| I?. - A = ? H ^^^^ ■■ .-. -v inrn.'vr i:3Vt i ,i:tK.- -. Iv. .<:-■• Q 3 ^HRRIH^^^^SBKRsi^^^D • i' '^.'. 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Geni:ral Outlook — Eacu Colony Separately Considered — New Sotjth Wales — Van Bieman's Land, or Tasmania— South Australia — Victoria — New Zealand — Queensland — Western Australia — Australasian Independence. 'MERICA is called the new world, aud Australasia might well be called the newest world, and positively the last. This globe has been thoroughly explored, and no continent or conti- nental island remains to be The surface of the whole discovered, earth is now within the compass of hu- man knowledge. Between the southeast- ern shore of Asia and the western coast of America stretch many small islands and some large ones, the more im- portant of these being the group called Australasia, with an area of 3,435,000 square miles and a population of about 5,000,000- This portion of the British Empire (for such it is) has seven natural and political divisions. It is pro- posed in this exceptionally long chapter to present the more interesting facts in regard to each colony in their proper order. New South Wales, as it is now called, was discov- ered by Captain Cook, in 1770, and eighteen years later, a convict colony was cstalilished at Botany Bay. The country was so beautiful, that Cook suggested a name reminding the rciuler of a choice garden, or .litc for villas : and the British government had mi liiglier conception of the discovery than that it might sen-e as a depot, whereon the mother country could dis- charge the criminality that she was slowly ascer- taining could not all be put to death. There was no realization that a country so desirable deserved a worthier population, or that a section of the jwople at home that trembled on the verge of paujjerism, but had not been tainted by crime, had rights to an asylum in the new ])aradise. The urgent need was a corral for prisoners, and Botany Bay would sen'e. The first shipment consisted of 565 male prisoners and 102 females, condemned to banishment for life. They were accompanied by sufficient militar}* to guard against an otherwise possible outbreak, and the civil staff to administer the affairs of the settle- ment. Free settlers were not encouraged. Their presence might have interfered with discipline. There were free colonists, liut they were people that could Ije relied on as aids in any cmcute; and they were favored with convict labor to any extent de- sired in prosecuting tlieir pcrsimal enterprises. The area given >ip tn the criminal chisses and their custodians was ample, including all that is now South Australia, Victoria and Queensland, as well as the colony of new Soutli AVales ; and yet within fifteen years another convict settlement was estab- lished in Van Diemoi's Land. The countrj" was not nvpratopkod. but the islaml presentwl advantages. ;4") ^i 412 AUSTRALASIA. 4h which could not be so easily secured on the main- land. The latter settlement was a dependency of the former, prisoners being transferred from one colony to the other, as well as shipped direct to Van Diemen's Land from Great Britain. For ten years from 1803, no free colonists were permitted in the new settlement. The island was a prison and noth- ing more. But in 1813 the desirabihty of free set- tlers, as part of a reformatory system, led to the home government offering grants of land to fami- lies possessing capital, and prison labor without charge, as inducements to take up their abode in the colonies. There was little difficulty in procuring limited emigration, as the climate in each case was good, ill the case of Van Diemen's Land especially, and the soil could hardly be too highly praised. It was not until men arrived in the colonies that the heinousness of the system became apparent. It was hardly possible for imagination to present a pic- ture of such conditions of life as were realized by the colonists after their acclimation. Prisoners on their arrival in the colony, after the system was in full bloom, were housed in depots, waiting to be selected by free settlers. Sometimes the relatives of a criminal reached the colony before him, selected land, and were ready to take him as their assigned servant, so that in his case transpor- tation was no punishment ; but in the majority of instances prisoners, men or women, taken as assigned servants, were treated worse than slaves, as the mas- ter generally spoken of as the "cove" had no inter- est in preserving the servant as a piece of property. If twenty were worn out, other twenty could be pro- cured to take their places, with no more trouble than sending an application, or calling to select from the next shipment. Usually the convicts were of the worst type, short of meriting capital punish- ment ; and if there were any redeeming features in men or women, when first placed on the vessel for transportation, four to six months' life on shipboard, exposed to the contaminating influence of convict opinion, seldom failed to produce an inverted scheme of life before the end of the voyage. Some on each ship were as nearly demons as could be found on earth, and they were idolized. The assigned servant was usually at the mercy of men very little superior in education or morals, as the better classes in Great Britain shunned the con- vict colonies, and if they must needs emigrate, found homes in Canada or in the United States, rather than expose their families to the degrading associa- tions of penal settlements. Servants who had offended their masters were sent to the stipendiary magistrate with a sealed let- ter, specifying the number of stripes they were to receive, and on that warranty without inquiry the prisoner was handed to the flagellator to be flogged as per mandate. After the punishment they were sent back to the employer knowing insubordination would be still more severely castigated. Wrongs of that class rankling in natures naturally brutal, re- sulted in conspiracies and murder, and then the fiends, goaded to desperation, betook themselves to the unsettled country, called " the bush," to subsist as bushrangers by spoliation until they were hunted down like wild beasts with the aid of native track- ers and bloodhounds to lead the military and po- lice to their lairs. Prisoners brought in after bush- ranging were hanged or sent to Norfolk Island, or attached to chain-gangs, compelled to work on the roads or public works, having manacles to drag that rendered their escape impossible. Norfolk Island was a deeper pandemonium at- tached to Van Diemen's Land from 1825 to 1855, to which the worst criminals were sent as the last resort this side the gallows. The island is on the Pacific, about five miles long, by little more than two miles broad ; and in that limited area, Dante might have gathered many unimagined tortures for the completion of the agonies of the damned. This abhorrent system continued in New South Wales until 1840, and in Van Diemen's Land until 1853, after which no new shipments were sent from Great Britain to the colonies named. Queens- land was also first settled by convicts in 1825, the country being then known as Moreton Bay ; but that region was thrown open to free settlement in 1842, and in 1846 there were only 2,257 inhabitants in the settlement, including free and felon. West- ern Australia is the only settlement in Australasia, that is still cursed with the convict system, and its continuance there is due to the petitions of the in- habitants, addressed to the mother country, setting forth that the free settlers are precluded by the re- pute of the colony from obtaining free labor, and must be ruined if denied the aid of prisoners in the prosecution of their enterprises. Under such repre- sentations the colony is allowed 200 prisoners per Tp AUSTRALASIA. 413 year, under protest from the other colonies, and the total population is only 26,166, including 1,T90 pris- oners. Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and developed slowly. The total population of Botany Bay in 1788 was 1,030, of which number 757 were life prisoners, the remainder being guards, mihtary government offi- cials, and the multitudious hangers-on that always surround the fleshpots in Egypt, or elsewhere. Ilie free population increased to 20,029 in forty years, and the convicts then numbered 15,669, of which total 1,513 were females. The growth of New South Wales was slow until the incubus of transportation was removed in 1840, and in the year following that event, there was an addition of 30,206 to the popu- lation. The decade following the discontinuance saw an advance to 265,503 ; but at that time the district of Port Philip was agitating for separation, and in the following year its desire was granted by its erection into the colony of Victoria. Gold was discovered on several occasions in New South Wales before its discovery in California, but the free settlers were of the opinion that its exploi- tation would unsettle labor, and for that reason the auriferous wealth of the country was belittled, so that hardly any person understood the significance of " the find." The great geologist. Sir Frederick Murchison, addressing the Geographical Society of London in 1845, announced the probability of ex- tensive gold-fields being opened in Australia ; but it is only fair to mention that the precious metal had been then recently found near the Macquarie river, following up in a desultory way previous "finds" in 1829. The colony of New South Wales appointed a geologist iu 1850, and about the same time a work- ing miner in California, impressed with the similarity of the two countries, determined to return to the col- ony to search for a payable gold-field. Mr. Hargraves was fortunate in his investigations, as wo find him in May, 1851, estabhshed at Ophir, near Bathurst, New South Wales, leading a party of miners whose oper- ations speedily made tliat country the cynosure of all eyes. The surrounding colonies were largely de- pleted of their young and vigorous men by tlie rush toward Bathurst. Every vessel that put into an Australian port was immediately deserted, unless the commander had the wisdom to announce the ship to sail for Sydney ; in that event he could man and load in a few days and procure any rates \w thought fit to ask for freight. Port Jackson, the port of Sydney, was the busiest spot in Austra- lasia as long as the colony enjoyed the monopoly of gold discoveries ; but the other members of tlie group had long been playing at hide-and-seek with treasure, and Victoria offered a reward to any per- son who might open a payable gold-field in its terri- tory. Later in 1851, discoveries in Buninyong at- tracted attention to Victoria, and since that date it has become well understood that the whole of the continent is auriferous. The colony of New South Wales in it& first year of gold production raised S2,341,680 worth, and in tlie following year over 813,500,000. Subsequently tlie returns were larger, although never to exceed 815,000,000, and that amount included gold received at the mint from other colonies for conversion into coin and bars- In four years from the estabhshment of Victoria as a separate colony. New South Wales had passed the highest point previously reached hi population, continuing to grow rapidly until the year 1859, when the constitution of Queensland, as a separate govern- ment, reduced the aggregate from 342,000 to 336,- 000 in round numbers. The areas nominally gov- erned, in the colony, as originally defined, were "all territory from Cape York in the parallel of 10° 37' south latitude, to South Cajje in latitude 43° 29' south, including the islands in the Pacific within this latitude, and inland to the westward as far as the 135tli meridian of east longitude," could not be even approximately administered by the official staff available, and, in fact, the elder colony did not attempt any such feat of statecraft. The process consisted mainly in drawing from the outlying ]5or- tions the means to pay for the physical im2)rovement of the governing center. South Australia was cut off from the first colony in 1836, in the days of penal settlements, but that segregation did not seriously affect the total of pop- ulation. The area of New Soutii AVales at present is 310,938 square miles. Its greatest length bemg 900 miles, with an average Ijreadth of about 500. On the north is the colony of Queensland ; on the south Victoria ; on the west Soutli Australia, and ou the east the Pacific Ocean. Tlie population of the country, according to the latest returns, pub- lished in 1880 by tiie authorities in Sydney, gave an aggregate of 734,282 jicrsons ; the increase of the last vcar havrULT lieon about 40.000. Mi 414 AUSTRALASIA. Until 1855 government was by means of a nomi- nee council, or legislature, to which the members of the administration were admitted, ex officio j after that time, responsible government was inaugurated. The parliament of two houses imitates Lords and Commons, and the governor represents the first es- tate. All money bills must be initiated in the low- er house, on a message from the viceroy, and such legislation may be rejected in toto, but cannot be amended by the upper house. The British theory of rule by three estates is in fact carried out in the practice of the whole group of Avistralian colonies, except the colony of "Western Australia, and the in- formation now given will serve in all the cases indi- cated, the differences being trivial. The council consists of twenty-one or more nomi- nees appointed by the crown, as advised by minis- ters ; there were thirty-nine members in 1878 ; and the assembly is an elective body of 102 members, chosen by universal male suffrage. The governor is the executive, but he is advised, and in most mat- ters controlled, by a responsible ministry, raised to office on the votes of the lower house, and answera- ble to that body for every ofiicial act. The ap- pointment of the governor rests with the home authorities, but the salary to be paid depends on the colonial assembly, with the proviso that no change can be made during a term of oiS.ce to affect the salary and allowances of the then incumbent. The present governor receives $35,000 per year and a residence ; and the ministry, eight in number, are paid, the colonial secretary 810,000, and the other ministers $7,500 per year. The governor is commander-in-chief of all the forces of the colony. The public lands of the colony are made over to the people to be administered l^y their representa- tives, and the sale and rent of lands constitutes a large item in the revenues of the colony, amounting to more than half the receipts from all sources. There is no direct taxation ; the second largest item of income being from customs duties. The annual outlay ranges from about $16,000,000 in 1870 to $27,500,000 in 1880, including $2,000,000 for new public works. The public debt of the colony amounted at the close of 1879 to $78,949,550, main- ly incurred for railroads, telegraph lines and other public works, the property of the state. There were at the time named 600 miles of railroad open for use, and in the succeeding year 323 miles were add- ed to the network. The telegraph lines at that date aggregated 8,472 miles. From 1850, the year jjreceding the opening of the gold-fields, to 1864, trade more than quadrupled ; but from that time there was a steady falling off for about six years, followed by a gradual increase until 1878. The chief exports are wool, tin, copper, tal- low and preserved meat. The country is richer in coal than any other j^art of Australasia, and its gold- fields cover a vast area known as the Western, Northern. and Southern fields; but the produce has not kept -QPp to the figures that at one time prom- ised to rank New South Wales among the great gold- producing countries of the world. The fiscal policy of the colony is a near approximation to free trade, and the crown lands are in part devoted to squat- ting, or what is known among us as ranche-keeping, and ordinary farming, the principal crops being wheat and maize. Cattle and sheep abound, and pigs and horses present large and profitable aggre- gates. The colony now known as Tasmania, in honor of the Dutch navigator, Tasman, by whom the island was first discovered, was in the beginning named for a governor of the Dutch East Indies. Cook partly explored the country, and, as we have seen, it was for many years a penal settlement. That un- fortunate commencement has detracted greatly from the success that must otherwise have attended on colonization in the midst of so many natural advan- tages. The area is estimated at 26,215 square miles, including a number of small islands in two groups, northeast and northwest. The country and climate invite settlement, and when the initial mischance has been lived down, its numerous advai)tages will make Tasmania the abode of the wealthiest families in Australasia. At the present time the outlook for the colony is not cheering. In 1853, 2,314,414 acres of land had been leased from the crown, yielding a rental of $147,845 ; but in 1877 the quantity leased had fallen to little more than one million, and the rental was only $31,960. Of more than four million acres of land sold at that date, less than one mil- lion was under cultivation. The country had fallen into bad repute, and something more than a mere change of name is requisite to give the infant state a new start in life. The first years of the colony have been glanced at under the head of penal settlements, and need Y l\' JV' AUSTRALASIA. 415 '^m 52 AUSTRALASIA. 417 not be referred to in detail ; but a nevr regime was inaugurated after the system of transportation came to an end. A constitution was granted to the col- ony, permitting all persons who possessed property to the extent of $1,000 in leasehold, or $150 freehold, to vote for members of the Upper House, and all persons occupying or owning houses, of the value of $35 per aimum, or freehold projierty worth $350, to vote for members of the Commons. A commission in the army or navy, or holding a degree, or being in holy orders, entitled the person so distinguislied to exercise the franchise for both houses ; the actual fact being that education and respectability were the desiderata at which the constitution ainied^ through provisos as to freehold and leasehold prop- erty. The substratum of society could not be en- tirely excluded from a voice in the administration of affairs ; but checks were demanded. The system of government described as operating in the other colonies obtains also in Tasmania without material change. The governor, appointed by Great Britain, is allowed $17,500 ; and he is ad- vised by five responsible ministers, each of whom re- ceives $3,500 per year. As in all the other colonies, the ministers must hold a seat in the Upper or Lower House. The revenue of the government is derived mainly from customs, excise, and bonding duties ; the terri- torial revenues are small, and manufactures are inconsiderable. The public debt in 1880 was $8,934,- 000, resulting from loans incurred to prosecute public works; the debentures redeemable before 1903. Population does not increase rapidly, but there is an increase of about ten j^er cent. The \)V0- portion of uneducated persons is large, but decreas- ing. Immigration is very slightly in excess of emigration, tlie movement being almost entirely between the colonies, as Tasmania has no attractions for Eurojieans looking to Australia. The same may be said of the commerce of Tasmania ; it is purely local. Wool is the staple, but the island will repay ex|X!nditure of capital. Horses, cattle, sheep, and swine thrive ; the soil is fertile ; roads are excellent ; there are large beds of coal; iron ore and tin abound, and gold-fields have tx;en worked, which in 1879 gave returns to the value of about $739,000 ; exjiorts of tin in the same time exceeding $1,500,000. Kailroads were ojiened for traffic in 1871, and ex- tensions have been mafle that aggregated 179 miles at the beginning of 1880. The telegraph system is also state proi)erty, and at the commencement of 1880, 781 miles of line were being worked. The department does not yet pay expenses, but viewed as part of a system of police, it is indispensable. The colony called South Austraha occupies the central portion of the Australian continent, tetween 12° and 38° south latitude, and 129° and 141° east longitude, stretching from the Indian to the South- ern Ocean ; a territory about 3,000 miles long by 500 miles wide ; an area of 903,000 square miles, bound- ed on the east by Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland ; and on the West by Western Australia. The country is just ten times the size of Great Britain. Colonization has been confined almost entirely to a small section in the south of the greater area, and much of South Australia is yet unexplored. The prevalent characteristics of one colony are so nearly hke the features of each other, that a brief descrijition of South Australia may serve to dehne- ate in a sketchy manner the whole of the continent. Particular and detailed pictures of the territory would demand pen photographs, inconsistent with the design of this work, so we content ourselves with a few general observations. There are parts of tlie Pacific slope on this con- tinent that so closely resemble Australian contours, that it is easy to believe that the two countries were at one time a continuous territory, subject to like influences for a geologic era ; but there are no Andes nor great mountain ranges to give grandeur to the scene. Mountains, as they are called, in that country, might be described as mere foot-hills. The principal range in South Australia, known as the Flinders, rises north of the head of St. Vincent's Gulf, and runs several hundred miles north to Lake Bhinche ; continuing, after a break by the hills called the Ilummooks, to Port Wakefield, due south and soutlieast, by ranges to Cape Jervis. At intervals. Flinders Range is followed by similar elevations, the higliest points on Musgrave and Macdonnell being about 4,000 feet above the sea. Mount Lofty, the background of Adelaide, capital of the colony, is 2,334 feet high ; and mounts Remarkal)le and Brown reach 3,300 feet. A succession of hills is all that can be said for tlieni, by men who have seen the Cordilleras or the Altitudes in Colorado. The slopes and vallevs are often of croat beautv, and dotted ^c ^^ 418 AUSTRALASIA. with homesteads, have a peaceful charm ; but in many districts the soil is light, covered with scrub and brushwood. Considerable areas near the hills tell of the drenching rains that at times wash the vegetal matter and fertilizing salts from the ranges, and have made tracts of superb farm land not surpassed in the world. Where the Mallee scrub once flourished, there are good pasture lands, not the most fertile, but ex- cellent third-rate territory, on which squatters make fortunes, and over parts of which farmers combine grazing with agriculture. Saltbush and Myall Country, in the far North, remind the traveler of the saltbush plains, that used to torture pilgrims to Utah, in the days of Brigham's " Hand-Cart Brig- ades " ; and on which so many hundred gallant fel- lows laid down their lives, during the early exodus to the Californiau gold-fields. There are no great lakes. Where such desirable features are promised, the depth is inconsiderable, and the heat of summer leaves little more than a swamjD. The country wants only extensive irrigation, to make a paradise for farmers and raisers of cattle. India already looks to Australasia for supplies of horses, and the wool of the continent is never surpassed. Wheat of the finest grade is produced in Austraha, and it would bo difficult to name a fruit that will not flourish. The Murray is the only river of any volume in South Austraha, and tliat is common to the three great colonies. It runs into the Southern Ocean, within the territory we are describing, rising near mount Kosciusko, New South Wales, and forming the boundary between that colony, Victoria, and South Australia; running about 2,400 miles, of which extent nearly 2,000 miles is navigable. The mouth is impeded by a shifting sand-bar, but that is no great difficulty. The rivers generally diminish from fair streams to creeks in summer, often becoming a mere succession of water-holes. There are lakes in the colony, the principal being Alex- andrina and Albert — almost the only fresh-water lakes, the great majority being small and brackish. The flora of the Australian continent is decidedly limited ; set down a traveler in any part of the country, and it would be hardly possible for him to determine from the vegetation around him which of the colonies he inhabited, except that he could pro- nounce between the extremes of north and south. Forest lands are mostly in the mountainous districts. The deep gullies are covered thickly with shrubs and ferns, and the table lands are well grassed. Vege- tables or European fruits grow abundantly in the gullies, and on the grass lands wheat comes to per- fection. The scrub lands fail more on account of surface water than from any want in the compo- nents of the soil. The saltbush is excellent feed for sheep and cattle, and the country can sustain almost unlimited stock. Artificial grasses thrive, and most squatters have some portion of their lands improved by their iutroduction for fattening their cattle and sheep. The climate of the peopled portions of South Aus- tralia resembles that of Southern Europe ; parts of Spain and Italy seem to be reproduced on the new continent, but the Alps and Pyrenees are wanting, and the idleness of both countries may also besought in vain. The heat of the country does not oppress as much as lower temperatures on this continent, the atmosphere being less humid. There are but few days iu the year in which the colonist desists from out-door labor on account of the sun, or of the hot winds — a kind of sirocco — that blow across the coji- tinent and strike all animal and vegetable life with desiccating dryness. March, April and May are pleas- ant months, and September, October and November. The spring and early summer could hardly be desired more beautiful. Aborigines are seldom lovely, and still less fre- quently lovable ; the Australian is no exception. They were never powerful in numbers or physique except in some few regions, and they are dying off, having no desire to learn the arts of civilization- Schools established for their benefit do not win their regard, and although they profess any creed in re- turn for gifts of tobacco, their acquirements always end in smoke. It is supposed that they are allied, to the Papuans, as although black, they are not of the Negro type. Their hair curls, but is not woolly. The men are not muscular, but tliey are tolerably well formed, built of bone and sinew. The women, worn out by incessant drudgery in the service of then" thankless masters, are perhaps the least jDrepos- sessmg human beings to be found on this footstool. They have few accomjilishments and no ambition to rise above the status in which nature and accident have placed them. The weapons of the men are spears, throwing-sticks, waddies and boomerangs, and ^ ^v*- ^ AUSTRALASIA. 419 they make shields of bark with which they will defend themselves from the assaults of numerous enemies as long as the assailants are not at close quarters. The fii'st year of this century was signaUzed from an Australian standpoint by the discovery of por- tions of South Austraha by Lieutenant Grant of H. M. S. Lady Nelson, but it was not until 1803 that the country was surveyed by Cajjtain Flinders. That gentleman was not very favorably impressed, or he failed to convey his impressions to others, as the country was left severely alone for almost an aver- age hfetime after the visit of the investigator. A wiser and more daring exj)lorer, Captain Sturt, in 1830, found his way from the Murvumbidgee to the Murray, and followed that river to its mouth in En- counter Bay, traversing the territory from New South Wales. The I'esult of that journey, and the report of the ca^jtaiu was an aijplicatiou of gentle- men in London to the home government. An un- favorable reply, from the powers that were, deferred action for three vears, but in 1834 the colony was founded on condition that no convicts should be sent there. The first governor landed in Holdfast Bay in 1836, but prior to Captain Hindmarsh's arrival, the colony had been governed by commissioners. Nomi- nee government continued until 1851, when a con- stitution granted partial election of the legislature. In 1856 responsible administration became the law under the system already described. Six ministers advise the crown, and are answerable to parlia- ment for the management of afEairs. The governor, wlio is commander-in-chief of the forces, receives ^"25,000, and ministers are paid 85,000 per year each. Public works of various kinds have been undertaken, including railroads, aud that has resulted in a debt of 833,110,000. There were in 1879, 533 miles of railroad in use, and 405 miles in construction, be- sides 5,686 of telegraph line, inclusive of a line across the continent of 3,000 miles. The population of the colony exceeds 350,000 persons. Wool, wheat and flour, and copper ore are thesta- 2)lea, and mining operations are extensively carried on, but nothing has yet been done in the way of ex- ploiting the iron ore of the country. Great enterprise has been displayed by the colony in exploring the in- terior of the continent. About 350,000 sijuare miles of territory are put to profitable use. Farmers are permitted to take up lands after survey with the ad- vantage of credit to the extent of 1,000 acres of ordinary lands, or of 640 acres of lands reclaimed by drainage. Lands bought and sold in the colony pass by registration under tlie Torrens Act, and the saving in expense is great. The tarifE of the colony imposes the highest duties on articles that can be manufactured in the country, but the people that administer the law call it incidental protection. There is only one colony that directly advocates and insists on protectionist legislation in the Austrahan grouij, and that is Victoria. The northern territory annexed to this colony has one prosperous settlement at Port Darwin. The climate is tropical, the rainy season commencmg in October and continumg five months ; the greatest heat and rain coming together. Fever and ague is the great trial to which settlers are liable. The soil is fertile, and all tropical fruits flourish. Alluvial mines have been opened in many localities and are paying ; but the population shows 3,070 Chinese and Malays to only 400 Europeans. Victoria, once the Port Phihp District of New South Wales, and at one time called Australia Felix, was first settled in 1835. The area of the country is not extensive, but the enterprise of the popula- tion and other advantages have given the commun- ity a lead in the affairs of the grou^i, that is not likely to be soon lost. Victoria is the southernmost colony on the conti- nent, between the 34th and 39th i^arallels of south latitude, and between the 141st and 150th meridi- ans of east longitude. Its coast hue is about GOO geographical miles, extreme length from east to west about 430, and its greatest breadth about 350 miles. The colony embraces one thirty-fourth of the con- tinent, being 88,198 square miles, a little less than the area of the main island of Great Britain. Blun- ders in defining tlie territorial lines between the col- onies have given to Victoria a considerable strip of country, that properly Ijelongs to Soutli Australia. The bounds of Victoria, landwards, liave already been given. She is shut in by the two sister colonies and tlie Murray. The soutliern boundary is the southern ocean, Bass's Straits and the Pacific. Cajv taiu Cook, in 1770, siglited Point Hicks, in what is now Victoria, the country probably having been vis- ited by navigators more tluui a century earlier. Western Port was discovered in 1798, and the strait '-^ 420 AUSTRALASIA. that divides the contuient from the Van Diemen's Laud was sailed through and named for Bass in the same year. Port Phihp Bay, the harbor of Mel- bourne, was discovered in 1802, and after that time the country became well known to the leading men of New South Wales; but its value as a j^astoral region was not understood for one-third of a cen- tury. Colonel Collins, in charge of conAdcts, at- tempted to settle the territory in 1803, but happily he abandoned the enterprise in 1804, declaring the land unfit for habitation. Twenty years later the country was traversed by colonists from New South Wales, but settlement did not follow for ten years. In November, 1834, the Brothers Henty, interested in whaling, established their home at Portland, and remained in that section, although their occupations changed to squatting soon afterwards. The first settlement in Melbourne was made in May following by Batman, who bought of the natives 600,000 acres of land. Fawkuer, who always asserted that he was the founder of the city, sent a party in August, and himself entered the settlement in October. The name Austraha Felix was bestowed on the western portion of the country in 1836, by the explorer, Major Mitchell, since knighted. The administration of law in the settlement was inaugurated in the same year by Captain Lonsdale, resident magistrate, and from that date regular government was the rule. The governor of New South Wales visited and named Melbourne in 1837, and half acres of land were sold in the village for ^175. In 1851 Victoria was allowed to assume control of its own affairs. Gold had been discovered in several places, by squatters, but the significance of the "find" was not comprehended; it was only feared that publicity given to the auriferous condition of the soil would raise the wages of labor, and disincline the working class to serve as shepherds. The establishment of self government was immediately followed by more vigorous action. Active search for payable fields com- menced, and finds were reported, in July and Aug- ust. In September of that year all Melbourne was on the march toward Buuinyong, where a good lead had been found. The government imposed an extraordinary license fee on gold miners ; a tax so great that only a few of the diggers could pay the imposition in advance. Gold-field commissioners and mounted police were sent to the gold regions, to arrest men found mining without a permit. Thousands of men on the gold- fields in the most prosperous times did not reahze as much money from their operations as would have enabled them to pay the demands of the govern- ment and buy food. Sir Charles Hotham was sent out as governor by the mother country, and he brought with him the manners of a man-of-war captain, impressed with the necessity for rigorous proceedings against the diggers. His line of policy was to worry the miners into rebellion by incessant hunting for licenses, and then crush them into submission by an overwhelm- ing display of military force. He was successful. The miners of Ballarat built a stockade at Eureka, and jDresented front against the injustice with which they were treated ; but they were not able to with- stand the force of soldiery and police sent against them. The rebellion was suppressed, as were other emeutes on other gold-fields, and many prisoners were taken. There was an attempt to rally the people gener- ally in Melbourne, in support of the governor, but the demonsti-ation was a failure, resulting only in calling out the mass of the population to denounce his high-handed proceedings. The martinet discov- ered that his work was only commenced, and he induced his secretary, Mr. Poster, to resign his office, assuming the blame that properly belonged to his superior. That was the end of absolutism in Victoria. The new constitution was proclaimed in 1855, and after that the ballot was introduced, followed by an abolition of property qualification for members of the Assembly, and after a little while by universal male suffrage for yoters for that house. Property qualification for voters and members of the council continues to be the law, but in each case the require- ment has been reduced. Non-payment of members was found practically a disqualification of the non- propertied classes, and in consequence the people commenced agitating for that concession to justice. They were met on the threshold by the refusal of the upper house, representing property, to concur in any such measure. To allow jpayment of members was to diminish the power of the wealthier classes, and the fight was continued for years ; but in the end the popular party, carrying the war into Africa, won the battle, and now there cannot be found on this footstool a more comj)lete presentation of -% AUSTRALASIA. 421 r AUSTRALASIA. 423 democratic government than is offered by the colony of Victoria. Gold was raised in Victoria in the first year of the gold-fields to the value of $2,902,940, the mines not being opened, in reality, until September. In the next year the total exceeded 855,000,000, and in the following year, 863,000,000. It is useless to repro- duce the figures for each year from that date to the present time ; the vast population, that was almost exclusively employed on the gold-fields, has been largely called off to more satisfactory pursuits, and as a consequence the totals have dwindled under that head to an aggregate of about 815,000,000 in 1879, the total to that date being about 8976,34(3,- 920. The calculation presented is based on an aver- age of 820 jDer ounce for gold, and economists are well content to see the totals diminish, seeing that gold has never been raised to the price for which it sells. Victoria commenced its public debt in 1855 with a triflmg loan of about 82,400,000. Its total in 1879 exceeded 8100,250,000, all incurred for imblic works, ou which sum the interest has never been behind by one day. There are 1,125 miles of railroads in operation, as shown by the returns in 1879, and at that time 165 miles in addition had been authorized by parhament. There were in use at the same date, 5,736 miles of wire in telegraphic work, and the number of messages exceeded 1,000,000 annually, the rates havmg Iwen reduced, to bring the service within the reach of the poorer classes. All these works are the property of the state, and many others, including docks and the Yan Yean water works, are valuable assets. The gold-fields are being supplied with expensive reservoirs, some assisted by the gov- ernment, and others entirely at the cost of the state, rates being charged for water supply. The governor is allowed 850,000 per year, besides $10,000 for rent of tlie residence at Toorak ; and the ministers are paid : 810,000 to the premier, 88,000, to tlie attorney-general, and 87,500 to the otlier seven. Tiic leader of the miners in the rebelhon at Ballarat, Mr. Lalor, is now speaker of the assembly, with a salary of 87,500 per year. Members of the lower house are paid : 81,500 per year. Memlxjrs are elected to the assembly for three years, subject to dissolution, and to the council for ten years, a fifth of the body retiring every two years. The population of Victoria to the present time, is aViout WO.Oon. Cold, wonl. tallow, and preserved meats are staple imports ; wheat is also exported, but not in such quantities as to challenge a place in the record. The country is by far the most densely populated of the Australian colonies, with the most complete educational system, although it has not yet arrived at the eminence of being compulsory. The colony has an armed force and a navy for defense. New Zealand is known to have teen visited by Tasman in 1G42, and again by Cook m 1769, but was not colonized until long after. It consists of two groujjs, the nortli and middle islands ; but there are also several outlying islands, including South, or Stewart Island and Chatham Island. The coast line is about 3,000 miles, the group aggregating 1,000 miles in length by about 200 miles across. Its area approximates to 105,342 square miles, about two- thirds being fit for pastoral purposes and agriculture. The population in 1854 was 32,554, exclusive of maories, and the number in 1879 was reported 463,- 729, of which total about 300,000 were able to read and write. Gold-fields were first opened in 1857, in which year over 8200,000 value was raised. Li the following year there was a slight increase, followed by decreasmg jaelds for two years, after which tetter " finds " were struck, showing in 1861 nearly 84,000,- 000, the next nearly 88,000,000, and sub-sequent yields that api^roximated to 814,000,000. The total yield, to the end of 1879, being 8180,635,410. The maori, or native population, in 1878, according tore- turns then obtained, aggregated 43,595. They are very intelligent aborigines, capable of receivmg civil- ization, and as farmers, are persevering and success- ful. In war a large amount of courage and skill has been displayed by them, taxing the powers of the colonists, and British military forces. Tlie maories are now peacefully disposed. The present government was established hx stat- ute in 1852, dividing the colony into six provinces, which were afterwards increased to nine. The suf- frage is practically household, gi^Tiig a vote to every person that is beneficially interested in the countrv. The system of government by provinces was sujier- seded in 1875, when superintendents and provincial otti(_'crs gave place to local bciards and the governor. JjCgislation is vested in a parliament of two clvam- bers, each member of cither house being paid 81,050 per session. Four aborigines arc elected to the lower liouse bv tlic maories. Tlie govornor is the execu- 53 424 AUSTRALASIA. tive, having in consideration of his duties as gover- nor and commander-in-chief of the forces, ^37,500 per year as salary and allowance. He is advised by nine ministers, who are responsible for the adminis- tration of their departments, and for the general management of affairs. Two maories are always included in the cabinet, but they are not in charge of any branch of the government. The home gov- ernment used to control native affairs until 1863, but since that date the colonists have been in the enjoyment of full responsibility. The seat of the general .government is at Wellington since 1864 ; up to that date the capital was Auckland. Public works have been very expensive in New Zealand, and their prose- cution has in- volved the col- ony in a consid- erable debt, part of wliich is guar- anteed by the Imperial gov- ernment. The total to 1879 was $119,791,- 550. The Chinese in New Zealand numbered 4,382 in 1878, and of that number only eight were females. The natives of the Flowery Land have the same peculiarity in all their travels; they leave their better-halves under the shelter of " the Brother of the Sun and the Moon." They are not valued as colonists, partly on that account,1)ut they are industrious and frugal, and grow rich on land that would hardly give bread to Europeans, either as gar- deners or as miners. In some of the Australian col- onies Chinese are subject to special taxation, to ex- clude them. Population in New Zealand increases more rapidly by excess of births over deaths, and by immigration, than in any other colony iii the group, and exports are increasing. Commerce in twenty years to 1878 has grown more than twenty-fold. The staple ex- '^^^ ports are wool, corn, flour, kaurie-gum and pre- served meat. Gold was exported in 1875 to the amount of 318,367 ounces ; in 1876 to the extent of 371,865 ounces, and in 1877, 310,486 ounces. Rail- roads were commenced in 1872, at the cost of the state by loans, and at the end of 1879 there were 1,171 miles open for traffic, besides 284 miles in course of construction. At the same date the length of electric telegraph in use aggregated 3,512 miles, which had sent during the preceding year 1,448,943 messages. The General Assembly in 1879 sanctioned further constructions to the extent of 938 miles ex- tra broad, to be completed with- in the five years then ensuing. The completed lines, when pre- pared for ser- vice, are to cost $80,000,000. The system of government in this colony is in the main similar to that describ- ed in connec- tion with other colonies. Each colony is per- mitted to draft its own consti- tution, provided that it embodies the principle of responsible admin- istration ; but when the form has been adopted, as for instance in the case of Victoria, an appeal for change, beyond what is contemplated in the original instrument, is received by the imperial government, with a tone and demeanor that seems to say, "You have made your choice and must content yourselves to work out your own salvation." The bicameral system is by all the colonies treated as indisi^ensable ; but in course of time, in many of the states single chambers must be resorted to, because of the unac- commodating spirit that is manifested. The re- sponsibility of rule can be borne by one chamber as well as by two or more. We have already glanced at Queensland under the name of Moreton Bay, forming part of the penal -" — ^k. AUSTRALASIA. 425 colony of New South Wales. That name ended when the settlement was cut adrift from its old asso- ciations, and the better title, Queensland, was be- stowed with the constitution and- powers of respon- sible government. Earliest colonization dates from the year 1825, when the first shipment of "goyern- ment men" arrived. That was the euphonious method by which convicts were indicated ; they were "■ government men." Seventeen years elapsed from that arrival, and in 1843 the country was thrown open to free settlers. An enumeration four years later showed a population of 2,257, including free and felon, and the transportation systern at an end. The virus had not gone far enough to establish a,c\xtQ pywiiiia, as in Tasmania. Change of name and improved habits have placed the country among the best conditioned communities. The boundaries of Queensland are on the north, the gulf of Carpentaria on the east, the Pacific Ocean on the south, the colony of New South Wales on the west ; the 141st meridian of longitude from the 29th to the 36th parallel and thence to the 138th meridian, north, to the gulf first named, " including all and every the adjacent islands^ their members and appurtenances, in the Pacific Ocean and in the Gulf of Carpentaria." The dimensions were estab- lished by Her Majestjr's order in council, when the first governor arrived, in December, 1859, and inau- gurated responsible administration. Parliament consists, as in Great Britain, of two houses : the council of thirty members, nominated for life by the crown ; the commons, or assembly of 55 members, chosen by ballot from as many electorates ; voting among males being as wide as taxation. Holders of property, either leasehold or freehold, are in addition permitted to cast a ballot for each property, as well as for their residence. Considering the origin of the community, it is perhaps but natural that prop- erty should have been fenced about with safeguards. The governor of Queensland, commander-in-chief and vice-admiral, as his commission runs, is allowed a salary from the imperial authorities, like all other such officials, merely to define his character as a civil servant, somewhere about $5,000 per annum ; his allowance from the colony being $25,000 per annum. Responsible ministers, to the number of six, are paid $5,000 per year each, and are answer- able to parliament for every act of the administra- tion, as well as for their personal deeds. The rev- enues of the colony are derived mainly from sales and rents of public lands, customs duties, and ex- cise. Public works and aid to immigration have compelled the country to incur a public debt. In 1879 the total liability of the colony was $50,960,- 430, but in the year last passed the parliament authorized the administration to raise a new loan of 115,000,000. Considering the vast area of the country, 669,530 square miles with a seaboard of 2,350 miles, and that the debt is a first charge on all lands and revenues, the public creditor is of course perfectly safe, and would be though the liability were largely increased. The population of the colony does not increase rapidly. It is depend- ent on Chinese and South Sea Islanders for a large part of all recent arrivals, and even with such ques- tionable aids, the immigration of 1879 only aggre- gated 6,896, while the emigration for the same term amounted to 8,134. Similar results were chronicled in the preceding year, although the figures were not quite so unfavorable. The chmate is semi-tropical, and Europeans suiier so severely from exposure to the heat, that none remain in the cou.ntry longer than is absolutely necessary to j)rotect their inter- ests. The population in 1879 amounted to 217,851, including 13,269 Chmese at work on the gold-fields. The number of Aborigines in the territory appears to be undetermined. Wool is the staple export, the other items being of small amount, including preserved meat, copper, and gold. Cotton and sugar-cane are said to flour- ish ui Queensland ; they have certainly been accli- mated successfully, but the supply of suitable labor is so limited, that some time must elapse before tlie returns ujoon the outlay will sensibly affect the ex- ports of the colony. There are probably about 25,000 acres under sugar-cane at the present time. Livestock does not flourish quite so well as in Vic- toria, but the figures under that head are satisfac- tory. Coal-mines have been opened and promise continuous yields ; gold-mines, which were entered on in 1867, gave $6,532,155 value in precious metal in 1877. Railroads in operation in 1878 amounted to 398 miles, and at that time 113 miles in addition were in course of construction. At the end of 1877 the telegraph service of the colony employed 5,239 miles of wire with 113 stations. Like all the other colonies having resjDonsible government in the Australian group, Queensland has an agent general ^■ _^s 426 AUSTRALASIA. ill London, whose duties are mainly to keep the friends of the colony in parhament advised as to its interests, which, added to the dignity of having such an officer, is perhaps a justification for the outlay involved. The excejitional conditions of Western Australia, the only penal settlement now retamed by Great Britain, and retained as such at its own solicitation, removes that colony from the category in which the other colonies of the group appear. It is the Ishmael of settlements, and if the hand of every other colony is not against it, the reason must be sought in the fact that its conditions are too feeble to demand much energy in dealing with all the mis- chief tliat it is capable of accomplishing. It is also supjjosed in its defense that " its poverty and not its will consents" to receive such poor yokefellows in the difficult task of building up a colony in Western Australia. The area of the territoiy is great, esti- mated at 1,000,000 square miles, its greatest length being from north to south 1,600 miles, and from east to west 1,000 miles. The actually colonized territory is within an area of about 600 miles by 150. The outlying territory operates as a kind of sanitary ground, over which the infected cannot approach the other colonies. Vessels from the pariah settlement are subjected to strict examin- ation and social quarantine regulations on their entry to healthy ports. More severe measures were once threatened. There is not responsible government, only the nominee system that has been mentioned before. The governor, who is paid $12,500 per year, dis- charges executive functions, and calls to his aid a legislative council of 21 members, seven nominated and the remainder elected. Property qualifications are demanded from voters and representatives ; in one case a minimum of $50 per year, and in the other of $5,000 in landed property. Instead of a respon- sible ministry there is an executive council, composed of officials, including the judiciary, the professional heads of departments, and six secretaries of state. The governor, within the instructions given to him with his commission, or subsequent directions from the colonial office in London, is dictator in the colony. His councilors have no control. The income of the state is derived from sales of land, leases, licenses, and customs ; added to an imperial grant in aid of $76,620 per annum. In the year 1879 Western Australia incurred a debt for the construction of a railroad, amounting in all to $1,805,000. At the end of 1879 there were 78 miles of road ojien for traffic. The territory, as defined by the royal commission, includes all that portion of New Holland to the west of 129° east longitude. The first settlement was made in 1829, and 21 years later the gross total was only about 6,000 persons, bond and free. The last census, taken in 1871, showed only a population of 25,35.3, nearly 1,800 of whom were prisoners. The exports of the colony consist almost entirely of wool and lead ore ; the value of wool in 1879, the highest point reached, was $787,945 ; and the lead ore exports for that year aggregated $56,875. Coal has been found in small quantities, and recent investigations favor the belief that the colony is rich in minerals, including copper. It is higlily probable that the Australasian colon- ies will, in the course of a few years, constitute themselves a republic after the manner of the United States, the home government being willing to afford the colonists every facility to carry out desires for independence whenever the popular will may take that form ; and almost inevitably the city of Mel- bourne will be the capital of the nation in the day which no loyal Australian would wish to hasten. The Queen of Great Britain has no portion of her well-ruled empire in which her name is more revered tliau in Australia, but in the progress of human affairs, change is certain. ^i ^ CHAPTER LXVIII. The Great Britain of the East — The Country Described — The Cities of Japan — Products AND Population— Mines — Early History — Japan in the time of C^sar— The Great Queen — Introduction from China op Letters and Philosophy — Buddhism Introduced — First Contact tvith Europeans — Jesuit Missions— The Dutch in Japan— Tycoon Iyeyas — Two Centuries of Peace — America and Japan — Fall of the Daimios — Christian Cal- endar Adopted — New Japan — Japanese Idolatry and Sintuism — Transportation — Mod ERN Missions — Japanese Literature. xAl Neppon, or Nihon, is the native name of that " Sunrise Kingdom/' known to Europe and America as Japan. This land of the dawn, which we are to visit, is not a part of the continent of Asia, sustaining to it much tlie same relation that Great Britain does to Europe. Japan consists of four large islands and numerous minor isles, embracing " The Thousand Islands " of the Ori- ent. The four large islands are Nipon, or Niphon, with an area of 95,000 square miles ; Yesso, with 30,000 square miles ; Kin- sin, area 16,000 square miles ; Sikok, 10,000. The entire area, including the 3,846 small islands, is about 150,000 square miles. The total length of the empire is 1,600 miles from north to south. Conse- quently the climate varies widely, but as a whole it belongs to the temperate zone. Japan is the home of earthquakes. The country is mountainous ; the mountains show volcanic effects. Tlie highest peak, Fusiyama, 14,170 feet high, is an extinct volcano. The rivers are short, shallow and rapid. Throughout the empire there is only one fresh-water lake of any considerable extent. That is called Biwako, or Lake Orni. Near this lake is the city of Miako, or Saikio, the western, or ancient, capital. Tokio, commonly called Yeddo, is the eastern capital. The former was long kept sacred from the intrusion of foreign- ers. It was built about 1100 years ago. It is almost surrounded by mountains. This ancient capital has a population of about 380,000 inhabitants. Tokio has about three times that number of people. The most important seaport of Japan is Yokohama, the third city in size. Its spacious and paciiic harbor affords protection for ships. It is ou the bay of Yeddo, and only twenty miles from the national capital. Osaca, on the island of Nipon, is second only to Tokei in population. Next to Yokohama in size ranks Nagasaki, on the island of Kinsin. Neigata, on the northeast coast of Nipon, Kobe, near Osaca, and Hokodate, on Yesso, are the remaining cities of some magnitude. Japan is highly cultivated, so far as it is arable. The jDopulation, by the census of 1873, was 33,110,- 835, and it requires good tillage to support so large a number of inhabitants on an area so small, as com- (427) ^i 42c JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. pared with populatiou. The same census gave the number of farmers as 14,870,426. The mulberry tree,-with its silk-worm, and the tea-pla-nt, furnish t-he main articles of export. Kaw silk goes to Europe in large quantities. The surplus tea of the country finds its way, most of it, to this country. For home consumption rice is the chief product of Japan. It exports more to the United States than to any other country, and imjjorts more from England than from any other, although the import trade with the United States is late years, but it is still a very imijortant feature of Japanese resources. It is now time to turn our attention to history. It is impossible to fix a boundary line between f al)le and reality, legend and authentic historj', with any degree of precision. The Japanese have a literature running far back into the remote past, and some things are credited by them which are simply incredi- ble. The i3eople themselves believe that they had national existence about 2500 years previous to the present empire. nicreasmg very rajDidly. Speaking of the rural popu- lation, a recent visitor to that country writes, " The farmers are a simple- hearted and in- dustrious race. Eakes, sj^ades, and jdIows used by them are of rude construc- tion. Sometimes the plows are drawn by oxen, but just as fre- quently by men, women or chil- dren. They show great kindness to animals, very few of which, however, are to be found in tlie em- pire." The .grass in Japan is so coarse that sheep and cattle cannot thrive upon it. The few domes- tic beasts of Japan are fed on grain exclusively. The people live almost exclusively on rice, fish and radishes, with some potatoes, fowl, onions, pump- kins, and the like. The fruits of Jajjan are of an in- ferior quality. The mines in Japan are very important. Gold, silver and copper are exported in large quantities and have been for a long time. It is said that be- tween the years of 1550 and 1639, the Portuguese exported from that country not less thanS297,500,- 000 in gold and silver. The yield has fallen off in SCENE IN TOKIO. and that was established by Zinmu about 2,500 years ago. According to that the period of the Japanese world does not d iiler much from the period of the Christian and Hebrew world. This Zinmu was a great war- rior, and estab- lished his king- dom over the entire area of Japan. It was in Ms day that the people of that country learned to di- vide time with some degree of accuracy into months and years. That fact perhaps, rather than any great exploits and conquests, makes the year B. C. 667 the begin- ning of definite computation and narration in Japan. The emperor, or mikado, was also high- priest, or pope. The first capital was Kaswabara, but it was changed several times. Saikio, or Miako, was the capital for nearly a thousand years. It was removed from there to Tokei in 1867, as one of the results of the great revolution to be explained later. Native writers agree in stating that the total number of emperors in unbroken fine was one hundred and twenty -four. The emperor, or mikado, became so ^2= ^.^ JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 429 sacred and august a personage that he could not stoop to practical statesmanship, and for a jseriod of six; hundred years the real rulers were the tycoons, or shio- goons. Origin- ally the tycoons were the mili- tary chieftains. They ruled by fear and fre- quently involv- ed the country in civil war over their rival and hostile ambi- tions. The first cen- sus of Japan was taken B. C. 97. The emper- or who caused this enumera- ' tion of his su-bjects was Sujintenno. He built a powerful navy and established commercial relations with Corea, ir- is 11 Hon B4&HI BRIDOcE, TOKIO rigated the arid land an d drained the lakes. Evi- dently he was a great statesman. It was his suc- cessor, Quinin- tenno, who abol- ished the hid- eous practice of requiring the empress and her court to commit hari-kari upon the death of the emperor. His humane reforms extended to oth- er things, and the actual civil- ization of Japan was greatly advanced by him. He also paid much attention to irrigation. During JAPANESE SOLDIERS. his reign 800 canals and ponds were constructed in the interest of agriculture. After him came Kekotenno,who had the land surveyed and large grain ware- houses built, in which the sur- plus of the years of plenty could be stored for use in the years of scarcity. In the year A. D. 200, a wo- man ascended the throne of Japan, Jingu Kogu, the widow of the emper- or Chiuaitenno. She had been lier husband's companion in arms, and her scepter was a sword. She led her army to victory over Corea. She acquired more renown than any jjredecessor, and to this day the painters and poets of Japan delight in set- ting forth her exploits. At that time the art of working in silk was unknown in the emioire. It was introduced from Corea dur- ing the reign of her son. Late , in the third century of the Christian era, Chinese lit- erature and let- ters were introduced into Japan, and Confucius became the great philosopher and teacher of the ^TTF 430 JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. xw Japanese. His practical ideas commendea them- selves to their approval, and they adopted him as their intellectual father. The introduction of Chinese letters was a very great event. " Prior to that event," says Lanman, " their own tongue does not appear to have been reduced to writ- ing." About that time the favorite Jajjanese mu- sical instrument, the koto, was invented. The emperor, Osinteuno, son of Jingu Kogu, also intro- duced from China improvements in silk culture and grand on the little island of Eno-Shima. It is called Dai Butsu, or "The Great Buddha." The mild and meditative religion of Buddha did not jjrevent war, civil or foreign. An attempt was made to subjugate China. It resulted in failure and the bootless invasion of Japan by the Chinese. It was found that eitlier could repel the other; neither could subjugate the other. Even among the disciples of Buddha in Japan there arose war. The priests quarreled so bitterly that to their animosity manufacture. Dikes were constructed to guard against inundation, and rice-mills built. The first- national history dates from A. D. 400. One hundred years later Buddhism was introduced. It also came through the gateways of Corea and China, and it found ready acceptance, rapidly dis- placing the old Sintu worship. The national char- acter was very materially modified by this religious innovation. The higher classes were especially in- fluenced by it, and it became the fashion fortlie em- perors to abdicate and adopt the life and habit of the Buddhist priesthood. One of the truly great works of art in JajDan is the bronze image of Buddha, fifty feet high and ad- mirable in proportion, which stands solitary and is attributed a great conflagration, which in 1536 destroyed about one-half of the capital. During the period known as the Dark Ages in Europe, Japan was on very nearly the same plane, as regards civil- ization, as that continent. The records of that period in both cases should be written with blood. The first connection between Japan and Europe, so far as known, dates from 1541. Some Portuguese traders voyaging from Siam to China were wrecked on the coast of Kinsin. The nation'al records make mention of the fact on account of the firearms which the strangers had. Two years later the Portuguese opened important communications with Japan for tlie double purposes of traffic and evangelization. The Jesuits and the merchants kept each other com- -7- ^i ^.^ JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 431 -* pauy. It was in 1549 that Francis Xavier, called " the bright and morning star of modern missions," visited Japan. He spent ten years in the establish- ment and superintendence of Jesuit missions in In- dia, Ceylon, Japan and Malacca, baptizing, it is said, a million converts. Two of those ten years were spent in Japan. Such was the progress made by missionaries of the cross, that Tycoon Nobu Nanga who rose to eminence in 1557, like Constantino the Great, espoused the cause of Christ from motives of policy. He waged war up- on the Buddhists, begin- ning his crusade in 1569. A great many lives were taken and temples de- stroyed. The Jesuits were delighted with their prog- ress. In 1581 their com- munion numbered 150,- 000. But the triumph was short, and the reaction destructive. Buddhism had a firm hold upon the people, especially the higher classes, and the seeming prosperity of the Jesuits was due to no real sympathy with their mis- sion. With a change of power came tlie reaction, and the Jesuits were swept out of the country, utterly and ruthlessly. They appealed to the sword, and fell by it. In 1585 they were ordered to leave the country within twenty days, and desist at once from jjreaching and baptizing. Those who should disregard the warning were threatened with- death. But for some time the execution of the threat was evaded. The Jesuits had sliips of their own, and the tycoon concluded that instead of send- ing them away it would be better to employ those ships in war with Core a. It was the last year of the sixteenth century that the English and Dutch mariners first visited Japan. The English never made much headway in estab- lishing commercial relations with that country until our own times. The Dutch were more successful. 54 JAPANESE WOMEN. They seem to have succeeded in convincmg the Jap- anese authorities that they had no religious designs, but were purely commercial and financial in their purposes. Such certamly was the fact, and for quite a long period after the representatives of all other parts of Europe had been expelled, the Dutch were allowed to maintain a trading post at the island of Hirado, and the j^rofits realized from this monopoly of European commerce were very considerable. The overthrow of this monop- oly was brought about by the United States. But before passing to that re- volutionary event we must return to the political affairs of the empire. During the year 1600 a battle was fought near Lake Orni which gave to lyeyas total authority over the country. This soon removed the capital to Yeddo. He gave the country a most admirable system of laws, and estab- lished justice upon so firm a foundation that for more tlian two hundred years after his deatl\ the land had peace. No por- tion of Christendom could ever boast so conspicuous practical exemplification of the religion of the Prince of Peace as the The first American ship in man-of-war commanded by The naval Jajjan of that period. Japanese waters was a Commodore Bidell. That was in 1846. visit which accomplished practical results was made iby Commodore M. C. Perry in 1853. He negotiated a commercial treaty with Japan wliich was the be- ginning of one of the most radical revolutions that country ever exjjerienced. The next year Sir James Sterling of the British navy arrived at Nogasaki, de- termined to secure for England as much latitude of commerce with Japan as had been granted to the United States, and he was successful. Other nations followed, and the Dutch monopoly fell, and with it Japanese exclusiveness, to a very consider- iV 1^ 432 JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. able extent. Trade was limited and hedged about with many restrictions. The new joolicy was firmly established by 1858. Japan, like France and Italy, haditsKenaissance. It began aboixt the first of the eighteenth century. There was a great revival of learning, a mighty intellectual development. The government at Yeddo, as it was then called, had presumed too much and gone too far in ignoring the law- ful authority of the Mikado at Mikio. AYhen in 1868 the Tycoon, now for the first time officially taking this title, negotiated treaties by which foreigners were al- lowed some com- mercial privileges, that innovation was made the occasion of revolution. The battle of Fushimi was fouglit, and the daimios and their leader put down. Suddenly as if by magic the power which had been supreme for centuries wascrush- ed and the Mikado moved from Kioto to Yeddo, hence- forth Tokio, and became in fact, as in theory, the supreme authoritj' in the nation. The immediate object of the revolution vpas not obtained. The Mikado found that what the Tycoon had assented to he could not escape from. The foreign go'vernments were quite too powerful and their navies too strong to be defied by a kingdom of islands. A little injury was inflicted upon property owned by foreigners and a few outrages committed (for which ample indemnity was soon paid), and then the Japanese accepted the situation. The government and the great mass of the people were so well pleased to be rid of the daimio desj)otism that they were in no humor to maintain a quarrel with foreigners. "Finding," says an able writer, "it impossible to drive out the foreigners, as many of the patriots desired, the new government ratified the treaties, and thenceforth followed in quick sue- COMMODOEE PERRY LANDING IN JAPAN. cession those radical changes in the national policy which made Japan the wonder of the nations. The feudal system, after seven centuries of existence, was abolislied in August, 1871, and the daimios made to reside as jnensioners at Tokio. The Mikado appeared in public as the active patron of the dock-yards, light-houses, hospitals, schools, colleges, railways and telegraphs which were rapidly established." Finding that isolation was impossible, Japan entered with enthusiasm upon a study of Western civilization, fully resolved apparently to adopt and adapt the latest improvements of the day. In a short time a flourishing newspaper press was established, and the decimal system of reckon- ing money, as it obtains in the Uni- ted States, was adopted. The Jap- anese sen corre- sponds to our dol- lar. National banks on the American plan were establish- ed. They now num- ber over 200. The western postal sys- tem is also in vogue there. The Enghsh postal savings system has been adopted, and is very largely patronized. All these changes were not wrought without some very stubborn resistance, especially in Kinshui. These rebellions required the intervention of the military for their suppression. The chief of these was the Satsuma rebellion, led by Saigo Takamori. It began February 1, 1877, and lasted seven months. The rebels numbered 37,500, and the losses in killed and wounded on both sides amounted to about 15,000. The total public debt of Japan, September 1, 1878, was $375,725,677, all of which was held at home except $13,399,016, held in England. These figures include the paper money in circulation, §121,- 054,731. By the operations of a sinking fund the debt, foreign and domestic, is being obliterated. •^^ -o V ■V, 5 Ik- JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 433 The first line of railroad, from Hiogo to Osaka, 25 miles, was opened in the summer of 1875. At the close of 1879 there were open to business 76 miles of railway, with 140 miles in process of con- struction and 455 additional miles chartered. The mileage of telegraphs at, that time Aras 1,935. The standing army is about 80,000, with a militia, or home-guard hable to duty, of 5,000,000. The navy consisted in June, 1878, of three iron-clads. one gunboat, and several wooden vessels. political control. As Sintuism is the indigenous religion, it deserves especial consideration. The worship of the sun is its fundamental idea. The moon is also an object of adoration. The emperors claim descent from the sun. Image worship, or idolatry, abounds. There are gods of war, rice, riches and the like. Perhaps the most curious feature of Sintuism is the seven happy gods, who are reiDresented in a way Quite foreign to occidental ideas of deity. The Jap- THE SEVEN HAPPY GODS. lu theory tlie government is an absolute mon- archy; in practice it is a responsible ministry. The empire is divided "into thirty-eight hem, each having a governor appointed by the central govern- ment at Tokio. There are three imperial cities, To- kio, Osaka and Kioto, governed by mayors. The area of the rice-fields is 5,585,900 acres ; of the other cultivated fields, 3,817,300 acres. In 1873 the calendar of Christian nations was adopted, and it may be said that old Japan dated from B. C. 667 to A. D. 1873. The ancient faith has 97 temples, the Buddhists 396,900, sustaining a priesthood numbering 168,654. But new Japan has by imperial decree abolished the religious machinery of former days, so far as the same was subject to anese, whatever his religion, worships his ancestors, and reverence for parents is carried to an extreme unknown in Europe or America. The government school for boys (Kaiseiyak-ko), at Tokio, employs German, French and English teachers, and thousands of boys and young men may now receive a complete education in the science and literature of these different nations. It is the science and worldly wisdom of the Occident, far more than its religion, that the Japanese are disposed to adopt. Japan has a voluminous litera- ture, and the great majority of the people can read. No European or American has ever yet discovered in their books, whether prose or poetry, any flashes of genius. ^ CHAPTER LXIX. Territorial Extent— China Proper— The Chinese Coast— The Shanghai Region — The Val- LET OP THE HWANO-HO — The INTERIOR — PRODUCTS — ThE RiVERS OF ChINA — ThE CLIMATE— The Forests— The Flora of China— Geology of the Country— Mineral Wealth and Petroleum — Chinese Animals — Corea and its Exclusiveness— Manchuria and the Mod- ern Tartars — Mongolia — Thibet and the Grand Llama. 4^ r¥ ^ HINA, embracing China ProiD- er, Corea, Manchuria, ]\Ion- golia, Tibet and Eastern Tur- kestan, and exclusive of Co- chin-China, Siam and other merely nominal tributaries, covers an area of 4,740,000 Sipare miles. This is equal to nearly the ■whole of continental Eurojje. It extends from the parallel of north latitude 18° 30 ', which runs nearly centrally through Soudan, Africa, and falls about sLxty miles south of the City of Mexico, to north latitude 53'^ 25', almost con-e- sjDonding to the parallel of Liverpool, ' England, and the northern extremity of the Province of Quebec. In longitude it sti etches through fifty degrees, from the 80th to 130th meridians. Russia bounds it along its entire northern line, of nearly 3,000 miles; the Pacific Ocean (or its subdivisions known as the Japan, the Yellow and the China Seas) -washes its entire east- ern and southeastern boundary, of more than 4,000 miles in extent; Cochin-China, Burniah, British India, Bootan, Sikkini and Nepaul border it on the south and southwest, and the latter and Eussia on the west. China Proper, or that portion which is distinctively Chinese in civilization and autonomy, embraces only about half of this vast empire, yet it has an area nearly equal to that of Germany, Austria, France, Italy, Spain, Norway and Sweden, and the British Isles united, having a coast-line of about the same contour and length as that of the United States on the Atlantic, and a land frontier estimated at 4,400 miles. With the exception of an inconsiderable projection in the northeast, between the Gulf of Pe-chi-li and Corea, it corresponds in latitude with that portion of the United States south of the south- ern line of New York State and that part of Mex- ico north of the city of Vera Cruz. It lies south of all Europe, except the southern portions of the Span- ish, Roman and Grecian peninsulas and their out- lying islands. About half of China Proper is hilly or mountainous, containing a large proportion of lands which cannot be cultivated even by the labori- ous methods of terrace-farming and artificial irri- gation, so largely practiced in that country. From its southernmost limit, on the gulf of Ton. quin, to the Chusan Archipelago, nearly a thousand miles northward, the lookout of China on the sea is indescribably cheerless. A range of disintegrated granite mountains frowns, or, under a tropical sun, glares, on the passing voyager all the way. Treeless, shrubless, almost bladeless, their flanks of rotten granite gullied into red and yellow g-ulches, and their -TJ^ (434) s^i ^! L^^ CHINKSE EMPIRE. 435 -7^ S^ A< ^ CHINESE EMPIRE. 437 interveniug ridges and summits heaped with black- ened boulders, these desolate mountains yield no hint of the rich, populous interior just behind them. But within a hundred and fifty miles of Shanghai the prospect changes. Here the charming Ohusau Archipelago appears off the Bay of Hangchow. These islands are beautifully terraced from their summits to the sea. Temples perched on the prin- cipal eminences or on the ledges of rocky promon- tories, where they can only be reached by stejDS cut in the soUd rock, stand embowered in lovely groves ; shrines dot the waysides ; walled towns andunwalled villages are seen on every side ; and around all glistens the sea, animated by gaily pennoned junks and bevies of fishermen's boats. Not far north of these islands appears the low, flat, alluvial j)lain, on the edge of which stands Shanghai, in the delta of the river Yang-tse-Kiang. This plain is one of the most remark- able geographical develop- ments of China. It extends inland from Shanghai (in north latitude 30° 10') to- wards the south 150 to 250 miles ; westward, from 300 to 500, and northward about 800 miles, to the gates of Peking and the base of the mountains over which climbs the great wall, the northern boundary of China proper. From its southern verge, on the bay of Hangchow, to its northern limit, on the gulf of Pe-chi-li, only the bold, mountainous i^romontory interjected between the Yellow Sea and the gulf of Pe-chi-li, constituting the greater part of the prov- ince of Shantung, intervenes between this plain and the ocean. In the interior this vast sea of verdure sweeps northward past the Shantung promontory, comes out to the gulf coast beyond it, and continues about a hundred miles still farther north. From the west the mountain ridges and lines of foot-hills which make the water-shed between the tributaries of the two great water-courses of China, the Yangtse and the Yellow rivers, project into it. From south to north, through its greatest length, runs the Grand Canal, about 800 miles in length, one of the grand- M ^ - ■ft,^^M 1 m^ i ^^^s^^^^^^ ^^M ^H ^^^^^^^^ CI riNESE JUNK. est achievements of man, considering the early age in which it was constructed, whether regarded as a feat of civil engineering, or as a project of political and commercial sagacity. This whole plaiu, excejat in seasons of extreme drought, or when the Yellow river overflows its banks (which, like those of the lower Mississippi, are in many places higher than the surrounding country) and floods whole districts, is one unbroken sea of harvest. Rice, maize, millet, mulberry, cot- ton, sugar-cane, vegetables of every variety, and or- chards, interspersed with innumerable cities, towns and hamlets, fill the entire region. Westward of this wide, extended plain lie sev- eral large, populous prov- inces of rich valleys and table lands, finely watered by the sources and upper tributaries of the Yang-tse and Yellow Elvers, and va- ried by hill and mountain scenery growing more and more wild and romantic as it extends westward and south- ward, until the limits of China Proper are reached in the lofty mountain chains which make the boundaries of Kokonor and Tibet, and the giaciered heights of the Himalayas. Southward of the Yang-tse river, the mountains and hill coun- try, bordering tlie Great Plain, are the favorite habitat of the tea-plant. The bulk of the teas and their choicest varieties are produced on the beautifiilly terraced hill and mountain sides of this rough, broken region. Eice is the principal grain raised in this portion of the country, which yields nearly all the fruits produced in the south-temperate zone and the tropics, in America. Oranges, bana- nas, pomaloes (or shaddocks), peaches, pears, and smaller fruits known in our markets, and mangoes, lichens, arbutus, lungans, carambolas and other fruits peculiar to Asia, grow in abundance. Sweet i3otatoes and ground-nuts (or peanuts) and yams are produced in large quantities. The rivers of China are numerous, but only a few of them are of gi-eat length. The principal of these are the Hwang-ho, or Yellow river, in the northern "7Q ^^K^ L:, ■V)5 438 CHINESE EMPIRE. provinces, the Yang-tse-Kiang in the central jjrov- inces, and the Se-Keang, or Western river, in the south. The Peilio, a narrow and exceedingly tortu- ous stream, in the northeastern province, the Ning- po river, emptying into the Bay of Hangchow, a little south of the Yang-tse, and the river Min, in the province of Fuh-kien, are all navigable for ocean or foreign river steamers only to the head of tide ■water, a distance of 12 to 100 miles. The Pearl, province of Tibet, among the Min mountains, it enters the western central province of Sze-Chuen, and, first making a great bend to the north, receiv- ing its chief tributary, the Hean-Keang (a river of about the size of the Ohio), then curving for more than three degrees to the south, it finally bears northward and eastward again, and empties into the Yellow Sea in north latitude 31°. From its source to the sea it traverses not less than 2,900 miles. TIEN-TSIN. or Canton, I'iver, a branch of the Se-Keang, is now navigable for the same class of vessels about sixty miles. The Yellow river, though a stream of im- mense length and often of enormous volume, has a broad, inconstant channel, full of shifting sand-bars, and is practically unnavigable for anything but small native iiat-boats. The one grand river of China is the Yang-tse-Kiang, which is navigated by daily lines of American and English-built steamers, mostly of the Hudson river pattern, for a distance of 750 miles, and could be used for several hundred miles further by vessels like those emploj^ed on the Ohio and tlie Upper Mississipjii. Rising in tlie Through the lower 750 miles of its channel it is thronged in all seasons of the year with native craft and large numbers of foreign-built vessels, many of which are owned by native guilds. The climate of China Proper corresponds in the main to that of the United States and northern Mexico in the same latitudes. The winter tempera- ture in the northern provinces is rather milder than in the corresponding latitudes of the United States, and is not quite so mild as iii the same belts of Eu- rope. On the other hand, the summer heat aver- ages somewhat higher tlian it does in this country and Europe. ^?Ts= '^\^^ Jdl ^1^ CHINESE EMPIRE. 439 This may be due in part to tlie fact that so large a portion of China is denuded of forests ; which also accounts for the small rainfall and slight humidity of many parts of the country, and frequent famines consequent thereon. The most thickly settled parts of the country, whether in the plains or in the mountains, are quite bare of timber, the exceptions being chiefly the groves around the temjoles and monasteries of the several religious orders ; where the priests protect the trees, partly for the purposes of ornament and the delectation of themselves and the devotees who throng here in the hot season to enjoy the cooling shade and romantic beauty of these syl- van retreats, and jiartly as a source of revenue. For lamber and wood-fuel the most populous regions are now dependent mainly on the timbered districts far back in the sparsely inhabited mountain regions, or upon importations by sea. China, one name of which is " The Central Flow- ery Kingdom," is unusually rich in the variety and commercial value of its flora ; jDarticularly as re- gards its shrubs and flowering j^lants and trees. Through the painstaking efforts of early Dutch and English gardeners many of the latter have been ac- climated in Europe, and distributed from Holland and England into the gardens and hot-houses of all the civilized world. Of the useful shrubs and trees whose products are eagerly sought for by all nations, the list is remarkably long. The j)riucipal ones are the tea-plant,, cinnamon, camphor, the mulberry- tree, ginger, rhubarb and ginseng. Comparatively little is known of the geology and mineralogy of this country. It is certain, however, that northern China is largely covered with the loess formation, identical in nature with the loess of the Rhine, and the similar formation covering eastern Kansas, ISTebraska, and southeastern Dakota to the depth of from fifty to several hundred feet. No more fertile soil and subsoil have been discovered in any land. The mountains and hills of southern China are for the most part of igneous origin — ■ composed largely of a rotten feldspathic granite, easily excavated with the joickase, interspersed with quartzose boulders and blocks of gneiss. Iron, copper and coal are known to exist, the lat- ter of good quality and in large quantities, and of late the Chinese government has consented to the employment of foreign capital and mechanical aj)- phances for mining it. Petroleum has been discov- ered in several parts of the country, and if foreigners were permitted to explore for it by right methods there is good reason to beheve it would be found in paying quantities. China imports many thousand gallons of kerosene from America every year, and the trade is constantly increasing at a rapid rate — when a little encouragement from the Chinese gov- ernment would lead to home manufacture equal to all their present demands, and much more. Gold and silver are found in small quantities, but the government jealously restricts information of this nature, and the jjroduct is a matter of mere conjec- tiire. The mineral wealth of this great empire lies as yet undeveloped. When Western learning has raised up a class of Chinese scientists and civil en- gineers, and the imperial government becomes more tolerant of foreign enterprise, then the rich mineral treasures of China will burst into view in the midst of the hundreds of millions of people that crowd Asia in all quarters, and the stories of the caves of Aladdin will be surpassed by the new-found wealth of Cathay. Already enough is known of these re- gions to warrant the fulfillment of this prediction. The fauna of this empire comprehends all the genera and most of the species of animals known to Asia. All the domestic animals of Europe and North America are found here. Tigers, lions, leop- ards, and other beasts of prey haunt its southern and southwestern jungles; apes and monkeys are found in the districts bordering on Coehin-Chiua ; and the Bactrian camel and the elephant are reared ui the west and southwest, from which regions troops of camels come and go along the great cara- van routes of Central Asia. Venomous reptiles are numerous, of which the most dreaded is the cobra the scourge of India. Birds of innumerable varie- ties, from the diminutive humming-bird to the con- dor and the eagle, are native to the country. Among those remarkable for the beauty of their plumage are the silver and the golden pheasant, the argus- bird, paroquets of several varieties, the cockatoo, the peacock, the mandarin duck, and humming-birds of more than a dozen species — "flying flowers," as the Chinese call them. Food birds of dehcious quality are found in large quantities, including the rice- bird, quails, snipe, woodcocks, pigeons, pheasants, and ducks and geese, both wild and tame. Fish of excellent sorts are taken in large quantities from the rivers and along the coast, and are raised ia arti- ^T 55 A^ 440 CHINESE EMPIRE. ficial ponds, this kind of food being the main re- liance of a large j)roi3ortion of the inhabitants for their supply of meat-food, particularly in the south- eastei'u provinces. North of China Proper lie Corea and Manchuria. The former maintains the most complete self-isola- tion, excluding foreigners from direct social or com- mercial intercourse, ^vitll a rigor unknown to the Japanese at the time that Commodore Perry first visited them, to negotiate the treaty that has succeed- ed in bringing Japan into the general comity of na- tions. It is deatla for a foreigner to enter Corea with- seeu of this sealed and mysterious land. Man- churia, the native land of the present Tartar dyuasty of China, lies north of Corea and China Proper, stretching northward to the Amoor river. It is composed in large part of deUghtfully di- versified regions of fertile hiUs and vales, covered with extensive forests, broad native parks of oak openings, and vast areas of prairie land, nearly all lying within the same latitudes as Iowa and Min- nesota, or France and Northern Spain. Other por- tions of it are rugged and mountaiuous, bleak and barren. This entire countrj" is divided uito three CHINESE STREET SCENE. out sjjecial permit, and the latter is very rarely given, and then under the severest restrictions and a sys- tem of intolerable espionage. It is for the most part a fertile country, well diversified with hill and vale. The government is a despotism. Still people are industrious, and seem to be contented. Suffering for lack of the necessities of life is thought to be almost unknown. The attempts of the United States to lead the rest of the world in opening the ports of Corea to commerce, as it opened Japan, although persistent, have effected little beyond the ameliora- tion of the condition of sailors wrecked upon that coast. Such unfortunates were, until very lately, either' massacred or held in perpetual slavery in Corea, to prevent their reporting what they had sub-provinces : Moukden (or Shin-king), Kirin, and Tsi-sti-har, of all which a great part is believed to be as capable of high cultivation as the American and EurojDean States generally are. Yet, ^vith the ex- ception of the small district of Moukden, which contains a considerable population of Chinese ag- riculturists, mechanics and traders, it is still the home of nomads, a region roamed over by a people scarcely more nearly assimilated to Chinese civiliza- tion than are the Sioux of Dakota to that of the adjacent American States. The merchants of the few rudely constructed tradmg towns and stations of this region are Chinese; the Tartars them- selves preferring to live by the chase, fishing^ and a rude style of agriculture but little bet- ^a -« © \4^ CHINESE EMPIRE. 44] ter than that practiced by the ISTorth Americau Indians before recent efforts to civihze the latter. In fact, not only in this respect, but in many other of their practices in peace and in war, as well as in physiological distinctions, they bear striking resemblances to several JSTorth American tribes. Mongolia lies west of Manchuria, on nearly the same parallels. It has the lofty Altai Mountains in the north, the snow-covered Ala-shan and Kin-shan subject to the ruling dynasty of China, to which the Mongols acknowledge hereditary allegiance, while they maintain their ancient Tartar form of gov- ernment. South of Mongolia, and directly west of China Proper, are piled the mountains of Kokiuor and Tibet, with their glaciers surpassing those of all the world besides, and their intervening fertile valleys and plains and burning deserts. Tibet is the throne- land of the Grand Llama, who is pope to a church of ==a_ . *-S> VIEW OF AMOY. Mountains in the south, and several lateral ranges, between which extend plateaus of different degrees of elevation, from 900 feet to over 3,000 feet above the ocean. There are many dreary deserts in this immense country, but, on the other hand, there are broad areas of fertile prairie land and rich hill and valley country, as capable of producing enormous crops of wheat and maize as are the j)lains of Kan- sas alid Nebraska. But with the exception of lim- ited portions settled in part by Chinese agriculturists and traders, they are under the control of nomads, in a state of semi-barbarism, kindred to that of the Manchus. Mongolia is rather nominally than really many milhons more than confess allegiance to the Roman pontiff. He resides at the sacred city of Lassa, renowned in all Buddhist countries for its holy tem- j)les and immense monasteries. The people are en- gaged chieiiy in agriculture, herding, and a rude form of mining for silver, gold, copper and precious stones. Most of them live in the greatest poverty, the prey of despotic rulers and swarms of idle monks who infest the countless monasteries and constitute a larger ratio of the pojiulation than the religious orders in any other part of the globe. The history and civilization of the Chinese people wiU form the subject of another chapter. ^fv*- Q ci^ ik. CHAPTER LXX. The China or Fable— Table of Dynasties— The Age op Confucius, and the Great Wall — Peace on Earth — The Most Civilized Land — Kublai Kahn and Marco Polo — Inter- national Commercial Intercourse — Population of China — The Goaernment — Revenue AND Taxation — Peculiarities of the People — Food — Occupation — Architecture and Art — Education and Office-holding — The Hanlin University — Keligion op China. HINA is undoubtedly the old- est of now existing nations. Its ports, like those of Greece, claim eons upon eons when the earth was filled with de- migods, demons and giants. Some of these fables refer the origin of man to a point of time more than 2,800,000 years an- tecedent to the birth of Christ. The earliest epoch of rational Chinese his- tory begins with tlie reign of Fuhi, 2,825 years before Clirist, or only 303 years 'after the deluge — reckoning according to Hales' Chronology, which nearly corre- sponds with that of the Septuagint. Per- haps some credence is due to the tradi- tions of the two fable-obscured sovereigns immedi- ately preceding Fuhi. One of these, Yu-chow, is said to have led the Chinese into China from the far West, down the left bank of the Yellow river, and to have settled them in some measure, in its great bend, m the province of Shansi, teaching them to exchange their shifting tents for huts of boughs and trees. His successor, Sin-jin, the " Preacher of Righteousness," laid the foundation of the Chinese war-ship of Shang-te, the " Supreme Ruler," which is the only state religion of China to this day, and of which the emjDeror is the sole priest. He was also, they believe, the discoverer of fire, by friction of two jjieces of wood. However that may be, he encouraged his people to set up permanent homes and hearths, and abandon nomadic life. Fuhi, who began his reign B. 0. 2,852, organized the people into tribes with distinct names, heads, and judges. He also discovered iron, and taught men to use it for implements of peace and war. He was the Tubal-Cain of China. After reignmg 115 years, he was succeeded by his son, Shinnung, tlie ''Divme Husbandman," who invented the plow, and encouraged men to engage in agriculture, and taught them the use of herbs. He reigned 140 years, and was succeeded by the usurper, Hwang-ti, about B. C. 2,697. Hwaug-ti was a great general and a wise ruler. He taught the people arts and manufactures, encouraged learning, and instituted the sexegenary cycle, by which the Chinese still reckon time. The first o{ these cycles dates from the sixty-first year of Hwang-ti's reign, or B. C. 2,637, i. e., 518 years af- ter the Deluge. He seems to have had no little knowledge of astronomy, and lie established the Chinese calendar with a true understanding of the length of the year, not recognized by the Romans until nearly 2,650 years later. His wife, Seling, in- ^^ (442) -V ^' THE CHINESE. 443 eLl vented and taught the art of silk-sjoinning and weaving. He reigned 100 years and was succeeded by three kings of miich less importance, when the reign of Yau the Great began, B. C. 2357. Here commences the authentic history of this wonderful nation. The historical writings of Confucius, the records of his great book, the "Shuking," go no farther back than Yau. Under this sovereign and his successor, Shun, there was a remarkable flood, or overflow of the Yellow river, along which the densest population had settled. Shun called Yu to his aid, and by deepening the bed of the river, open- ing new channels, and casting up dikes, the inunda- tion was assuaged and the fields reclaimed. Yu became the founder of the first Chinese dynasty, that of Hia. The sovereignty, theretofore regarded as elective, became from this time on hereditary in the eldest son ; and the records cease to claim for sovereigns reigns of improbable duration. It is im- possible in this volume to do more than name the several dynasties which from that time have ruled the destinies of China, as in the following table : Dynasties. Founder. Hia Shang Chau Tsin- Han After Han.. Tein Sung Tsi Liang Chin Sin Tang After Liang. After Tang. After Tsin.. After Han.. After Cliau- Interregnum Sung S. Sung Yuen Ming Tsing Yu, tile Great Cliing-tang Wu-Wang Ciiwang-siang Liu-Pang Liu-Yu Kau-ti Wu-ti Yang-Kien Li-Yuen Cliwang-Tsung Ko-Wei Kublai Kalm llung-Wu Sun-clii No. Sov ereigns. 17 «9 28 644 .35 87H 3 47 28 42;^ 2 44 15 165 8 59 5 Zi 4 55 HO 31 20 2KH 2 10 3 13 3 11 4 16 9 Eras. 10 167 153 88 276 B. C. B.C. B.C. B. C. B. C. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A. D. A.D. A. D. A.D. 2205 to B, 1766 to B, 1123 to B, 319 to B. 202 to A. 221 to A. 205 to A. 420 to A. 479 to A. 5ii2 to A. 557 to A. 587 to A. 618 to A. 907 to A. 923 to A. 93U to A. 947 to A. 951 to A. 960 to A. 970 to A. 1127 to A. 1280 to A 1368 to A 1644 to - . C. 1766. . C. 1132. . C. 249. C. 202. D. 221. D. 265. D. 420. D. 479. D. 502. D. 557. D. 587. D, 618. D. 907. D. 923. D. 936, D. 947. D. 951. D. 960. D. 970. D. 1127. D. 1280. . D. 1368. D. 1644. The third dynasty is remarkable for its great length of rule, 873 years — the longest known to his- tory. It was during the sixth century of this dynasty that Confucius arose. The country increased in population and developed in resources during this long period, notwithstanding the many internecine wars growing out of the resistance of feudatory lords to the power of the emperor. Learnmg was cherished, and men of letters were conspicuous in the councils of the government. The usurper, Chwang-Siang-Wang, after having exterminated the last of the Chau dynasty, and reduced all the petty states to his sway, assumed the name of " The First Emperor," and addressed himself to the extinction of all past history. He ordered the princijoal schol- ars of the realm to be put to death, all books were to be delivered up to be destroyed, under penalty of death, and the royal and provincial libraries were burned. The loss to China and the world can never be estimated. Although this emperor was one of the greatest military commanders in all Chinese history, and although he constructed bridges, dikes, canals, and many other public works, crowning all his feats of civil engineering by building the Great Wall of China, one of the marvels of the world, the name of this vandal emjDeror lives now mostly in execration. His dynasty survived him only seven years. It is a singular coincidence that the succeeding dynasty, the last of the old era of the world and the beginning of the Christian era, was remarkable for the progress of the nation in the arts of peace, and that at the same time that tlie Koman Empire was at peace with the world, and Jesus was born in Beth- lehem, the Emperor Ping-ti (signifying " peace ") was enjoying a quiet reign in China. Owing to the weakness of the last of the Han dy- nasty, and the quarrels attending the attempts to set up its successor, the empire Ijecame divided into three principalities. The divisions were not over- come and the country reunited until nearly four hundred years later, under tlie strong government of Yang-Kien, or Kautsu. One of the most illustri- ous dynasties in Chinese history was that of Tang, extending from A. D. 618 to A. D. 905, when, as that learned American sinologue, S. Wells A¥illiams, lias well said, " China was probably the most civil- ized country on earth" — Europe being then '■' wrapped in the ignorance and degradation of the Middle Ages." Taitsung, the second of this dynasty, es- tablished schools, instituted the present system of literary examinations, and made ajiipointment to office conditional first of all upon the rank secured in these scholastic examinations. He extended his empire over all the countries now subject to China, and even beyond these hmits. The Yuen dynasty, that of the Mongol Tartars, was founded by Kublai, grandson of Genghis Khan, the terrible Tartar chief who overran all Asia and Western Europe. It was during Kublai's rule that V®- ~» a r- ■V 4^ 444 THE CHINESE. Foreign in- Marco Polo visited China, and on his return amazed all Europe by his truthful narrative of the high civili- zation, wealth and magnificence of '' Cathay." The Grand Canal was constructed by Kublai, and under him and his grandson the empire enjoyed great prosperity. Their successors were profligate, weak or tyrannical, and after 88 years of Mongol suprem- acy the peojile threw off the Tartar yoke, and the Chinese dynasty of Ming swayed the imperial scepter for 276 years. In 1516, during the reign of Kiali-tsing of this dynasty, the Portuguese came to China. tercourse was soon begun. A Portu- guese colony was begun at Ningpo and a jsrofitable trade established, when a series ^ of acts of [i:)iiacj and cruel outrages (in- cluding the kid- napping of Chinese to be sold into slav- ery), committed by the commanders and o^vners of Por- , tuguese vessels, led to the expulsion of the foreign traders. Acts of rapacity committed by oth- er foreigners and, later, the quarrels of the Roman Catholic missioii- aries of different orders, are chiefly responsible for that spirit of suspicion and exclusion which has ever since, to a greater or less degree, marked the Chinese treatment of foreigners. The Dutch first became known to the Chinese m a naval attack upon the Portuguese settlement at Macao, in 1622. Beaten off, they took forcible pos- session of the Pescadores islands in the China Sea, to the great annoyance of the Portuguese of the China coast and the S^janiards of the Philippine islands, as well as of the Chinese. After this, in 1624, they seized a portion of the island of For- mosa, and held it by force for 28 years. The English appeared off the mouth of the Canton river in May, 1637, and asked permission to trade. Partly by VIEW OF HONG-KONG. force, they succeeded in disposing of their goods and obtaining cargoes. No further attempt was made until 37 years later, when the East India Company sent a single vessel to Macao, but, through the Jeal- ous treatment of the Portuguese, failed to dispose of its cargo. Some desultory commerce was carried on at Formosa and Amoy. At last the English se- cured trading privileges at Canton in 1684. Their commerce with this country was of small impor- tance, however, until the opening of the present cen- tury, when the opium trade set in. This soon assum- ed frightful piroportions. The Chinese strove to ex- clude it, but it was smuggled into the country under cov- er of the armar- ments of the cor- ruj^t East India Company and hire of the English flag to Chinese and Por- tuguese coast-trad- ers. This led to the Anglo-Chinese war, known as the " Opium War," closing with the treaty of Nanking, and the compul- sory ojjening of five Chinese ports in 1842. The first American vessel in the China trade, the Mnp7'ess, set sail from New York in 1784, only six months after the definitive treaty of peace with Great Britain acknowledging American independence. It made a successful voyage. The first American treaty of amity and commerce between the United States and China was negotiated at Macao in 1844. Nearly all the commercial nations of the earth are now m liberal treaty relations mth the Chinese, securing to them, among other rights, the privilege of trading at twenty-one ports ; of traveling in the cou.utry ; of enjoying and disseminating their rehgious doctrines; and, what is still more noteworthy, the jurisdiction of their consuls in all actions for debt or damages, or prosecution for offenses of any kind committed by their subjects on Chinese soil. engaged TT J^ t^ THE CHINESE. 445 lu 1873, according to the returns of the Imperial customs, there were 3,661 foreigners in China, of whom 1,771 were natives of Great Britain and Ire- land, 1,541 of the United States, 481 of Germany, and 339 of Prance. More than half of all these, or 3,047, were at Shanghai, and 308 at Canton, leaving 1,306 scattered among the other treaty ports, at Peking, and at the several mission stations. This does not include the foreigners at the Portuguese city of Macao, and at the British island of Hong-Kong. mile. The most densely inhabited portions of both countries show a much larger average. The rich, alluvial Chinese provinces of Kiangsu, Anhevei, and Chehkiang, in the Great Plain of China, aver- age 850,705, and 671 inhabitants, respectively, per square mile. These are the most densely populated provinces. The Belgian provinces of Brabant, East Flanders, and Hainault average fully as dense a population as this ; or, severally, 771, 760, and 679 per square mile. Behm and Wagner estimate the The population of the entire Chinese empire is still an indeterminate problem, since the statistics of the dependencies are mere estimates. These are as follows : population of Manchuria, 6,000,000, of which the semi-civilized province of Moukden, or Shinking, contains 3,187,386 ; of Mongolia, 3,000,- 000 ; of Tibet, 6,000,000, and of Corea, 8,000,000. The population of China Proper is known with about as great certainty as that of most European and American countries. According to the latest official returns, the Eighteen Provinces contained 360,379,- 079 inhabitants, or 377 per square mile. There is no good reason to believe that this is an exaggera- tion. Belgium has over 480 inhabitants per square total population of the Chinese Empire, excluding Eastern Turkestan, at 435,000,000, which is in ex- cess of the above figures. Tlie government of China is practically dual ; a democracy within an autocracy. From the ancient patriarchal times there has come down a system of elders, chosen by the people to act as arbitrators in matters of disagreement and preserve the peace. As a rule their administration is eminently mild and just ; which cannot always be said of the imperial rule. The imj)erial government is wholly vested, theoretically, in the Hwang-ti, or emperor. Under the title of Tien-tzi, " Son of Heaven," he is both the spiritual and secular head of the nation, clothed ;^^^ JV' t^ 446 THE CHINESE. with the highest legislative and executive authority, without hmit or control. But in reality he is re- stricted and held in by time-honored and sacred customs, which have all the potency of a written constitution. The emperor is the sole high -priest of the empire. He, with his representatives, perform the great religious ceremonies at the Temple of Heaven, the Temple of Agriculture and elsewhere. No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the piub- lic expense ; nor is there any priesthood attached to the Confucian or state religion. The succession since 1644 has not been hereditary, but the emperor names his successor — any member of the imperial family, within certain limits. The administration of the emj)ire is under the supreme di- rection of the Interior Council Chamber, comprising four members — two Tartar and two Chinese — assist- ed by two members of the Hanlin, or Great College of Peking, who have to see that nothing is done contrary to the civil and religious laws of the em- pire laid down in the Ta-tsing-hwei-tien (i. e. Col- lected Regulations of the Great Pure Dynasty, the constitution or fundamental law of the empire), and the sacred writings of Confucius. Under this Council, or Imperial Cabinet, are six boards, each of which is presided over by a Tartar and a Chinese : the Board of Civil Appointments and Administra- tion ; the Board of Revenue, regulating all financial affairs ; the Board of Rites and Ceremonies ; the Board of Military affairs; the Board of Public Works ; and the Board of Judiciary — the highest tribunal of criminal jurisdiction. Theoretically in- dependent of the government, and above all these boards, is the Board of Public Censors, of about 40 members, under two presidents, one Tartar and one Chinese, who, by the ancient custom of the empire, have each the privilege of presenting any remon- strance to the sovereign. One censor must be pres- ent at the meetings of each of the six boards. This right of remonstrance, like the right of petition in the United States, is generally regarded as sacred and inalienable, and is exercised with a large degree of freedom. Great effort is made in this constitution to pre- serve a balance of power between the Chinese and the Tartar elements of China Proper — the standing army, however, being at all times largely Tartar. Every province and city has its military head, usually a Tartar, as well as its chief civil magistrate, a Chi- nese mandarin. The standing military force of the empire consists of two great divisions — the one com- posed of Tartars, the other of Chinese and other subject races. The latter is used mainly as a con- stabulary force, the former is maintained in garri- sons and f ortiiications in all the great cities along the coast and on the frontier. China had nothing worthy the name of a navy until 1877, when the government purchased four admirably constructed English-built iron gun-boats of about 450 tons each. To these they added in 1879 four similar ones, and recently they have constructed and equipjped several small revenue cutters at their own navy-yards and arsenals. These yards, docks and arsenals, estab- lished with the aid of foreign instructors and me- chanics, are now largely operated by Chinese ofB.- cials and workmen. This navy is intended only for coast defense and enforcement of the customs laws. The public revenue of China of late years has been estimated to average $135,000,000. Only the receipts from custom duties are made public. In 1878 these amounted to 12,483,988 haikwan taels, or about 118,725,000. The largest expenditure of the imperial government is for the army — amount- ing to almost 145,000,000 per annum. Cliina avoided the dangers of contracting a for- eign debt until 1874, when it negotiated a loan of £627,675 at 8 per cent., secured on the customs rev- enue. In 1878 it negotiated another loan of £1,- 604,276 at 8 per cent., secured in the same way. The total foreign imports in 1878 at all the twenty-one open ports amounted to £21,241,208, and the exports to £20,151,654. In the ten years ending 1878 the im- ports increased 18 per cent, and the exports 25 per cent. Of this trade the English get the lion's sliare, carrying off m 1878, £14,600,000 of the exports, and giving in exchange £6,608,921 of British home prod- uce and the whole of the balance in opium. There is no way of ascertaming the amount of the domes- tic trade of this populous country, or the volume and worth of the trade carried on with Asia and Europe overland. Physically, the Chinese of the Great Plain and Southern China are rather smaller than the average European. Their complexion is considerably lighter than the Hindoos, with that slight yellow or sallow tinge peculiar to the Mongolian race. The cheek- bones are prominent, the shape of the face is as generally round as that of the European is oval. -7I- A^ -« e THE CHINESE. 447 1^ The hair is straight, coarse and black, the beard is thin (whiskers are scarcely ever seen), the eyes are in all cases black, small and almost invariably ob- lique. The nose is small, and without being flat, is wide and singularly depressed at the lower extrem- ity. The lips are seldom so thin as in the European type. The hands and feet are small and remarkably well-shapen ; the motions of the body are light, quick are secluded, except those of the laboring class, but they have large influence in their homes, where con- jugal and filial affection and respect are accounted the highest virtues. Children, as a rule, are treated with tenderness, and often with excessive indul- gence. On the other hana, filial respect and love are man- ifested more generally than in other nations. The TEA GARDENS AT SHANGHAI. and often graceful. This is a sketch of the typical Chinaman. The mountaineers, the people of the northwest provinces, and the Formosans, Coreans, and Tartar tribes in general average fully as gi'eat height and muscularity as the European or Anglo- American. All of these last-named Asiatics are semi-savage, or, at least, much more ignorant, coarse and tierce than the true Chinaman. The latter is peaceable, industrious, temperate in the use of in- toxicating drinks, frugal, yet kind and hospitable. The elders are sedate, dignified and polite. The younger people are full of good humor and bubbling over with love of social sports and mirth. Women doctrine of filial obedience is fundamental in their social, political and religious systems ; the first essen- tial of instruction they receive at home, in school, in society, in and out of ofiice. Among the vices most common in China, the opium-smoking, which has developed at an alarming rate since the early part of this century, is one of the most destructive. As to licentiousness, there is nothing to prove that this people is any more addicted to it than Europe- an races. Polygamy is allowable, and is practiced by men of wealth. Concubinage is honorable ; con- cubines and their children are legitimate, and the ■^ 56 W^ •Ve ^^ 448 THE CHINESE. law compels the man to provide for them. But the great body of Chinese are monogamists, either from choice or necessity. Infanticide is practiced to some extent, but it is in direct violation of imperial rescripts against it and the popular sen- timent, and there is a benevolent society whose special business is to prevent this crime, and care for foundlings. The Chinese seem to have an unaccountable bent for doing things in a way directly opposite to the style of doing the same in other lands. The point of their magnetic-needle is toward the south ; the place of honor for their guests is on the left hand ; they wear ' white as a badge of mourn- ing ; their joiners saw inside of the gauge line, instead of just outside of it, as Eu- ropean joiners do ; and they draw a plane towards them instead of jjushing it. Scores of simi- lar inversions of Eu- ropean customs can be recited. They are, perhaps, more sensi- ble than some other people in abjuring artificial heat in their dwellings as much as jiossible, supplying its place by increas- ing tlie weight and number of their garments, and wearing furs next the body instead of with the hair outward. The unnatural and barbarous practice of compressirig the feet of their fashionable women, and insistmg on it as an essential mark of high life, was introduced about A. D. 950. It is the most irration- al of their fashions; less injurious than such ex- treme compression of the vital organs as is frequent- ly seen in other countries, but equally indefen- sible. The shaven head and long queue of the China- man are badges of loyalty to the Tartar government. Kogues, convicts and suspects are compelled to lose their queues and wear their hair long, which is the most effective means conceivable to induce an hon- est Chinaman to hold on to his qvieue and keep his head shaved. The food of the Chinese is largely rice, millet, or maize, and vegetables, fish and fowl ; which accounts for their living so inexpensively. Their liabit of saving everything, of turning everything that is fit for nothing else into manure for the fields, and con- verting it through agriculture into food or other field products, is worthy of universal imitation. Tlie eating of rats and mice is confined to the poorest classes. None of them seem to crave such food, as the Viennese epicure does his fattened snails or the Frenchman his dish of frogs. The principal occupations of this people are agri- culture, manufactures and trade. Excepting lit- erature, no pursuit ranks so high in the Chinese code as agri- culture. The Tem- ple of Agriculture occupies a large in- closure in one corner of the Chinese quar- ter of Peking, and there, once every spring, the emperor, accompanied by all his ministers, goes to invoke the bless- ing of Heaven on the toils of the hus- bandman, while he plows a furrow in the sacred field, as an example to all his people. Artificial irriga- tion and fertilization are employed to a remark- able degree, and the soil is made to produce from two to three crops a year, according to climate, from age to age, without impoverishment. There was a time when the inventive genius of the Chinese appears to have been as strikingly active as it is now sluggish. The use of the magnetic needle seems to have been discovered as early as in the reign of Hwang-ti, fully 2,650 years before the opening of our era, although it was not applied to navigation until very much later. Silk spinning and weaving is referred to a still earlier period. Costly furniture, richly embroidered robes, felts, mattings, ornaments of silver, gold, copper and brass, and the use of precious stones, were common in the older dynasties, contemporary with the best JiiS It- THE CHINESE. 449 periods of Egyptian and Assyrian magnificence. Porcelain was made long before the Christian era. The origin of paper, the art of printing, gunpowder, and numerous other inventions, are traced back to China at dates varying from 2000 to 9000 years ago. For reasons not well understood, the spirit of in- vention seems to have sunk into lethargy du.ring the last few centuries, and the Chinese busy themselves in repeating the manufactures of their fathers, even the patterns of ijieir costumes having remained unaltered for generations. The great quantities of their industri- al productions ■*.V are beyond any known means of estimate ; besides supply- ing the home wants of their teeming mill- ions, they send their tea, silk, porcelain, mat- tings, drugs, and not less than one Iran- dred other ag- ricultural or manufactured articles, to all parts of the world, either in fleets of Chinese junks and foreign vessels, or by caravans overland to various parts of Asia and into Europe. Chinese architecture is not of a high order. Their dwellings, for the most part, are of burnt or sun- dried brick and of stone, seldom more than two stories in height. Only the very poorest classes live in huts of bamboo, or mud and straw. Some of their temples, pagodas, palaces, and imperial tombs are works of considerable architectural grandeur, gar- nished without and within with highly colored porce- lams, enameled or glazed bricks, and porcelain figures, bas-reliefs and intaglios of human figures, animals, birds, flowers, fruits, etc. Their sculpturing I) THE GREAT WALL OF CHTNA is of little merit, being rather grotesque than nat- ural or of graceful and beautiful designs, and pol- ished execution. Their carving, especially in ivory, is often marvelously elaborate and superb, only lack- ing a few of the characteristics of the most refined art. Some of their India-ink drawings (always excepting the perspective) and their paintings in water-colors of birds, fishes, insects, fruits, flowers, costumes, and other distinct objects, are exquisite. The brilliancy of their water-colors is unsurpassed, and European and American artists confess that in some shades of color they have not yet learned to equal them. The use of oil, in the painting of pictures, tlie Chinese have never acquired to any "com- mendable de- gree ; and very few of them have manifest- ed any consid- erable effort to learn it. Their paintings on porcelains and their fine gild- ing in lacquer are justly admired the world over, — although' these have stiff, hard, realistic features which separate them from superlative art. Feats of civil engineering have been performed by the Chinese which, considering the age in which they were wrought, were truly marvelous. The Great "Wall already referred to deserves further attention. Starting at the sea, winding like a huge serpent along the crests of mountain chains, spanning intervening chasms on enormous arches, it ends at last far out in the Gobi desert, thirteen hundred miles from its point of beginning. It is constructed of huge bricks and stone facings, of from four to ten feet thickness, with fillings of concrete or indurated clay. For most of the immense distance above ^ i^ -Js 450 THE CHINESE. k^ given it is thirty feet high, twenty-five feet broad at its base, fifteen feet at its summit, paved on top with brick or flag-stones, protected with crenelated battle- ments, and guarded every few liundred yards with for- tified towers rising forty feet or more above the ground. The Grand Canal is still unequaled in length by any other single canal in the world. Its influence in developing China is a study for statesmen of all lands. This is but one of the canals of this country- The great plains of the north and the broad, alluvial delta of the Canton river are ramified in all direc- tions with canals. In no other country, not even excepting Holland, is water so much relied on for transportation. Their means of land carriage are still exceedingly primitive, men being the chief bur- den-bearers in the most thickly populated provinces. Beasts of burden are more numerous in the northern and western provinces. Wheeled vehicles are few. The wheelbarrow is used to a considerable extent in some parts of the country — and along the Grand Canal and in other parts of the Great Plain region they are partly propelled by wind when the direction favors. Few roads are constructed for two-wheeled vehicles, whereas paved roads for footmen are meas- ured by hundreds of thousands of miles. Railroads could be constructed with ease in the greater part of the most fruitful regions of China, but the opposi- tion of the people and of the government, for various reasons, is still unsubdued, although there are indi- cations of late of a better feeling. A telegraph line has been opened between Shanghai and Peking, after long opposition, and it is hoped it will soon lead the way to other modern improvements in communica- tion. The government postal system has been re- stricted, until lately, to government disj^atches, and private correspondence has been conducted by pri- vate expresses. Some of the bridges of China, built of marble, granite and other kinds of stone, are fine specimens of engineering skill and artistic taste. There are marble bridges high enough for large junks, with lowered masts, to pass under. The stone bridges of China, some of them several hundred feet long, are luimbered by hundreds — one might say thousands. Tliere are places where roadways have been quarried out of the sides of precipices in the canons of their great rivers, and through mountain passes, on a scale which com- mands admiration for the wisdom of their rulers and great engineers. The principal roots of the national existence are its form of local government, hitherto referred to, (the government of towns and city wards by elective elders), and its educational system. The imperial government for nearly fifteen hundred j^ears has intensified the influence of the latter by basing its civil service upon it, making the attainment of the high- est literary degrees a condition jjrecedent to the hon- ors and emoluments of oSice. There is no heredi- tary civil ofiice but that of emperor, and even that, as previously explained, does not follow the law of primogeniture. All other offices are held up before the sons of the rich and the jjoor, the sons of the ministers of state and those of the humblest peas- ants and mechanics, as prizes to be contested for, on equal terms, first of all in the schools, which oiier them the only portal of admission. Subse- quent promotions depend, except when jjersonal fa- voritism or corruption creeps in, both on scholarship and successful administration. Of course this is a Ijowerful stimulus to the people to educate their children. The government provides a system of ex- aminations, from that of the primary schools up through all the grades to that which admits the gray- haired doctor of philosophy to the HanUn Univer- sity, " the college of forty," from which the emperor selects his highest civil ministers. The people and their wealthy benefactors provide the schools. The founding of elementary schools and academies is one of the most common, as it is one of the most grate- fully apjjreciated forms of Chinese benevolence. Very generally the people tithe themselves to main- tain schools, or support them by voluntary subscrip- tions. Men of wealth emi^loy private tutors. But wherever and howsoever educated, all the pupils must enter the exammations through the one door, and pass the same ordeal. First, there is an exami- nation annually in each district, jjresided over by the district magistrate assisted by examiners selected from among the elders and the first literati of the district. This examination contauis certain specified elementary work in writing, reading, and the memor- izing of firecepts inculcating respect and obedience to parents and magistrates, simple lessons in social virtue, the great importance of education, a very limited elementary knowledge of members, geogra- phy and history, the " five elements," the four sea- sons, the six principal kinds of grain, the sis do- mestic animals, etc. Besides these elements, the 71 STT: i^ THE CHINESE. 451 children are required to memorize pages on pages of tlie classics, without being expected to comprehend their meaning until they have advanced years farther in their studies. Those who pass this village exam- ination have their names posted at the entrance of the magistrate's office, and are said to have earned "the village name." These may enter, whenever they choose to present themselves, the annual county or district examination, covering a much more arduous field of study. If they pass this ordeal they are said to have earned " the county name." Not more than one in a hundred of those who enter the district exam- inations ever attains to this distinction. None but such as have, how- ever, are permitted to enter the next examin- ation, which is for the first literary degree, carrying the title of " Beautiful Ability." This entitles the holder to wear "the gilt but- ton," "■ the white robe " and other insignia of scholarly rank. The curriculum of study up to this j)oint embraces a thorough memori- zing of the classical books of China (the writings of Confucius and his commentators), and a sfood degree of understanding of the most practical parts of them — including Chinese his- tory, geography, social science and political gov- ernment. From these graduates the army of teachers, scribes, lawyers, and pliysicians is continu- ally recruited ; but before the citizen can hope to hold any public of&ce above that of constable, he must enter the triennial examinations, held at each of the provincial capitals, and win the second liter- ary title — that of "Advanced Man." Preparation for this contest carries him farther and farther into the depths of the Confucian philosophy. It involves great labor, embracing the mastery of the most CHINESE IMAGE OP BUDDHA. abstruse doctrines of Confucian metaphysics, a good knowledge of the theory and code of the Chi- nese government, and great readiness in the use of the language. The natural sciences, which have gradually -wrought their ^vay into the higher schools of Europe and America, and which have done so much to develop these countries within the past one hundred years, are still (with the exception of astron- omy) excluded from the regular curriculum of Chi- nese study, although be- ginning to receive atten- tion in some of the special schools established under government auspices at Peking, and the great centers of foreign trade, Shanghai, Fuchow, Can- ton, Tien-tsin, and other points. While comparatively few from the masses of the Chinese jDeople attaiu to even the first literary rank, it may be truthful- ly said that the multi- tudes are able to read and write m a rudimentary way, if nothing better. There are very few of the common people — of the males — who cannot read the almanac, heep a written memorandum of accounts, and enjoy the popular romance, writ- ten for this class of readers in the limited vocabu- lary of common speech, and found scattered through the huts of the laboring classes and the boats of the river people. The folk-lore of Chiua is voluminous, and their romances of love and war are almost in- numerable. A large part of this stuff is the veriest trash, but in the worthless mass there is a little good wheat which manifests itself in various ways. The religion of the Chinese is a strangely confused medley of Confucianism, Taouism, and Buddhism engrafted on the ancient monotheism, which has conle down to them from the earliest ages. They have a vague notion of one " Supreme Euler," or " Shang-te," of whom Confucius taught that it is B V '-^ 452 THE CHINESE. impossible for man to Jinow anything clearly. As the Creator and SuiDreme Ruler of all things ani- mate and inanimate, he is to be regarded with rever- ence. He has established the relations of man to man, and man to the material world ; and to the study of these relations and the duties growing out of them Confucius addressed himself, using all the light that had come down to his time from preced- ing sages. Had he not lent his authority to some of the ancient mysticisms, and hallowed many of the old-time suj)erstitions, had he not inculcated such extreme reverence for the past, and had not his followers, re-iuforced by the government educa- tional system, ordained that froni generation to generation the whole mind of the ruling class of China shouldbe spentin looking backto the thoughts and practices of the past and patterning after them, it would be difficult to commend the Confucian philosophy too highly. The worship of Shang-te, the Supreme Ruler, as observed by the emperor at the Altar of Heaven, at Peking, is the state relig- ion of China. There at stated periods he stands, as the sole priest and father of his people, under the open sky, with not an idol anywhere in the vast tem- ple enclosure, and burns incense and ofEers sacrifice to " Him who rules in the zenith and in the four quarters of heaven ; " asks forgiveness for the trans- gressions of rulers and people ; and invokes blessings on the nation. Confucius has his temple in every city and considerable town, and honors almost di- vine are paid to him by order of the government ; which exerts its power to increase the popular rever- ence for his teachings. Taouism dates back to the sage, Leaoutze, a contemporary of Confucius. It was origmally a non-idolatrous rationalism and spir- itology, which sought to exalt men above their fleshly lusts and iiito a state of sagely wisdom by the con- templations of reason, very much as Buddhism, which was introduced from India into Chma about 600 years later, in A. D. 65, sought to pre- pare man by meditation, self-denial, prayers and deeds of humanity for absorption into the essence of the divine Buddha. Both of these have degenera- ted into systems of idolatry, superstition, and monk- ish indolence, mendicancy and fraud. Only a few of the most highly educated Confucianists, and about 100,000 Christian converts, can be regarded as above subjection to these corrup)ting forms of religion. Slowly, but surely, the ferment of European civ- ilization is working, as may be inferred from some things already said, and many other indications that might be noticed if there were space. The opera- tion of the Chinese foreign customs service, modeled after the English service, has worked a great reform in the collection of the revenue, and has paved the way for other iimovations. The establishment of arsenals and navy-yards ; the erection of light- houses ; the re-organization of a portion of the army, which has been armed and drilled by Ameri- can and European tacticians; the education of a large iramber of Chinese youth in the schools of Europe and America ; the establishment of schools of foreign learning, at Peking and elsewhere ; the adoiDtion of foreign-built vessels for a large part of their river and coast trade ; the introduction of clocks, sewing-machines, and numerous other west- ern inventions ; the progress of missions directed against their superstitions ; the growing use of the public press ; the use of the marine telegrajDh cable, and the recent establishment of a Ime of telegrajjh of several hundred miles in length, — all denote that the progress of the age cannot be stayed, even by Chinese conservatism. According to the census of 1880, there are 105,465 Chinese in the United States. They are found in every state and territory of the Union, North Car- olina and Vermont alone excepted. At this writing a bill is pending before Congress to prohibit during the next twenty years immigration from China. The Chinese do not come to this country to become Americans, but to remain a few years, and then return to their native land and families. There is to be no disturbance of the Chinese now within the borders of the United States. ■^ l\' ui5 ^ «ii«i!iteiitli!l8«sii«i!iilil!S»^^^ CHAPTER LXXI. -% Asia in General, Minor Portions in Detail—Anam— Siam— Burmah — Bokhara— East Tur- kestan— Afghanistan— Beloochis tan— Arabia— Africa IN General and in Detail— ^j Madagascar— Algeria — Morocco — Tunis — Tripoli — Central Africa and Siberia — South Africa — The Dutch and the English — Zululand and the Last of the Bonapartes — St. Helena — Birth-places of the Great Religions of the World. j.. I — — j E are about to leave the Old World for the New, but before doing so it is jpur- posed to gather into one sheaf the ungarnered wheat of the two oldest continents. Of all the continents Asia is the larg- est. According to Behm and Wagner its area, inclusive of Islands, is 16,924,000 square miles. The jDopulation is 794,000,- 000. The appended table presents the details on this point, the names italicized being those of countries already con- sidered. Names. Asiatic Evssia Chinese Em. . . Japan .. An am Siam Burmah British India Area in Sq. Mi, 6,250,000 4,740,000 150,000 753,000 1,680,000 Pop. 12,000,000 425,000,000 35,000,000 21,000,000 240.000,000 Names. Bokhara E. Turkestan.. Afghanistan... Beloochistan .. Persia Arabia Turkey Area in Sq. Mi. 76,000 590,000 250,000 107,000 686,000 1,020,000 67.3,000 Pop. 2,500.000 580,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 16,500,000 The Empire of Anani is also known as Cochin- Ohina. It was created about eighty years ago. It is south of China. The government is thoroughly despotic. The emperor rules through mandarin agents. The religion is Buddhism, with a sprink- luig of Confucianism among the higher classes. The capital is Hue, at the mouth of the river of the same name. The export is chiefly silk. In the six- teenth century Roman Catholic missions were estab- lished in the country which have continued to flour- ish in spite of persecution. The present Christian population of the empire is about half a million. The Anamese language is very similar to the Chi- nese, and the literature is still more closely allied to that of China. No other part of Minor Asia is so important as Siam, " the kingdom of the free," as the term im- plies. The freedom referred to is disbelief in Brah- manism. It occupies the middle portion of the In- do-Chinese peninsula. The people are ardent Bud- dhists. The capital is Bangkok, the " Venice of the East." The architecture of Siam is suggestive of Egypt. " Their structures," says Leouowens, " are solid and endurable. The temples are beautifully situated amid sjiacious avenues of trees, and enclos- ed by gardens, while their tapering, pyramidal roofs, sculptured facades and loity prochaidi (sfiires all painted, gilded and glazed) are made vocal with tiny air-bells at all hours of the night and day, and resplendent beyond description in the sunlight." Of all the nations living almost entirely apart from the outside world, Siam is the only one to liave a music (453) A« 454 MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. which is truly musical, judged from the European or American standard. The iang-imng and tahay are instruments closely resembling the piano. The art of painting has been carried to some degree of merit, but architecture is the art most perfected. Watt Plira Kean, or temple of the Emerald God, is a magnificent structure, and there are many tem- ples and palaces of hardly less grandeur. The relig- ion of the country is Buddhism. The people are exceptionally moral and observant of the five com- mandments of Buddha : thou shalt not kill, steal, commit adultery, lie, or get drunk — and the posi- tive virtues insisted upon are, reverence for parents, care for children, obedience, gratitude, moderation, fortitude, patience and resignation. The Siamese literature, which is quite full, is largely religious in tone. The people love poetry. The sacred books are numerous and of such a high character that a Christian missionary writes : " It is difficult to see how the human understanding unaided by revela- tion could soar so high, and, as it were, touch the very throne of God." The government of Siam is a duarch}', there be- ing two kings ; but the second king is hardly more than a vice or lieutenant. About his court is the Council of Twelve, or Cabinet, and when the chief king dies that body may defeat the execution of his will as to his successor on the throne. This veto power is not the only restriction upon royal author- ity. There are laws, written and unwritten, to which he must conform, and which render the government in effect a constitutional monarchy. When General Grant visited the Siamese court m 1878, he found it a seat of learning and justice beyond all anticipa- tion. From 1851 to the present time, the throne has been occui^ied by a patriot and statesman. First, Maha Mongkut, crowned in 1851, a model gentleman and deep student. Astronomy was his favorite study. His death occurred in 1868, and the same night the Council, Senabawdee, confirmed his eldest son, Somdetch Chowf a ChuUalon Korn. as king, and the younger son, Prince George Washington, second king. The latter king had a family of 81 children. Polygamy prevails, and the wealth, social import- ance and rank of a man determines the number of his wives. But in the royal household there can be only two wives whose sons are eligible to the throne. Slavery existed in Siam until 1873, when by royal edict the institution was abolished, or rather, its ab- olition began then, for the process was gradual. A system of compensation to masters was adopted which prevented any serious dissatisfaction. Siam is sometimes called " The Land of the White Elej^hant." Any white animal or bird is held to be almost sacred, as being animated by the pure soul in its metempsychosis. A white elephant is sup- posed to be animated by a deceased king of excep- tional whiteness of character. The palatial stable of the white elephant is guarded from the evil spirits by a white monkey. The same veneration prevails in Burmah for the white elejihant, or " august and glorious mother-descendant of kings and heroes." Burmah is between latitudes 19° and 27° north, and forms a part of what is sometimes called Far- ther India. The soil is productive and the climate agreeable. The mmeral wealth of the country is great and varied, including gold, silver, copper, anti- mony, lead, tin, iron, coal and precious stones, such as rubies and sapjjhires. Rice, corn, cotton, tobacco, indigo and millet are the chief products of the coun- try. Elejjhants, tigers, the rhinoceros and the buf- falo are found there, the first and the last bemg do- mesticated. The people are short, robust and swarthy members of the Mongolian race. Buddhism is the prevailing religion. The ruler of Burmah is abso- lute in his authority, and not even the most horrible abuse of power by the sovereign seems to shake the loyalty of his subjects. Bokhara is the name of both a city and a country, the former bemg the capital of the latter, and the most important commercial city of Central Asia. It has long been famous as a seat of Mohammedan learning. It contains a hundred colleges and has about- 10,000 students in attendance. The fierce Tartar, Ghengis Khan, desolated the city m 1230. It was soon restored, so far as piossible. The j)opiula- tion is about 100,000. The country of which it is the capital is sometimes called Great Bucharis. With the exception of a little gold in the sands of the Oxus or Amoo river, Bokhara is destitute of miner- als. It is also deficient in timber. The ancient Bactria nearly corresponds to this country. The Russians exercise semi-protectoral jurisdiction over Bokhara. The religion of Islam prevails, and Christianity has no foothold whatever, except as the Russians have given the Greek church a little ad- vancement. JSTo part of the world is more com- pletely isolated than Bokhara. ^i o \ ^s =2.^ MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 455 ^71 Turkestan (land of the Turk) is estimated to have an area of 1,576,403 square miles. The west- ern portion is now a part of Russia. It is the home of the ancient Scythians. East Turkestan is nat- urally an arid land. Agriculture requires irrigation. With the aid of mountain torrents tamed and ren- dered supplemental to the plow, the people manage to raise fair crops, generally. The system of govern- ment is exceedingly crude and despotic, the policy being to levy all the tax that the productions of the country would possibly bear. The religion of the inhabitants is Mohammedanism, with a few scat- tered traces of Buddhism, which prevailed until the eighth century. The Chinese long claimed sover- eignty over the country. They were finally expelled from Kashgar, the capital, in 1865, by Yakoob Bey, who has since attracted some general attention as a brave mountain warrior whose exploits are imjaortant from their supposed bearing upon the eastern rival- ries of Russia and England. Formerly the com- merce of the country was conducted by way of China, but now the trade with Russia is very consid- erable. Afghanistan, or land of the Afghans, is known in Persia as Wilijet, " the mother country." It is the bridge between India and Western Asia. It is a very mountainous region. The Afghans are divided into many tribes, each independent of the rest, until re- cently. It was the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury when they became an organized people. The British have repeatedly tried to conquer the countr}^, but the mountains serve as natural fortresses for the natives, and the English were obliged to be content with the establishment of a non-Russian nationality. It is now quite well conceded at London and St. Pe- tersburg that the country shall remain free. The religion of Islam prevails. Beloochistan is a jsart of the same wild and inhos- pitable region as Afghanistan and Turkestan, inhab- ited sparcely by wandering shepherds, subject in a vague way to a despotic khan whose seat of empire is Kelat, which was stormed and taken by the En- glish in 1839. In the sack the khan of the period was slain. Industry is almost unknown. The peo- ple are worsliipers of Allah and his prophet Mo- hammed. In the more favored valleys a little rice, tobacco, cotton, barley and indigo are produced. Arabia, the land of the Prophet, is a peninsula surrounded by water on all sides except the north, 57 where it borders on Turkey. It is a very uninviting country, hot, dry and unproductive. By the aid of irrigation the people manage to coax from the soil meager harvests of coffee, cotton, indigo, tobacco, barley, sugar, and many aromatic plants. There is really no national government. The Arabs being wandering tribes, each sheik, or patriarch, is a petty tyrant. A few of the people dwell in villages and cultivate the soil, but for the most jDart they are Bedouins, or predatory and vagabondish tribes. Mecca is the chief city, owing its prominence to the fact that it was the birthplace of Mohammed. The other cities of Arabia are Medina, Loheia, Mocha, MOCHA. Aden, Muscat, Yemba, and Rostok. Once the Arab caravans were a very important feature in interna- tional transportation, but they have dwindled into ut- ter msignificance now, and Arabia is interestmg only from its suggestions of antiquity. Owing to its deso- lation and sand, the conquerors of the jDast shunned it, and the Arabs were allov?ed to develop in their own weird way, undistributed by the rise and fall of enipires. It can boast a literature which was rich in poetry, at least, before the religious insanity and terrible earnestness of Mohammed had given birth to the Saracen Empire, which was rather an out- growth from than a development of Arabia. The princii3al exports of the country are dates, coffee, gum arabic, myrrh, aloes, pearls, balsams and other drugs. The least important of all the continents, Africa, was the first to attract our attention, including as it does that once s^dendid country, Egypt. The name itself was not known until after the Romans had D ^ V) o 'k 456 MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. come into collision with the Carthaginians. The ancient designation was Libya. Africa extends about 4,500 miles from north to south, and contains an area of 11,600,000 square miles. Its population is a matter of wild conjecture, not far, perhaps, from 200,000,000. In these estimates Madagascar is included. That is the chief island in the near Ticmity of the con- tinent. It has an area of 238,500 square miles, and a population of 6,000,000. Some faint suggestions of civilization are found there, but that is about all. Very considerable effort has been made to introduce Christianity, and not withou.t some success, especially among the hiajher clas- CD o ses. The chief city of the island is Tanan- arivo, in the interior. It has a population of 25,000, and carries on a thriving business in gold and silver manu- factories, and in rings. The language, Mala- gasy, has been reduced to writing by European missionaries. In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies the island was the resort of pirates who roved the sea in quest of ships laden with the treasures of Indian commerce. "We return now to the continent of Africa. In remote antiquity none of the continents could com- pare with Africa in the scale of importance. Egypt, as we have seen, was the fountain-head of that mighty stream of civilization which has fertilized the world, and even Ethiopia was not to be despised. Carthage, the formidable rival of old Eome, and for a long time the queen city of commerce, was located on the African side of the Mediterranean sea. The Saracen Empire was largely African, and the Moors, the noblest race of the medieval age, belonged in part to that continent. But since their day Africa has been little better than a cipher, her unfortunate A MOHAMMEDAN MOSQUE. sons the drudges of white masters, and the continent itself contributing very little to the civihzation of mankind. It belongs to the past, and perhaps to the future, but in only a very subordinate way to the vital present. Upon its monumental ruins the mind's eye reads the inscription, "Ichabod" — the glory has departed. A very lively interest is felt in the geography of Africa, and numerous efforts of great enterprise have been made during the last decade to ascertain what are the physical facts in regard to that conti- nent. A recent writer who conceals his name remarks : " Africa is no longer the terra in- cognita that it was in the days when the adults of this gener- ation thumbed their school geographies. Then the vast interior of that mysterious con- tinent was marked as ' desert ' or ' uninhab- ited,' but now we know that numerous oases dot the sandy wastes, and that the supposed ' uninhabited regions ' teem with millions of human beings. To the indefatigable labors and indomitable cour- age of such men as Liv- ingstone, Cameron, Stanley, Grant, Burton, Speke, Pinto, and other exialorers ; to the zeal of the mission- aries, and to the ever-pushing spirit of barter, is the world indebted for its present store of knowledge of the Dark Continent. Still, Africa is, m its gi-eat ulte- rior,' comparatively unknown. There are yet vast regions of that continent where the foot of the white man has never trodden, and, on this account, is that country a present favored field of exploration and travel. There are now expeditions eng-aged in ex- ploring Africa under the direction of societies in Germany, Eussia, France, England, Italy, Spain, and other States." In northern Africa there are four countries, each ■f V tlL MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 463 "711 The native population had its aristocracy. The Aztec noble- men were called Ca- ciques. They were never in any sort of personal ser V i t u d e, but as a class they were depriv- ed of the op- portunities MEXICAN CACIQUE. which of right belonged to them. The Creoles were also de- prived of political privileges. The government was administered, and the army officered, by men sent over from Spain for that purpose. The first formidable resistance to the home gov- ernment occurred in 1810, under a priest named Hidalgo. It was soon suppressed and the leader shot. Ten years later a native of Mexico, Don Augustin Iturbide, came forward as the leader of a movement for independence. The declaration of indejjendence was issued February 24, 1821. The country was ripe for it. In the autumn the colonial government was forced to surrender unconditionally. The viceroy vacated the capital. In the following May the army declared Iturbide emperor. Spain Was m no condi- tion to assert its claim to sovereignty. But the end was only the beginning. The struggle for independence over, civil war began. In Decem- ber next, Santa Anna, who was destined to be the most prominent man in Mexican affairs for more than thirty years, led a republican movement by proclaiming the republic of Vera Cruz. The coun- try seemed to be on the eve of a protracted civil war. It was averted, temporarily, by the abdication, iu March, of Iturbide. He was exiled and a provis- ional government established. A condition border- ing on anarchy prevailed until October 4, 1824, when a constitution, framed in imitation of the consti- tution of the United States, was adoiDted. Under that organic law the republic consisted of nineteen states and five territories. The first jjresident was Victoria. Iturbide returned and attempted to re- claim the throne. He was defeated, captured and shot. 58 SANTA ANNA. Affairs moved on tolerably smoothly until 1828, when a presidential election gave rise to another civil war, which resulted in the success of the insurgents. In the year following, Spain so far bestirred itself as to attempt to regain control of the country, but the army sent over for that purpose was defeated ui a few months, disbanded and sent to Cuba. That was the end of Spanish intervention in Mexico. One insurrection foUowed another in quick suc- cession for quite a long series of years until a new world was added to the English vocabulary, 3fexi- canization becoming a synonym for elections which lead to anarchy. In 1833 Santa Anna came to the fore as presi- dent. He ruled for two years, dur- ing which time a new constitution was adopted under which the au- thority of the central government was greatly increased. In the meanwhile that portion of Mexico j north of the Rio Grande river re- , Tolted and declared itself inde- pendent, taking the name of Texas. Without anticipating what properly comes under the head of Texas, it may be said the success of that secession had the effect to bring on a relapse iiito anarchy. Tlie president whom Santa Anna had driven into exile, Bustamante, returned and be- came president. That was ill 1837. Before the year expired Santa Anna returned and was ahle to regain much of the reality of power. In 1839 he became the recognized president. In July of the same year General Bravo deposed him and usurped the reins of government. His rule continued just one week. Out of the confusion which followed arose a dio- tatorial triumvirate, Santa Anna, Bravo and Canal- ize, being the tiiree rulerst A new constitution was adopted in 1 843, under which Santa Anna became president again. Before the year closed he was de- posed and Canalizo put in his place, but in Decem- ber following still another man. General Herrera, was elevated to the presidency. A year later and General Paredes succeeded him in the same revolu- tionary waj\ In the meanwhile the United States, without just cause, had provoked war with Mexico. That war brought Santa Anna back from exile to be the leading general. The great republic found it an easy task to overrun and override the little republic. In every 3 \ ■yc u. 464 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. eugagement the United States was victorious. lu 1848 a treaty of peace was negotiated, by virtue of which an immense area of country was taken from Mexico and added to the United States, including California, New Mexica, Nevada, and in general the region known as the great mineral belt of this re^ public; A territory which had never been of much value to Mexico soon developed such a wealth of gold and silver as to be positively revolutionary to tlie monetary system of the entire world. contract, and the union of church and state abolished. When the United States became involved in civil war the three European powers, France, Spain and England, conceived that the time had come to foist upon Mexico a foreign-born emperor. Louis Napo- leon was the prime mover in the plot. Enormous claims against the Mexican government were j)re- sented. A Spanish force under General Prim occu- pied Vera Cruz, soon reinforced by English and French troops. It was arranged that those claims ENTRY OF THE FRENCH TROOPS INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO. Santa A'nna was now in disgrace and once more compelled to leave the country. Again revolutions followed each other in quick succession. At last, in 1861,Benito Juarez gained possession of the govern- ment, and succeeded in holdmg it long enough to effect many radical reforms, and when he finally re- tired from public life the country had acquired political stability. The power of the priesthood had been the especial curse of Mexico. Under Juarez, who was a full-blooded Aztec, the property of the church, nearly one-half of the real estate of the re- public, was confiscated. Monasticism was abolished, also ecclesiastical courts. Marriage was made a civil should be paid out of the customs revenue, and En- gland and Spain witlidrew. But the French forces remained. The church party co-operated with the French, and the native government was powerless. The United States protested, but was in no condi- tion to enforce its protest. An hereditary monarchy was declared established July 10, 1863. The crown was tendered to the Archduke of Austria, Maximil- ian. With much pomp and circumstance he ac- cepted, departing with his wife, "poor Carlotta," for his empire, having first received the blessing of the Pope and the farewell good wishes of the sovereigns of France, England and Belgium. His formal en- ~S)'r ^ MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 465 try into the city of Mexico occurred June 12, 1864. Having no cliild, he adopted as liis heir the son of the Emijeror Iturbide. French bayonets propped the throne, and he seemed to be master of the situation. But -when the United States settled its own trouble it turned its attention to Mexico, demanding the withdrawal of the foreign troops. The moral sup- port of this government was of the greatest service to Juarez and the Mexican patriots. The French American continent. The buUet that terminated the life of Maximilian and rendered his poor wife a maniac, estabhshed that part of the " Monroe doc- trhie " which means the non-intervention of foreign governments in American afEairs. The lesson was severe, but the result was well worth the cost. Mexico was substantially harmonious under the restored rule of Juarez. He held the reins of gov- ernment until his death in 1872, having been re- THE CATHEDRAL. government was given distinctly to understand that it must cease its intervention or prepare for war with the United States. This protest had the de- sired effect. Louis Napoleon sent an envoy to Max- imihan urging him to abdicate. He refused to do so. The French troops were withdrawn, the last detachment leaving Mexican soil early in 1867. Maximilian had fatally mistaken his strength. Wholesale desertions followed, and in a few months he was a prisoner. A court-martial tried him, and very justly condemned him to be shot. On the 19th of June, 1867, he and his two generals, Miramon and Mejia, were executed. Thus ingloriously ended the great test case of European intervention on the elected in 1871. His successor was Chief Justice Lerdo de Tejada, who was succeeded by General Diaz. December 1, 1880, General Gonzales was in- augurated President. As now constituted, Mexico consists of twenty- seven states and one territory, the latter being Lower California. The city of Mexico, like the city of Washington, belongs in a district which is under the exclusive jurisdiction of the general government. The Mexican District of Columbia is called the Fed- eral District of Mexico. There are several cities in Mexico of some impor- tance, but the only really large one is the capital. That has a population of 250,000. Tradition has it / (5 w- IK^ 32 466 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. that it was founded about the middle of the four- teenth century. Oortez destroyed the old city, and laid out the new town with wide streets and on a magnificent scale. It chief structure is a cathedral which is thought to have cost not less than 83,500,- 000. The academy of San Carlos is remarkable as containing the most valuable collection of paintings in America. Mexico is rich in undeveloped resources. Even the mines have yielded but a very small per cent, of their capacity. The eighteenth century witnessed the most prolific yield of those mines. The long period of civil disquietude operated very unfavorably upon the mining interest. There are, however, eleven mints in the country which coin annually about S30,000,000, mostly silver. The total pro- duction of the Mexican mines up to 1875 is esti- mated at $4,300,000,000 ; the total coinage to that date had been 83,063,660,068. About 95 per cent, of all this was silver. The agricultural resources of the country are very great, but owing to the indolence of the people, and the difficulties of transportation, very little is raised for export. At the end of 1879 the total number of miles of railway open to traffic was only 373, the " National Mexican " being the principal line. It ex- tends from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. Other Imes are in process of construction. It is expected that direct communication by rail between the United States and Mexico will soon be established, leading to a revolution in the commercial relations of the two countries. At the present time there is no paper money used in Mexico, except a little United States money on the border. In January, 1883, a charter was granted for the " Banco Nacional Mexicano," with a minimum capital of 13,000,000 and a maximum capital of 820,000,000, with au- thority to estabhsh branches and issue 83 of paper money for every 81 of coin in the treasury. This chapter cannot be closed better than by giv- ing, in a condensed form, Prescott's description of the great CoteocalK, or temple of Mexico, completed in 1486, the most remarkable building ever erected in America. It was " a solid pyramidal structure of earth and pebbles, coated externally with white hewn stones. It was square, its sides facing the cardinal points, and was divided into five stories, each of which receded so as to be smaller than that below it. Tlie ascent was by a flight of 114 steps on the out- side, so contrived that to reach the top it was neces- sary to pass four times around the whole edifice. The base of the temj^le is supposed to have been 300 feet square. The summit was a broad area covered with flat stones. On it were two towers or sanc- tuaries, and before each was an altar on which a fire was kept continually burning." Near this tem- j)le was garrisoned a guard of 10,000 soldiers. It may well be doubted if the present Mexicans could present any equally high evidence of civilization, in any department of human effort. "71" ^^ ^ — ^l>^, ^^liM::tjMu.^^::2^^i^^:^ i SOUTH AMERICA. '^fm'^ — •••I,, '".; ,.»••••' ..■■•■ '"'«, i "N^k^ i "I/, '"'11, CHAPTER LXXIII The South American Continent, as a Whole — Patagonia and the Patagonians — The Ar- gentine Kepuelic — The Paradise of Cattle and Indolence — Uruguat — Paraguay, Its History and Melancholy Fate — From the Jesuits to Lopez — Brazil, the Only' Empire IN America — The Amazon, Rio de Janeiro, Diamond-Beds and Coffee Raising — Portugal AND THE Portuguese Dynasty in Brazil — National Independence without Conflict — Guiana, English, French and Dutch — Venezuela — Bolivar, the Liberator — The Work Accomplished by Bolivar — The United States of Colombia — Peru — Pizarro and the Incas — Mountains and Mines — Guano-Beds and Railroads — Bolivia — Chili and the Chilians — The Leading Nation of South America — The History and Condition of Chili — The Late War Between Chili, Its Cause and Probable Result. HL^. JHUS far in the history of the world the only conti- nental portion of America really knoAvn to Columbus has contributed very little to the benefit of mankind, and is still a land of great possibilities, rather than actual achievement. Until a com- paratively recent period the entire continent of South America, so far as it was inhabited by civilized man, was under the colonial yoke, and that not of liberal and progres- ", sive England, but of narrow and repressive Spain and Portugal. Al- most at the same time that Mexico became independent the colonies of Spain farther south broke their chains, and Portu- gal's one dependency, Brazil, changed from a colony to an empire. Columbus landed at the mouth"of the Oriuoco river, "Venezuela, in 1498, taking possession of the continent in the name of his august sover- eigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. That was the shadow '-Ti cast before by a dominion which continued for about three liundred and thirty years. South America extends from tlie isthmus of Pan- ama to Cape Horn, a distance of about 4,800 miles. Its area is about 7,000,000 square miles, or 1,500,000 square miles less than North America. The most notable general feature of the continent is the mountain range known as the Andes, which lies along the Pacific coast in almost a straight line for over 4,000 miles. It is not wide, but high and precipitate. In altitude it is unrivaled, except by the Himalayas. The highest peak of the Andes is the Sonata, 24,800, feet ; of the Himalayas, Everest, 39,000 feet. The Andes has no less than thirty active volcanoes, the highest being the Saliama in Peru. This vast mountain range is rich in precious minerals. On~ the east side of it flows the largest river in the world, the Amazon. Its capacious mouth, 95 miles wide, is at the very equator. For o-^er two thousand miles the Amazon is navigable. The equatorial portion of the continent is not so warm, by any means, as the same latitude in the old worlds, thanks to the snow-capped Andes, the trade winds and other causes. The condor is the most -^7 (467) ^^T- l^ 468 SOUTH AMERICA. remarkable of the animate products of the coun- try, whether bu-d or beast. That sohtary dweller in the least accessible portions of the Andes is the largest bird in the world. Its body is fi'om three to three and a half feet long. In some jaortions of the continent a great variety of small monkeys abound. The other peculiarities of the continent will appear in connection with the several countries. The southern apex, Patagonia, is very nearly worthless. The wild beasts and wilder men roam over its barren rocks and frost-bound hills unmo- lested by white men. It was first visited in 1530 by Magellan, who named it Patagonia (Big-feet). The inhabitants are large and fierce. So far as now known, that portion of the conti- nent is incajiable of being made useful. The same is true of a group of islands, in that vicinity, the Archi- pelago of Terra del Fuego. North of Patagonia, and adjoining it on the east side of the Andes, lies the Ar- gentine EeiDublic, of which Buenos Ayres, at the moutli of the Rio de la Plata river, is the capital. The wealth of that country consists of wool and hides. The meat is hardly marketable at all, so plenty is it. The skins of the cattle and the clothing of the sheep can be exported to advan- tage, and are the main source of revenue. The annual expprt of wool averages over 300,000,000 pounds. The number of hides exported annually is about 3,000,000. The exjwrtation of horse hides is also very considerable, although sensibly dimiti- ishing. Herds of horses, thousands in number, roam wild over the pampas, yet horses were unknown there until introduced from Europe in 1536 by Men- doza. Fourteen years later goats and sheep were introduced, and seven years later cattle.' Where na- ture was best prepared for these most useful animals they were not known until what might be called human accident occurred (for no special pains were taken in South America or any where else by NATIVES OF PATAGONIA. the Spaniards to introduce European animals). The La Plata was discovered in 1516 by Juan Diaz de Saks. The chmate is delightful, and to those who seek ease the country is inviting. At the present time it seems to be quite attractive to the Italians. The republic is a federal union of fourteen states. Some claim to authority over Patagonia is asserted by the Argentine government. The Argen- tine population is about 3,000,000, including the 40,000 in Patagonia. A part of the La Plata country forms a distinct republic, called Uruguay. This small nation has an area of 63,300 square miles, and a population of about 500,000. It is indistinguish- able, except in a political way, from the Argentine Eepublic. The first settle- ment was made there, and in Paraguay which is far- ther inland, in 1633, by Spanish Jesuits. "When Spain and Portugal be- came distinct nations, after their brief union, there was a sharp rivalry for the possession of both Para guay and Uruguay, lying as they do between the old Spanish colony and state of Buenos Ayres and Brazil which was settled by emi- grants from Portugal. In 1838 Brazil recognized Uruguay as an independent republic ; since then it has continued to vegetate without serious molestation. Paraguay is a nominal republic, but in point of fact it is under the mild dominion of the great (geographically speaking) empire north of it. It was first discovered by Sebas- tian Cabot the brave naviga- tor, who accompanied his fa- ther, John Oabot, to Canada in the first fleet ever sent to the new world by England. It was in the year 1536 that Ca- bot, searching for a passage across the continent, sailed up sebastiax cabot the broad La Plata, as far as the confluence of the ^ ^V^ ^ tk. SOUTH AMERICA. 469 Paraguay and Parana rivers. He was in the em- ploy of Spain at the time. In 1536 the country was settled, and early acquired very considerable prominence. The Spaniards freely intermarried with the natives, called Payaguas. The Jesuits flocked thither as early as 1610 and acquired almost absolute sovereignty over the natives. Li 1767 they were expelled from there as from all the Spanish colonies. They had erected splendid churches and lofty mansions which attest their van- Antonio Lopez finally STicceeded to the dictatorship, holding it until 1862, under the title of President. At his death, his more illustrious son, Francisco Solano Lopez, succeeded him. He set up as pro- tector of the " equilibrium " of the La Plata region. He soon inaugurated war with Brazil, the Argentine Republic and Uruguay. For five years (1865-1870) the war was waged. The country was nearly depopu- lated before Lopez was killed and peace restored. Proceeding farther north, still on the east side of "VIEW OP RIO DE JANEIKO. ished dominion. In 1811 the foreign yoke was thrown off, and for twenty-nine years the country was strangely and comiDletely isolated. During that period it was ruled by that unique character, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez Francia. Speaking of his rule, Hon. C. A. Washburne, late diplomatic representa- tive of the United States at Paraguay, says, " The country being accessible only by way of the river, he stopped all ingress and egress, allowing during all this time only some half a dozen foreigners to leave the country and none to enter it. The ship- ping then in the river stayed there, rotted, and fell to pieces." At the death of Francia the country was without even the form of a government. Carlos the Andes, we come to the one American monarchy, the Empire of Brazil. It occupies nearly one-half of the entire continent, extending from latitude 4° 33' north, to latitude 4° 44' south. Its area is 3,243,900 square miles. The country has some gold, but its especial wealth of a mineral nature consists of diamonds, found in river beds. But the sugar and coffee productions of the empire are of more value each year than all the mining products of a period of eighty years. The population is about 10,000,000, not including the shifting, vagabondish aboriginal population, estimated at about 1,000,000. Brazil is the only part of America now where slav- ery has a legal existence, and it is being gradually ^ _ w -^ — ^1^1 470 SOUTH AMERICA. extinguished there. Brazil was discovered in 1500 by Pincon,. a companion of Columbus. It was ear- ly selected by the Portuguese as their favorite resort in America. In 1808 the king of Portugal, John VI., took refuge from the French in Brazil, accompa- nied by his court. He remained there until 1820, to the great benefit of the country. When Napoleon fell, he took the title of King of Portugal, Algarve and Brazil. A national congress was assembled at Eio de Janeiro in 1822, when Dom Pedro, son of John VI., was elected " Perpetual Protector." The country was declared inde- pendent, and Portugal ac- quiescedwith- out a mur- mur." Consti- tutional Em- peror " was soon after adopted. In 1831 Dom Pedro I. ab- dicated in fa- vor of his son Dom Pedro II., the pres- ent emperor. Father, son, and grandson deserve high credit for pa- triotism and good ability, without brilliancy or great force of character. The empire is divided into nu- merous provinces for administrative purposes. In nothing excepting its mighty river, the Amazon, its diamond-beds and the extent of its area, is Brazil at all above the dead level of uninteresting mediocrity. The chief cities of Brazil are Eio de Janeiro, the capital and metropolis, and the largest city of South America, population nearly 300,000 ; Bahia, or San Salvador, population, 180,000 ; Pernambuco, popu- lation, 90,000 ; Maranhao, population, 40,000. There are two geograjDhical terms so nearly alike as to be confusing, Guinea, a common name of a large tract of country on the western coast of Africa, and Guiana, a large territory of the northeastern part of South America, between the Amazon andtheOri- THE CITY OF CARACAS noco. The latter country is subject to several powers. Great Britain, France, Holland, Brazil and Venezu- ela. It is a tropical wilderness, valuable only for its few large sugar plantations and its forests from which are shipped various kinds of high-priced lum- ber. French Guiana, with the island of Cayenne just off the coast, is used as a penal colony. In the early days of American discovery it was supposed that that region was rich in gold, but the supposed precious metals were only mica and quartzose rock. North and west of Guiana stretches Venezuela, of which Ca- racas, on the seaboard, is the capital. It has a popula- tion of some- thing less than 2,000,- 000 and an area of 403,- 261 square miles. Coffee is its chief article of ex- port, but cot- ton, cacao, sugar, tobac- co and indigo are also im- portant pro- ductions for exportation. The republic consists of twenty states and one ter- ritory. The president is in effect almost dictator. Diamonds, gold, silver, tin, zinc, quicksilver and copper are believed to abound, but the mineral wealth has never been very much developed. The cajDital, Caracas, has a population of about fifty thousand souls, and is a somewhat thrifty seaport. Its chief honor is, however, that it can boast being the birthplace of the Great Liberator of South America, Simon Bolivar, whose services may well be narrated in this connection. The Liberator was born July 25, 1783. He in- herited immense wealth from his father. His edu- cation was completed at Madrid. In 1810 he joined the patriot army. In three years he rose to emi- nence as a soldier and entered Caracas in triumph. V^-j^=^>. 474 SOUTH AMERICA. at Lima, which he founded in 1535. That low and brutal wretch treated the natives with unspeakable barbarity until the year 1541 when he was assassin- ated. The King of Spain had dubbed him Marquis. He married the Inca's daughter. His descendants are among the more aristocratic of the present Pe- ruvian grandees. Pizarro reduced the natives to slavery and made them work assiduously in the mines. His successor Vaca de Castra, introduced some administrative re- forms. It was not many years before African slavery was introduced as a substitute for Indian slavery. The latter was abolished in 1856. Peru had an uneventful career for nearly three centuries, during which time it contributed immense quantities of gold and silver to the world's stock. The nimes are still very rich and jDrofitable. But upon the shore and on neighboring islands of the Pacific is found an article of commerce which is the chief source of Peruvian wealth, the excrement of birds, called gu- ano. Speaking on this point, a recent writer says : " The guano-beds constitute government monopo- lies of sufficient value to have paid for the construc- tion of 1,000 miles of railways which traverse the Andes in a zigzag way, connecting the Sierra with the seaboard." There are many millions of tons of guano. The Incas protected the birds and the Pe- ruvian farmers? then, even more than now, used this best of all fertilizers to enrich the soil. Tlie coun- try has over 2,000 miles of railway, costing about 1180,000,000. Their construction was a great tri- ximph of financial management and engineering skill. For the former, Mr. Meiggs deserves the cred- it ; for the latter, the highest praise belongs to an- other American, Mr. Thorndike. We have now reached a point at which Chili and Bolivia sustain such relations to Peru that it is best to trace their respective lines of development until they converge toward a point common to the three. The southern boundary of Peru extends very nearly to the northern extremity of Chili, but not quite. Bolivia separates them, having a seajDort, Cabija, which, however, is cut oif from the rest of the republic by the desert of Atacama. In the days of the Incas that desert was a favorite burial place, the saltness of the soil preserving the body from de- cay. The area of Atacama is 70,181 and the popu- lation about 5,000. The entire republic of Bolivia has an area of 535,000 square miles and a jjopula- tion of 2,000,000. In the days of Spanish rule the chief part of the country was called either Upper Peru or Charcas, having very little if any in- dividuality. In 1767 it was cut off from Peru and made a jiart of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. It is intermediate between the two, and peculiarly isolated from the rest of the world, hedged in on the east and south by Brazil and the Argentine Ke- pubhc, on the west and south by Peru and Chili ; its only seaboard having the Andes between it and any habitable territory. Bolivia is a mountainous coun- try, comprising as it does the Cordilleras at tlieir greatest altitude. From that range two chains break off, the western, containing many volcanoes and Mount Sajaina, 22,760 feet high ; and the east- ern, to wliich belong Mounts Illampu and lUimano. Lying as it does between southern latitudes 12° and 24°, Bolivia is tropical in climate, except as the mountain tower into the regions of frost, and pos- sesses every range of climate and productions. The interior of the country is productive, but its greatest wealtli is mineral. All through tlie Bolivian Cor- dilleras silver is found in large quantities, and gold also, both placer and quartz. A railroad is in pro- cess of construction along the banks of the Madeira river for about 150 miles. That river empties into the Amazon and is navigable, except as its rapids, which extend for about 150 miles, impede it. With that obstacle overcome, Bolivia might develop into a great and rich country. The capital is the forti- fied town of Oruro. Formerly it was La Paz. In theory the government is a republic on the most approved American j^lan, with a president elected for four years ; practically the rulers are military dictators, and civil wars have been almost a con- stant quantity. From 1820 to 1839 Grand-Mar- shal Santa Cruz ruled Bolivia. Insurrections, assas- sinations, banishments and anarchy succeeded each other, the last being the deposition of President Camj)eio, who had been elected in June, 1880. He was deposed for failure to resist successfully the su- perior power of Chili. From a mere glance at the map of South Amer- ica one would infer that Chili was the least import- ant part of the continent, being a narrow strip of land between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes. Of all the South American states on the Pacific coast it alone has no territory east of the great mountain range. As a matter of fact, however, it stands first 1^ _ 9 - ^ ilL SOUTH AMERICA. 475 in actual importance. It is about 1^200 miles long, and in width varies from 90 to 130 miles. The average height of the Chilian Andes is 14,000 feet above the level of the sea. The highest peak is the porphyritic Nevado of Aconcagua, 23,423 feet high. There are several active volcanoes in this republic, Antuco being tlie chief. The total area of the country is 133,606 square miles, the population a little more than two millions. It has two large towns, Santiago, the cajjital, and Valparaiso, the port. The former is in the interior and- has a population of 130,000 ; the latter is midway, nearly, as between northern and southern boundaries, and has a popu- lation of about 100,000. The northern half of Chili is nearly worthless for agriculture, and even the mineral wealth cannot be developed to very good advantage. But the land has rest, comparatively speaking, from civil strife. Says an English writer, "The Chihans have made the best of their advantages, instead of squandering nature's prodigal gifts in strife and indolence. Eail- roads and telegraphs have been introduced, and a thrifty foreign commerce established. Chili is pro- verbial for its steady progress in all industrial en- terprises, for the absence of political perturbation, and for its punctuality in meeting its financial en- gagements. Its securities rank among the foremost on the London Stock Exchange, being usually held for investment ; it builds its own railways and its own telegraphs without much foreign help ; and the money it borrows for such purposes is secured by national and private bonds." Historically speaking, this portion of the Empire of the Incas began to have a separate existence in 1535, when a Spanish expedition under Diego Al- magro pushed southward from Peru as far as Copi- apo into the territory of the Purumancians. The natives drove back the intruders. Five years later, Pedro de Valdivia repeated the experiment. He established a permanent settlement, calling tlie city he founded Santiago, in honor of the patron saint of Spain. After securing his position there he pushed southward to encounter the Araucaniaus, a tribe never yet subdued, and who continue to occupy a strip of Chihan territory 190 miles in length. The city of Concepcion was founded by Valdivia in the Araucanian country, but in 1559 it was destroyed and Valdivia put to death. For over a century the Spaniards and the Araucanians were at war. The peace of 1665 acknowledged the independence of the native tribe south of Bobio. Again, from 1723 to 1773, the Chilians were at war with their aboriginal neighbors. ChiH was one of the first colonies to rebel against Spain. The movement for independence began in 1810. The first step was to depose the Governor- General, Carrasco,' and vest the political authority in a Junta, corresponding to the Continental Con- gress. The Junta placed General Carrera in su- preme authority. But he was unequal to the demands of the case. He was not destined to be the George Washington of his country. Before 1813 closed, Spain had re-established its authority. It might have retained it perhaps, but harsh and op- pressive measures followed, provoking a renewal of rebellion in 1816. Speaking of the struggle thus renewed, a Chilian historian says, " The patriots now raised an army in the neighboring province of La Plata, and made General San Martin its com- mander. He marched into Chili and won an im- portant victory over the royalist forces at Chacabu- co, on the 13th of February, 1817. A provisional government was set up by the patriots, and Don Bernardo O'Higgins was placed at its head as su- preme dictator. The Spaniards now rallied and defeated the Chilians with heavy loss at Chauchar- ayda ; but were themselves utterly routed by the patriots at Chilenos on the 5th of April, 1818. Not more than 500 Spaniards escaped from the field. This victory entirely destroyed the Spanish power in Chili, Peru and Buenos Ayres, and secured the independence of those states. The Spaniards re- treated to the port of Valdivia, which they held until 1830, when they surrendered to the Chilian forces." During the next three years General O'Higgins was virtual dictator, but he lost his popularity and had to retire. A stable government, a genuine republic, was not adopted until 1838. Affairs moved on smoothly, the country steadily growing in prosperity and en- Joying the substance and not the mere shadow of repubhcanism, undisturbed by any serious diflficul- ties, apart from some Indian warfare, until 1864, when war broke out between Spain and Peru. An alliance was formed between Peru, Chili and Bo- livia, in accordance with which the three republics made common cause against the mother country, justly looked upon as a common enemy. This alii- ■^^ V •v 476 - — s l^, SOUTH AMERICA. auce was not formal and recognized until 1867. Before that time ChUi had shown such strong sym- pathy with Peru that her coast was blockaded by the Spanish fleet. That blockade led to the cap- ture of the Spanish steamer "Oovadonga" by the Cliilian steamer, "Esmeralda," and later, to the bombardment of Valparaiso by the Spanish Ad- miral Nunez. That was a very impolitic thing to do, for the actual loss fell upon foreign residents mainly, and thus secured the ill-will of other na- tions. The United States offered to mediate be- tween the alhes and Spain. Tlie offer was accepted, and in April, 1871, a treaty providing for a cessa- tion of hostilities was signed at Washington. That may well be called the last struggle of Sjjain to re- cover its foothold in America. In 1879 hostilities began between Chili and the allied republics of Bolivia and Peru, growing out of rival territorial claims and claims to Guano-beds, and niineral deposits. Chili insisted that havmg done more than either of the others to repel the enemy, she was entitled to generous treatment. When the war came she had an army of 22,000 and a navy of ten small steamers and two jjowerful iron-clads. With these land and naval forces she was an over- match for the other two nations combined. The war was conducted with great spirit and intreiDidity. In the sjiring of 1881 Callao and Lima were taken, and the Chilians were absolute masters of the situation. The final settlement of the questions ia dis- pute and of the relations of those countries to each other still remains to be accomplished. The national debts of Peru and Bolivia (especially the former) cannot be ignored. Peru was virtually mortgaged to non-resident capitalists before the last war, and Chili will not be allowed to sacrifice those interests, more especially the guano interests of foreign claim- ants. It is a curious and appropriate fact that the present question of supreme imjaortance in the pub- lic affairs of all South America relates to the excre- ment of sea-fowls. In the fall of 1881 the Secretary of State, Mr. Blaine, with the approval of President Arthur, sent two envoys-extraordinary to Peru and Chili for the fiurpose of facilitating negotiations of amity and protecting Peru from the apprehended tmjust de- mands of her victorious sister republic. Soon after, Mr. Blaine was superseded by Mr. Fielinghuysen who early made material changes in the instructions issued to the chief envoy, Mr. Trescott. It is not absolutely certain what negotiations have been en- tered into, but it is sujjposed to be morally certain that the following terms will be exacted and en- forced : First — The absolute annexation of Tarajjaca and a large strip of territory immediately north of it. These include all the nitrates and the great bulk of the guano. Second — Chili holds and occupies the district of Arica and Tacna, nominally for ten years, to be then released to Peru on payment of $30,000,000, which they leave her no more power to pay than if it were 820,000,000,000. Arica and Tacna may therefore be considered jjermanently an- nexed. Third — The Lobis Islands to be seized and held by Chili so long as there is any guano on them. Eeferriug to this ultimatum, and the sagacious provision of the Chilians to j)i'otect the British in- terest in Peru, Mr. Blaine declares that the United States has lost a great ojjportunity to advance its own commercial uiterest while enforcing the princi- ple of the Monroe doctruie. His words on this point are, ''By commercial interests I mean the entire inter- change of commodities, the supplying of manufac- tured articles and raw material, the concentration in our commercial cities of a share of that which will now go wholly to London and Liverpool. The trade of the west coast of South America, from this time forward, will be as much in the hands of Great Britain as the trade of British India." Evi- dently that portion of the world is in a condition of extreme incertitude both as to domestic and for- eign relations. "Ip fv^ 32 CENTRAL AMERICA mM i-^Lsj ISLES OF THE SEA. AND THE &gr CHAPTER LXXIV. Cbntkal America in General — Eaelt Settlement — Political Divisions— Gautehala, the Republics OF Honduras and San Saltador— Nicaragua, Costa Eica, and British Hon- duras—Panama—The West Indies in General — The Bahamas— The Antilles— Cuba and Porto Rico — Cuban History — Havana — Hatti ; Spanish and French Occupation op it — Toussaint and Napoleon — Soulouque— San Domingo — Jamaica — The Lesser Antilles — The Barbadoes— The Gulf-Streah— The Bermudas— The Azores— The Sandwich Islands —The Fiji Islands— Samoan Isles. J HERE is one imbroken stretch of land from Behr- ings Straits to tlie Straits of Magellan, from Cape Prince of Wales to Gape Horn, to the hindrance of commerce ; but from tlie southern extremity of North America to tlie northern ex- tremity of South America, is a dis- tance of about 800 miles. The link that binds the two continents to- gether, or, to put it in a more practi- cal way, the barrier that divides the i; Atlantic coast from the Paciiic, is that narrow ridge of land called Central America, and which ex- tends from the southern boundary of Mexico to the southern bound- ary of Panama. The width of Central America varies from 30 to 400 miles. The eastern shore of Central America was first visited by Christopher Columbus in 1503, or rather discovered, for he merely passed along it. The natives and his crew were agreed in opposition to landing. Twenty-one years later Cortez sent Pedro Alvarado to explore and conquer the west coast. He was absent two years. Almost incredible, yet hardly too extravagant, stories were told by the Aztecs and other natives of the abundance of gold and silver in that region, and the splendor of the civ- ilization existing there. Eelics dug from the ruins of Central America in our own day attest the essential correctness of the representations made. Gold and silver are found in many localities, and some mines are in operation, but the chmate is so hot and the air is so fetid, the government so insecure and tlie people so indolent, that no considerable amount of mining is done. The only industry of any account, apart from transportation, is lumbering. The dense forests contain maliogany, logwood, lignum-vitse, pimento, sarsajiarilla, vanilla, black balsam, and other trees valuable for bark, timber or gum. There are said to be not less than ninety-seven varieties of poisonous trees in that region fatal to animal life, but they are valuable for drugs. The sparce population consists, it is estimated, of one- twelfth whites, four-twelfths mixed races, and seven- twelfths Indians. The country is mountainous, and the mountains volcanic. There are several lakes, E"icaraugua being the chief. Its outlet, the San Juan, is the only considerable river of Central America. (477) V ..^K 478 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. Politically there are five Central American repub- lics and one European dependency, British Hondu- ras. These republics are : Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicarag'ua and Costa Rica. In 1823 the Spanish yoke was thrown off. The division of the country into districts and states having no unity occurred about ten years later. The present constitution of Gautemala was adopted in 1859. Santiago de Guatemala is the principal seaport is La Libertad, distant fifteen miles from the capital. The Indians of that state are more industrious than those of any other part of Central America. Indigo is their chief article of export. Nicaragua has a population estimated at 350,000. Their chief occupation is cattle raising. The capital, Managua, is built on the slope of an active volcano. The old capital, Leon, ten miles from the Pacific f. i VIEW OP PANAMA. capital. It has a population of 45,000. Guatemala de Cabelleros, once the capital, had a population of 60,000, but earthquake and fire nearly de- stroyed it in 1773, and it now has only about one- third of that ]Dopulation. The republic of Honduras is almost wholly peopled by Indians. Its capital is the little town of Gomayagua, oh the Pacific coast. San Salvador has for its capital the city of the same name, founded by Pedro Alvarado in 1538, or ratlier, it did have, until repeated earthquakes and vol- canic eruptions compelled a change of site. The city of San Salvador was visited by destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in 1873. Tlie coast, was surrounded by five active volcauos. Costa Rica is supposed to have a population of little less than 200,000 souls. The Spanish portion of the population clusters about tlie capital, San Jose, which has a population of 2(3,000. Costa Rica is trying to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by a railroad running from Alajuela to Limon, a dis- tance of 114 miles. That portion of the line from Alajuela to Cartage (43 miles) was finished early in 1873. Only a very little more work was done until 1879, when construction was resumed. Like all the rest of Central America, Costa Rica abounds in vol- canoes. iK" JV' ^ CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 479 British Honduras lias a population of about 25,- 000, and is hardly more than a naval station, kept up for the convenience of the British Empire and to strengthen Great Britain's supremacy on the high seas of the world. Panama is, jiolitically speaking, a part of South America, one of the states of the United States of Colombia being the Isthmus of Panama (formerly Darieu) ; but in reality is a part of the connecting link between the two continents. It has an area of 39,756 square miles and a population of 175,000 souls. It varies in width from 30 to 70 miles. Its chief feature is the Panama rail- road, extenduig from Aspinwall on the Atlantic coast to the city of Pan- ama on the Pacific coast. It was built at tremendous cost, 1500,000 a mile, and the loss of life from the unwhole- someness of the climate was enor- mous. That rail- road is one of the great triumphs of modern enterprise. Citizens of the United States projected and accomplished the work. Great numbers of Chinamen were employed in the construction. The projDcrty has always been a very profitable investment. It was recently purchased by the company organized by M. de Lesseps to construct a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama, one of the most gigantic and important undertakings of the nineteenth century. The country is rocky and mountainous on the Atlantic or Caribbean side, and swampy on the Pacific side. The soil is all too productive. Its yield of tropical plants is so very luxurious that the decay incident thereto poisons the atmosi^here. The town of Panama has a popula- tion of about 10,000, Aspinwall of 4,000. The Panama railroad was completed in 1855. With the Panama ship canal completed (and it is a moral certainty that it will be) engineering skill and euter- jDrise will have sup25lied to the commerce of the world the shortest passage to the Indies, which Co- lumbus sought, the search for which opened to Eu- rope a new world. The "West Indies is the general designation of the archipelago which breaks the watery monotony of the Caribbean sea, which is that portion of the Atlantic Ocean extending from the southern ex- tremity of the pe- ninsula of Florida to the northern coast of Venezuela. It consists of four groups of islands, the Bahama Isl- ands, the Greater Antilles, the Virgin Islands, and the Lesser Antilles. The Bahamas have, all told, only about 40,000 in- habitants, and a total area variously estimated at from 3,000 to 5,000 square miles. This group consists of 12 islands, 661 keys, 2,387 reefs and clifEs, and 3,060 islets. The larger islands include the Grand Bahama, San Sal- vador and New Providence. The latter contains Nassau, the capital. San Salvador is supposed to be the first land discovered by Columbus. Waling's Island lays some claim to that distinction. The ab- origines were early exterminated by the Spaniards. The English possession of the Bahamas dates from 1629. These islands furnish for export canella, arrowroot, sponges, salt, conch-shells, eleutherabark, and jDineapples. The soil and climate are especially adapted to raising pineapple plants. The term Antilles is often applied, to all the West Indies except the Bahamas. The Greater Antilles comprise the four large islands, Cuba, Hayti, Ja- maica and Porto Rico. 6o ■ V u^ 480 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. Cuba and Porto Eico are the remaining American possessions of Spain of any considerable import- ance. The latter island has an area of 3,530 square miles and a population of about 600,000, one-half white, one-third Creole, and the rest negroes. The island produces a great deal of sugar, some coffee, tobacco, cotton and cattle. It has a little mineral wealth, gold, cojojoer, iron, lead, coal and rock-salt. Its capital is also called Porto Eico, Cuba has an area of 43,230 square miles. It entire annual production is estimated in value at 1126,000,000, mostly sugar and tobacco. The Cuban census of 1877 gave the population as follows : whites, 764,164 ; free negroes, 3,444,050; slaves, 22 7,- 902 ; Chi- nese,58,400. Columbus gave to Cu- ba the name of Juana ; the orignial name, how- ever, finally prevailed. The first Spanish col- ony was es- tablished in 1511. The C a J) t a i n - General who ruled the colony in its infancy, Hernando, was a monster of cruel rapacity. By 1553 the native population had been nearly externiuiated by their inhuman taskmasters, who then resorted to the African slave trade to sup- ply the labor market with slaves. In 1524 the French destroyed Havana, and again twenty years later, but they gained no substantial advantage thereby. Jn 1624 the Dutch took it. Later in the same century piratical marauders, flying no national flag, seriously ravaged the coast. In 1762 the English took Ha- vana, restoring it, however, the next year in exchange for Florida. Spain has always shown a. desper- ate resolution to maintain possession of Cuba. The United States, prior to the abolition of slavery, cov- eted it, offering Spain at one time $100,000,000 for it. That was in 1848. Six years later an attempt was made to intimidate the government at Madrid. Three American ministers-plentipotentiary, Messrs. Buchanan, Mason and Soule, met and went through the solemn farce of issuing the Ostend manifesto, claiming for the United States the right to take possession of the island if Spain persisted in re- fusing to sell it. Tliis game of bluff failing, the project of annexation was abandoned. For a long time prior to the abolition of the Af- rican slave trade (1845), Cuba was the center of an limmense traffic in fresh supplies of negroes from the continent of Africa. The South American colonies largely depended upon Cuba for servants, until their independence and emancipation, and a great many were clandestine- ly brought to the Uni- ted States by way of Cuba. Sev- eral insur- rections oc- curred that were crush- ed out with great cruel- ty. The most resolute ef- fort to ob- tain inde- pendence was begun in 1868. The leader of the movement was Manuel Carlos Cespedes, afterwards elected President of the "Eepublic," or abortive gov- ernment set up by the insurgents. The war was maintained for several years, seriously interfering with the prosperity of the island and resulting in failure. Havana is not only the chief city of the West Indies, as well as the capital of Cuba, but it is one of the best known centers of commerce in the world. It has a most excellent harbor, and a population of over 200,000 souls. Of the city, a recent traveler says, " The most prominent among the public buildings are the opera house, one of the largest in the world ; the cathedral, built in 1724 and contain- ing the ashes of Christopher Columbus, transferred hither from St. Domingo in 1796 ; the palace of the Governor-General, with apartments for the different >\ CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 481 government officers. None of the buildings, Iiow- ever, are very remarkable ; but with respect to its public parks and promenades, Havana perhaps sur- passes all other cities in the world, the Plaza de Ar- mas, the Alameda de Paula, the Parque de Isabel and the Pasco de Tacon being the more prominent." Hayti is second only to Cuba, from which it is separated by the "Windward Passage. It measures, from east to west, 405 miles, and its greatest width is 165 miles, comprising an area of 28,000 square miles, inclusive of a few contiguous islets. The soil is very rich and productive. Coffee, sugar and to- bacco are raised in large quantities. The island is divided into two states, only the western portion being known, po- litically, as Hayti. The eastern part is San Domingo. The latter is Spanish, so far as concerns its Euro- pean elements, the former French. Hayti was the second American place visited by (lolumbns. It has the distinction of being the part of the New World first settled by white men, receiving the appropriate name of Hispaniola. The mines of the island were poor as compared with those subsequently found in Mexico and Peru, but rich as compared with any at that time known to the Spaniards, and they were very eager in their develop- ment. The native population, estimated at 3,000,- 000, was enslaved and soon literally used np and worn out by excessive labor. Like all the "West In- dia aborigines they were unaccustomed to hard work and soon succumbed beneath the lash of cruel taskmasters. Negro slavery was introduced in Hayti in 1523. Pedro, son of Christopher Colum- bus, was viceroy at the time, and it was on his prop- e: ty that the first consignment of African slaves was set at work. By 1711 the aborigines had dwindled to about 30,000. There are said to be a few of their descendants still surviving in the mount- ains of the island. Tlie discoveries of Mexico and Peru were almost ruinous to Hisp)aniola. The population shrank to utter insignificance. But in 1630 a new era dawned upon the island. A French settlement was formed in the northern part of it and flourished rapidly. There was considerable trouble between the two nationalities, but in 1699 by the treaty of Eyswick Spain ceded the western part of the island to France. The French proceeded to develop the agri- cultural wealth of the country, sugar, coffee and other tropical productions. Some idea of the growth of San Domingo may be formed fj'om the fact that in the year 1790, 1,400 vessels and 30,000 men were employed in the m commerce be- tween France and St. Domique, as it is sometimes given. The French rev- olution spire ad in its ideas to Hayti and had a some- what unique out- growth. The wealth of the country was not confined to the white people, but all political rights were. Besides the semi-French population and the slaves there had grown up a third class, the Mulat- toes, possessing frequently extensive plantations. They demanded the extension to themselves of the princij)les of universal brotherhood. Civil war re- sulted. The Spaniards of the east side of the island took advantage of the disturbed state of things to make encroachments, and so did English adventur- ers. The slaves rose in insurrection, and the con- dition of affairs was simply desperate. In 1791 the demands of the Mulattoes were compilied with, and two years later the slaves were emancipated. Com- missioners from France decided that no other course could be taken. This Haytian comjjlication brought into promi- nence that very remarkable man, Toussaint L' Ou- verturg, an African of unmixed blood. He was born in the island in 1743. His father was a native of Africa, the son of a chief. Toussaint was favored ^ vV ^ Ik. 482 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. with a kind master wlio taught him to read and write. In the servile insurrection of 1791 and tlie massacre attending it he was passive, excejjt to pro- tect his master and his family ; but a few years later lie appears in the negro army, first as a surgeon and then as a general. In 1795 he rendered eminent ser- vice as a soldier. When the French government granted liberty to the slaves he threw his influence in favor of France as against Spain and England. He took the lead in expelling both the Spanish and the English intruders. He showed a won- derful genius for war, also for civil af- fairs. The Mu- lattoes, the freedmen, the French andthe other foreign- ers came to recognize him as the suj)reme authority in every thing. In 1800 he took possession of the entire island in the name of the French Direc- tory. He was madepresident for life. The whole island was at peace and prosperous under him. But Napoleon, then consul of France, proposed to re- store the old state of affairs, including the re-estab- lishment of slavery. He sent Leclerc with 66 vessels of war and 30,000 soldiers to carry out this purpose. They arrived on the island early in 1803. Toussaint issued a proclamation declaring loyalty to France but death to the invaders. Leclerc in turn denounced him as an outlaw. The forces of the island were utterly inadequate to the resistance. Toussaint retired to the mountains, but was induced to surrender on the promise of personal immunity and the continued freedom of the negroes. That pledge was shame- fully broken. He was carried to France in irons BAY OF SAMANA. and died a prisoner in the castle of Joux, the vic- tim of treachery and cruelty, including starvation. The treatment of this great man was one of the foulest blots upon the name of Napoleon, and a su- preme calamity to Hayti. It seemed to be on the highway to a large prosperity, but with Toussaint's fall it withered and shriveled. Notwithstanding the fate of L'Ouverture, the French had to abandon the idea of re-enslaving the negro. In all the world's history no act of emanci- pation, once effective, has been practical- ly and perma- nentlyrecalled. Failing in this, ' the army left the island in 1804, and San Domingo de- clared itself a free and inde- pendentrejjub- lic. The first president, Des- salines, who had proved a worthy suc- cessor to Tous- saint in the field, was ut- terly unfitted for the trust reposed in him. He attempted to make himself emperor of all Hayti. Two years later he was assassinated, but not until after the island had been drenched in blood and the indus- tries terribly crippled. With his death the eastern part of the island returned to Spanish rule. An- archy prevailed until 1822, when Boyer united the entire island under one government. For twenty years he remained in power. At the expiration of that period he was banished and the island once more divided. It remained so until 1849, when Soulouque, a freedman who had acquired some prominence in the civil wars which had desolated the island, and had been elected president of Ha}'ti in 1847, declared himself emperor of the 3 \ J^i ^1^ CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 483 4 entire island. His firetentions were successfully re- sisted by the San Domingans under the lead of Santana, who from 1844 to 1861 was at the head of public affairs in San Domingo, much of the time as president. In 1855 Santana put an effectual termi- nation by overwhelming superiority in the field, to the pretensions of the Haytian rival. Santana died in 1864 ; Soulouque iu 1867. Between them what lit- tle prosperity the island had previously enjoyed was destroyed. A land which, a century ago, contributed largely to the wealth of the world is now a mere cipher. The only redeeming feature, or consola- tion, is that the bulk of the people are now crudely happjr, while under the old regime they were excru- ciatingly miserable. During his first presidential term General Grant was very desirous of annexing San Domingo to the United States. He exerted all his influence to se- cure its annexation. Everything was arranged, and it was only necessary for the senate of the United States to concur. But that concurrence could not be secured. Senator Charles Sumner was as warmly opposed to it as the president was in favor of it. The controversy involved the two great men in personal unpleasantness. Mr. Sumner carried his point, but iu .punishment therefor the friends of the admistra- tion deposed him from the chairmanship of the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, a position which he had long filled with pre-eminent abihty. An attempt to annex the small West Indian island of St. Thomas was also defeated. The sentiment of the United States was and is averse to the ac- quisition of any outlying southern territory. Jamaica, with an area of 4,473 square miles and a population of 500,000, is one of the Antilles and a colonial possession of Great Britain. It jjroduces in large quantities sugar and coffee. Much of the former is distilled into rum before exportation. This island was visited by Columbus and settled by the Spaniards in 1509. The English captured it in 1655. For a century and a half it was managed as one vast plantation, the supply of slaves being kept up by importations from Africa. The slave trade was abohshed in 1807, and slavery itself in 1833. The amount of sugar and coffee raised was very greatly reduced by emancipation. It is governed by a cap- tain-general appointed by tlie crown. The capital is Kingston. The Lesser Antilles are divided into two groups. the Windward or South Carribee Islands, and the Leeward or North Carribee Islands. The former are Barbadoes, Granada, the Grenadines, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago. They are all British possessions, except Martinique, which be- longs to Prance. The Leeward Islands are Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, Deseada, Dominica, Gaudaloupe, Marie Galante, Montserrat Nevis, Saba, St. Barthol- omew, St. Christopher, St. Eustacius, St. Martin, Santa Cruz, and a group of still smaller islands called the Virgin Islands. All told, they are trivial in importance. Their ownership is divided between England, France, Sweden, Denmark, Holland and Spain, the possessions of the latter, outside of Cuba and Porto Rico, being utterly insignificant. The Danish islands are St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix. These small islands are almost worthless, except as they may be useful as coaling stations and for other naval purposes. The most eastern of these islands are the Barba- does. That term was often used, in colonial times, as applying to all the British possessions in the West Indies. Slavery was abolished within the British possessions about the same time that the Spanish states became independent and freed their slaves. At one time New England traded extensively in slaves, rum and molasses with the British portion of those tropical islands, esijecially the two latter articles. Since the restrictions of trade were re- moved the principal commercial intercourse of this country and the world generally with those inuu.- merable islands is carried on with Cuba at its business and jDolitical capital, Havana, and the chief article of trade is the cigar. Many parts of the tropical world produce sugar, coffee, and even tobacco, but the flavor of the Cuban tobacco-leaf is peculiar, and preferred to that of any other. In Central America and the West Indies there are only two seasons of the year, instead of four, wet and dry. During the cooler months it rains a great deal, but when the sun is more vertical rain hardly ever falls ; an earthquake or a hurricane is more to be expected than a thunderstorm. It may be added here that the waters of the Ca- ribbean sea, flowing from it by an ocean current into the Gulf of Mexico, find egress only through the narrow passage between the Bahamas and Florida, and thus is formed that incalculably important and mighty ocean river, the Gulf-Stream. ,4^ — - 484 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES . OF THE SEA. The Bermudas is a term suggestive of a group of islets having far more jirominence than import- ance. They he about 620 miles off Cape Hatteras, the nearest land. Their number is 400, their area only 24 square miles and their population only about ten thousand. Juan Bermudez discovered them in 1522. Tlie temjjerature is always mild and the ver- dure perpetual. The Enghsh have some strong bat- teries on the largest isle of the group. The only thing for wliich the Bermudas are famous is onions, which are exported in large quantities. The Azores, situated in the ISTorth Atlantic about '500 miles west of Portugal, are a groujs of islands ■which have been under Portuguese rule ever since 1449. For nearly half a century they were the ex- treme western limit of the known world. Their area is 1149 square miles, 23opulation about 250,000. There are three groups, the Plores and Corvo form- ing one ; Terceira, St. George, Pico, Fayal and Gra- ciosa a second, and St. Michael and St. Mary the third. The chief exjiorts are wine, brandy and oranges. The people are simple, superstitious and uninterestmg. Leaving the Atlantic and visiting the Pacific, the important group is the Sandwich or Hawaiian Isl- ands. These islands were discovered by the Span- ish in the 16th century, but they were soon lost sight of. They may be said to have first become a part of the world actual when visited by that great English navigator. Captain Cook, in 1778, who was killed by the natives the following year. The people were indeed barbarians, but not downright savages. Something approaching a civilization was found. A system of government strongly resem- bling medieval feudalism prevailed, with several rulers of about equal dignity, each independent and sovereign. But in the year 1790, Kamehameha ex- tended his sway to all Hawaii. When he died the entire group formed one kingdom. In 1819 a civil Avar occurred which resulted, among other things, in the destruction of the idols of popular worship. Very soon after seven American missionaries, with their wives, came among them to make known to them the Gospel of Christ. They came at a very opportune time. The ground was prepared for the seed sown, and in an almost incredibly short time the Hawaiians became Christians. In 1825 the Ten Commandments were adopted and formally made a part of the code of the country. Honolulu became the capital. In 1829 the United States recognized the government of the Hawaiian Islands as a treaty power, and in 1843 and 1844 that goverment re- ceived full and general recognition as a nation. Captain Cook estimated the population at 400,- 000, but by the last census it had fallen to about 57,000. Commercial intercourse proved terribly de- structive to life. The jieople on the coast contract- ed diseases from contact with sailors which killed them off with unprecedented rapidity. Sugar rais- ing is the chief industry, and the greater part of the product is exported to San Francisco. All these twelve islands, of which Hawaii is the chief, are vol- canic. There are two active volcanoes on Hawaii — Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The Fiji Islands constitute a group in the South Pacifio Ocean numbering about 209, with a popula- tion estimated at 200,000. The first European to visit them was the Dutch navigator, Tasman, in 1643. There was no full exploration until two centuries later, when an American by the name of Wilkes visited them. There are only two islands of any considerable magnitude, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The people were savages of the most pro- nounced type, but the missionaries of the cross have met with great success there. At least one-half the population habitually attend Christian service on the Sabbath. Having now visited the more interesting Isles of the Sea, it is time to return to the American conti- nent and trace from many small beginnings to its present magnificence, that grandest republic of all the asres — the United States. ■^ ^: 'M^ CHAPTER LXXV The Subject in Hand — Origin op the Indian Race and the Name — Mounds and the Extinct Mound Builders — The Land op the Pueblos — Cliff Houses — Cave Dwellers— The Nations and Tribes Once on the Atlantic Coast — Testimony of Trumbull — Reserva- tions — The Indian Bureau — Indian Territory — Wampum — Indian Opportunities and Prospects — The Aboriginal Problem — Relation op the Indian to the History op the United States. ETWEEN the Kepublic of Mexico and the British de- pendency of Canada is situ- ate the most important na- tion on the globe, viewed from the standpoint of the actual. Its history corers a comjDaratively short period, but already it ranks with the powers of the earth, and its growth is absolutely unprecedented. The United States can best be studied and understood by viewing it from a variety of standpoints, and first of all naturally from the aboriginal point of view. We use the term Indian to designate all the peoples and tribes found by Eu- ropeans on this continent, and whose occupancy of the soil antedates history. It was origi- nally a misnomer, given from the misapprehension that the islands in the Caribbean sea were a part of the country in and about the Indian Ocean of the far East. Misnomer though it be, Indians is the designation of all prehistoric Americans. Many wild notions have been entertained relative to the origin of the Indians. Some have tried to trace them to the " Lost Ten Tribes " of Israel, oth- ers to the " Shepherd Kings " who were expelled from Egypt some four cloiliads ago. All such con- jectures are preiDosterous. As well try to trace the origin of tobacco or wheat. It would be quite pos- sible for the inhabitants of northern Asia or north- ern Europe, especially the former, to make their way from island to island to the western hemisphere, but in the sands of time are no footjmnts. Behring's Strait and the Aleutian Islands, if they have a se- cret, keeji it well. The Indian found upon the Atlantic coast, from Labrador to Buenos Ayres, was a mere savage, somewhat interesting as a novelty, but to all intents and purposes a crude barbarian like the prehistoric man set forth in our third chapter. In the interior and the west, however, he was found to have done some remarkable things. There were and still are vast mounds which attest the presence, in a buried past, of a people possessing some real civilization. Men of science have been richly rewarded for exca- vating these earthworks. Regular and exact are they, proving caiDacity for calculation and execution above the level of barbarism. Indeed, it is evi- dent that the Mound-builders understood somewhat the principles of geometry. They may have had their Archimedes or Euchd. If they liad only had (485) ^r- ^i 486 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. a Cadmus to give them letters, tliey might have fig- ured among the historical peoples. There is one mound in the Miami valley, Ohio, laid out in the form of a huge snake. Knives and other implements, also pottery, have been found, all uncouth and primitive, leaving no doubt that the continent was once occupied by a people who " knew enough to know " that by softening metal with fire it could be made useful, and that clay could be moistened, fash- ioned and baked with equally good results. It is thought probable that the Aztecs of Mexico are de- scended from the Mound-build- ers, and that the Indian, as he was found roaming the forests by the Europeans who settled this country and made it a part of the civilized world, was him- self an interloper, and not really the aboriginal American. But this is matter of conjecture. We only know that the extent and magnitude of these mounds serve as an index -finger pointing to a history never to be written of a people who had ceased to inhabit the country long before the advent of the white man, or if still the same, changed sadly in character, and practically ex- tinct. Of the Canadian Indians, in- cluding the Esquimaux, enough has been said in jirevious chap- ters, but Indian archasology and present facts unite in presenting otlier aborigines quite as interesting and civilized as the Mound-builders, known as Cave- dwellers and Cliff-dwellers. The land of the Mound-builders is now under cultivation, peopled by a race noted for what it can do in the line of utility, but the land of the Cave and Cliff dwellers is still, for the most part, undis- turbed by white men. That land extends over a large part of Colorado, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico. That vast region is inconceivably rich in precious metals, yields a growth . of very nutritious grasses for buffaloes, cattle and sheep. It may be said to be at once the treasure-house and the pasture GREAT SERPENT, ADAMS CO., OHIO of the United States. From the standpoint of pro- ductive value it is those two and no more. But to tlie student of the curious it is interesting as the home of a more remarkable p)eople, apparently, than the Mound-builders. The architectural remains and attestations of a decayed civilization in the Eocky Mountains are pueblos, casa graudes, cave-houses and cliff -houses. A pueblo is sometimes inhabited, but often a desert- ed village. The pueblo struc- tures are made of stone, quite large, sometimes two or three stories in height. Within, the building is divided into numer- ous apartments, as many as a thousand in some instances. South of the p)ueblos are found casa grandes, differing from the other class of structure in mate- rial, rather than size or object. Tliey were made of mud, or adobe. For the most part these are now shapeless ruins. Cliff -houses are another highly interesting feature of the an- tiquities of the interior of the United States. A writer who was on the ground and wrote from actual observation, says in describing one of these cliff- houses, " Over six hundred feet from the bottom of the canon, in a niche in the wall, is a fine specimen of cliff -dwellings. Five hundred feet of the ascent to this aerial dwelling was comparatively easj% but a hundred feet of almost perpendicular wall confronted the jjarty, up which thej' could never have climbed but for the fact tliat they found a series of steps cut in the face of the rock leading up to the ledge upon which the house was built. This ledge was ten feet wide by twenty feet in length, with a vertical space between it and the overhang- ing rock of fifteen feet. The house occupied only half this space, the remainder having been used as an esfilanade, and once was inclosed by a balustrade resting on abutments built partly upon the sloping face of the precipice below. The house was but twelve feet high and two-storied. Though the walls *7^ ■^ /^ NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 487 did not reach up to the rock above, it is uncertain whether it ever had any other roof. The ground plan showed a front room of six by nine feet in dimensions, in the rear of wliich were two smaller rooms, each measuring five by seven feet. The left-hand room projected along the clifE beyond the front room in the form of an L. The rock of the cliff served as the rear wall of the house. The cedar beams upon which the upper floor rested had nearly all disappeared. " The door opening upon the es- planade was but twenty by thirty inches in size, while a window in the same story was but twelve inches square. A window in the upper story which commands an extended view down the canon corresponds in dimen- sions and position with the door below. The lintels of the window were small, straight cedar sticks laid close to- gether, upon which the stones rested. Opposite this window was another one, openiag in- to a semi-circu- lar cistern,f orm- ed by a wall in- closing the angle formed by the side wall of the house against the rock, and holding about two and a half hogsheads. The bottom of the reservoir was reached by de- scending on a series of cedar pegs about one foot diculars i g k 1 1 w -^^ "- %; I f EStiUIMAUX. and smaller | into openings leading -7- apart, and down- ward from the window. The workmanship of the structure was "^ el CASA GEANDE OF THE GILA VALLEY. were true ones and the angles carefully squared. The mortar used was of a grayish white color, very compact and adhesive. Some little taste was evinced by the occupants of this human swallow's-nest. The front rooms were plastered smoothly with a thin layer of firm adobe cement, col- ored a deep maroon, while a white band eight inches wide had been painted around the room at both floor and ceiling. An examination of the immediate vicinity revealed the ruins of half a dozen similar dwellings in the ledges of the cliffs, some of them occujjying positions, the inaccessibihty of which must ever be a wonder when considered as places of residence for human beings." The cave houses of the aboriginal American were substantially similar to the cUff houses, except this, instead of being constructed on a shelf of the cliff, they seem to have been set in the cliffs. Caves a thousand feet above the level of the valley have been found which show evi- dence of long and populous oc- cupancy. Some cave villages have been found. This class of ex- ploration is still incomplete, but enough is known to justify the conclusion that the older gener- ations of In- dians, no doubt the real progen- itors of those now there, were far more capa- ble and eflBcient of a superior order ; the perpen- I than their descendants. If not exactly ■ the degen- \ .^ m. 488 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. reate sons of uoble sires," there is certainly no doubt about the de- Catawbas, Uchees, Natchez, Mobilians, Dakotas or Sioux. The generacy. The reader may desire to be informed how many In- dians there probably were on this conti- nent when it was first dis- covered. There is no way of telling, but the fairestestimate is five millions, one-fifth of the number being within the bor- ders of the United States. Central gov- ernments and the civilization imjjlied, were confined to Peru and Mexico, as those terms are used in his- tory, and not in the present re- stricted sense. According to the classifica- tion made by J. Hammond Trumbull and other eminent authorities on this subject, the Indians west of tlie Rocky Mount- ains were divi- ded into eight nations, or con- federations of tribes, bound loosely togeth- er by a vague sense of kin- ship. They CUFF HOUSE IN THE CANON OF THE MANGOS. vast section of country ex- tending from Pennsylvania, Virginia, Dela- ware and New Jersey,through Southeastern New York, along the coast of the Atlantic off New En- gland, thence inland by the St. Lawrence to the lake re- gion, embrac- ing the area of the states of II- hnois, Indiana, and sections of Tennessee and Kentucky, formed the hunting- grounds of the Algonquins. This distinct nation was divided in- to numerous tribes, the most of which were decidedly no- madic, moving from one sec- tion of their vast territory to another, as their fancies dictated or necessities demanded. Some of the more important of the tribes be- longing to the Algonquin nation were the Narragansetts, Pequots, Mohegans and Massachusetts who occupied South- em New England, while further south of them were to be found the Shawnees, Delawares and Powhattans, and some less noteworthy branches of the nation. The Mianiis, Foxes, Illinois, Sacs, Kick- apoos, Chippewas and Menominees, were scattered throughout the "West, and in were the Algonquins, Huron-Iroquois, Cherokees, | the section of country bordering upon the great Cave Village in the Valley of the Rio Chelley, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 489 4. ELACKHAWK lakes. The Montagnais inhabited a region on tlie banks of the St. Lawrence. They wore objects of great interest to the Jesuit priests of Quebec, who, with a true missionary spirit, sought their rude habitations in winter, with a view of bringing them with- in tlie pale of the church. The Al- gonquin nation gave birth to many noted warriors who left records long remembered by the early settlers of the country. Of these may be named Massasoit, King Philip, Powhatan, Pontiac, Blackhawk and Tecumseh. In the year 1600, the Algonquins were estimated to number nearly two hun- dred and fifty thousand. The Indians of the Uni- ted States are gradually be- ing concentrated upon res- ervations, and it will not be very many years before every Indian will be obliged ! to adopt civilization or re- move to and abide upon his reservation. Not that a red man is imprisoned and cannot go beyond certain territorial limits in his individual capacity. Not that at all. But simply the roving about of preda- tory bands cannot be allowed where white folks live. The office of Commissioner of Indian Affairs was created by congress in 1833, and is in charge of the bureau of Indian Affairs, a branch of the Depart- ment of the Interior. It is his duty to superin- tend the distribution of the appropriations which congress makes yearly for the Indians, who are re- garded as " wards of the government." There are numerous agencies scattered over the western coun- try, subject to the Indian Commissioner. During a part of General Grant's term, a real Indian, Captain Parker, held this office, but the service is, and with this exception always has been, altogether in the hands of the whites. The aim is to protect tlie pio- neers from depredations and enable the Indians them- selves to evade the fundamental law that " he who will not work shall not eat." Some of these agen- cies and reservations are within the limits of states, or territories which will become states, but it is evi- dent that before many years all settlements of Indians will be concentrated in Indian Territory. This fair portion of our continent, bordering on Texas, Kansas, Arkansas, Colorado and Missouri, contains an area of about 70,000 square miles. The policy of removing the tribes of Indians to a territory of their own originated in 1834. At first it was somewhat vague in conception and legislative defini- tion, but this policy has assu.med precision at last, and now the United States stands ready to guard and protect "the nation," as Indian territory is popularly called, from intruding whites. The principal tribes there are Cherokees, Chicasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, Quapaws, Seminoles and Poncas. The entire popu- lation is not far from 100,000. A good deal of corn and wheat are annually raised, and large herds of cattle pastured. There are schools among them and newspapers. It is not believed that the population is decreasing. The old idea of ultimate Indian ex- tinction is unfounded. The general characteristics of the Indian are, a copper-colored skin ; straight black hair ; high cheek bones ; a tall, erect form ; stolidity and an incorrigible aversion to work. Their speech is guttu- ral, rasping and disagreeable. Many dialects there are, as a matter of course, among a people widely scattered, unsocial, and having nothing approaching a literature nearer than a few rude pictures on birch- bark. Some claim that there were at least ten dis- tinct languages spoken in this country by the prim- itive natives. There may have been a hundred. John Eliot, the one Englishman who truly and sincerely came to America early in the seventeenth century to convert the heathen, faithfully mastered the lan- guage of the Indians about him in Massachusetts. With infinite pains he translated the Bible into it, thinking he had done for the Indians much the same service that Wycliffe had done for the English. The dreary difficulties of his mighty task were ren- dered recreative by the anticipation of a redeemed people. But a few generations passed and nothing was left to attest the wisdom of his goodness. Indians are numerous enough, in the far West, but it has been a long, long time since any "noble red man" could read that curiosity of literature, or understand it if read to him, however accurate the pronunciation. A great deal of sentimental folly has been wasted upon the Indian. He had an infinitely better chance to become civilized than the negro liad, but he would not become a part of the industry of tlie country. A little corn and tobacco would he raise, "71 l^ ^ e 490 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. and that is all. In the field of American pro- duction he was, and still persists in being, a mere thistle, fond of the baubles and hurtful inventions of civilized life, without accepting anything which is the just pride of progressive humanity. The skin of beasts, a wigwam, war paint, bow and arrow, tomahawk and scalping-knife are still the Indian's measure of improvement. In the midst of a most productive continent the aboriginal American is a constitutional pauper, supported by annuities, and self-excluded from participation in the events of the day. Originally sea-shells somewhat carved and fashioned, constituted the Indian's only object of trade or standard of values. Wampum, as those shells were called, was both commerce and coin. Their stone hatchets, clay kettles, baskets, fish-nets, corn, with a few beans and squashes added, might be prized, but there was no traffic in them. Sometimes copper or pipe-stone was exchanged for wampum. Now that the white man feeds and clothes him, the Indian will barter the skins of the beasts of the chase for nothing else so readily as for alcohol. The Indian proper has a certain individuality, de- fying change which excites some admiration. He worships God as a Great Spirit, accepts the inevitable mth stoical heroism, and if he does fight in ambush and scalp his victim, he is not ungrateful. Eevenge is the sweetest bread an Indian ever tasted, but many instances could be given of kmdness rendered at great peril to repay kindness. The Indian has some sense of justice ; none at all of mercy. He hopes at death to enter "the happy hunting grounds" of the spirit land, but he expects to be welcomed to heaven and made glad with the smiles of the blessed in proportion as he was " a mighty man of valor." The works mete for repentance, according to the Indian's rehgion, are the scalps of enemies. History records numerous instances of the dis- placement of one people by another. Prom the Red Sea to the British channel the march of empire was over the road of ruthless usurpation. The new comers, from the Jordan to the Thames, assumed that the original occupants had no rights which the invaders were bound to respect. It is true that in this country the aborigines have been crowded on and off a good many reservations, and been fre- quently cheated by dishonest agents — sometimes cruelly murdered ; but the very fact of reservations. agents, and annuities attests the exceptional human- ity of the United States government. As compared with tlie record of any other people, Jew or gentile, ours may justly boast a century of honor. It is not a pioneer prejudice, but an undeniable fact, that the Indian is the wild partridge of humanity. The ne- gro did his best to acquire civihzation, and despite the most persistent skepticism and hostility, rose to the dignity of American sovereignty. There was never a time when this country would not have gladly taken the Indian by the hand if he had shown a disposition to rise. It is " Indians untaxed " who are discriminated against in the suffrage clause of some organic laws. The United States government has tried to solve this Indian problem — for it must be admitted that with all our reservations, missions, and annuities, this country has failed to civUize " the first families " of America in a way ignoring the necessary steps in passing from barbarism to civili- zation. The attempt has been to convert the hunter into a farmer, without any intermediate stage. The shepherd, as shown in a previous chapter, is the con- necting link between following the chase and follow- ing the plow. No civilized people ever jumped at one leap from hunting to agriculture. In the earlier days of the republic, the raising of grain and live- stock were inseparably blended ; but it is not so now. There are vast tracts of land in the far West which are exactly adapted to grazing, and nothing else. Already millions of cattle roam those plains, run- ning together, but none the less individualized prop- erty. If the owner is absent, he has a superinten- dent, and in either case employs " greasers " to assist in the general care of the stock. This life on the plains is half way between buffalo hunting and grain raising. There is no good reason why the attempt should not be made to utihze the Indians as herders, and thus teach them the alphabet of civilization. Having taken this general survey of the Indian race, it is proposed to enter upon the history of the United States and follow it chronologically, from the earhest settlements to date. It may be added that between Mexico and Canada, nothing of im- portance to subsequent events occurred before the seventeenth century. But from the time the first English colony was established in North America the Indian became of secondary and rapidly lessen- ing importance. -f ^s '-hL CHAPTER LXXVI, England and English America — Sik Hujiphret Gilbert and Sir Walter Ealeigh— Cape Cod, Virginia and Plymouth — Capt. John Smith and Pocahontas — Introduction of Slavery AND English Wives — Indian Warfare — Lord Culpepper and the Royalists — Gov. Berke' LEY and Nathaniel Bacon — Maryland and Lord Baltimore — New England and Capt. Smith — Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers — The Pilgrims in Holland — Gov. Carver — Massasoit and Canonicus — Other Massachusetts Settlements — Governors Winthrop and Endicott — Harvard College a.nd the Printing Press — Connecticut and New Hampshire — Khode Island and Roger Williams — Boston and Quakers — Salem and Witchcraft — King Philip's War— New England Bigotrtt and the Charge against Roger Williams- Other Notable Early New Englanders — New Netherlands and Henry Hudson — The Patroons— Dutch Governors— New Sweden — William Penn and Pennsylvania- The Carolinas and John Locke — The Huguenots and Scotch — Georgia and Oglethorpe — Whitefield and Slavery — Spanish and French Settlements in the United States — Florida— Mississ ippi River and Valley — Peke Marquette and New France. a certain vague sense it might be said that the United States dates from 1496, when Henry VII. of England commissioned John Cabot to sail to America and estabhsh there a New England. There was already a New Spain, with a New France soon to follow. But that expe- dition was fruitless. For about a cen- ^^BT tury England seemed to be singularly ^^^ oblivious of America. The last of the Henrys, his son Edward and daughter Mary, paid no heed to the new world. The first Englisliman to interest him- self, thoroughly and to some purpose, in America was Sir Humphrey Gilbert. In 1683 Queen Elizabeth authorized him to form a colony on this continent. He set sail intending to estabhsh a permanent settlement for agriculture and >-3i fishing, especially the latter, at or near Newfound- land. His ideal was radically different from that of the Spanish adventurers who had preceded him on this continent. Sir Humphrey was lost at sea. But his melancholy fate did not discourage others from adoptiag his plan. His half brother, the illustrious Sir Walter Raleigh, took up the mantle of Gilbert, and right royally did he wear it. His patent was granted in 1584. He did not accompany the expe- ditio;i, but the explorers whom he sent out effected a landing off Pamlico Sound, finding a country far more inviting than either Newfoundland or New Spain. It was named Virginia, in honor of the Virgin Queen. Two attempts were soon after made to found a permanent settlement, both of which proved unavailing. In 1602 Gosnold discovered and named Cape God. The settlement there and then was soon given up. Others came over on exploring expeditions, and the English pubhc became greatly interested in the sub- ject of American colonization. In 1806 James I. -il (491) 'IV 492 EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. divided the region claimed Ijy England into North and South Virginia, granting the first to the Ply- mouth Company, and the second to the London Company. Each company attempted to establish a colony, but only the latter was successful, and that success was the first permanent English settlement, not only in Virginia, but America. The fleet was under the command of Christopher Newport. It sailed up the stately James River in 1607, and founded Jamestown. The colony had a hard struggle, and was saved from ruhi by Captain John Smith. On one occasion Smith was captured by the Indians. The chief, Powhatan, condemned him to death but Poca- hontas, the daughter of the chief, saved him. At least, it is the story told, and long im- plicitly be- lieved. It is certain that the dausfh- BUILDIN6 JAMESTOWN. ter was an illustrious personage hi the history of Vir- ginia. She vis- ited England, received Chris- tian baptism, married au En- glishman, Rolfe, and became the founder of a family which has always been very j^roud of her. Slavery was introduced into Virginia in 1619. The English never attenijited to enslave the natives, bat they seemed to have no JOHN SMITH. scruples about dealing in African chattels. The first negroes, twenty in number, were imported by a Dutch trading-vessel. The next year the planters bought a cargo of English wives, one hundred in number, warranted to be respectable. The price paid was 130 pounds of tobacco each, which was the price of her passage. With wives and slaves the col- onists were quite established. The first serious Indian war occurred in 1632. The massacre was very large, and the retaliation still more wholesale. Hostilities were maintained with more or less steadiness, until 1646, when peace was effect- ed, and for the most part ever afterward maintained. The Lon- don Com- pany was dissolved in 1624, upon which Vir- ginia be- came a province of the crown. It so re- mained un- til the year 1673, when Charles II. ceded it for the period of thirty-one years to Lord Culpepper and the Earl of Arlington, names conspicuous in the geography of the present Virginia. But the colony received its great- est impetus when the civil war in England culminated in the defeat of the rovalists. Vir- ginia was settled by adherents to the Estabhshed Church of England, and many royalists <?v EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 499 sideratiou the French made some progress in the interior of the country by way of tiie St. Lawrence and the lakes. In 1673 Pere Marquette, a Jesuit of the better type, who had already spent several years as a missionary in Canada, set out with Louis, J diet and others, to explore the sources of the St. LaAVxence. They reached the Mississippi in June of the same year, going by way of Green Bay, Fox river and the Wisconsin river. They descended the Mississippi as far, at least, as Kaskaskia, Illinois, and returned by Avay of the Illinois river. Joliet re- turned to Quebec, but the good Father Marquette remained in the wilderness, dying two years later on the east shore of Lake Michigan while engaged in mission work. Gradually, and undisturbed by English, Spanish or Indian hostility, the French established settle- ments on the prairie along the river-banks. Some interesting relics and records attest very considera- ble prosperity in those days ; but later they fell into decay, and in the permanent settlement of that por- tion of the United States north of what was once Louisiana, tlie region purchased of France during the sovereignty of Napoleon, those French settle- ments exerted hardly a perceptible influence. In a word, they belong to the historical, in distinction from the actual, in the new world. Louisiana received its name from LaSalle, the illustrious French explorer. The term was designed to embrace all the valley of the Mississippi. The French built great expectations upon the develop- ment of that valley, and of fur trade with the In- dians of the interior. Mobile was established in 1702, New Orleans fifteen years later, and all seemed prosperous, when suddenly the Mississippi bubble of the visionary Law burst, whelming France in bank- ruptcy, and preparing the way for English triumph over her great continental rival in the possessions of the North American continent. This chapter cannot be closed more appositely than by quoting Mr. Francis Parkman's very dis- criminating comparison between the colonial aims and purpose of New England and New France. " The growth of New England," he says " was a re- sult of the aggregate efforts of a busy multitude, each in his narrow circle toiling for himself, to gather competence or wealth. The expansion of New France was the achievement of a gigantic am- bition striving to grasp a continent. It was a vain attempt. Long and valiantly her chiefs upheld their cause, leading to battle a vassal popula- tion, warlike as themselves. Borne down from numbers from without, wasted by corruption from within, New France fell at last; and out of her fall grew revolutions whose influence, to this hour, is felt throughout every nation of the civilized world. " The French dominion is a memory of the past ; and when we evoke its departed shades, they rise upon us from their gi'aves in strange romantic guise. Again their ghostly camp-fires seem to burn, and the fitful light is cast around on loi'd and vassal and black-robed priest, mingled with wild forms of sav- age warriors, knit in close fellowship on the same stern errand. A boundless vision grows upon us ; an untamed continent ; vast wastes of forest ver- dure ; mountains silent in primeval sleep ; river, lake, and glimmering pool ; wilderness oceans min- ghng with the sky. Such was the domain which France conquered for civilization. Plumed helmets gleamed in the shade of its forests, priestly vest- ments in its dens and fastnesses of ancient barbar- ism. Men steeped in antique learning, pale with the close breath of the cloister, here spent the noon and evening of their lives, ruled savage hordes with a mild, parental sway, and stood serene before the direst shapes of death. Men of courtly nurture, heirs to the polish of a far-reaching ancestry, here, with their dauntless hardihood, put to shame the boldest sons of toil." l^ ^ m. CHAPTER LXXVII. First Step Tow AKi) Union— "Board of Trade and Plantations'" — Intercolonial Wars — The Flokidans and the Georgians — Wars Between French and English Colonists — A Century of Blood— Lieutenant-Colonel George Washington and Dr. Franklin— Rela- tive Possessions of France, Spain and England in North America— Capture op Quebec — New France and Old England — Colonial Debts and Monet — Indirect Results op THE French War— Stamp Act — Boston and North Carolina — Smuggling and the Gaspee — Boston Tea Party — Port Bill — First Continental Congress and Patrick Henry— Minute Men and PAirL Revere's Ride— Battle of Lexington — Continental Army Organized- Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys— B.\ttle of Bunker Hill— The Canadian Expedition — Evacuation op Boston — Charleston Harbor and Moultrie — Declaration of Independence— Eminent Men of the Period — Benjamin Franklin again. ^}i^ -!a-£--4i^ ''*' Previous to that time the Puritan colonies had developed very considerable fellowship, and there had been estabhshed a little communication -between New York, Boston and the in- tervening towns accessible by water. William Penn drew up the plan of a close union which was not carried out until long after. The English jwlicy was to restrict col- onial trade to commerce with the moth- er country alone. That " mercantile system " was embodied in the Navigation Act, and similar stat- utes of Parliament. By every means posssible the home government attempted to render the Ameri- can colonies entirely subservient to the wealth of the mother countrv. It was not vintil about the beginning of the eighteenth century that England realized the importance of America, and set about making it tributary in right good earnest. The policy which culminated in war for independence may be said to date from the creation of the " Board of Trade and Plantations." But the great agency in making the colonists ac- quainted with each other and binding them together by a bond of common sympathy, was intercolonial war, growing out of French and English rivalries in the new world. The Georgians had a conflict with the Floridans which resulted favorably to the for- mer without requiring any help from more northern colonies, but wlien the British lion met the French unicorn in the wilderness, victory was not so easy. There were four distinct wars between the French and English colonists, culminating in what is known as " The old French and Indian War," beginning in 1754 and continuing until 1763. The other three were, King William's War, 1689-97 ; Queen Anne's War, 1702-13 ; King George's War, 17-14-48. Treat- ies of peace were signed or formal declarations of hostility proclaimed by the home governments ac- cording to the general ^situation in Europe, without (500) .V tl^ COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 501 much regard to the real state of affairs in Amer- ica. For a centuiy there was hardly any actual cessation of hostilities for any considerable length of time. It was only after Prance had lost Canada, and England the United States, that permanent peace was secured. From that time on, the conti- nent was delivered from wars wliich were both intercolonial and international. The melancholy fate of Acadia, a part of Canadian history already narrated, belongs to that series of wars. By the middle of the eighteenth century French and English pioneer enterprise began to touch and clash in the Ohio valley. In 1753 Gov- ernor Dinwid- dle of Virginia, sent George Wasliington, then only 31 years of age, to Venango to know his rea- sons for invad- ing the Brit- ish dominions. The reply was that the whole country west of theAllegha- nies belonged, to France by right of discovery. The next year the young Virginian, then a lieutenant-colonel of colonial militia, established a fort at the forks of the Ohio river. A Soutli Carolina company came to his assistance. The two commanders quarreled over the leadership. The discussion was soon ended by a successful attack by the French, who acquired pos- session of the entire Ohio valleJ^ The colonists were alarmed, for everywhere the French secured Indian alliance. In 1755 Gen. Braddock, in command of the Brit- ish and Colonial forces on the frontier, undertook to capture Fort DuQuesue, the key to the Ohio val- ley. They were attacked in the woods by the In- dians. " The British could only fire in platoons," says Thalheimer, "hitting rocks and trees much oftener than Indians, while the colonists, springing behind trees, took aim with effect." Braddock was mortally wounded. The retreat of his regulars was covered by the colonists with such gallantry that it gave their commander, Washington, a reputation throughout the colonies for coolness, bravery and skill. It is probable that to Braddock's defeat is this country and the world indebted for the public services of George Washington. The success of the French over the Enghsh in tlie Ohio wilderness stimulated a movement for a closer union. All the colonies north of the Potomac sent delegates to a convention held at Albany. Benjamin Fraukhn was THE EXILE OP THE ACADIANS, a delegate. He presented a plan of union which the con- vention accept- ed. But the English Board of Trade, al- though it had at first been in favor of union, prudentlyveto- ed the Frank- lin plan. Many of the colonists were pleased with the veto, apprehensive of losing colonial individuality in a union of the colonies. The French war was early transferred from the remote valley of the Ohio to the east, especially to northern ISTew York. At this period eighty per cent, of North America belonged to France, sixteen per cent. tO' Spain, and four jjer cent, to England. The great event of the culminating war between the French and the English in the new world was the capture of Quebec in 1759. That stronghold was defended by the brave Montcalm and assailed by the gallant General Wolfe. Gaining access to " the Plains of Abraham " by a secret path and in the night, Wolfe led a charge at daybreak. The armies were aboiit equal in number. Both generals were mortally wounded. A noble monument has been erected to mark the equal heroism of the two commanders. *7^ ^^ ^ — ^t>^. ;o2 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. The next year, 1760, Montreal was captured, as well as Quebec held, and in 1763 by the terms of the li^^ peace of Paris, France sur- rendered to England all the GENERAL WOLFE. country north of the St. Lawrence and east of the Mississippi ; one of the most important cessions of all history. It was, in effect, the a- bandonment by France of a colonial j)olicy. It was the beginning of the total end of " New France." What En- gland did not secure was to fall, ultimately, to the United States. The colonies found themselves heavily in debt when the last French war was ended, namely, $16,000,000. Of this^ amount the home government re- imbursed the colonies to the extent of $5,000,- 000. The first colonial money, or medium of exchange, was corn, furs, tobacco, or the like. Virginia early drew from England in exchange for tobacco money enough for all practical purposes. The first mint was estabhshed in 1653 by Massachusetts, and the first coin was " the pine-tree shilling." Paper money was first used in Massachusetts, its introduction dating from 1690. Dollars and cents belong to the period of inde- pendence. Speaking of the relations of the French war to SCALING THE HEIGHTS OF ABRAHAM the colonies, a historical writer says, " The signifi- cance of the war was in its being a preparation for the impending struggle of the revolution. It was a training-school for the generals and soldiers of the colonies. It showed them war as conducted by the best captains of Eu- rope. Washington, Put- nam, Gates, Montgom- ery, Stark, Arnold, Morgan, and others, who acted in the revo- lution, here learned the tactics of war. It also taught the colonies the idea of consolidation, and that ' in union there IS strength.'" It did more than that. It se- cured for the colonies, when they came to strike for liberty, the sympathy of France, which proved to be a matter of incalculable importance. The French war was a part, although a very small part, of the Seven- Years War in Europe. That war involved the great powers in heavy debts, and besides sus- taining their own bur- dens, the colonies were ultimately required to contribute as never be- fore to the Enghsh Ex- chequer. About this time (1760) George III. came to the throne. From the first he was ~ unfriendly to the Amer- ican colonies. In 1765 was enacted the famous Stamp Act in accordance with which all legal docu- ments had to bear a stamp, costing from three- pence to six pounds sterling, according to their importance. Even newspapers had to be stamped. The act called out intense hostility. The next year it was repealed, but only to give place to a "71" j4^ COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 503 substitute in the way of a tax on tea, glass, ijaper and otlier necessary imports. British soldiers were quarter- ed on the people. Boston was foremost in resisting the encroachments of the home government, but the brave North Carolinians were not much behind the patriots of Boston. It was to escape British tyranny that many A sTAiip. of the peojjle of North Caro- lina moved west, establishing what is now the state of Ten- nessee in 1773. But every part of the country had its grievance, negative and posi- tive. The restriction upontrade and man- ufactures was quite as injuri- ous as di- rect taxa- tion. Even Pitt, the advocate in parliament of political justice, declared, "If I could have my way, there would not be so much as a hob-nail made in the colonies." The iron of Pennsylvania and the timber of the South and of Maine could not be used at all. Smuggling developed into a respectable line of business, especially in Rhode Island. The British sent the schooner Gaspee to Narragansett Bay to lay in wait for smugglers. Citizens of Providence set fire to her, and all the people approved the act. In 1773 all taxes were removed, except that on tea, three-pence a pound, and this was only a matter of 63 PATRICK HENRY BEFORE THE VIRGINIA ASbEMBLY. WILLIAM PITT. form, for the actual cost of tea was less ui America, under this tax, than it was in England. The cargoes brought to New York and Philadelphia were sent back, but the British troops at Boston prevented this from bemg done there. Hereupon a great meet- ing for protestation was held at Faneuil Hall (well called the cradle of American liberty), after which a party of men in disguise boarded the ships in the harbor and threw all the tea overboard. That fa- mous " tea-party " created great excitement. Other colonies were delighted, and the English were enraged. Parliament passed the " Boston Port Bill" by which the port of Boston was closed. This act of petty spite on the part of a great nation ex- cited the wrath of all the col- onies, and went far to develop a feeling of com- mon inter- est. The sentiment of patriot- ism found expression in the or- ganization of the " Sons of Liberty " throughout the colonies. It was to this society, very largely, that was due the convocation of a deliberative and representative body to consult over the grave situation. That body met at Philadelphia, the most central of all the cities at that time, in September, 1774. It proved to be something more than a convention, nothing less than the beginning of a series of con- vocations which were regular and of supreme impor- tance. It is known as the First Continental Con- gress. It consisted of fifty-three members. It was opened with an eloquent address by the supreme orator of Virginia and of the entire country, Pat- rick Henry. The next year he was elected governor of Virginia, and ever after remained a provincial statesman, in jjractical work ; but his advocacy of to ■k-^ 504 COLONIAL GROAVTH AND OUTGROWTH. tlie rights of the colonies and deuuuciatioiis of op- pression entitle him to the profound gratitude of the nation. He was born in 1736 and died in 1799. The deliberations of the first congress were charac- terized by prudence. There was no defiance, no menace. A respectful petition was drawn up exjDres- sive of unswerving loyalty to the king, but earnestly protesting against quartering armies upon the colo- nies against their consent. A resolution was also adopted to tJie effect that no commercial intercourse immortalized at Bunker Hill, learned what was to be done, he sent Paul Revere to rouse the surrounding towns and call out the minute men. His ride has been rendered illustrious by Longfellow's thrilling poem on the subject. In an incredibly short time thirty thousand brave men were on their way ui hot haste to " Boston town," musket in hand. The battle of Lexington was the first engagement of the Revolutionary War. It was fought early in tlie spring of 1775. General Gage sent 800 men to ' '#''^y^ V#Vi.^^^.--.fai.ll,F EETHEAT OF THE BRITISH FROM CONCORD AND LEXINGTON. should be held with England until a change of pol- icy towards the colonies. From a British point of view that -resolution was almost a declaration of war. About this time the people formed themselves into military companies, sworn to serve in the de- fense of their rights at a moment's notice, hence " minute men." There had been some premonitory symptoms of war in the way of collisions and blood- shed in the streets of Boston and New York, also in North Carohna; but nothing approaching the dignity of a battle. Actual hostilities were inaugu- rated by the British at Boston. They cannonaded the city. General Gage was in command of the English forces. As soon as Dr. Warren, afterwards destroy some military supplies at Concord. They accomphshed their object without very serious oppo- sition, but on their return they were met by " the embattled farmers," who had gathered to give them a warm greeting. The British were routed in that first encounter, the battle of Lexington. Thirty-one towns were represented in that conflict. That " brush," for it was hardly more, served to sharply outline and distinctly presage the conflict which was to close with the surrender of Coriiwallis at Yorktown. The war which began in the spring of 1775 was destined to end in the fall of 1781. Most appropriately, what began in Massachusetts closed in Virginia. The second Continental Consfress met at Phila- ;C ^ COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 505 delpliia about six nioiitlis after the battle of Lexing- ton. Loyalty to King George was still professed. Our revolutionary fathers were slow to break abso- lutely with the mother country. There were a great many colonists who would have been shocked at the idea then who soon embraced it. George Washing- ton was of this number. Those who never ceased to be in favor of British rule in the colonies were called Tories ; the patriots, Whigs. A " Continental army" was organized by Congress for seven months, and Washington was elected commander-in-chief. It was about this time that he wrote that he " abhorred the idea of independence," an idea already boldly advocated by the Adamses, Samuel and John, and by some others. After Lexington, the first movement was in the direction of se- curing Canada. On the west shore of Lake Champlain stood two strong forts, designed for use in the old French and Indian war. Without waiting for orders or assist- ance, Ethan Allen and Seth Warner, who lived in the sparsely settled region between that lake and the Con- necticut river, rallied a few fellow " Green Mountain Boys " and crossed Champlain, surprised the garrisons and took the forts without firing a shot. Immense sup- plies of war material were found there and captured. It was a brilliant sortie, and justly entitled Vermont to immediate recognition as a distinct colony, but New York and New Hampshire both claimed juris- diction over the region. Allen soon afterward made an attempt on Montreal, was captured, and disap- peared from the annals of the war. After his re- lease he returned to Vermont, where he died m 1789, fifty years of age. His companion, Warner, re- mained in the service throughout the war, but was never again prominent. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought June 16th of the same year. It was a victory for the British, yet it afi'orded the colonists Americans were obliged to surrender because their powder gave out. They had shown, however, that, as General Gage wrote in his report, " The rebels are not the despicable rabble too many have supposed them to be." General Warren fell in that battle. Throughout the country there was unbounded ad- miration for the desperate heroism great satisfaction. The GENLUAL WAItREN. PLAN" OF BUNKER HILL BATTLE. MONUMENT. more than a year later. with which the British were repulsed until the ammunition was spent. Washing- ton, then on his way to Boston, was greatly encouraged. Washington arrived at Boston and took actual command, July 3d. In the preceding May the bold patriots of North Carolina had met in Charlotte, Mecklenburg coun- ty, and adopted the " Mecklenburg Reso- lutions," which were similar in tone to the Declaration of Inde- pendence which came But even with Bunker Hill, Ticonderoga, Crown Point and Lexington behind them, the colonists were not quite ready for the avowal of separation. They wished to secure the co-operation of Canada, and unite all British America in the struggle. To this policy everything was directed. General Montgom- ery proceeded by way of Lake Champlain to capture St. John's and Montreal, while Benedict Arnold reached Quebec by another route and demanded its surrender. He was soon joined by Montgomery, GENEKAL MONTGOMERY. -^fe ^itv" 506 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. I t GENEKAL MOULTBIE. the latter taking the command. An assault was made. The gallant commander lost his life, Ar- nold was severely wounded, and the whole of the expedition defeated forever. The battle of Quebec was fought on tlie last day of 1775. In a short time the British recaptured Montreal and St. John's, thus setthng, at the outset, tlie northern boundary of the United States, and binding Canada with colo- nial handcuffs which are now worn as bracelets. With the whiter of 1775-76 begins "Washington's great cai'eer. His first aim was to compel the Brit- ish to evacuate Boston. Works were erected at Dorchester Heights which forced General Howe, who had superseded General ifesaiS^^, Gage, to evacuate. With V over a thousand Tories and his own army, he sailed for Halifax, which served as a rendezvous for the British during the war. Henceforth to the end the pirob- lem for Washington was to so conduct a defensive warfare as to tire out the enemy and prevent, so far as possible, the loss of life and the destruction of prop- erty. It was the Fabian pol- icy upon a continental scale. What the next movement would be, no one could tell. Washington feared an at- tack upion New York. It was a very important point, al- GENEKAL LEE. tliougli Smaller then than Boston. But the British fleet steered farther south when it sailed away from Halifax, appearing in Charleston harbor in June. General Charles Lee, who was in command of the southern department, thought it hopeless to defend the city, but Colonel Moultrie resolved to try it, erecting a rude fort on Siillivan's Island. Prom that jioint he canonaded the fleet before it could bombard the city. The enemy was obliged to abandon the assault. General Chnton, who was at the head of the expedition, then set his saOs for New York. The fort on that island has ever smce borne the name of Moultrie. The next event of interest was the Declaration of Independence. After some hesitation and with great deliberation Congress decided to throw off all JOHN HANCOCK. State legislatures ana disguise and boldly announce mdependence. A committee for that purpose was appointed, consist- ing of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman. The declaration was submitted by Jefferson, who is supposed to have written it. His was certainly " the pien of a ready writer." The members signed it, John Hancock, the Presi- dent, leading off with his bold sign manual. The country was fairly electrified by the declaration. It in- spired the patriotism of all sections, and for the time obliterated provincial preju- dices and converted thirteen colonies into states. Hence- forth there was no recogni- tion of colonial obligations, governors were elected and the mechanism of local self-government set ujj at once, and substantially as now. Inhere was no nation then, only the embry- onic elements of one, but the states, like Minerva, sprang forth fully armed. It is a curious fact that the great act which originated and was comjDletedon a broadly national scale had the effect to create states long before it bore fruit in the creation of a nation, in a well-defined political sense of the term. We have in this chapter followed the course of British rule and American growth and outgrowth to the point where the colonies emerge uito states and the corner-stone of the nation was laid. There are a few great names and events which belong to that period distinctively, and to which specific attention should be called before proceedmg further. The captain-general of Massachusetts when the Revolutionary War began was Artemas Ward. He sustained much the same relation to that war that General Scott did to the civil war of a century later. He was elected major-general, but never served after General Washington assumed command. William Prescott was the American commander at Bunker Hill (or Breed's Hill, as that battle should have been called). Later he fought in the ranks. He Was a brave and able man. The glories of Bunker Hill, however, enshrined the name of Joseph War- ren. He was a physician. Congress elected him a major-general, but he was mortally wounded in de- fending the illustrious hill, and died while fighting in ^ i^ ^ a "^ COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 507 the ranks. "The Sword of Buuker Hill " was a mus- ket. James Otis was the first defender of the right of separation and the duty of union between the colo- nies. He was stricken down just before the war began. He was not quite fifty years of age at that time. Samuel Adams, a second cousin of John, was hardly less useful in those preliminary days than Otis. He was a man of great wisdom and high cour- age. What he grandly began his younger cousin an author and a discoverer. Born iu Boston in 1706, he survived until 1790. He was a printer by trade. His career as a man began in Philadelphia, where in 1 730 he married and started the Pennsylvania Gazette newspaper. Ho may be called the father of the press, insurance, science and invention in America. His experiments in electricity and discovery of the principle on which his great invention, the lightning- rod, rests, made him famous at home and abroad. worthily maintained to the end. The Adams family is the most illustrious in the political annals of America. But the sujjreme name of the period was Benjamin Franklin. He lived, it is true, to render im- portant service to his country at the French court after the declar- ation had been issued, = and in framing the con- jAMEs OTIS. stitution, but his best days were colonial. He early organized the postal system of the country, Franklin was a philosopher, England and France delighted to honor him. He was given the title of LL. D., F. R. S., and otherwise recognized. As a writer his chief aim was to incul- cate good habits, especially frugality. His " Poor Eichard's Almanac," published annually from 1732 to 1757, made him familiarly known in this country and largely in England to a class of peoiile not ca- pable of following his scientific treatises. He filled many i^ositions of trust, the last being a member of the convention which drafted the Constitution of the United States. He ^ras then over eighty years of age. In him were united simplicity, dignity, pru- dence, perseverance arid philanthrop}'. To him, more than to any one else, unless it be Thomas Jef- ferson, is this nation indebted for the complete sep- aration of church and state. When he died the 71 ■hu. 508 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. whole nation mourned. Washington was indeed the father of his country, but Frankhn is no less deserv- ing of deathless honor and gratitude. It was not without good reason that the learned men of Prance, a centur}" ago, were accustomed to sjieak of the United States as " Franklin's Kepublic." During the period thus far traversed, this coun- try was almost wholly agricultural. Its com- merce was very consid- erable, but clandestine. Under the restraints of colonial sujopression, law - ful com- -_.V"- EEITISH FLAG. t=^i^^/' --aBifc'. m e r c e - 7 "''V~'' "^ was con- r -'fined en- \^ tirely to E nglish bottoms, and only the British flag allowed in American waters. The pioneers of American shipping were smugglers, and the mer- chant princes of the day were largely engaged in contraband trade. Sliip- building, however, was tolerated, and throve greatly, until the home government interfered, and checked BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. it. Ordinary manufactures were few and insignifi- cant. For a century and a half the English in America were under colonial restraints, and succeed- ed only in laying the foundations of a great future. Speaking of the Amer- ican people in this stage of development, a recent historian well observes, " These people, whose ancestors had been driven into exile by the exac- tions of European gov- ernments and the bigot- ry of ecclesiastical power, had become the rightful proprietors of the New World. They had fairly won it from savage man and savage nature. They had subdued it and built states within it. They owned it by the claims of actual possession ; by toil and trial ; by the or- deal of suffering ; by peril, firivation, and hardship ; by the bap- tism of sorrow and the shedding of blood." The time had now fuUy come for the announcement and establishment of the principles of Union and Independence. •? 3tT?l r— ts«^- ■f ^2 l^ CHAPTER LXXVIII. Hessians — Battle of Long Island and the Disaster Resulting — The Spring of 1777 — Marquis db La Fatette— Battle of Beandtwine— The War in the North— Valley Forge— Congressiokal Action— Distinguished Foreigners in the American Abjit— 1778 — 1779 — 1780 — Mutiny and Finance in 1781— Arnold and New London— Lokd Coenwallis AND YORKTOWN — PEACE — ThE WaR DeBT AND THE UNION — THE CONSTITUTION — ThB GREAT Crisis and its Leading Features— From July 4, 1776, to March 4, 1789. H- — "^r- ■ LL disguise was now thrown off, all hesitation at an end. Henceforth to the end of the conflict it was treason in America to sympathize with i^Great Britain and in En- jgland to sympathize with the rebellious colonies. The British government freely spent money in hiring mercenary troops from petty G-erman states (known in our history as Hessians) and in securing Indian allies. The number of Hessians were seventeen thousand, many of whom de- serted and became American citizens. The only remaining military opera- tions of that first year of the war were in New York and New Jersey. Eight days after the Declaration of Independence Lord Howe sailed into New York Bay. His brother. General Howe, was already on Staten Island with a force of 50,000 men. The Howes thought they were masters of the situation. They offered pardon to all rebels who returned to allegiance. They mistook public sentiment. On the 26th of August the battle of Long Island was fought. General Clinton at the head of the GENERAL CLINTON. British forces. The Americans, under Gener- als Sullivan and Sterling, were routed. The dead on our side were several hundred, the prisoners nearly one thou- sand. The latter were sent on board of " prison ships," as Ethan Allen had been before them. During the war no less than 11,000 Americans perish- ed on these floating bastiles. The disaster of Long Island rendered necessarj' the retreat of Washington. He crossed East River and es- tablished his headquarters on Harlem Heights first. Howe took possession of New York City. A great conflagration consumed about five hundred houses. The battle of White Plains followed, October 27, in which Washington was de- feated, but not routed. He retired in good order to North Castle. He now began to be apprehensive for the safety of Philadelphia. He crossed to New Jersey, hitending to defend the city which was in GENEK-VL SULLIVAN. ^i (509) sr k^ 510 INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. effect the national capital. But he was too late. It was taken by the British, JSTovember 16, and with it 2,600 prisoners in arms. Congress was obliged to take hasty leave for Baltimore. " These are times tliat try men's souls," wrote the brilliant patriot, Thomas Paine. Cornwallis rapidly followed Wash- ington who crossed the Delaware, taking care, how- ever, to destroy the boats behind him. On Christmas night he took by sur- prise and cajotured a thousand Hessians at Trenton. A week later, it being evi- dent that Cornwallis intended to fall on the ■Continent- als, Wash- ington, not waiting for the attack, marched at once upon Princeton where there was some- thmg over three regi- ments of the enemy. At day- break, Jan-' uary 3, 1777, he fell upon the town, and in twenty minutes he had routed and dispersed tlie British witli a loss on that side of 200 killed and wounded and 230 prisoners. The American loss was shght. The moral efEect of this victory was very great. It revived the hopes of the country and led to a series of operations which resulted in driving the enemy out of the " the Jerseys." About this time, however, both armies went into winter quar- ters, the British at New Brunswick, the Americans at Morristown. Thus far Washington would seem to have been a RETREAT OP THE AMERICANS FROM LONG ISLAND. failure, yet Congress liad no thought of displacing liim. On the contrary, he had grown in their good opinion. That \vinter he was clothed with supreme authority in all military matters, invested with almost dictatorial powers. The winter was employed in recruiting his thimied ranks. By spring he had an army of ten thousand men. There was consid- erable skirmishing during the winter and spring, Washington obtaining some advan- tage, but the mam ar- mies did not resume op- erations un- til June, 1777. Even then the two armies were slow in com- ing togeth- er. The Brit- ish General, Burgoy n e, was moving southward from Can- ada, re-tak- ing Crown Point and Ticondero- ga. Wash- ington was peri^lexed to find out if Howe in- tended to co-operate with Burgoyne and sweep all before them from New York liar- bor to St. John's, or to swing around and fall upon Philadel- phia. He had to be on the alert to meet eitlier emergency. Jul_\ 23, Howe left General Clinton in command at New York, and with eighteen tliousand soldiers sailed for the Delaware. Wash- ington made all haste witli liis main army to succor Philadeljjhia, GENERAL LA FAYETTE. The condition ■r Sfv^ H^2 INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 5" 4. of the country was critical in the extreme. Jnst then came the Marquis de La Fayette. This young French nobleman, of whom we heard in connection with the subsequent French Kevolution, met Wash- ington July 31. He had been made a Major-General by Congress a few days before. The reinforcements the enemy at Germantowu, but suffered defeat. Soon after, Howe made Philadelpliia the winter quarters of his whole army, Washington going into camp fourteen miles distant, at White Marsli. Turning now to the northern army, we find Gen- eral St. Clair obliged to abandon the strongholds on WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE. rTi- he brought were of incalculable importance, for the first time, the Com- mander-in-chief was ready for a pitched battle. It came September 11, and is known as the Battle of the Brandy- wine. It was fought several miles above Wilmington, Dela- ware. It was a hard-fought battle. La Fayette was wound- ed. The Americans were obliged to fall back toward Philadelphia. Congress, wliich had returned from Baltimore, now made haste to seek a safe battm; at the retreat, going first to Lancaster and then to York. In October Washington attacked the detachment of 64 the west shore of Ohamplain. The main body of his army retreated toward Fort Edward, New York. A de- tachment crossed the lake un- der Colonel Seth Warner. An engagement occurred at Hub- bardton, Vermont, July 7, 1777, which resulted in the defeat of the Ainericaus. Aljout that time Whitehall, then Skenesborough, was very nearly destroyed by the British, who were havmg everything their own way. But August 16 BRANDTwmE. thorc was fought and won by the patriots the battle of Bennmgton, the second and last battle of the war on Vermont soil. Colonels -.K" ^s 51- INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. GENERAL ST. OLAIB. John Stark and Setli Warner rallied there a brave force of Yankees, and defeated a detachment of the British army. About that time the enemy suffered defeat in the Mohawk valley, G-eneral Ar- nold being at the head of the American forces. The English general, Burgoyne, fixed his cami^ near Saratoga, and Gen- eral Gates of the Americans established his camp not far from that of the enemy. Two indecisive engagements followed, when Burgoyne, despairing of reinforcements and short of provisions, surrendered. That was a most en- couraging turn in the tide of fortune. That may be called the first really great victory of the war. While the ojDerations in the North were thus brilliant, Wash- ington's movements farther south were clouded with gloom. December 11 he took up per- manent winter quarters at Valley Forge. That was a winter of horrible suffering. From White Marsh to Valley Forge was nine- teen miles, and the march was stained with the blood of bleeding feet. The army was almost naked and actually hungry. The hero- ism which sustained them was a match for the hero- ism which had triumphed at Saratoga. It was in 1777 that Congress adopted the national flag as we now have it, thirteen stripes of red and white, and thirteen stars on a blue background, the former representing the states and the latter the union. It also framed and submitted to the several states the Articles of Confederation, wliich were not fully adopted, however, until 1783. The sprmgof 1778 opened with revived hojDe. France became the avowed ally of the United States, thanks m part to the diplomacy of Dr. Franklin and in part to the French hostility to England. The recog- nition of American independence by the govern- ment at Paris was all-important. The surrender of GENEEAL BURSOTNB. BARON brKUBEN. BABOif DE KALB. Burgoyne served as a powerful aid in securing that recognition. Other Europeans besides La Fayette came to our assistance. Baron Steuben, a Prussian of thorough military training, became InsjDector- General. He did much in the way of disciplining the raw recruits and volunteer officers of our army. Another Ger- man, Baron De Kalb, render- ed excellent service. Two gallant Poles, Count Pu- laski, who died in our cause, and Thaddeus Koscius- ko, who survived to lead his own country in unavail- ing efforts at national restoration, also came to our aid in the dark hour of our sorest need. When General Clinton left Philadelphia to join Howe in New York, Wash- ington dogged his retreating steps. At Monmouth an en- gagement occurred. At first the British were successful, but General Washington going to the front in person, saved the day and turned de- feat into victory. That summer a band of Tories and Indians from Western New York de- scended upon the peaceful inhabitants of the lovely Wyoming valley in Pennsyl- vania, as also Cher- ry Valley, in New battle at MON^MOUTH. York, committing every outrage. The massacre was avenged the following year by General Sullivan. Howe's fleet was held in check by the French fleet under D'Estaiug. On the whole, the British went into winter quarters in New York and the Americans at Middlebrook, with the war no nearer its close, apparently, than it was when the first gaii was fired. For the patriots, 1779 was a gloomy year. The two fleets, French and English, sailed south- COUKT PULASKI. COTINT d'estaino. 7 ifv*' M^ tbL INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 513 ward, the former to attack British possessions in tlie Caribbean sea, and the lat- ter to defend tliem. The war, so far as concerned this country, was mostly in the South that year, Georgia and the Carolinas. Tories were numerous, and the pa- triotic militia had to bear the brunt of the war with- out dependence upon the forces of the regular army. General Pickens and General Marion rendered most excellent service. It was in fu- tile endeavor to regain Sa- vannah that Count Pu- laski lost his gallant life. The British GENERAL PICKENS. Point. While returning from was taken prisoner on sus- j)icion of being a spy, and papers setting forth the plot were found on his person. He was tried, convicted and hanged. Arnold made good his escape, only to live de- spised and miserable, his name a synonym for treachery. The year 1781 opened with a mu- tiny at Morristown. The sufferings of the soldiers had the interview Andre Parliament showed great determina- tion to curb the rebellious colonies, and the French, on the other hand, showed signs of weakening. In 1780 the Brit- ish were still successful at the South. Charleston fell, and with it Lincoln and his three thousand men. The battle of Camden was fought between the English under Cornwallis, and the Americans under Gates, the hero of Saratoga. Cornwallis won a complete victory. In that battle fell Baron De Kalb. In the North, Benedict Ar- nold forfeited his hitherto honorable name by basely selling himself to the enemy. His betrayal of his country came very near proving fatal. His treasonable design was to surrender the stronghold of West Point to the British. The de- tails of the infamous business were arranged in an interview between Major Andre, of Clinton's staff, and Benedict Arnold, then in command at West WEST POINT. GENERAL LINCOLN. GENERAL GATESi become unendurable. Fifteen hun- dred of the Penusylvani- ans threaten- ed to march on Philadel- phia and "in- terview" Con- gress at the point of the bayonet. They were only prevent- ed from so doing by Con- gress meeciug them with provision for their more pressing imme- diate wants. For this mutuiy bickerings in Con- gress were more at fault than the soldiers them- selves, but the chief cause, it must be conceded, was the almost utter pros- tration of the public means of support. Every device for raising revenue had been exhausted and the treasury was empty. Eobert Morris, one of the mer- chant princes of Philadel- 23hia, rendered the great-' est service in raismg funds for Congress to employ in the prosecution of the war. The year which opened so inauspiciously proved to be the last one of the war. La Fayette's influ- ence secured the co-operation of a second French fleet. That fleet had 7,000 men on board, under the BENEDICT ARNOLD. TH s^r Jl t^ 5H INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. command of Count Kochambeau. In South Car- olina Genei'al Greene was in command, and won tlie victory of Cowpens. The enemy no longer assumed tlie aggressive. The battle of Guilford Court-House, North Car- olina, was one of the BOBEKT MOKRIS. most severe of the war, but it was a victory for neither side. That battle was fought in March, Cow- pens in January. The patriot army of the South was under the command of General iSTathaniel Greene, of Rhode Island, one of the bravest and most strategic of Ameri- can soldiers. He was one of the few generals of the revolution who thoroughly understood the science of war, and he was self- taught. General Greene was born in 1742. After the war he engaged in cot- ton raisiug in Georgia. He died on his plantation in 1786. Tlie British general at Cowfiens was Bannastre Tarleton ; at Guilford, Cornwallis hiaiself was in com- mand. The last battle of the war in the Carolinas was fought at Butaw Springs on the 8th of Sejitember. The Continentals were repulsed. During the ^ summer Cornwallis committed ^^ depredations in Virginia, now for the first time durmg the coiTNT DE EocHAMBEATj. y^^^. ijecomB the ficM of actual operations. La Payette was in command of the Virginia district. Washington planned a blow for the recovery of New York, where Clinton still held possession, but finding that the French fleet would soon enter the Chesapeake, he changed his plan, still keep- ing up the appearance of preparations for New York. In the meanwhile, Cornwalhs was fortifying himself at '^ /^^ ^^ ^ COLONEL TARLETON. Yorktown. When Clinton discovered the design of Washington, he attemjited to divert him from his purjDOse by sending the traitor Arnold against New London, Connecti- cut. The town was burnt, its fort, Griswold, taken and its gallant defenders ruthlessly massacred after they had surrendered. The fall of Fort Griswold and New London closed opera- tions at the North. The last nioA'c u]:)ou the chess- board was about to be made in Virginia. The French fleet, under Count De Grasse, block- aded the York and James rivers, while the French and American forces on the land comjjleted the in- vestiture of Yorktown. Hemmed in on every side, Cornwalhs could not escape, and on the 9th of October coimonading com- menced. The British held out until the 19th day of the month, when Cornwallis sur- rendered to "Washington his sword and his army, about 10,000 men. On both sides it was felt that the end had come. Neither army had any heart for fur- ^«° cornwallis. ther bloodshed. Both may be said to have rested on their arms for the negotiation of terms of j)eaee. In f-l ^^ ^4. INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 515 November of the next year a provisional treaty was signed. The cessation of hos- tilities was formally announced in April, 1783. On the third day of the following September the final treaty was signed at Paris, nearly two years after the war : had virtually closed. In these days of electricity and steam coTOT DE GRASSE. everything would have been ar- ranged in two months. It was in December, 1775, that the Continental Congress passed a bill creating a navy, with Ezekiel Hopkins in command of it. Thirteen vessels were authorized. They were built, but were of no service. All were captured by the British or destroyed, to keep them out of British hands. But American waters swarmed with privateers. Hundreds of British ships were captured. The Raphael Semmes of the Eevolationary War was Paul Jones, who with his Bon Hoimm Richard, car- rying forty guns, captured the British Serapis, carrying forty- four guns. The engagement occurreel off the coast of Scot- land in the fall of 1779. The ratification of the ar- ticles of confederation was completed the same year that Cornwallis surrendered. But even then the states did not form a nation, and it was a very grave question whether the Union would be dissolved or perpetuated. In the very act of disbanding the army this issue was raised in a practical, if somewhat in- direct, way. The order for its disbaudment was given by Congress after the rat- ification of the final treaty, and three weeks before the British evacuated New York. Washington took leave of his comrades in a very appropriate address on the 23d of December, resigned his commission and retired to his planta- SIEGE OP TORKTOWN. JOHN PAUL JONES, tion at Mount Vernon. All that was easy enough, but what must be done to pay the arrearages of the soldiers and defray the war debt ? Congress had no power to levy the necessary taxes, and the experi- ment of an irredeemable paper money had been car- ried so far that the Continental currency was worth- less. The individual states were asked to meet the demand. This was found to be a very unsatisfactory reliance. The inadequacy of the confederation to the de- mands of the country led to the holding of a conven- tion called, theoretically, to amend the existing ar- ticles of confederation, but practically, as it proved, for the framing of a radically different organic law, the constitution under which these United States became the United States. George Washington presided over that pre-eminently important de- liberative body. It met at Philadelphia, and completed its work September 17, 1787. In several states there was con- siderable opposition to its rati- fication, but it was adopted and went into operation March 4, 1789, without having re- ceived the indorsement of North Carolina or Rhode Island. From July 4, 1776, to March 4, 1789, was the period during which the founda- tions of the great republic were laid. During all that time the statesmanship of the country was severely tested, and the triumphs of peace were greater than those of war. Other armies have fought as bravely, but no land was ever blessed with such a truly sublime array of great statesmen appearing upon the stage of action at the same period. At its head stood the venerable Franklin with the august Washington at his side, while the youthful Hamil- ton and Madison not only helped as leaders to frame the Constitution, but by their pens in its advocacy to secure its adoption. In all the history of mankind can be found no crisis more critical and important than the one through which the United States passed in developing from thirteen colonies into a Confederation, and then into a Union solemnly declared to be perpetual. ^- ■>• CHAPTER LXXIX. The Youth op this Republic — Washington and His Inauguration — The Capital — Indians AND Whiskt — The "Monroe Doctrine" — Finance — The National Bank — First Census — New States and Sla"vt:rt — John Adams' Administration — Jefferson — Burr and Hamil- ton — The Louisiana Purchase — War of 1812 — General Dearborn — Naval Battles — Land Battles — Lundt's Lane and Plattseurg — Jackson and New Orleans — Burning op Washington — The Treaty — Algeeine Piracy — ^Keview op the Period. ATIONS, like individuals, have their infancy, child- hood, youth, majority and senility. We have now reached the adolescent pe- riod of American history, ^'t^'^^ and are to trace in this chapter the progress of the United States in its teens, from March 4, 1789, to March 4, 1817. G-eorge Washington vras elected the first President of the United States, practically without opposi- tion, to take the office March 4, 1789, the day appointed for the Constitu- tion to go into eiiect. John Adams was elected Vice-President. Each was re-elected four years later with- OTit serious opposition. A.lthough the inauguration of Washington should have occurred on the 4th of Marcli, it was not until April 30 that a quorum of the first Congress under the Constitution had couvened at New York, the temporary capital, and it was on the latter date that the oath of office was admuiisted. One of the first things to be done by Congress was to select a permanent capital. It was decided to avoid all the cities, and even all the states, by a novel plan. A tract ten nifies square on the Potomac river, partly in Virginia and jiartly m Maryland, was selected. It was ceded to the United States so far as concerned jurisdiction, and became known as the District of Columbia. The selection of the site was virtually left to President Washington, in whose honor the capital itself was named. To allow suit- able buildings to be erected. Congress fixed the cap- ital at Philadelphia for ten years. During Washington's administration occurred an extensive Indian war between the Ohio and Wabash rivers. The tribes in that region were somewhat given to agriculture, but they were still savages and bitterly hostile to the westward expansion of the area of civilization. Generals Harrison and St. Clair were defeated by the Indians, but General Wayne finally won a complete victo- ry. In 1795 a treaty was made which quieted the In- dian title to the Ohio valley. About the same time occur- red the Whisky Insurrection in the Monongahela valley, AVesteru Pennsylvania. The distillation of whisky GENERAL W.iTNE. ^ (5-6) THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 517 was a prominent industry in that section, and tlie tax levied upon it during the administration of Wash- ington was The so-called strenuous- ly resisted. The milita- ry was call- ed out and the insur- gents yield- ed. Wash- ington ex- hibited re- markable firmness and wis- dom alsoin preventing the French ministerin- volviugthis country in the interminable wars of Europe. " Monroe Doctrine " should be Known as "Washington's policy." The fact that James Monroe was minister to France at the time connected his name with the doctrine. The facts are these : When France, the great national friend of America, was in- volved in war with other European powers, incident to the French Eevolution, there was a very strong feeling in this country in favor of help- ing her. There was much to be said in support of the policy. But it was decided that then and always this republic would stand aloof from complication in the wars of other nations. No foreign power must meddle with our affairs, nor will we interfere with theirs. The wisdom of this policy was not apparent to all at the time. On the conti'ary, it occasioned intense party INAUQUEATION OF WASHINGTON. feehng. The Federalists, as the party of Washing- ton, Adams, Hamilton and Jay was called, were bitterly de- nounced by the Eepub- lican party of Jeffer- son, Burr and Madi- son. But the sober s e c ond- thought of the people approved it. The Feder- alists sacri- ficed the political advantages of their po- sition by the passage of alien and sedition laws, the former to restrict personal liberty, the latter to restrain the hber- ties of the press. The first great jjroblem, however, was financial. Governeur Morris and Alexander Hamilton were the great financiers of their day. It was assumed that the Continental money, the greenbacks of the Revo- lution, could never be re- deemed. That was an act of repudiation unjustifiable, but not inexplicable. The ties of the Union were so frail that it was feared that to levy the tax necessar}^ to the redemption of the paper money would snap them asunder. All other debts con- tracted by the Continental Congress were faithfully paid, also all state debts con- tracted in support of the war. The gi-eat measure of Hamilton was the creation of a national bank ; not of a system of banks, such as h7^ /V« /v 518 THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. the country now has, but one stupendous institution, modeled after the Bank of England. The United States Bank was located at Philadelphia. The Bank of England went into operation in 1695, the United States Bank was chartered in 1 791, its char- ter to hold for twenty years. It was not renewed at its expiration, but was in 1816, to go into effect January 1, 1817, this renewal occasioning but very little controversy compared with the subsequent Jacksouian agitation of the subject. The first census was taken in 1790. It was found that the population of the nation was 3,939,314. Of these 700,000 were slaves. The census is taken every ten years. It was during Washington's ad- ministration that John Jay negotiated a second treaty with England, under which some things left indefinite by the treaty of Paris were settled, but others were still left open, destined to be settled at the cannon's mouth. It was also during his administra- tion that Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee were added to the Union, and the Northwest territory or- ganized under an ordinance forbidding the exten- sion of slavery north of the Ohio Eiver. The administration of John Adams can hardly be said to liave had any individuality. His four years were a continuation of Washington's eight- The Federalists averted war with England by what seemed to the Kepublicans ingratitude and mean- ness to France. Jefferson and Burr were the lead- ers of the latter party, as Adams and Hamilton were of the former. George Washington strongly leaned toward Federalism, but he never stooped to be a party leader. In 1800 the jDCople decided in favor of a change. The Federalists had been in power all the twelve years of constitutional gov- ernment, and 710W the other side had a chance. Jefferson was elected President and Burr vice- President. Jeffer- son was re-elected in 1804 by an overwhelming major- ity. Hitherto the government had been aristocratic, but Jefferson was perfectly sim- ple and unostentatious in his habits. He was a man of the people. The duel between Burr and Hamilton, the rival leaders in New York, was the culmination of AAEON BURR. the party animosity of the time. Burr challenged his rival, and according to the code of honor then recognized, Hamilton could not do otherwise than accept. The result was fatal to the life of Hamilton and the reputation of Burr. Public indignation was aroused much as it was by the assassination of President Garfield by Guiteau. The most notable feature of Jefferson's adminis- tration was the Louisiana Purchase. When this nation came into national existence Spain and France were in possession of Florida and Louisiana, the latter including the region between the Mississippi Eiver and the Rocky Mountains. The acquisition of all that area was secured by diplomacy and pur- chase. To the French in their war with England New Orleans and the Gulf of Mexico were a source of weakness, and the emperor made the sale as a stroke of military policy in 1803. It may be added that the direct jjurchase money paid by the United States for territorial acquisitions foots wp as follows : Florida, $5,000,000 ; Louisiana, $15,000,000 ; Cali- fornia and other possessions from Mexico, $18,500,- 000; total, $38,500,000. The English claimed the right to search Ameri- can vessels, and impress into her service in time of war British subjects found on board. In retaliation the French claimed the same right. Our govern- ment protested, and at last declared war agamst England in supjwrt of the protest. That war was not actually begun until June, 1813, near the close of Madison's first term as President, but it had been imminent, almost certain, ever since the Eepublicans came into power upon the overthrow of the Feder- alists. When it finally came, the Federalists bitterly resisted it. It -never ceased to be somewhat of a division line between the parties, although it is a wQll-established political fact that no party can afford to antagonize a war after it has once been declared, and if it does, even to a limited extent, the result will be fatal to it. The Federal party was utterly destroyed by the war of 1813. General Dearborn of Mas- sachusetts was the first com- mander-in-chief in that war, seneral deakborn. under the President, who, by virtue of his office, held that position. No President ever took the field in 4rr •f « ■A-id ^^% ti^ THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 519 person. Dearborn's policy was to take Canada, but now, as in the Revolutionary War, that plan failed. In the war of independence the colonies had no navy of any consequence of their own, but in the second British war the navy took a conspicuous fiart. A great many English vessels were captured. The important naval battle was fought on Lake Erie, and the victory wonby the gallant young Commodore Perry, who sent to General Harrison the memorable report, "We have met the enemy and they are ours." Commodore Law- rence of frigate Chesapeake had an encounter with the English frigate Shannon off Boston which proved disas- trous, but as the brave Com- modore fell mortally wound- ed, he shouted, "Don't give up the ship." These two brief sentences served to stimulate the enthusiasm of the whole nation. There were nineteen naval battles, and in four- teen of them the Americans were successful. Commodore Stewart, grandfather of the great Irish land - leaguer Parnell, with the American frigate Oonstitutmi, success- fully engaged two British ships off Madeira. There were twenty-two laud battles. The most humilia- ting feature of the war was the surrender of Detroit to the British by General Hull, August 16, 1812. By that unnecessary cowardice the English gained con- trol of Michigan, and if Perry had been beaten on Lake Erie a year later, they would have been masters of tlie lakes and the cities upon their shores. Of these twenty-two battles the Amer- icans won fourteen. For the most part these battles were near the lakes, extending from Plattsburg on Lake Champlain and Sackett's Harbor on Ontario, to Detroit, then the extreme limit of western civilization. But Port McHenry, a-^'^<^e^-yy CAPTAIN LAWEENCB. which guards Baltimore, was subjected to a terrible bombardment from sixteen British ships, September 13, 1814. The failure of that assault called out the popular song, " The Star Spangled Banner," from the pen of Francis S. Key, a Marylauder, then de- tained as a prisoner on one of the English vessels of the bombarding fleet. It is worthy of remark that the two most spirited and brilliant military songs in American literature were written by Marylanders, the second being "My Maryland" by Mr. Randall. The only really eminent land engagement of that war was the battle of New Or- leans, January 8, 1815, some time after the treaty of peace had been signed, but before it had become known in this country. That battle, with its prelude of December 31, alone shed luster upon the American army, ui distinc- tion from the navy. Had it not been for New Orleans, the second war with England would have been accounted, and justly, as an American defeat. There were, however, some brilliant feats of arms before that post-treaty battle. Two of them deserve special notice — Lundy's Lane and Plattsburg. The former was fought on the shore of Lake Ontario, July 25, 1814. Gen- eral Brown was in command, with General Winfield Scott next in rank. The latter led the advance. He and Brown were both wounded, but the enemy were defeated, each side losing about 800 men. " That battle " says Ingersoll in his historical sketches, "has never been apj)reciated as it ought to be. The victory was the resurrection, or birth, of American arms. The charm of British military invincibility !^ was as effectually broken by a kiagara feontiee. single brigade or that of naval supremacy by a single frigate, as much as if a large army or fleet |^-^j,,c'>^l OYoUNCSTOWK -?C 65 Sfv*' ■ 5\ 520 THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. had been the agent." Another writer says of the battle of Plattsburg, fought Septemter 11th of the same year : " In Se^jtember, Sir George Prevost, at the head of fourteen thousand men, marched against Macomb, who had only a few hundred men, and, at the same time, the British fleet on Lake Cham- plain, GENERAL BROWN. com- manded by Commodore Dowuie, sailed to attack the American fleet under Commodore MacDonough. While the British, from their batteries, commenced on the land, their fleet en- gaged MacDonough's ves- sels which were at anchor in the bay of Plattsburg. In a little more than two hours MacDonough gained a complete victory. The fire from the land batteries then slackened, and, at nightfall, Prevost made a hasty retreat, having lost in killed, wounded and deser- tions, about twenty-five hundred men." Early in the war the En- glish had secured the co- operation of disaffected In- dians in Alabama and Florida, especially the Scmi- noles, and Xrcneral Andrew Jackson had been sent south to hold the savages and their instigators in check. Pensacola was then a Spanish port, but the British had been allowed to occupy it the same as if it were a part of the British empire. Finally, Jack- son, who was in command at Mobile, marched upon Pensacola with three thousand men, seized it and drove out the English. That was late in 1814. Soon after, he learned that the enemy proposed to take New Orleans in retahation. He lost no time in marching to its defense. What followed is well told by Ander- son, and we quote from him : " Toward the middle of December a British squadron entered Lake Borgne, carrying 12,000 troops, commanded by Sir Edward Pakenham, the first object of the expedition being to capture New Orleans. On the 14th a flotilla of American gunboats was compelled to surrender, and, on the 33d Jackson made a spirited, thougli inef- fectual, attack upon an encampment of the enemy's vanguard. On the 38th, and again on the first day of the new year, the Britisli were unsuccessful in camionadiug the intrenchments which Jackson had tlirown up four miles from the city. On the 8th of January, 1815, the Brit- ish made a general advance against the enemy's in- trenchments ; but volley after volley was poured up- on them with such terrible effect, that they were com- pelled to flee. Pakenham was slain, and two thousand of his men were killed, wounded, or taken prison- ers. The Americans lost only seven killed and six wounded." This was the first and last time in the world's history that the su- preme battle of a war was fought after peace had been negotiated. One more incident of this war as we pass on to the treaty itself. The British, under General Ross, took the national capital, August 34, 1814, and fired the pub- lic buildings. He had the same day defeated an American force of 3,500 at Blandensburg, his own army numbering 5,000. The American forces were under the command of General Winder. In his history of this war IngersoU says of this vandalism, " At a small beer- ^S Am. ReserveVjl^w jS:lcsmisB.Zrs. :CY P R E SS;'b' BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. ■f ^^ =i=^k*. THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 521 house opposite to the Treasury, fire was procured with which the Treasury and then the President's house were fired. Before setting fire to the latter building, it was ransacked for booty, especially for objects of curiosity, to be carried off as spoUs. After incendiarism had done its worst, both at the Presi- dent's house and the Navy-Yard, indiscriminate pil- lage closed the scene." The treaty of peace negotiated by John Quincy with England, our country, then more than now interested in the carrying trade upon the high seas, turned its attention to Algerine piracy. The gal- lant Decatur was sent to the Mediterranean with a naval force to demand of the Dey of Algiers the re- lease of the Americans captured and held for ran- som. He captured two large Algerine vessels and then secured the object of his misson, also treaties of a satisfactory nature from the neighboring Bar- JACKSON AT Adams, Henry Clay and their associates, was abso- lutely silent about the encroachments upon Ameri- can commerce and the impressment of American seamen, the two cardinal issues of the war. But the country was in such good humor over the battle of New Orleans, and so eager for peace, that the treaty was ratified. Everybody felt that the United States had amply demonstrated its prowess on land and sea, that henceforth its rights would be respect- ed by foreign governments, and tliis proved to be the case. Substantially, then, the war of 1812 com- pleted what the Eevolutionary struggle had begun. After the second, and we may hope the last war European commer- NEW ORLEANS. bary States, Tunis and Tripoli, cial nations were enthusiastic in praise of the American navy. Earlier in the century Tripoli hafl declared war against the United States and captured and sold into slavery the crew of the frigate Philadelphia. The evil of Mediterranean piracy was effectually cured by the dauntless Decatur. This gal- lant sailor fell, mortally wound- '■iehtenant decatue. ed, in a duel with Commodore Barron, in 1820. ^ If^ 1^ \ir aiiiinmuiiiiuuiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiHiiuiiiuiiiiiiHiiiiiii |e)K •t 4 i f SIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIUUIUIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIUIIIUHllllHIIUUIE THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. J ^i, « s^-* CHAPTER LXXX. Non-Partisan and Non-Sectional Slavery — The Missouri Compromise — The Cotton Gin — The Tariff Question— Clat, Webster and Calhoun— John Quinct Adams— General Jackson AND His Policy — His Protege and the Panic of 1837 — "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too" — Annexation of Texas — The Mexican War — Taylor and Fillmore — The Omnibus Bill — Scott and Pierce — Repeal of the Missouri Compromise — Seward, Sumner and Douglas —Buchanan and Fremont— From Compromise to Conflict. HE war of 1812 went out in sucli a perfect and unex- pected blaze of glory that when the excitement had passed by, the Federal jjarty was missed. It has never been found since. Mr. Mon- roe, an amiable gentleman of fair ability, a protege of Jeffer- son, was elected to the presidency two terms in succession. He was indeed a Republican, but his elec- tions were not party -victories. Nei- ther were they the result of a com- promise. The two parties had come to a final struggle over war with England, and the one which had & suffered defeat had the grace and good sense to " step down and out," not with any blare of horns or waving of banners, but so very quietly that " no man knoweth of [its] grave to this day." It simply faded out. The compromise did, indeed, begin during the Monroe administration, but it related to the future rather than the past, the future being that great question of slavery, hitherto in no sense a political issue. The Northwest Ordinance, a very important anti-slavery measure, was neither partisan nor sec- tional. The slaveholding state of Virginia volunta- rily surrendered to the general government all claim to the territory west of the Ohio River, and there was hardly any objection to the prohibition of slavery therein. That prohibition fairly reiwesented the opinion pre vailing at tliat time throughout the coun- try that the institution of involuntary labor was an evil to be gradually removed by the voluntary action of the states in which it existed. Originallj' the in- stitution existed, to a limited extent, over nearly the entire North, as well as South. The question of slavery first came before Congress in a way to provoke controversy in connection with the admission of Missouri into the Union, 1820. That state and Maine, the latter an offshoot from Massachusetts, both applied for admission into the Union the same year. Previous to that time terri- tories had been admitted to the Union and raised to the dignity of states whenever their population war- ranted it and admission was sought in due form. Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Mississipiji, Indiana, Illinois and Alabama had knocked and been admitted without controversy. Maine was ad- mitted March 15, twelve days after the passage of ^r. (522) -• B fv" ^^ THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 523 the Missouri Compromise Bill. Missouri itself came into the Union in August of the year following, un- der the operation of the compromise. The raising of this issue was very largely due to the cotton gia, a " Yankee notion," invented by Eli "Whitney. That great invention dates from 1792, but its revolutionary effect was the work of time. By its aid one man could gin, or free from seeds, as much cotton as five hundred men could without it. Under its influence labor in the cotton states became highly profitable, and the institution of slavery (without which, it was thought cotton could not be raised in America so as to compete with British India) acquired a hold which it had not before possessed upon the people of the cot- ton states. After a great deal of agi- tation it was agreed that Missouri should come in, but that slavery should not be allowed in any territory north of 36° 30', except in the case of Missouri, a very small part of which was above that line. This com- promise was supposed to be a final settlement of the slavery question as a nation- al issue. The compromise was not disturbed until the Nebraska bill of 1854 came up. Sectionalism did not die out, but was in abeyance until 1838, when the tariff question revived it. The Nortli with its manufactures demanded pro- tection ; the South with its great staple of export, cot- ton, demanded free trade. Webster, originally op- posed to the tariff system, became a chamf)ion of it, the interest of his state, Massachusetts, demanding it. Henry Clay was the especial champion of protection, which he called "the American system." John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was the leader of the uncompromising Southern element. These three names will be forever associated. They form the great triumvirate of the compromise period. Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. His early education was meager. Natural eloquence drew him elected to Congress. into the legal profession, and as early as 1806 the legislature of Kentucky, to which state he early removed, sent him to the United States Senate. He filled many places of honor, being in the public ser- vice almost constantly until his death, 1852, for the most part serving in Congress. He was speaker of the House several times. He was a candidate for President repeatedly, being the father and favorite of the Whig party. Webster was born in New Hamp- shire in 1782. He received a collegiate education. His political career began in 1812, when he was That was in his native state. From 1816 to 1822 he prac- ticed his profession at Bos- ton, acquiring the highest rank as a lawyer. From that time until his death, 1852, he was almost wholly devoted to public afl'airs, most of the time in the senate. He aspired to the presidency, but never re- ceived the nomination of his party, the Whig. Cal- houn was born in South Carolina in 1782. He graduated at Yale College. In 1808 his pubHc life be- gan, by his election to the legislature of his native state. He then served six years in the National House of Eepresentatives. His next position was that of Secre- tary of War, followed by that of Vice-President. He aspired to the presidency, but was not a favorite with the autocrat of his party, Andrew Jackson, and in the nullification movement in South Carolina he rendered himself unpopular to the country at large. He was the idol of his state, and from that time until his death (1850) he was content to represent that commonwealth in the sen- ate of the United States. For about a year, how- ever, he served as Secretary of State under Presi- dent Tyler. Calhoun was not a compromiser. He believed in slavery and the right of secession, never hesitating to avow his sentiments and advocate them. His private life was ^vithout a stain. Not as persuasive as Clay nor as sublime as Webster, he r^n d|~V A< 'k 524 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. was in mauy respects their iutellectual peer. Ameri- can politics reached its highest point of personal ability in those Titans. In the year 1824 occiirred the presidential elec- tion which resulted in the choice of John Quincy Adams for President and John 0. Calhoun for Vice- President, a combination j)eculiarly incongruous in the hght of subsequent events. The electors did not elect, and the matter was settled by Congress. Adams had for his Secretary of State Henry Clay. His administration was a most excellent one. Mr. Adams was a very great statesman, but he was not a politician, and he failed to build up a political party. The ojaportunity was peculiarly favorable for so doing, but he lacked the qualifications of an organizer. It was during his term of office that the Erie canal was built, and the construction of rail- ways began. The country prospered and every in- terest developed rapidly. The seventh President of the United States, An- drew Jackson, was one of the most strongly individ- ual characters in American annals. The hero of New Orleans, his hold upon the popular heart was peculiarly tenacious. Ignorant, rough, and often unreasonable, he never faltered in what he con- ceived to be his duty, nor did he hesitate to employ freely the power of his office to build up a political party with himself as its center. A patriot, but not a statesman, he was the chief of politicians. The great features of Jackson's administration were, first, his unyielding and fatal opposition to a renewal of the charter of me national banks ; sec- ond, the crushing of nullification or secession, in South Carolina ; third, the creation of Wie Demo- cratic party ; fourth, the introduction into tlie civil service of the pernicious practice of distributing of- fices in reward for partisan and personal services. He did not originate the phrase, " to the victors be- long the spoils," but he did estabhsh the system. JOHN C. CALHOUN. and that so firmly that it has survived all the vicissi- tudes of party. Of all the many important events of Jackson's memorable career, the most remarkable was the promptness with which he met nullification in the Palmetto State. The additional duties on imports which gave such grievous offense were levied in 1832. A state convention held at Charleston soon after declared this act null and void, and prepared to resist its enforcement. The state legislature made no secret of a determination to secede if the law was executed. A man-of-war, with General Scott and a few soldiers on board, quelled the storm without the shedding of blood. Soon after, Mr. Clay, true M- ^ THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 525 ^ to his instincts as a pacifier, secured the jDassage of a bill providing for a scaling down of duties. The next president, Martin Van Buren, of New York, was a wily politician, the convenient and crafty lieutenant of Jackson in all his political movements. In the first year of his administration, 1837, the country was whelmed in bankruptcy. That panic was largely due to the refusal of Jackson to sign the bill for renewing the charter of the national banks. His pet scheme was the Independent Treas- ury, or Sub-Treasury system, by which the govern- ment should keep in its own vaults the fiublic money. The hard times had somewhat abated when the next presiden- tial election occurred (1840), but the memory of the panic was fresh, and the demand for a change was imperious. The campaign of 1840 was very exciting. The Whigs dropped their reg- ular candidate. Clay, and took up General Harri- son. He had rendered good service in the war of 1812, but better still in Indian warfare. He was the hero of the bril- liant affair at Tippeca- noe, Indiana, near La- fayette, which broke up the confederacy of Tecumseh and ended the ap- prehension of an Indian war. That was about thirty years before he was a candidate for President, but it served the purposes of the campaign. His death, one month after his inauguration, brought to the presidency John Tyler, tlie first of the Presidents elected by the Messenger of Death. He proved unfaithful to the party which elected him, and covered himself with reproach. The tariff question was a leading issue of the campaign, and he repudiated the protective policy which was the distinguishing doctrine of the Whigs. The only redeeming feature of Tyler's administration was the retention of Daniel Webster as Secretary of State, and the negotiation by him of a treaty with England GF\FR\I bmilOLllUN which fixed amicably the boundaries between the United States and British America, both in the northeast and the northwest. The bill annexing Texas to the Union was passed three days before the Tyler administration closed, but it was none the less the great issue in the presi- dential election of 1844, which resulted in the defeat of Clay and the election of James K. Polk, of Ten- nessee. Texas was originally a part of Mexico. It had been largely settled by citizens of the United States. The people rebelled and seceded from Mex- ico. General Sam Hous- ton being the leader in the Texan war of inde- pendence. The battle of San Jacinto, result- ing in the capture of Santa Anna, then Presi- dent of Mexico, Houston consented to release him only on condition that the independence of Texas should be recog- nized. The condition was complied with. Not long after Texas asked to be annexed to the United States. Nations usually covet territorial acquisition, but in this case the North opposed it because the area of slavery would be extend- ed thereby. The elec- tion of Polk settled the matter affirmatively. It was during the administration of Polk that the war between Mex- ico and the Uni- ted States was waged, growing out of the annex- ation of Texas, largely, and the desire of the South for an enlarged area. There were wi.niielu scott in i865. thirteen battles during that war, the first bemg fought V^ V ^5 JVv 526 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. EOUTB OF THE D. S. ARMY TEOM TEEA OBO* 10 MEIICO. at PaloAltOjMay 8, 1846, and the last at Huamantla, October 9, 1847. In all the United States troops were Yictorious. General Taylor won the victories of Palo Alto, Monterey, Palnia and Buena Vista ; Gen- eral Scott those of Ve- ra Gruz,Cer- ro Gordo, Contreras, ^ Cherubusco and Chapul- tepec. Many of the names rendered famous in the civil war appear among the subordinate officers of that campaign. Among the volunteer generals of that war was Franklin Pierce, afterwards Presi- dent of the United States. The treaty of peace was signed February 2, 1848. By its terms all the terri- tory north of the Rio Grande, including New Mexico and California, should thereafter belong to the United States. In- stead of exacting, in ad- dition to tliis, a sum of money, as Germany did of France a few years ago, the victor agreed to pay the vanquished $15,000,000 and assume debts amounting to about $3,000,000. At a later period, there having arisen some dispute as to the boundary, the United States paid Mexico $10,000,000 ,more in final settlement of the whole matter. The Whigs had denounced the Mexican war in severest terms, but no sooner was it over than they took up General Taylor as their candidate for tlie presidency, to the great ciiagrin of Clay and his es- pecial friends. " Old Rough and Ready," as Taylor was called, had for his opponent General Cass of Michigan, and, on the Free-soil or Anti-slavery ticket, ex- President Van Buren. The latter hoped to so weaken Cass, whom he hated, that he would be defeated. In this he was successful, Taylor was elected, and with him Millard Fillmore of New GENERAL SCOTT'S ENTET INTO MEXICO, York. The new, yet old, president died in the sum- mer of 1850. His administration is almost a blank. Not so with that of Fillmore, during whose term of office the policy of compromise reached its cul- mination. The ill-feeling between the North and the South on slavery and the questions growing out of it, was such as to seriously threaten the Union. Henry Clay, true to his life-work, came forward in 1850 with what was known as his " Omnibus Bill," pro- viding, first, that California should be admitted as a free state ; second, that if new states formed by the division of Texas should knock for admission they should be admitted ; third, Utah and Mexico to be organized as territories ; fourth, the claim of Texas to New Mexico to be pur- chased by the general gov- ernment for $10,000,000; fifth, the slave trade to be forbidden in the District of Columbia; sixth, slaves escaping to free states to be arrested and restored to their masters. Thr meas- ure received the & iport of both of the twc -vent parties. But it faile . of the desired efEect. A.t the South the admission of California was looked up- on as the supreme feature of the bill, and the North forgot everything else in fierce indignation ove." the fugitive slave law. The two sections were thus all the more unfriendly. Compromise had been the ruling policy of the government for thirty years, and all to no conciliatory purpose. Tlie next presidential election was the last in which the Whig party was ever to take part. Born of compromise, it d'ied with it. In 1852 the Whigs had for standard-bearer General Wuifield Scott, tlie hero of two wars, but he was utterly routed by Gen- eral Pierce, who had nothing to recommend him to the people. It was not in any sense a personal camiDaigu. The country was dissatisfied with both parties, but of the two evils the people chose the one least conspicuous for compromise. That was & - ~s \ s. '-K^ THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 527 the last national election ever held at which both of the leading parties attempted to win the favor of both sections of the country There had long been a distinctively anti-slavery party at the North, with now and then a represen- tative in congress ; but its strength was inconsidera- ble as compared with the other two parties. In 1840, and agaia in 1844, the Abolitionists had cast their votes for electors pledged to support James G. Bir- ney for president. In 1848, under the lead of Van Buren, and again in 1852, under the lead of John P. Hale, the Free-Soil party had secured the anti- slavery vote, gaining a little each time, but not much. WILLIAM H. SEWAKD. The election of Pierce seemed to be the permanent triumph of the pro-slavery party. Early in 1854 Senator Douglas of Illinois, Chair- man of the Committee on Territories, introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Bill which was, in effect, the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. A fierce con- flict arose. The Whig party, as if conscious that its mission of conciliation was over, went the way of the Federal party, to which it had fallen heir. It died of inanition, and with the passage of the bill introduced by Mr. Douglas (for after a hotly contested struggle in Congress it became a law) there was born the Rej)ublican party of the present day. It succeeded to the estate of the Whig organization without assuming its liabilities. A new set of great men came to the front about this time to take the jilace of Clay, Webster and Calhoun. This triumvirate consisted of Wm. H. Seward of New York, Charles Sumner of Massa- chusetts and Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. Mr. Seward was a native of New York, born in 1801. He graduated at Union College and settled as a lawyer in Auburn, New York. His public ca- reer began in 1830, when he was elected to the State Senate. Subsequently he served as governor of the state. He was elected to the United States Senate as a representative of the anti-slavery wing of the Whig party, entering that body in time to take part against the compromise of 1850. He was the father. CHARLES SUMNEK. more than any other man, of the Republican party. In 1860 he was a prominent candidate before the national convention of his party for the presidency, but was defeated by Mr. Lincoln. Upon the elec- tion of the latter Mr. Seward became Secretary of State, a position he occupied eight years, when his public career closed. Mr. Seward was at once a great statesman and a great pohtician. Mr. Sum- ner was the former, but not the latter. HapjDily, his native state, Massachusetts, required no wire-work- ing to place in the Senate and keep there her great- est son, for such Mr. Sumner was for many years. Born in Boston in 1811, he was elected to the Sen- ate of the United States at the age of forty, his first and only office. He remained in that body until NT u iii- 528 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. his death iu 1874. During those tweuty-three years he was the unfaltering friend of the black man. He was the most learned man ever identified with American politics. His eloquence was of a lofty nature and his character singularly free from taint. Douglas was a very different man from either of the other two. Uned- ucated, coarse and unscrupulous, he was a master of all the arts of pol- ities. Born in Vermont in 1813, he entered Con- gxess at the age of thirty as a Demo- cratic representa- tive from the state of Illinois. In 1847 he entered the Senate, and soon became the leader of his jDarty in that body, where he remained until his death in 1861. In the fall of 1860 he was a candidate for the jDresidency. When the civil war began lie was appointed a Major- General by President Lincoln. He was a staunch friend of the Union. Although carried by the current of these three lives quite beyond the period of compromise, there is one more administration belonging to it, that of James Buchanan, the fifteenth President of the United States. His election in 1856 over the Rer publican nominee, Ool. John C. Fremont, by a large majority, showed that the old regime was still poten- tial. At that election, for the first time iu the history of the republic, a presidential candidate nominated on the anti-slavery issue received Electoral College STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. votes, and a good many of them, too, enough cer- tainly to foreshadow plainly the result in 1860. The Buchanan administration was characterized by an- tagonism between the Executive and Congress on all questions at issue between the two parties. Mr, Buchanan was willing to carry the policy of conces- sion to the South to almost any length, in the hope of thereby averting civil war, while the Repubhcans scoffed at the threats of secession and braved all jjeril rather than consent to any extension of the area of slavery. Thus in that period, from 1857 to 1861, Comi^romise exhausted itself and developed by a natural process into Confl.ict. .■M.^m^k-m ^^72/^^^^^,A ^^] "7^ ^ UlllWlllllMW*JII[WIIJ'H^^'^ ^ ^J W ^ ■ i^y w ^J l p w ^gy ■ rg l^g^g^^w^n ^ ^ pi rl yw'«p ^^ ^yy s r THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 'M^ i CHAPTER LXXXI. Political Conflict— John Brown— 1860 — Secession— Wak Begun- Bull Run— McClellan on THE Potomac — Missouri — Close of 1861 — 1862 — Fort Donelson — Pea Kidgb— Merrimack and Monitor — Pittsburg Landing— New Orleans — On the Potomac Again — Yorktown — Before Richmond — Colored Troops — Gen. Pope — Antietam-^Fredericksburg and Burn- side — Emancipation — Gettysburg — Vicksburg — Chattanooga — New York Riots — Ander- soNTiLLE — Grant Supreme — Fort Pillow — Battle of the Wilderness — Spottstlvania — Atlanta — March to the Sea — Thomas and Hood — Presidential Election — Fall of Rich- mond, AND Surrender op Lee — Other Surrenders and the Capture of Davis — Assassin- ation of Lincoln — Sinking of the Alabama, and Other Naval Engagements — Personal Sketches op Union Heroes- Andrew Johnson — Reconstruction Conflict — Impeachment OF Johnson — Election of Grant — Ku-Klus-Klan — Close of the Great Conflict. N an important sense the great political conflict in tlie United States began Afitli tlie organization of tiieEepublican party. The Abolitionists, such as "Wil- liam Lloyd Garrison, Wen- dell Phillips, Birney, Whit- tier and Gerrifc Smitli, merely formed a skirmish line. The first bloody field was the territory of Kansas. Beyond the Missouri border was really fought the first campaign of the terrible war. That Territory would have been open to the introduction of slavery un- der the Missoui-i Compromise, but the South demanded more than that. Slav- ery must be allowed in Nebraska also. In graspuig for both, it lost both. jSTo sooner was the old landmark of 1830 removed tlian Northern immigration poured into Kansas, well knowing that if the southern of those two territories was saved to free labor the other would follow as a matter of course. The South was no match for the North in supplying pioneers, and slave labor is illy adapted to frontier life. But the adjacent state of Missouri was unfriendly to the " Northern horde," and that was quite an advantage. There were numerous en- counters between the two factions, and the Territory fully earned the designation of " Bleeding Kansas." It was not until the general appeal to the sword in 1861 that it ceased to be the especial victim of con- flict, and even after that time it was subject to des- olating raids. Among those who flocked to Kansas to take part in the struggle there was " John Brown of Ossawat- tomie," as he was known in connection with that Territory. He was an Abolitionist of the intensest sort. Having remained in the far West until satis- fied how the issue was to be decided, he came East and undertook to organize a slave insurrection. It was late in the fall of 1859 when he put his plan in execution. Harper's Ferry, Virginia, a wild goi-ge in the mountains, was selected as his rendezvous. With him were associated a few kindred spirits. They succeded in causing a tremendous excitement and alarm, but cannot be said to have struck a resjoon- sive chord in the nesTO heart. The idea that the -Ji: (529) JV« ±k^ 530 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. colored people were ripe for insurrectiou was a mis- take. Brown had embarked in an enterprise which was utterly hopeless. He was soon taken prisoner, tried, convicted and hanged. Many at the North sympathized with him, and when the war between the states came, he was canonized as a martyr to liberty. The most popular and inspiring of all the war songs of the period was a wild chant in his honor. The presidential election of 1860 was conducted on both sides of Mason and Dixon's line upon the theo- ry that the time for compromise had gone by. Mr. Douglas was indeed the can- didate of one wing of the De- mocracy, a wing that still clung to the hope of rec- onciliation, and Mr. Bell,of Ken- tucky, was the candidate of a movement to galvanize into life the dry bones of the old Whig party ; but the favorite can- didate of the South was John was formed, with Jefferson Davis as President, and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice-President. Be- fore Mr. Lincoln became President the national troops had withdrawn from Port Moultrie to Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. Seven states had se- ceded and a government in opposition to the United States had been fully organized and fairly launched at the South, President Buchanan doing nothing to arrest the progress of the movement. Mr. Lincoln was obliged to pass through Baltimore on his way to the capital in disguise. Abraham Lincoln was inau- March %^^-^y m HARPER'S FERRY IN 1861. gurated C. Breckenridge ; of the North, Abraham Lincoln ; and they represented, each in his way, what Mr. Seward very justly called " the irrepressible conflict." The latter received no votes at the South, the former carried no Northern state, and consequently Mr. Lincoln was elected. At tlie Nortli it was supposed that the threats of secession would not be executed ; at the South that the threats of coersion would not be carried out. Neither section really anticipated wliat was impend- ing ; still the spirit of hostility was so fully aroused that no considerations of prudence could have had weight and force. The first state to pass an ordinance of secession was South Carolina. Other Southern States adopted the same measure early in tlie year following, and in February the " Confederate States of America " 4th, and on the twelfth of the next month Fort Sumter, Major Robert Ander- son command- ant, was fired upon. That was the first shot of the war. The South Carolini- ans were impa- tient of delay, and wished to fire the South- ern heart. The same result fol- lowed in both sections. '■ To arms !" was all 75,000 volunteers three and two the cry. Lincoln called for days after the first shot had been fired, days later Davis issued letters of marque and reprisal, wliicn were at once followed by the blockade of South- ern ports by the Uni- ted States navy. In less than a month En- gland had made haste to acknowledge the Confederate States as belligerents, and not mere insurgents and rebel: same ROBERT ANDERSON. France, Spam and Portugal soon did the The first direct personal encounter of the war ^ 6 »^ -« a i. THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 531 was in the streets of Baltimore. That city fully sym- pathized with the South, yet lay between the E'orth and the national capital. It was on the nineteenth of April that some Massacliusetts volunteers were fired upon as they passed through the streets of that city. The effect was to stimulate the patriotism of the !N"orth, and render still more remote all hope of reconciliation. June 3 occurred a trivial Ijattle at Philippi, which was a Con- federate rout, and a week later the Un- ion troops were repuls- ed at Big Bethel. Thus did the for- tunes of war alternate for over a month, the Confed- erates routed at Boones- ville, the Fed- erals at Car- thage. In the meanwhile Congress had met, July 4, in extra ses- sion, and both sides were eager for a battle upon a large scale. Each seemed to think that one great victory and all would be over. " On to Rich- mond " was the cry of the North ; " On to Washing- ton" of the South. The impatient public had not long to wait. July 21 witnessed the first great battle of the war, the first Bull Run, or Manassas, as it is called in the South. A slight skir- mish at Centerville three days before had occurred. IRWIN M DOWELIi. The Union forces were under the command of Gen- eral McDowell ; the Confederates were led by General Beauregard. Both armies fought desperately for six hours, when reinforcements coming to the aid of Beauregard, he won the day. The defeat was a rout. The demorahzed volunteers, when once put to flight, became a frantic mob. But the victors were too much exhausted and crij^jjled to march upon Washington, and no substantial and per- manent ad- vantage was gained. Gen- eral W infield Scott, who had been the master spirit in j)l3'nning the battle, and McDow- ell, who had executed the plans, both retired, and General Mc- Clellan, who had achieved some small success in West Virgin- ia, came to the fore as 500,000 FOIiT SU>rrKK IX 188(1. Congress called for commander-in-chief, recruits, and appropriated $500,000,000 to defray the ex- jjenses of the war. The se- riousness of the undertak- ,r ing now for i. ' the first time dawned upon the public mind of the North. At the South the effect was deceptive. It was supposed that secession was an assured fact, and QEOBOE B. ll'CLELLAN. •^1 sIV 532 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. FREMONT. could not long be delayed in its complete triumph. All the sto- ri'esof North- ern cowardice ■were confirm- ed. ThusTic- tory was a great injury to the South- ern cause, and a bene- fit, indirect, but very real, to the Nortli. It is claim- ed by the Southern authorities tliat in the battle of Bull Run the Federal force was 60,000, the Confederate, 30,- 000. "The Confederate loss," says Derry, '''was nearly three thousand killed and wounded, while the Federal army lost nearly five thousand killed, wounded and prisoners, twenty-eight cannon, ten battle-flags, five thousand muskets and five hundred thousand cartridges." The Northern estimate of the forces engaged places the number at about 40,000 each, and the losses at about 3,000 each. Nothing important was done during the remainder of that year at the Fast. Several minor battles were fought with see-saw results. The only other military events of much import- ance during 1861 were in Missouri. A very deter- mined effort was made to i^revent that state from going out of the Union. It never d'id secede, in the regular way. An ordinance of secession was passed by a portion of the state legislature in November, 1861, but it was not bind- ing, even upon those who held state fealty above national loyalty. In holding that part of the country in the Union, Gen- erals Fremont, Sigel, Lyon and Grant bore prominent part, also the gallant Colonel Mulligan. The battle of Belmont (November 7), on NATHANIEL LTON. /^"y/^ i CAPT. CHAJtLES "WILKES. the Cumberland Kiver, opposite Columbus, Missouri, was the begin- ning of Gen- eral Grant's victories, but it was a vic- tory so far turned into defeat that he was finally glad to seek the shelter of his gun-boats. The battle of Wilson's Creek, where the gallant Lyon fell, had occurred August 10, and was the most destructive engagement of the year, except Bull Euu. It terminated favorably to the South, although very nearly an even thing. The year 1861 closed with the South in possession of several points of advantage, gained during the season. On that side was an army of 350,000 ; on the Northern, a force of 500,000. Missouri and Maryland were saved from seceding. Both could point to trophies, but neither had occasion for over- weening confidence of ability to achieve final victory. " The Trent affair" was the capture by Captain Wilkes, of the United States navy, of Mason and Slidell, representatives of the Confederacy, while on board the British steamer the Trent. It occurred November 8, and occasioned tremendous excitement in this country and in England. War between the two nations seemed imminent. But Secretary Sew- ard calmed the waters by releasing the prisoners, taking care in so doijig to secure from England a distinct repudiation of the right of search, the very issue which the war of 1813 involved but did not settle. American diplomacy won a brilliant victory, completing what the treaty of Ghent had left un- settled. The first battle of 1863 was between a small force under Humphrey Marshall and a brigade, or hardly that, under Colonel James A. Garfield, at Preston- burg, Kentucky. Garfield won the day, and was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general on the strength of his gallantry on that occasion. With this year began formidable naval operations in the West. Commodore Foote had a large flotilla srr '■K. THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 533 under ]iis coniniand which had been fitted out at St. Louis for ser- vice on the Mississippi and its tribu- taries Febru- ary 6. Fort Henry was compelled to surrender, and JI.LLJ.IPUJJMLH. iiijiu ■# »\ ^^^ ^'"^y^ later t^ii^^^^^" it^i^\^^^^ Donel- son was at the mercy of Foote and Grant, acting in concert. Grant being in command of the department of West Tennessee. Buckner was in command of the fort. He opened negotiations for capitula- tion, when Grant made the memor- able rei^ly, " No terms except iin- HUaiPHREY MARSHALL. conditional and immedi- ate surren- der can be accepted. I propose to move immediately on your works." The terms were ac- cepted and fifteen thousand prisoners fell in- to the hands of the captors. That capture, the re- ^^^ suit largely of jiFoote's gun- )ats, was the foundation of Grant's popular- ity. It placed his name in the head raiiK and occasioned many a prediction that he ANDREW U. FOOTE. would prove the supreme hero of the war. Fort Donelson sur- rendered Feb- ruary 16. The next im- portant event was the- battle of Pea Eidge, or Elkhorn, Missouri. Both armies concen- trated, the Con- ^S federates under Van Dorn, the Federals un- der Curtis. The likl ^ i\ uoi.\ battle began March 7, and was not terminated un- til the next mornmg. The Confederates were com- pletely beat- en, notwith- standing they fought with great brav- ery. The sliat- tered rem- nants fled m- to Tennessee, joiningBeau- regard at Memphis. Curtis took up his headquarters at Spring- field, Mis- . souri. The next day oc- curred the fierce duel between the Monitor and the Merri- mack in Hampton Roads. The former was a magnificent man-of-war, formerly the pride of the INTERIOR OF Fl)IiT HENRY. JOHN ERICSSON. American navy; the latter was a Vc iK" ^ 534 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. newly devised iron-clad and almost ball-proof gun- boat, the invention of that great genius, John Erics- son. It is not too mucli to say that the success of the little Monitor on that occasion revolutionized naval architecture, for it signed the death vrarrant of modern vessels of war. If tlie Merrimack had not been arrested in its course it would have strewn the North At- lantic seaboard with desolation and havoc. The result of that encounter was an infi- nite relief to the na- tional capital, which had been in great apprehension from an assault by water. The battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, oc- curred April 6 and 7. Grant had over 30,000 men, and Buell was advancing from Nashville to his sup- jjort. The Confederates were commanded by the brave and bril- liant Gen. A. S. Johnston. He decided to attack Grant at Pittsburg Landing be- fore he could be joined by Buell. Early in the morn- ing the fight began, and at nightfall the Federals had been pushed very nearly into the river. It looked as if Grant was about to be completely used up. That night Buell arrived. It was another instance of " night or Blucher." There were no corresponding recruits for the attacking army, and the next morning the Confederates were compelled to fall back on Corinth. The losses on both sides were very heavy. Those on the Federal side were about 13,000. Among the Confederates who fell was Gen. A. S. Johnston himself. Alexander H. Ste- phens ])ronouuced the loss irreparable, and Jefferson Davis placed the very highest estimate upon the greatness of the calamity. April 35 New Orleans fell into the bands of the Federals. It was well fortified, and thought to be almost imjiregnable. THE LKVEE AT NEW OKLEAi^'S. The fleet which ceeded in forcing UON UAK1.US 1JUEJ.1.. suc- the surrender consisted of eight steamships, six- teen gunboats and twenty - one mortar- vessels. This large force liad for co-oper- ative support General Butler at Southwest Pass with 9,000 troops. The Confederate de- fense consisted of sev- eral strong fortifications and seventeen vessels, in- cluding several rams. The forts surrendered, the few vessels of the defense were destroyed, and the city was at the mercy of the assailants. General Butlef took possession of the city. His administration of affairs in New Orleans gave great satisfaction at the North and aroused still greater indigna- tion at the South. He was accused of robbing the peojjle even of their spoons, and of playing the, despot generally. I The real secret of Butler's un- j)opularity was an order issued benjamin f. butlek. to the effect that any woman who should insult the flag, or show contempt for the Union, should be as- sumed to be a woman of the town plying her vocation. It is now time to revisit the mud-bound army of the Potomac. The pressure of Northern public oiDinion was such that early in March President Lincoln or- dered McClellan to move on Richmond. An abor- tive movement was made on the 10th of that month. About that time the Burnside expedition was sent to caf)ture Newberg, North Carolina, a port on the Neuse river. A fortnight later McOlellen changed ■i' ^^ ^ THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 535 his base of operations against Eichmond to Portress Monroe. The Peninsula campaign may be said to have begun with the evacuation of Torktown, May 3. The Confederates were behind "Quaker," or wooden guns. McClellan was deceived. He sup- posed the army then tliere under Magruder to be very large. He expected a long siege and a des- perate resist- ance. Instead of that, the Confederates withdrew to William s- burg without firing a shot. Two days later the bat- tle of Wil- liamsbu rg was fought. The Feder- al army of the Potomac had long been impa- tient for ac- tive service, and pursued the retreat- ing Confed- erates with the utmost zeal, led by Generals Hooker, Kearney and Stone- man. Early in the morning of the 5th of May the fight- ing began The swollen condition of the streams im- ^ peded reiuforce- ^ ments and the f or- ^ wardingof supplies. ^ Hooker's division bore the brunt of the battle early in the day, but Kear- ney came to the res- FORTKEb'5 MONEOE IN 1861 J. EANKHEAU MAGRUDER. -irp cue when most needed. Hancock ordered a bayonet charge that was promptly made, when a complete vie- 67 tory was won, and McClellan was able to move into Williamsburg. Instead of following up his advantage with vigor, he allowed J. E. Johnston to retire in good order to the opposite bank of the Chickahom- iuy. On both sides it was thought that the decisive hour had come. There was the gravest apprehen- sion at Eichmond, the wildest exultation at Wash- ington. But Johnston was equal to the emergen- cy. He or- dered Stone- wall Jack- son, then in the Shenan- doah valley, to make a demonstra- tion upon Washington. This diver- sion had an importantef- fect in check- ing the fur- ther progress of the main army. Banks and his army were driven out of the valley by Jackson, and fell back to the Potomac. McClellan was within a few miles of Eich- mond. There Avas a battle at Hanover Court House, May 27. That, however, was hardly more than a skirmish as compared with the battles which were to follow, begin- ning with Fair Oaks, May 31, and closing with Mal- PHILIP KEARNEY. B >V JV' 536 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. '-^ vern Hills, July 1. of the river, beeiif or Gen- eral Sumner and the re- cruits he brovight to- ward even- ing from the opposite side. The loss on either side was about 7,000, and Johnston, then the leading sol- dier of the Confederacy That was a terrific period. Fair Oaks came very near being an overwhelming Union defeat. McClellan's ar- my was on both sides of the Chickahominy, and the swamjDS were flooded. Johnston's plan was to destroy the portion of the army on the Pair Oaks side and he would have done it if it had not NATHANIEL P. BANKS. BATTLEFIELD OF MALVERN. was seriously wounded. That wound brought Gen- eral Lee to the front, a posi- tion which he kept to the very last. Both armies were so badly crij^pled that neither felt like taking the initiative. The North greatly cen- sured McClellan for remaining quietly in the malarial EDWIK T. SUMNElt. swamps of the Chickahominy, and the South re- gained confidence. This confidence showed itself in the gallant but uneventful dash of Confederate cavalry under General Stuart within the very lines of the main Federal army. The battle of Oak Grove was fought June 25. It was a comparatively small battle, but it was a victory for the Confeder- ates, and McClellen then gave up all aggressive plans. It was no longer " On to Richmond," but the problem was " How not to do it." The next day Jackson and A. P. Hill were directed by Lee to at- tack the Federal right. All day the battle raged, with indecisive results. The next day at the battle of Gaines' Mills. Lee had hopes of capturing McClel- lan, and the latter sought to fall back upon the James river in good order and with his supplies. During the 27^1 Porter held the enemy at bay. The next day Gen. Sumner ren- dered sub- stantiallythe same service at the battle of Savage Station. The third day the battle of Frazier's Farm served the same negative pur- pose, and the army of the Potomac was re-united for the first time since the (IJhickahom- iny flowed between it. And now came the climax of the camjDaigu — the battle of Malvern Hill, July 1. That conflict raged until nine o'clock in the evening, when the Confederates aban- doned the idea of capturing the Federals. McClel- lan fell back upion the James, Lee to the entrench- ments at Eichmond, both sides beaten, with losses on either side variously estimated at from 15,000 to 25,000. The loss by sickness during the heated term was terrible. Of the splendid army of 160,000 which had entered the Peninsula only a small pro- portion could be mustered as " present and fit for service." The pubhc sentiment at the North was so strongly against General McClellan that he was relieved, practically, and General Pope called from during that night Li THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 537 FITZ JOHN PORTER the West to take his place. The army of the Poto- mac was re-organized late in July, and early in August Pope assumed the aggressive. •' On to Richmond " was once more the cry*. The battle of Cedar Mountain was fought Au- gust 8, in which Jack- son punished Banksunmer- cifully. Lee now i^repared to attempt to capture Pope's whole army, and the latter took alarm. The swollen condition of the Rappahannock baffled both retreat and attack. Pope was gradually forced back toward Washington. The second battle of Bull Run, or Manassas, was fought August 30. At one time it looked as if the Federals were about to win the day, but Fitz John Porter faihng to co-operate with the main army, the day was lost and Pope obliged to fall back upon Cen- terville. By this time Pope was ready to re- turn West, a confessed failure in Virginia, a failure more due, how- ever, to the jealousy of leading subordinate of- ficers than to any lack of soldierly qualities. It was now Lee's turn to assume a still more decidedly aggressive attitude. Not content with push- ing the enemy to the wall, he moved into Maryland, intending to strike Baltimore and Washington. Several minor battles were fought, and Sej^tember 17 came the great battle of Antietam. The Con- federates under Lee numbered 60,000 ; the Federals, under McClellan, who was given one more oppor- tunity to fail, numbered 90,000. Three days before. Harper's Ferry had fallen into the hands of the Confederates and the battles of South Mountain (in which the gallant Reno fell), and of Crapton's Gap were fought. But both ar- mies were eager for a decisive vic- tory. "Fight- ing Joe " Hooker be- gan the firing at daybreak, when Stone- wall Jackson swept his corps from off the field. Hooker himself being wounded. All day the firing was kept up. Both sides claimed a victory. It was a substantial triumph for the Federals, for Lee abandoned for a time his aggressive policy and retired up tlie Shenandoah valley to Winchester. AMBROSE E. BURNSIDE. SCENE IN P^KKDKKICKSBUEG. DECEMBER 13, 1863 One more great bat- tle was fought in 1863. It was before the heights of Fredericks- burg, Virginia. Burn- side, who had now been promoted to the com- mand of the army of the Potomac, attempted the capture of that stronghold. He sacri- ficed about 15,000 men in the unavailing as- sault. He took com- mand November 5, and the battle of Freder- icksburg was fought December 13. It was a fearful, fruitless and un- necessary slaughter. In the Southwest the Federals held every strong- hold except Vicksburg and Port Hudson, but those were important exceptions. While we have been fol- lowing the fortunes of the army of the Potomac sev- eral important events were occurring in the Mississip- b \ ^.i 538 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. ^ pi "V alley. Bragg invaded Kentucky in the liope of adding that state to the Confederacy, and making Tennessee solid for tlie same cause.' He had an army of 60,000. Buell was in command of the op- posing Federal forces, having an army of 100,000. Bragg did not succeed in establishing Confederate rule in that region, Lut he did manage to caj^ture and carry off vast stores of provisions which were greatly needed by the South. General Grant began in 1862 his movement upon Vicksburg, but he accomplislied nothing. He found himself checkmated. His supplies at Holly Springs were caj)tured by the enemy. Cormth, luka and Murf reesboro were claimed as Federal victories in the West, but Bragg had much whereof to boast and the South a hapfiierK ew Year than the North. The year 1862 saw the peace party at the North called Cop- perheads at its strongest. Many doubt- ful Congres- sional dis- tricts were carried by them, and some states, notably New York. The discon- tent was gen- eral. Some wanted more fighting, and others less, and no one seemed to be satisfied with the conduct of the war. The proc- lamation of Emancipation, JOSEPH HOOKEE, tllC mOSt liot- able American document since the Constitution, was President Lincoln's New Year's greeting. It was issued Sejitember 22, 1862, to take effect the first day of January following. That declaration of freedom was confined in its immediate operation to territory not then within the actual jurisdiction of the United States, while careful not to disturb the institution of slavery within the Federal lines. But everybody understood that henceforth the real poli- cy of the government would be liberty to all. From that time on, both sides were more determined than ever before to win the day, feeling the gravity of the stake involved. The first day of the year 1863 was a day of vic- tory for the Confederates. They captured the im- portant city of Galveston, the key to communica- tion by water with Texas. The next day the Fed- erals gained a victory at Murfreesboro, and a few days later EtnxS OF CIIANCELLOBSVILLE. they captur- ed Arkansas Post. But these were not mat- ters of very much im- portan ce. On both sides the Po- tomac was the center of attrac- tion. Burn- side asked to be relieved, and was succeeded by " Fighting Joe Hooker," of whom much was ex- pected. He crossed the Eappahannock and fought Lee at Chancellorsville early in May. The result was a victory for the Confederates. The Union loss was over 11,000. Hooker recrossed the river. About a month later, Lee took his splendid army of 100,000 men northward into Maryland and Penn- sylvania, boldly assuming tlie aggressive. Now for the first time the war was actually transferred in part to the North. On the 28th of June Hooker was superseded by General Geo. G. Meade, of Penn- sylvania. Presently the battle of Gettysburg was fought. That was probably the supreme battle of the war. Gettj'sburg is just over the Maryland line in Pennsylvania. The battle began July 1, and did not close until the third day. The decisive moment was when, in the afternoon of the third day, Lee opened on Hancock's j^iosition with one hundred and 7- f ^^ -IL. THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 539 K O O - ^9 »ll THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 541 fifteen guns. The shock did not break the line. It is estimated that about fifty thousand men were lost in that desperate encounter. Lee was obliged to aban- don the offensive and retire to the Potomac. The field of Gettysburg is now a national cemetery. It is estimated by Derry that in the Pennsylva- nia cam- paign the Southern loss was a- bout 18,000 killed and w u n d e d and 10,000 prisoners. He places GEORGE G. MEADE. tllC Nortll- ern losses at about the same approximate figures. Among those who fell at Gettysburg was General John F. Reynolds, of Pennsylvania. A rifle-ball struck him during the first day of the battle, killing him instantly, while in active command of the First CorjDS. He was a very popular, brave and efficient officer. General Sickles, of New York, it may be added, lost a leg at Gettysburg. While Lee and Meade were mowing down each other's soldiers in winrows at Gettysburg, General GENEIIAI. MEADE'ri IIEADQUARTEKS AT GETTYSBURG. Grant was persistently pushing his way into Vicks- burg. The siege began May 19 and ended almost simultaneously with the retreat of Lee. The two events formed one piece of intelligence. General Pemberton was in command of the beleaguered force. On the 3d of July he proposed to surrender, and the next dav the silrrender was made — 31,600 men, 173 cannon, and no less than 15 generals. Pour days later Port Hudson surrendered to Banks, and the MississipjDi was restored to the Union. The summer of Federal prosperity was undisturbed by any serious counter-disasters. The desperate Morgan dashed into Ohio and Indiana with four thousand Confederate cav- alry, but no sub- stantial advan- tage was gained. On the contrarj', the state militia of Ohio proved an overmatch for the raiders. In the fall there was im- portant fighting ous region of JOHN F. REYNOLDS. f ai'ther south, in the mountain- northern Georgia and southern Tennessee. Upon the banks of the Tennessee stood the little town of Oliattanooga, almost at the very foot of Lookout Mountain and near Missionary Ridge. These are names conspicuous in the military annals of the country. In the summer General Rosecrans had won important victories in Tennessee, but in September he was defeated with great loss at Chickamauga River. He was hemmed in and his forces near- ly starved out by Bragg. General Thomas grandly came to his res- cue and saved his army from overwhelming disaster, from ir- retrievable ruin. General Grant was sent to super- sede him, and given ample resources. His first care was to relieve the wants of the army. General Thomas, who had prevented the defeat of Chicka- mauga from being a rout, was in command of the Army of the Cumberland. General Hooker came DANIEL E. SICKLES. -^i 54^ THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. "WILLIAM S. KOSECRAKS. down from Virginia with 23,000 men, and Sherman was at the head of four divisions of the Army of the Tennessee. In a month from the time Grant arrived every preparation had been made for a general engagement. November 24. Hooker charg- ed up Lookout Mountain, " above the clouds," and won a brilliant victory. The next day the great battle of Chatta- nooga was fought and won, mainly by General Thomas and the gallant Army of tlie Cumberland, Burnsideliad rendered ef- fective ser- vice by drawing Longstreet away from re-inf orcing Bragg. He could not meet him on the open field, but he could prevent him j)utting his army where it would do tlie most good for the Confederate cause. When Brag'g was compelled to break camp and flee northward, Burnside, then at Knoxville, was re-in- forced and Longstreet marched away. The fighting of the year 1863 was now at an end. It only remains to speak of two features of the year, the riot in New York and Andersonville. The gov- ernment felt compelled to draft for more soldiers during that summer. Nearly everywhere the peojile submitted graciously ; but the " baser sort " m New York City rebelled and raised a most disgraceful riot. The mob wreaked its vengeance on all colored persons found, and even destroyed an asylum for colored orphans. The riot began July 13 and raged It is believed tliat a thousand persons or three days, were killed Avounded. The military were obliged to inter- pose and put it down. The Confeder- ate prison pen at Andersonville, Georgia, dates from Novem- ber 27, 1863. The whole num- ber of prisoners registered there was 49,485. The full number "WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. VIEW OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY FROM CHATTANOOGA, of deaths recorded were 13,462. The superin- tendent, one Henry Wirz, wastried,con- victed and hanged,after the war, for murderous cruelty. Duringthe months of January and February no event of im- portance transpired. On the fourth of Marcli, 1864, Grant was made Lieutenant-General, and placed in command of all the forces of the United vStates. Then for the first time the army was so iiuified that it could be handled to the best advantage. Grant was given unlimited scope, and leaving Sherman, Thomas and others of less note in the West, took command in person of the army of the Potomac. He placed General Sheridan, hitherto in obscurity, at the head of the cavalry service, and sent him to scour the Shenandoah Valley. He rendered brilliant service, notably in winning the battle of Wincliester, im- mortalized by T. Buclianan Eead's poem, '• Sheridan's Eide." The massacre at Fort Pillow occurred April 13. That was the most cruel episode of the war. There were a great many colored troops at the fort and the 01 "7 •VG ^kn THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 543 O o O O ►J O B 6S T-PV t >^. THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 545 object seems to have been to intimidate tlie blacks and deter them from enlisting. Generals Forrest and Chalmers share the dishonor of that massacre. The battle of the Wilderness was fought May 5 and 6. It was a part of Grant's comprehensive plan for crushing the enemy. He evident- ly thought that the time had come to put an end to the war by one great '< battle before Richmond. In this he was mistak- PHILII- H. SHEKIDAN. CU. Slier- man was ordered to advance on Atlanta the same day that Grant crossed the Rajiid Anna to engage Lee. For two days the battle raged and the slaugliter was terrible. Grant lost 20,000 men ; Lee 10,000. Neither gained any advantage. But Grant was not disheartened or shaken in his purpose. With dogged perseverance he followed up that battle with another, the battle of Spottsylvania Court House, fought May 10, 11 and 12. In tliat great battle fell General John Sedgwick of New York, commander of the Sixth Corps. On the 11th inst. General Grant sent to the War Department the famous dispatch, " I propose to figlit it out on this line if it takes all summer." In those words were revealed the character of the man and the secret of his power. "All summer " stretched into and through the next winter, and it was not " on this line " that final victory was won. He kept pushing FEOM ATLANTA TO THE SEA things, at Cold Harbor, Petersburg, and elsewhere. His losses were enormous and constant. Before July, Grant had lost, it is estimated, 80,000, and Lee half that immber. The great success of the season was Sherman's campaign m ^^ Georgia. He _ ^= ^fe captured At- ^^ ^"5=^ lanta Septem- ^ her 1. It was in this battle that General M'Phersonfell wounded nioi- tally. Includ- ing the sevei al engagements which Culmm- Spottsj h una court House ated in the siege of Atlanta, Sherman lost 30,000 men ; the Confederates under Hood and J. E. John- ston, 40,000. He next organized and executed his famous March to the Sea, which was uitended to cut off the supplies and sever the railway connections of tlie Confederacy. The plan was successfully car- ried out. The march from Atlanta to Savannah was practically unimpeded. A presidential election occurred at the North dur- ing the year 186-4. On the Rejmblican side President Lincoln was the candidate, with Andrew Johnson on the ticket as Vice-Presi- dent. The lat- ter was put forward as a reiDresentative of Southern Unionists. On the Democratic side the candidates were General McClellan and Geo. H. Pendleton of Oliio. At the time McClellan was nominated the Union cause was under a thick cloud. The fall of Atlanta came just after that. The platform on which the Democratic candidates were placed pledged them to secure peace at almost any cost. Of course the FTMCALlffTER V 546 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. i states which had seceded and belonged to the Con- federacy could not vote, and Mr. Lincoln received an overwhelming majority of the votes cast. Sherman's March to the Sea began November 15, and on the morning of the 21st of December he entered Savannah. It was during that period that General Thomas outgeneraled Hood completely iu Tennessee, and almost crushed his army. Hood as- sumed the offensive at Frankhn November 30, and was repulsed. He planned another assault on Thomas at Nash- ville, but before he could put it into exe- cution he had been attacked (December 15) and ui a battle which raged two days, so crippled that he had to flee to the mountains of Ala- bama. That virtu- ally ended the w^ar in the interior. The war was not projected far into 1865. It was obvi- ous that Richmond could not hold out long. The only ques- tion was whether to surrender or take a change of base. The latter was prevented by the cutting of Lee's railway commu- nication by Slieridan's eavalrjr, and the gradual closing in upon the Southern ar- my of the Federal for- ces. Causes not known at the North, and disclos- ed in the next chap- ter, conspired to render resistance impossible. Grant carried Petersbvirg by assault, and there be- GEOKGE H. THOMAS. ing no other alternative, Lee surrendered April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House. The war was over ; the occupancy of Eichmoud had already oc- curred. Davis and his cabinet had left the capital a week before. Johnston surrendered the Confederate forces in North Carolina to Sherman, who had moved northward from Savannah, April 18. Gen- eral Taylor, commanding in Alabama, surrendered to General Terry May 4, and Kirby Smith in Miss- issippi the 26tli. The total number of Confederates who surrendered was about 150,000. The most tragic event of the war was yet to come, the one which caused the profouudest grief. That was the assas- sination of President Lincoln. He was shot by J. Wilkes Booth while attend- ing a theatrical en- tertainment given at Ford's theater, Washington, on the evening of April 14. Before morning the wound had piroved fatal. Secretary Sew- ard narrowly escaped being killed by a conspirator. The shock was terrible and the loss incomparable. A great statesman, one who could have harmonized the nation, and restored the reign of law at the South satisfactorily to both sections, gave place to a politician singularly nnsuited to the gxeat task in hand. The passions of the war had not had time to cool when that assassination occurred, but it was evident that the South siiicerely deprecated the gTeat crime. At first tlie imi^ression prevailed that the assassin was the agent of Jefferson Davis and other Confederates, but there was no good ground for the suspicion, and it soon faded from the public mind. Nothing in all the history of the EeiDublio was more creditable than the good behavior of the sol- diers after disbandment. More than a million men, North and South, were at once released from mili- tary duty and remanded to the walks of civil life. Many of them had long been accustomed to camp "TT 3 ^ 4u Q :,i THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 547 o K K o o o en o 71 a^ ^^ THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 549 HENRY W. BELLOWS, D.U. Founder U. S. Sanitary Commission. and field, but they took up the duties of peace iu a quiet, orderly manner, resolved into the general mass of the population without any of the horrors usually experienced in such cases in other lands. The immense increase in the productive power of the nation was ab- solutelj' jihe- nomenal. The records of the army medical de- partment give the number treated as 5,- 825,000 includ- ing field and hospital both. Of these the fatal cases were 166,623. The wounded were 273,175; deaths among them, 33,777. Perhaps the most creditable feature of the entire period of conflict was the provision made duruig the war for the comfort of the sick and wounded. The SanitaryCommissionandthe Christian Commission, distinct hut kindred organizations, raised many millions of dollars which were expended in amelior- ating the condition of the sick and wounded soldiers. The Sanitary Commission dis- bursed 15,000,000 and sujjplies valued at about three times that amount, and the Christian Com- mission is believed to have expended not less than $6,- 000,000 hi the same way, the only difference beiiio- that the o latter Commission looked after the religious and literary wants of the soldiers as well as their phys- ical requirements. When the war began, the navy of the United States numbered less than 8,000 men, and at the VINCENT COLTER. Cliairman U. S. Christian Commission. ADMIKAL FiBEAGUT. close it numbered over 50,000. The idea of block- admg the South Atlantic coast was ridiculed by the British, and it certainly was the most memorable blockade of history. Dviring the war there were twenty naval engage- ments, counting those sieges and assaults in which land forces took the chief jjart, but required for success naval co- operation. The independ- ent naval battle was the success- ful attempt ot the Confederate ram Merrimao to sink the Fed- eral frigates Cumberland and Congress hi Hampton Eoads. That occurred March 8, 1862. It caused great consternation at the North and rejoicing at the South. The very next day, as we have seen, the Fed- eral orunboat Monitor en^aared the Merrimac and disabled her. In January of the following year the Confederate privateer, the Alahama, sunk the United States steamer Hatteras. June 19, 1865, the Kear- sage sunk the Alabama off Cherbourg, France. It may be added that the most brilliant na- val operation was the cap- ture of Mobile by a fleet un- der Admiral Farragut, on August 5th, 1864, and the most impor- tant the cap- ture of Fort Fisher, Janu- ary 15, 1865, by the combined land forces under Gen- eral Terry and naval forces under Commodore Porter. Confederate privateers captured no less than two hundred and eighty-five Federal vessels, and the number of blockade-runners and privateers COMMODORE PORTER. IK^ ^'. 550 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 4^ captured by the Federal navy during the entire war was no less than thirteen hundred and fifty. Before leaving the battlefields and following the period of conflict in its political phases, it may be well to add a few biographical sketches. General Robert Anderson, the first oflicer on the Union side to attract general attention, was born in Kentucky in 1805, and died in Prance in 1871. Hardly had he become prominent by virtue of the attack on Sumter, before he sank out of sight, owing to physical inability to take the field. General B. F. Butler was an eminent lawyer and ex- treme Democrat when the war began. He promptly laid aside his pi-ofession and his prejudices and went to the front. But his strictly military oj^erations were inglorious. It was as a radical Eepublicau Con- gressman during the period of Reconstruction that he rendered the main service of his life. Of late years he has been devoted to his profession, being out of sympathy with either political party. He has been a candidate for governor of Massachusetts several times. General H. W. Halleck was at one time the su- preme oSicer of the army, virtuall)' commander-in chief. He was a native of New York. He was born in 1815, and died in 1873. His opportunities were good and his prospects fl.attering for being the greatest hero of the war, but he was a failure as a practical soldier on a truly national scale. "Fighting Joe Hooker" was born at Hadley, Mass., in 1815. He was a gallant soldier and ren- dered truly great service in several important battles. He was not quite equal to the demands of the first rank, but as a corps commander he was brilliant. Lookout Mountain and the battle above the clouds will always be associated with his name. He died in 1873 after a long period of suffering. General George B. Meade first attracted conspic- uous attention at Gettysburg. He superseded Hooker in time to be the hero of that memorable battle. He held important commands and acquitted himself creditably at South Mountain, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Ohancellorsville and elsewhere. General Meade was a native of Cadiz, Spain, where he was born in 1815, but he was a Pennsylvanian, and died in Philadelphia in 1873. General Pope was born at Kaskaskia, Illinois, in 1833. His career in the Western army was so very successful that he was transferred to the Potomac to succeed McClellan, where, as we have seen, he was very unfortunate. General Pope is still in the service. General W. S. Eosecrans, who was early conspicuous iu the Southwest, was born in Ohio in 1819. He retired from the army in 1866. In 1868 President Johnson apjDointed him Miuister to Mex- ico. He shortly afterwards retired to private life in California. In 1880 he was elected to Congress as a Democrat. He was a warm supporter in that po- litical campaign of General AV. S. Hancock, as against his former chief of staff, General Garfield. General Hancock was born in Pennsylvania ia 1834. Plis entire life, it might be said, has been sjDcnt in the army. From _ the time he entered West Point as a cadet until now he has been devoted to the mili- tary service. His presiden- tial candidacy was thrust upon him, and that mainly for the conservatism of his course as military com- mander at New Orleans during the period of recon- struction. Gettysburg was his most important battle. General Geo. H. Thomas, like General Lee, was a native of Virginia, but to him national loyalty was paramount to state fealty. Born m 1816, he had seen service iu the Seminole and Mexican wars, and been a professor at West Point. In the valley of the Shenandoah, in Kentucky, MississijDpi, Tennessee and Georgia lie showed himself to be a grand genius for war. Had he been pushed forward by influen- tial friends, he might have proved the supreme hero of the war ; but his state was iu hostility to the cause in which he was engaged, and that was a seri- ous hindrance to his jjromotiou. He died a major- general in the regular army, at San Francisco, in 1870. General W. T. Sherman was born in Lancaster, Ohio, in 1830. He is a brother of John Sherman. We have already spoken of his more notable ex- GENEKAL HANCOCK. "^e -s V ti-. THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 551 ■7^^ 69 L^ THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 553 ploits. When G-eneral Grant was elected to the presidency General Sherman succeeded him at the head of the army, the position which he still main- tains. Next to him, holding since 1869 the rank of lieutenant-general, is Philip H. Siieridan._ Grant, Sherman and Sheridan are the names most illustii- ous in connection with the Union cause, and all tliree were born in Ohio, Grant in 1823, Sherman hi 1820 and Sheridan in 1831. Sheridan was an ob- scure cavalry ofBcer u iitil Grant was placed in com- mand of all the armies, when he was made chief of cavalry, and amply Justified the confidence reposed in him. Especial mention should also be made of General McPhersou who was killed before Atlanta in 1864. He too was a native of Ohio, bom in 1828. His death was a great loss to the army. He had proved himself a great soldier in many a hard-fought battle, from Corinth to Kenesaw and Atlanta. Gen- eral 0. 0. Howard, now at the head of the Military Academy at West Point, is a native of Maine. He was equally eminent as a soldier and a Christian. Pious and brave, he bore a prominent part in the battle of Fair Oaks where he lost an arm, also m the battles of Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Chattanooga and Atlanta. He was at the head of the Freedman's Bureau, after the war. The administration of Andrew Johnson belongs to the period of conflict. It was during his term of office, which extended from April 15,1865, to March 4, 1869, that the work of restoring the Union was all virtually performed, and it may be said that when that task had been accomplished the present period of the United States began. In a political way very little was done at the North after the war had closed until December, 1865, when Congress convened. The states which had formed the Confederacy for the most part repealed their several ordinances of secession, repudiated their state war debts and formally ratified the abolition of slavery. Mississippi led the way, August 22. Alabama followed her example September 10 ; South Carolina, Sef)tember 13 ; North Carohna, October 2 ; Florida and Georgia, October 25. The position of Virginia was anomalous. As early as 1863 a state government, loyal to the Union, was formed in counties under Federal control, and Pres- ident Johnson recognized that government as valid for the whole state, and prohibited the meeting of the more general legislature of the state, called for the purpose of repealing the ordinance of secession and abolishing slavery. As early as February, 1864, the legislature which Mr. Johnson recognized as valid for the whole state of Virginia had abolished slavery. When Congress convened, the Southern states presented themselves for admission, but their repre- sentatives were denied admission, with the exception of Tennessee, which was re-admitted during 1866. The i^osition of the Republican party was that the states which had gone out of the Union should re- main out until the necessary safeguards against se- cession in the future should have been provided. Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania was the virtual leader of the party at that time. He was a member of the House of Representatives. President Johnson insisted that the seceded states should be restored as soon as they had repealed their ordinances of seces- sion and duly elected representatives to Congress. In this position he was sustained by a few Republicans and aU the Democrats. But he was utterly power- less. The Republican majority was so large that any party measure could be passed over his veto by a two-thirds majority. Instead of accepting the situation and yielding his personal views to the inev- itable will of the majority, he persisted throughout his entire term of office in keeping up the conflict. In the meanwhile the states which had seceded were under provisional government and their restoration to i:)rosperity seriously impeded. The Thirteenth Constitutional Amendment abol- ishing slavery, was the first important step toward reconstruction. That was ofiicially declared adopted December 18, 1865. An elaborate Reconstruction Act became a law March 2, 1867, and the same day Congress passed over the President's veto the Ten- ure-of-Ofiice bill, which greatly restricted the re- moving power of the Executive. The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which was an elab- orate embodiment of the principles of the Republi- can i^arty on reconstruction, became a part of the organic law of the Republic, July 28, 1868. It was not until March 30, 1870, that the Fifteenth Amend- ment, virtually conferring the right of suffrage upon the negro, was adopted. The longer the conflict between Congress and the President was continued, the more radical and bold did the dominant party become. During all this period of post-war contest, the Southern States were H' \ I 554 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. iu a condition of suspended political animation. By July, 1870, the restoration of all the states had been effected, and the period of conflict may be said to have come to a close. In the meanwhile had occurred the impeachment, trial and acquittal of Andrew Johnson, and the election of his successor. General Grant. That im- peachment was the culmination of the feud between the legislative and executive departments of the general government. It requires a two-thirds ma- jority of the Senate, sitting as a high court of im- Ijeachment, to convict. One more vote against him, and President Johnson would have been deposed. That great state trial occurred in the spring of 1868. Just after its termination the National Eepublican Convention met at Chicago and nominated General Grant for President by acclamation, aiid Schuyler Colfax for Vice-President. Their opponents were Horatio Seymour, of New York, who as Governor of that state had opposed the military draft, and Gen- eral Francis P. Blair. All the states took part in the election except Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi and Texas, which had not been reconstructed at that time. Grant and Colfax received 214 electoral votes, and Seymour and Blair 71. The popular majority of the Repubhcan party was nearly 3,000,000. That election settled forever the validity of the amendments to the Constitution adopted subsequent to the war, including universal suffrage. Early in 1868 there was organized at the South a secret order known as the Ku-Klux-Klau, witli Gen- eral Forrest at its head. Its object was to thwart by intimidation the enfranchisement of the colored jieo- ple and prevent the comj^lete triumph at the South of the Northern cause, or, as the members would ex- jjress it, the design was to "redeem the South." That was the last flicker of the flames which had reddened the whole horizon of the nation. Many of the members were brought to trial, convicted and sentenced to the penitentiary for their acts of violence. After the excitement had died away and the punishment was supposed to have had its due effect in breaking up the organization. President Grant jiardoned the prisoners, and now the last em- ber of the war, kindled in 1854, seems to be dead. Before passing on, however, to the present United States it will be well to devote a chapter to the dis- tinctively Southern features of the period which has been under consideration in this chapter. 7" ■i J RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. J>,\-^^- /-l\ -:£k:-- /^\ £ ^..(CxV \.. ^i. M -^ CHAPTER LXXXri. The Purpose of the Chapter — Causes of the Confederacy — The Election op Lincoln — The Doctrine op State Sovereignty — The Right of Revolution — Ordinances of Secession — At Montgomery — The Confederate Constitution — Virginia and the Peace Conven- tion — Sumter and the First Call for Troops — General Lee — Semmes and the "Ala- bama " — Population, Black and White, of the South — Results at the Close of First, Second and Third Years op the War — Derry on the Two Armies — Stephens on Fort Fisher — Another Comparison of the Two Armies — Causes of the Failure op the Con- federacy — Testimony of Davis — Davis on Southern Finance — Exhaustion of the South — Testimony' op the Confederate Commissary General — False Hope — The Cause Lost — Penalties — Persons and States — The End of the War—Biographical Sketches. T is customary in histories of the United States, whether brief or long, to consider the Confederate States only so far as they relate to the great conflict which engaged our atten- tion in the chapter im- mediately preceding this one. It is difficult to form a distinct conception of the subject from that merely side view of it. The jnirpose of the chapter now in hand is to set forth the actual apart fi'om the argumentative in the rise and fall of that stupendous jDolitical organ- ization which, without gaining recogni- tion as an independent government from any of the nations, performed all the functions of a confederate republic for about four years, and must ever stand in history as one of the more memorable of national episodes. It is no part of the present purpose to either dis- cuss principles, analyze motives, or even to sift evi- dence. The first half of the sixth decade of this century is too near the present to be treated dispas- sionately by the historians of the country. In this connection those whose sympathies were with the Southern cause will be allowed, as it were, to tell their own story without interruption or contradic- tion, only with such abbreviation as the general scope of this volume may require. Jefferson Davis in his elaborate work, " The Rise and Fall of t!ie Confederate Government," begins his first chapter with a discussion of " the institu- tion of negro servitude." In his famous first speech in defense of the Confederacy, Alexander H. Ste- phens declared slavery to be the corner-stone of the new government. We thus have the two highest officers under that govermeut, the President and Vice-President, uniting on this jooint, disagreeing as they did and do on many others. Beyond a doubt secession Avas the culmination of the struggle over slavery and the election of Mr. Lincoln upon a platform pledging him to oppose the further exten- sion of the institution was the immediate occasion of it. The new President took every opportunity to allay apprehensions as to his policy, but the spirit which would not brook the Tariff Act of the ^■. (555) 3 'V ::i !l ■Si ra- -7\ ^ 556 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. Jacksonian period became absolutely irrepressible in the presence of a great political victory, which was the first in the history of the Union won by a party avowedly hostile to slavery, and tolerant of it only so far as compelled to be by the constitution. Still another cause, the one which was in point of fact the corner-stone of the movement, was the doc- trine of state sovereignty. That issue was older than the constitution and entirely independent of slavery in its origin, if not in its develojament. " G-overn- ments," says the Declaration of Independence, "de- rive their just powers from the consent of the governed," but the government of the United States derived its powers from the consent of the states wliich in the dele- gation of authority re- served all rights not specifically vested in the general govern- ment. Even before its adoption so true a pa- triot as Patrick Henry denounced the consti- tution as an infringe- ment upon the rights of the states. The issue thus raised was not sec- tional. And in later years there were not wanting those at the North who denounced the Union and the Constitution. The systematic inculcation of the doctrine that states were sov- ereign and the Union a partnership liable to be changed by the withdrawal of any partner, may be fairly at,tributed to John 0. Calhoun. But as early as 1798 a convention was held in Kentucky which adopted the same theory of the Union. That manifesto was the formal expression of the fundamental political principle of the Confederate States. The right of secession was also defended upon the broad ground that when nearly ten millions of people, occupying a correspondingly large area, unite in a political movement, however revolutionary, they have a right to make the proposed change. In oth- er words, the cause was based on the doctrine of populai' sovereignty, or the right of revolution in distinction from constitutional hmitations. This position was maintained in the debates of Congress and in the various discussions of the day. Such were the doctrines of the Southern cause. The first act, however, of secession was the passage by the legislature of South Carolina of the ordi- nance of separation, December 30, 1860. It was passed without a dissenting vote. Five other states followed the same course, but not with the same unanimity, during the month following, namely, Mississippi, January 9, 1861 ; Florida, the 10th ; Alabama, the 11th; Georgia, the 19th, and Louisi- ana, the 26th. Texas delayed only until the first day of February. These seven states alone constituted the original Confederacy. They met in a repre- sentative and collective body at Montgomery, Alabama, February 4, and organized a new Union, framed a new constitution and pro- claimed a new federa- tion, calling it "The Confederate States of America." From that time on, such was the official name of the Confederacy then and thus formed. This con- stitution was modeled closely after that of the United States. In the appendix to the first volume of his work, Mr. Davis prints these two documents in j^arallel columns, italicizing the jjassages and jDarts peculiar to the later of the two. The new features of the Confederate constitution worthy of any note are these : First, the favor and guidance of Almighty God were invoked ; second. Congress was specifically authorized to grant by law to the principal oflicer in each of the executive departments a seat upon the fioor of either House, with the privilege of discussing any measure appertaining to his department ; third, the President might approve a part of an appropria- tion bill and veto a part ; fourth, Congress was for- bidden to grant any bounties from the treasury or levy a tarifE except for revenue only ; fifth, no ajD- ^ S «i~ - — ■^X'f- . RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 557 propriations could be made for internal improve- ments ; sixth, a bankruptcy law could be passed, but not to apply to any debt contracted prior to its passage ; seventh, the expenses of the postal service must not exceed the revenue derived there- from ; eighth, Congress could prohibit the introduc- tion of slaves from any state not a member of the Confederacy ; ninth, no law could be passed denying or impairing the right of property in negro slaves ; tenth, a tariff could be levied upon exports, but only by a vote of two-thirds of both houses ; eleventh, " Congress shall appropriate no money from the treasury, except by a vote of two-thirds of both houses, taken by yeas and nays, unless it be asked and estimated for by some one of the heads of de- partments, and submitted to Congress ; or for the purpose of paying its own expenses and contingen- cies ; or for the payment of claims against the Con- federate states, the justice of which shall have been judicially declared by a tribunal for the investigation of claims against the government, which it is hereby the duty of Congress to establish;" twelfth, "all bills appropriating money shall specify in Federal currency the exact amount of each appropriation, and the purposes for which it is made ; and Congress shall grant no extra compensation to any public contractor, officer, agent or servant after such con- tract shall have been made or such service rendered ;" thirteenth, "every law, or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject, and that shall be expressed in the title ; " fourteenth, in the im- provement of rivers and harbors the states might singly or in concert levy taxes for that purpose, any surplus raised to be covered into the general treasury ; fifteenth, the term of office of the Presi- dent and Vice-President to be six, instead of four years, the President being ineligible to re-election ; sixteenth, civil officers, except cabinet ofiBcers and the diplomatic corps, removable during their term of office only for cause, the same to be reported to the senate in all cases of removal ; seventeenth, the right to carry slaves from one state to another without impairment of property therein fully guaranteed ; eighteenth, new states could be admit- ted by a two-thirds vote of Congress and new terri- tory acquired,but in all cases and everywhere through- out the Confederacy the right of property in slaves should be preserved intact; nineteenth, upon the ratification of the constitution by five states it JEFFERSON DAVIS. should be binding, a presidential election should be held and the provisional government at Montgomery should give place to the permanent one chosen in accordance with constitutional requirements. The constitution took effect February 32, 1863. Jefferson Davis continued as President and Alex- ander H. Ste- phens as Vice- President. We must now go back a lit- tle. The state of Virginia was reluctant to se- cede, and made special effort to briiig about a reconcilia- tion. A Peace Convention at the instance of that state, in which thirteen Northern and seven Southern states were represented, ex-President Tyler presiding, accomplished nothing. Three commissioners were sent from Montgomery to Wasliington to treat for an amicable division of the Union and settlement of all claims in- cident to separation. That was during the presi- dential term of Mr. Buchanan. He received them as private citizens, refusing to entertain any proji- osition for disunion. A week after Mr. Lincoln be- came President the Confederate commissioners tried to open negotiations through the Secretary of State, Mr. Seward. All hope of success in that direction was abandoned when it was known that a squadron of seven shij)s had been fitted out to reinforce Fort Sumter. It only remained then to abandon the Confederate movement or resort to arms. If there was any hesitation as to which course to pursue, the firing on Sumter, Ajjril 13, put an end to it, and its fall the next day produced the wildest enthusiam throughout the South. The call of Mr. Lincoln for 75,000 volunteers, issued two days after the fall of Sumter, was met at Montgomery by a call for volunteers to repel oppression. Two days later, April 17, Virghiia held a convention and withdrew from the Union. Arkansas followed May 6, North Carolina May 30, and Temiessee June 8. The other slave-holding states on the border, Maryland V 6 ^- ^\r ^'. 558 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. ^k. olina. 1807. Kentucky, Missouri and Delaware, never formally withdrew from the Union, and were said to have contributed their quota to both armies. An election for President and Vice-President of the Confederacy Avas held [November 6, 1862, with the result stated. The choice was unanimous. At the same time General Eobert E. Lee, who at first hesitated as to which side to espouse, was ap- pointed to take command of the Confederate forces on the coast of Georgia ROBERT E. LEE. ixud Soutli Car- He was a native of Virginia, born in He was a colonel in the regular army at the time Virginia seceded. He felt that the state had a higher claim ujion him than the United States, and resigned his coniinissiou. He was a man of superb physique, high moral character and great ability. He was early second in impor- tance among the Confederate army, and after Gen- eral Joseph E. Johnston was wounded and succeeded by him at Fair Oaks (May 31, 1863) he was the first. AVhen Lee died,October 12, 1870, he was the most jjopular man in the South. The first year of the war was in its net results favorable to the Confederacy, both on land and water. The Con- federate privateers cripjoled Northern commerce very seriously, aiid captured merchandise upon the high seas to the value of many millions of dollars. In these operations one name stands out conspicuous, Eaphael Semmes of Alabama, JOSEPH E. .TOHN.ST0N. who began his privateering in command of the Sumter, but who became best known in connec- tion with the famous Alabama which he commanded, and which was built for privateering by 260 Enghsh merchants. The second year of the war was sfciH more favorable to the. Confederate cause than the first. There is wide di- vergence of opin- ion between South- ern and Northern writers as to the number of men on either side and the result of many of the engagements in % which no very de- cided advantage was gained by eith- er army ; but there is agreement as to the general fact that the first and second years of the war made exhibits in their balance sheets in favor of the Confederacy. It is stated that there were about 3,000,000 slaves withm the limits of the Confederate states when the Proclamation of Emancipation was issued. The white population was about 5,000,000, as against 22,000,000 whites and 1,000,000 blacks within the Union. From tlie beginning of 1863 the Confeder- RAPHAEL SEMMES. TllK ALABAMA. ate army dwindled in size and the Union army aug- mented. It is agreed on all sides that 1863 was a year of great advantage to the Federal army. Not- withstandmg some defeats, the United States had control of the Mississippi River and the state of Tennessee, while the aggressive movement of Lee upon Pennsylvania had been repulsed. Derry sets -71^ IK" ti. RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 559 the number of the Federal armies at that time at 1,000,000; of the Confederate army at 250,000. The same authority claims that a year later the Federal army was still a niilliou strong while the Confederate forces had been reduced to 150,000. The capture of Fort Fisher at the entrance of Cape Fear River, North Carolina, by General Terry, January 15, 1865, did not attract very much atten- tion at the North, but speaking of its importance, Alexander H. Stephens says, "the closing of the port of Wilmington [the result of that capture] was the com- plete shutting outof the Con- federate states from all inter- course by sea with foreign countries. The respir ato ry functions of external trade, so essential to the vitahty of all communi- ties, had been performed for the whole Confederacy mainly for nearly number of battles fought at 220 ; the number of the Confederate troops surrendered at the close of the war at 174,223 ; and the Confederate debt at $2,000,000,000. Derry asserts that when Lee sur- rendered he had only 8,000 soldiers capable of bear- ing arms, con- fronting an army of 180,- 000. Mr. Ste- phens furnish- es the follow- ing facts in regard to the depreciation of the Confeder- ate currency, the gold dollar being the unit of measure- ment and the time being the first year: $1.20; $3.00 ; of each 1862, 1863, 1864, BOMBARDMENT OF FORT FISHER. three r*r years through the small aperture of the little port, choked to wheezing as it was by a cordon of armed ships drawn around its neck." Another Southern authority, Blackburn and Mc- Donald's history of the United States, places the 70 $31.00; 1865, $50.00. By the first of April, nine days be- fore the sur- render of Lee, $100 in Con- federate cur- rency was es- timated to be equivalent to $1 in coin. In discuss- ing the cause of the Con- federate fail- ures, Black- burn and Mac- Donald allege five reasons, first, lack of una- nimity at the South ; second, number and wealth of the Federals; third, mismanagement of the finances; fourth, retention of inefficient officers; fifth, endeavor to protect too many points at once when the war began. As their history soon .V AS:^ 560 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. l^ reached eleTen editions, the sale almost wholly con- fined to the South, this verdict may be presumed to accord with that of the court of popular Southern opinion. JefEerson Davis briefly observes that the war showed the right of secession to be impracti- cable. It is universally conceded that the decision was a finality, and even Mr. Davis, the most persist- ent and elaborate defender of the right to secede, closes his great work witli the hope that there may be written upon the arch of the Union, Usio Per^Jetua. JefEerson Davis defends the financial policy of the Confederate government as the best possible under the circumstances. The government, he says, entered upon its second year without any floating debt, and the total expenditures were $170,000,000 up to the time that the permanent government came into oper- ation, February 1, 1862. The latest official statement of the public debt of the Confederacy bears date of October 1, 1864. Mr. Davis places the amount at that time of the total debt at $1,126,381,095. Of this amount $541,340,000 consisted of funded debt and the balance unfunded debt, or treasury notes. This statement is exclusive of the foreign debt, which, he adds, amounted to £3,200,000, provided for by about 250,000 bales of cotton collected by the government. To this statement Mr. Davis adds in a foot-note, " These bales were the security for the foreign cotton loan, and were seized by the United States govern- ment. Was it not liable to the bondholders? " He also makes the f ollo^ving statement : " The earliest jjroposals on which this debt was contracted were issued in London and Paris in March, 1863, [as the result of the missions of Mason and SlidelL] The bonds bore interest at seven per cent, per annum in sterhng, payable half-yearly. They were exchange- able for cotton on application, at the option of the holder, or redeemable at par in sterling, in twenty years, by half-yearly drawings, commencing March 1, 1864. The special security of these bonds was the engagement of the government to deliver cotton to the holders. Each bond, at option of the holder, was convertible at its nominal amount in cotton at the rate of six-jience sterling for each pound of cot- ton, say 4,000 pounds of cotton to each bond of £100, or 2,500 francs ; and this could be done at any time not later than six months after the ratifi- cation of a treaty of peace between the belligerents. An annual sinking fund of five per cent, was pro- vided for, whereby two and a half per cent, of the bonds unredeemed by cotton should be drawn by lot half-yearly, so as to finally extinguish the loan in twenty years from the first drawing. The bonds were issued at ninety per cent., payable in install- ments. The loan soon stood in the London market at five per cent, premium. The amount asked for was three million pounds. The amount of applications in London and Paris exceeded £15,000,000." Such was the financial system of the Confederacy, as set forth by the highest Southern authority. While the resources of the North were such that production was far more rapid than consumption all through the war, and the more the army used of every necessary of life, the more the country seemed to have, the Southern supphes of food had to be kept up by importation. The condition of the Confeder- acy was stated to the Confederate Congress, Decem- ber 14, 1864, by the commissary-general of subsist- ence to be as follows : " First, there was not meat enough in the Southern Confederacy for the armies it had in the field ; second, there was not in Virginia meat or bread enough for the armies within her lim- its ; third, the bread supply from other places de- pended absolutely upon the keeping open of the rail- road connections of the South ; fourth, the meat supply must be obtained from abroad through a sea- port and by a different systeni from that whicli pre- vailed ; fifth, the bread could not be had by impress- ment, but must be paid for in market rates ; sixth, the payment must be paid in cash which, so far, had not been furnished, and from present indications could not be, and, if possible, in a better medium than at present circulating; seventh, that the transjiorta- tion was not adequate, from whatever cause, to meet the demands of the service; eighth, the supply of fresh meat to General Lee's army was jirecarious, and if the army fell back from Richmond and Petersburg, there was every probability that it would cease alto- gether." Such being the condition of the Confederacy, the surrender of Lee, the departure of Davis with the remnants of his government from Richmond, fol- lowed as matters of course. The only surprise is that it was delayed so long. The eighth item in the foregoing resume explains the fact that no attempt was made to prolong the conflict by a change of base. Mr. Davis had contemplated resort to that expedient. At the very last moment a deceptive gleam of ^F 3 ^^ RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 5^1 hope illumined the darkness at Richmond. On tlie 5th of April Mr. Davis, then at Danville, Rich- ■ mond being in Federal possession, issued an address which closed with the words, " Let us, then, my countrymen, not despond, but rely upon God, meet the foe with fresh defiance and with unconquered and unconquerable hearts." The very next day commenced the correspondence between Grant and Lee which culmiuated in the sur- render at Appomattox Court House, April 9, ia ac- cordance witli which each officer and man was allowed to return home, not to be disturbed by the United States authorities so long as he observed his parole and the laws. Thus the great war closed with no one so much as imprisoned for bearing arms agamst the victor. President Davis and Vice-President Ste- phens were arrested. The former was kept in Por- tress Monroe some two years, the latter in Fort Warren only a short time. Practically, the partici- pants in the Confeder- acy were not punished, except in so far as the for- tunes of war and the abohtion of slavery were calamitous. The great mass of the people were allowed to vote at once, the same as if the relations be- tween the states had always been amicable and those who were disfran- chised nearly all regained the right of suffrage in a few years. Mr. Ste- phens and many others high in authority under the Confederacy, were long ago admitted to Con- gress as members. The attempt to re-enfranchise Mr. Davis, however, was the occasion of intense feelings of hostility, and he is still deprived of the CAPITOL AT RICHMOND. ALEXANDER 11. STEPHENI highest privilege of citizenship. The states which seceded were kept, as we have seen in a pre- vious chapter, in a provisional condition for several years, all of them, except Tennessee, which re-entered the Union the next summer. During that period military governors were in command. And when the states were restored, so many of the white people were under political disability that the colored people and their few political allies, mostly from the North, had control of the offices. That condition of things was a part of the results of the attempt to establish an independent Southern Con- federacy, but the war itself was carried to such an extreme of exhaustion that when once over, that was the end of it. The little battle, if such it may be called, of Brazos, Texas, May 13, 1865, in wliich the Confederates were an overmatch for the Federal troojis op- posed, was the last shot, as Sumter was the first, of the Confederacy. It only remains now to supplement this chap- ter with a little further biographical information. The first military commander at the South to at- tract attention was General P. G. T. Beauregard. He was a native of Louisiana, where he was born in 1818. He was ed- ucated at West Point and served in the Mexican war. He resigned his commission in the United States army to enter the Confederate ser- i vice at the begin- ning of the war. He commanded at the fixing upon Sumter, also in the battle of Manassas, or Bull Run. He was less prominent after that, owing in part to poor health. He remained in the service until the war closed. p. G. T. EEAUBEGAKD. "^■^ ->^ 3^ 56^ RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. JOHN C. BRECKENBIDGE. When Gen. A. S. Johnston was killed he took the command and was at the head of the army which Halleek drove out of Corinth in 1862. His last ser- vice was the command of the division of Georgia and South Carolina. He was among the officers who surrendered to Sherman. After the war he became a civil engineer at the South. General John C. Breckenridge took a somewhat prominent part in the war. He was a major-general. He was also Secretary of War in the last days of the Confederacy. But his prominence was prior to the war. Born in Kentucky in 1821, he became Vice-Presi- dent of the United States in 1857. He had previously seen service in the Mexican war. He was the reg- ular Democratic can- didate for the presidency iti 1860. He died at liis home in Kentucky in 1875. General J. T. Jackson, best known as " Stone- wall " Jackson, was one of the most bril- liant soldiers of tlie war. A native of Virginia, and edu- cated at West Point, he received his prac- tical training in Mex- ico. The war be- tween the states found him a profes- sor in. a military school in his own state. He entered the service at the beginning of the war, and was in the field pre- cisely two years, falling at ChancellorsviUe May 2, 1868. He was shot by a party of his own sol- diers, he and his staff being mistaken for the advance-guard of Federal cavalry. He was the idol of the army, and his loss was mourned as a great calamity. He was brilliant and dashing, know- ing neither fear nor fatigue. He was withal a very devout Christian. (Stonewall) Jackson. General James Longstreet, born in South Caro- lina in 1820, a West Pointer and a soldier in the Mexican war, bore a prominent part in the Confed- erate army, from Bull Run to Appomat- tox. He came • very near shar- ing the fate of Jackson, for he was severe- JAMES LONGSTKBET. ly wounded by the blundering of his own men in one of the battles of the Wilderness. After the war, Longstreet accepted the political situation and be- came a Republican. In 1880 he was appointed TJ. S. minister at the Turkish court. There were two Johnstons iu the war-on the Con- federate side who rivaled Lee and Jackson in pop- ularity, Albert Sidney and Joseph E. The war found the former in command of the Federal forces at San Francis- co. He was a native of Ken- tucky, born iu 1803, a gradu- ate of West Point, and a Mexican veteran. When he resign- ed to join the Confederacy he was a brigadier- general in the regular army. He was killed in the battle of ShUoh, early in 1862. JeSerson Davis and Alexander H. Stephens unite in pronouncing his death a great calamity to the Southern cause. General J. B. Johnston was a native of Virginia, wliich state he now represents in Congress. He too was a AVest Point graduate and Mexican veteran. He was born in 1807. At the battle of Manassas he was tlie ranking officer, but waived his right to command in favor of Beauregard. He won more ALBERT SIDNEY JOHNSTON. fy 2. ~ 7p •\ a ^ RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 563 credit, however, by holding Patterson in checlv than Beauregard did by winning the victory thus made possible. In the Peninsula campaign he was the commander of the Confederate forces. But Mr. Davis conceived a dislike for him which culminated in his being relieved of his command for several months. The jDopular pressure for his restoration to active service was so great that he was given another command. When the war closed he was in command of the army m the Carolinas and practi- cally second only to G-eneral Lee. To what has already been said of the latter need only be added that the last years of his life were spent in the pres- idency of Washington College, Virginia. One of the latest utterances of Lee were these words addressed to the widow of a Confederate soldier, " Madame, do not train up your children in hostility to the gov- ernment of the United States." Wade Hampton, now the most popular man in South Carolina and a member of the Senate of the United- States, held a command in the bat- tle of Bull Eun. He was wounded during that battle, also at Gettysburg and Seven Pines. He remained vj in tlie service to the t end of the war. He \has been more promi- nent as a Democratic politician than he was as a soldier. His grand- father, the first Wade Hampton, served under Sumter and Marion in the Kevolutionary War. He was a man of immense wealth, owning at one time 3,000 slaves and a correspondingly large amount of cotton lands. General Hardee, author of Hardee's Tactics, a Georgian, was commandant at West Point when his state seceded. He resigned his commission and cast his fortunes with the Confederacy. He rose to the rank of lieutenant-general, but in the field did not prove specially brilliant. He was brave and scientific, but not fertile in invention. There were two Hills of some prominence, A. P. and D. H. The former received the surrender of WADE HAMPTON. Harper's Ferry, and then rendered his side most timely aid at Antietam. He fell just as Richmond was surrendered. D. H. Hill was born in South Car- olina in 1822, was educated at West Point, and ren- dered good service in the Mesicau war. For some- thing over ten years thereafter he was an educator and author of con- siderable note at the South. When his state seceded he ten- dered his ser- vices to the Con- federacy. He held important commands at Big Bethel, York- town, Mechan- icsville. Cold Harbor, Mal- vern Hill, Sec- ond Bull Run, Fredericksburg. W. J. HAEDEE. * ^^ South Mountain, Antietam and Since the war he has been devoted to literary pursuits. General Hood was a native of Kentucky. He served cred itably,work- ing up from first lieuten- ant to lieu- tenant-gen eral in the army of Virginia. The second Manassas, Antietam, Gettysburg, and Chicka- maugaform j. b. hood. a part of his record. He lost a leg in the latter battle. Appointed in 1864 to succeed General John- ston in the West, he failed to meet the demands of the position, and after the disasters of Franklin and Nashville he was superseded by General Rich- ard Taylor, a son of President Taylor. -7^ ^^^mss^mt^^_ Sv*- ^s i^ CHAPTER LXXXIII, General Geant Becomes President Grant— Pacific Railroad— " Alabama " Claims— Chicago Fire— Grant and Greeley — The Panic of 1873— The Centennial — Hayes and Tilden — Southern Policy' of Hayes— His Administration— Great Railway Strike— Presidential Campaign. 1880 — Garfield's Administration — Assassination — Arthur — Constitutional aaiendments — area and public domain — population — geographical peculiarities. M^-«"^s>E^«-^ HE last hope of a Southern Confederacy must have been dispelled by the elec- tion to the presidency of General Grant, the chief rejjresentative of the force which maintained the Union. He was at the head of the government from March 4, 1869, to March 4, 1877. Those eight years witnessed great pros- perity followed by most distress- ing depression in business. The first event of note was the completion of the Pacific Railroad, May, 1869. The work of con- struction was in progress six years. The Central Pacific extends from San Francisco to Ogdeu, in Utali, a distance of 882 miles, where it meets the Union Pacific, which ex- tends to Omaha, Nebraska, a distance of 1,032 miles. The next year, as we have seen, the work of re- construction was completed by the readmission to Congress of all the Southern states, and the adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment to the constitution. Early in the next year a joint high commission met at Washington to settle the claim of the United States against Great Britam, growing out of the depredations of the Alabama and other Confederate privateers fitted out in England. The result was the payment of an indemnity of $15,000,000 to this government by the British Government. Late in the same year, October 9, 1871, occurred the most memorable conflagration of modern times, the Chicago Fire. The entire business portion of the city was destroyed and a great portion of the residence part. The number of lives lost could never be ascertained and was variously estimated at from 50 to 200. Not less than 100,000 peoiole were rendered homeless, and many who were in afiluence were rendered penniless. The loss of property was not less than $200,000,000. The immediate wants of the people were nobly met by a charity as wide as the civilized world and absolutely prodigal in its generosity. The next year another fire of vast, if greatly less proportions, visited Chicago. Li 1872 Boston, too, had its "burnt district." It may be added that both cities long since rebuilt fully and upon a grand scale. In the year 1872 occurred another presidential election. The first ticket in the field was headed by Horace Greeley, who for thirty years had been a leading journalist and ardent opponent of the Dem- -7-^ (564) -• s ^ THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 565 lLl ocratic party. He was nominated by the Liberal Convention. The Democratic National Convention accepted him as the candidate of tlie Democracy in the hope that he would draw enough Eepubhcan votes to elect him, and he did ; but the Democrats failed to fulfill their part of the contract. Many of them staj'ed away from the polls altogether. Some of them united in supporting for the presi- dency that eminent Democratic lawyer of New which continued until after resumption i:i 1879, nearly six years. Notwithstanding good crops, hard times continued year after year. The general de- pression of business gave rise to a political party which demanded a large increase in the volume of the currency, and deprecated any attempt to re- sume specie payments. This Greenback party was esiDecially hostile to the national bank system. The year 1876, which completed the first century York, Charles O'Conor. General Grant was re- elected by an over whelm mg majority, and with him Henry Wilson for Vice-President. Mr. Greelej' made a very remarkable camjiaign upon the policy of reconciliation and good feeling between the sections. After the popular election and before the meeting of the electoral colleges of the several states, he died, and the nation was once more in mourning. No American was better known or more profoundly respected as a pure patriot than the founder of the New York Trihum, well called our second Franklin. In the following October occurred the panic of 1873, which inaugurated a period of hard times, CHIC \(jO l^r FLAMES of American independence, was celebrated by a grand exposition at Philadelphia, at which were rep- resented all the countries of the world, civilized and uncivilized, the most successful affair of its kind ever projected. The year 1876 was also the year of another presi- dential election. Two governors were the standard- bearers of the two great parties, Eutherford 'B. Hayes, then Governor of Ohio, and Samuel J. Til- den, then Governor of New York. The former was nominated as a compromise candidate after a con- vention of memorable excitement. Many wanted General Grant nominated for a third term, but his ^TTF m i 566 THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. ^■4- name was not jjresented in the convention. The strongest candidate in the field was James G. Blaine, at that time Speaker of the House of Representa- tives. It was to defeat him that the friends of the rival candidates united, a large majority of them, upon Mr. Hayes, who was the first choice of Ohio only. With him upon the ticket was associated Wil- liam A. Wheeler, of New York. The Democratic nominee, Gov- ernor Tilden, was from the first the leading candidate before that convention, and the Vice- Presidential candidate, Governor Hendricks, of Indiana, was his chief competitor. The campaign was so very close that each party claimed the victory. Charges and counter- charges of fraud were freely and fiercely made. The Republicans conceded that Mr. Tilden had lacked only one electoral vote of a ma- jority. There was very seri- ous danger of civil war. Both parties seemed ripe for blood- shed, but final- ly the patriot- ism and sa- gacity of a few men in Con- gress, notably Senators Ed- munds of Ver- mont (Repub- lican) and Thurman of Ohio (Democrat), secured the passage of a law creating a commission of ar- bitration. That extra-constitutional and national returning-board decided in favor of Hayes and Wheeler, who were duly declared elected and peace- ably installed in office. One of the first acts of President Hayes was to WILLIAM A. "WHEELER. withdraw the Federal troops from the South, which was, m effect, turn nig out the Republican govern- ors of Louisiana and South Carohna and turning the entire South over, politically, to the Democratic party. There was, thenceforth, a " Solid South." Mr. Hayes was never popular with his party, nor did the op- position cease to denounce him as a fraudulent President. He succeeded, however, in so con- ducting the civil service as to command the confidence of the country and greatly strengthen the Republican party. During his term of ofiice jirosperity re- turned to the country. In the summer of 1877 occur- red the great railway strike. What began as a protest against an unjust reduction of wages on one particular railroad spread almost instan- taneously in every du-ec- tion, far and near. Trans- portation was very nearly suspended and the country filled with the wildest appre- hension of a general cru- sade of labor against capi- tal. Some lives were lost and a great deal of property de- stroyed. But soon all was quiet, and business of every kind re- sumed its customary channels and ways. The spring of 1880 inaugurated another presi- dential campaign. The first convention held was the Republican gathering at Chicago. Mr. Blaine was agaui a leading candidate, with General Grant as his chief competitor. Day after day the conven- 7« ^ THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. ^yj- 567 71 j:!i« _li_ THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 569 tion was in session, and after numerous ballots it became evident that neither of the prominent can- didates could bear ofE the prize. There were several compromise candidates in the field, in the hope of being what was called " the dark horse " in the race. But the convention went outside of them all and took up one of its own members, James A. Garfield of Ohio. General Garfield had been the recognized leader of the anti-Grant faction in the convention without being the champion of Mr. Blaine. His nomination created the wildest enthusiasm. Asso- ciated with him upon the ticket was Chester A. Ar- thur of New York, nominated as a representative of the Grant wing of the convention. The Democrats placed in the field General Tv^in- field S. Hancock, of the regular army, an officer of honorable record, who had rendered specially good service at Gettysburg. "With him was nommated for Vice-President, Wm. H. English, a capitalist of Indiana. For two or three months the indications were that the Democrats had at last come to the turning of the tide, but the longer the campaign progressed the more evident did it become that a majority of the people were for continuing, if not perpetuating, the Kepublican party in power. The election was not dubious in its result. On the con- trary, the election of Garfield and Arthur was promptly and frankly conceded. General Garfield entered upon his office under pe- culiarly favorable auspices. All the signs ponited to a harmonious and prosperous administration. But hardly had he begun the discharge of the duties of his great office before the spirit of faction showed itself. So trivial a matter as the appointment of a collector of customs at the port of New York served to kindle the flames of a most senseless war of fac- tions. The press of the country entered upon it with the utmost enthusiasm, as if the fate of the nation depended upon the iMrsonml of that office. The two IJnited States Senators from New York re- signed their seats and became candidates for re-elec- tion. It was very soon apparent that the legislature of the state, then in session at Albany, would not re-elect them, and that served as oil upon the fire. While the country was being inflamed by such irra- tional and causeless factiousness, came the report of a pistol. It was fired July 2, by Charles J. Guiteau, in a railway depot at "Washington. Hardly had the sound died away before the terrible news was flashed wherever in this land or any other electricity is a medium of intelligence that President Garfield had been shot by an assassin. The shock was even greater than when Lincoln fell at the hands of Booth, for the passions of the war had died away and the people were not accustomed, as in 1865, to the flow of blood. Mr. Garfield lingered in great agony for many days. Day after day and week after week the pub- lic watched with the agony of suspense at his bed- side, and when at last death brought relief to the heroic patient, September 19, all sections and both parties united in profound grief. If there were any to sympathize -ndth the assassin, there were certainly none ready to acknowledge such sympathy. In due time the assassin was brought to trial, when the ques- tion raised was whether he was sane or insane. The verdict of the jury was that he was sane, and public sentiment very generally commended the jury. It was felt that acquittal on the plea of insanity would be contrary to public policy. It may be remarked that the Guiteau case added the word crank to the English language, to designate a person of naturally unsou.nd mind, neither sane nor insane, strictly speaking. President Arthur entered upon the duties of his office September 32, with the promise to carry out the policy of his predecessor, and with the public hopeful as to his success. It is too early now to set forth what has been done by his administration. No bill of any importance has yet been presented to him for signature, except the Chinese bill, which he vetoed, and the mere distribution of offices belongs to the trade and handicraft of the politician, and not to the profession and lofty art of the statesman. It is now time to dismiss from the mind the po- litical aspects of the country and devote the remain- der of this chapter to the actual condition of the United States, reserving industry,literature and in- vention for separate consideration. The constitution of the United States has been amended fifteen times, the last three amendments being a part of reconstruction, as we have seen. The first ten were added as early as December, 1791, and grew out of the discussion of the constitution as originally submitted to the states. The eleventh amendment, which in efEect exempts a state from being made a defendant in a court of justice, was the result of a suit brought in the United States Court to recover a debt due an individual from the state of -Q >> \ 570 THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. Georgia. That pernicious amendment has borne fruit in the repeated and enormous repudiation of state debts. The twelftli amendment provides some changes in the method of electing presidents and vice-presidents, and grew out of the Jefferson-Burr election. This amendment was adopted Sei^tember 35, 1804. The total area of the United States is about 4,000,- 000 square miles, inclusive of Alaska, which is value- less for all purposes of agriculture. Without Alaska, the area is, in round numbers, 3,000,000 square miles. A writer in a recent number of the ]Vort7i American Review gives the following analysis of the public lands of the country, exclusive of Alaska : " The public domain of the United States, ac- quired by cession from the several states and by treaty from Prance, Spain, and Mexico, Texas and Kussia, amounts to 2,894,335.91 square miles, or about 1,853,310,000 acres, and its cost was, in round numbers, $333,000,000, of which sum the Govern- ment has received back about $300,000,000 for lands sold. Down to July, 1880, the Government of the United States had dis^DOsed by sale of about 170,- 000,000 acres ; by act of donation, 3,000,000 acres ; in bounties for military and naval service, 61,000,- 000 acres ; for internal improvements, 7,000,000 acres ; by grants of saline lands to states, 560,000 acres; for town sites and county seats, 150,000; by patent to railway companies, 45,000,000 ; canal grants, 4,000,000 ; for military reads, 1,300,000 ; by sale of mineral lands (since 1866), 148,000 ; home- steads, 55,000,000 ; scrip, 3,900,000 ; coal lands, 10,- 750 ; stone and timber lands (act of 1878), 31,000 ; swamp and overflowed lauds given to states, 69,000,- 000 ; for educational purposes, 78,000,000 ; under Timber-culture Act, 9,350,000 ; Graduation Act of 1854, 35,000,000. Mineral and timber lands are now our most valuable assets. The pasturage lands are of nominal value apart from the mineral under- lying them. Our remaining pubhc lands, exclusive of Alaska, were, in June, 1880, estimated as follows: Timber lands, 85,000,000; coal lands, defined, 5,530,000 ; precious metal bearing lands, 64,000,000 ; but this area will be increased as the pasturage andtimber lands are exjjlored ; lands in Southern states, agricultural, timber and mineral, 35,000,000 ; lands irrigable from streams, 30,000,000 ; joasturage, desert, including certaui lands in Indian reservations and barrens, 556,000,000." There have been ten censuses of the United States, the first having been taken in 1790, and all at regular intervals of ten years. The population when first ascertamed was 3,939,333, and ninety years later it was 50,153,559. No other country could ever make such an exhibit of growth. From the time the War of the Revolution began (1775) iintil the close of the last war with England (1815), a period of forty years, the increase by immigration was very small. In 1816 and 1817 there was a fam- ine in EurojDe, and a vast number of people crossed the ocean to seek homes in this land of plenty. All immigration came from Europe until some years after the discovery of the gold-fields of California, since which time a few droj)S from the great ocean of Chinese population havefallen upon the Pacific coast. The Chinaman does not briug his family, and is sure to return to his native land. Even his bones, if he dies, are taken back there. The permanent popu- ulation of the country is wholly European in its ori- gin, with the exception of the African and the abo- riginal Americans. All other details of population and area are given in tabular form later on. The United States is often divided into North and South, or East and West, but the really natural divisions are three, the Atlantic states, extending westward so as to include the Apj)alachian, or Alle- ghany, Mountain region ; the Mississippi Valley ; Pacific Highlands and slope, the latter including the Rocky Mountains, the Pacific plateau. Sierra Ne- vada and Cascade ranges and the Pacific slope. The Appalachian range extends from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Alabama. Instead of a system of mountains for its main feature, the Mississippi Val- ley has tlie great twia river, Mississippi-Missouri, 4,300 miles long, the grandest stream in all the world, not excepting the broader but shorter Ama- zon. The Rocky Mountains are vast table-lands. A little gold and silver may be found in the Atlantic states, none in the Mississippi valley, but an abun- dance iu tlie Rocky Mountains and the region between that plateau and the Pacific ocean. Further details on these "points will appear in connection with the consideration of States and Territories of the United States. ^'^ i-H^ ±^ xxxxxxxxxx X X X X X GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. X X X X + X + ^-7- "r-7 rf^U^>.ig=%A^ XM_ .^Ul CHAPTER LXXXIV. Fedekal Relations— Constitutional Limitations — Legislative Branch op the Government — The President and thb Senate — Presidential Qualifications and Functions — The Cabinet and Departments — Secretary of State and Foreign Relations — The Treasury Department and its Bureaus — The War Department Secretary and the Ajimy — The Navy; Ericsson and the Naval Department— Secretary of the Interior; Public Lands, Pensions, Patents, Census, Education and Agriculture — Post-Offices and Post Routes — Franklin and Armstrong — Department op Justice — The Judiciary op the United States — Territorial Government — Appointments and Confirmations — Right of Suffrage— Mode of Electing Presidents and Vice-Presidents. ^. ^^^ 'HE most curious feature and intricate problem in American government is the relation of the United States to the several states. It is complicated in a way quite foreign to the usual experience of nations and out of it, no less than the institution of slavery, grew the war between the North and the South. It is not within the design of this volume to discuss constitutional law, but simply to point out the undisputed practical facts in the case. The broad ground of the consti- tution in restricting the general government to functions specified in the organic law itself covered a great deal of ter- ritory. It follows that the ordinary purposes of gov- ernment, such as the prevention and punishment of crimes, the enforcement of contracts and the gen- eral relation of public affairs, belong, as a rule, to the state. The United States may be said to be '^ supplemental to the state, designed to prevent all clashing and injustice between the people of differ- ent states and to obviate the vexatious restrictions upon the liberty of person and traffic within the country which would be inevitable if each state were absolutely independent. The Federal system has the further advantage of the removal of all danger of interstate wars which, in view of European ex- perience, was certainly a wise precaution on the part of the constitutional fathers. The general government is divided into three branches, legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative has three subdivisions, the Senate, the House of Representatives and the President, the first two, constituting Congress, having the power by a two-thirds majority to pass a bill over the Presi- dent's veto. The third branch is therefore not coe- qual with the other two, while they are co-ordinate. The signature of the President must be attached to a bill before it can become an act of Congress, or it must receive, subsequent to the veto, the two-thirds majority specified. The power to originate bills of taxation belongs to the House, which body can elect its own presiding officer — s^Deaker — while the Senate (570 'V" .^ 57^ GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. is presided over by the Vice-President^ unless tliat officer is called upon to act as President, in wliicli case the Senate elects its own President, pro tern., as he is called. Otherwise the jjowers of the two branches of Congress are equal. The Senate consists of two members from each state, the term being six years. The senators are elected by their respective state legislatures. In case of a vacancy during the adjournment of the legis- lature the governor of tlie state can fill the vacancy until the legislature convenes and elects a successor to fill the unexpired term. A senator must be at least thirty years of age and a citi- zen of the state he rep- resents. A member of the House must be at least twen- ty-five years of age and a resident of the state. Congress fix- es a basis of rejjresenta- tion in that body upon a basis of pojnilation, for which purpose a census is taken once in ten years. Every state has at least one member of the lower house. The territories are represented therein by delegates empowered to speak but not to vote. The term of a meml>er of the House is two years. Each senator, representative and delijgate receives a salary of 85,000 a year, the speaker, like the Vice-President, receiving $8,000. The Executive Department consists of the Presi- dent and the executive offices under him, and the Senate when in executive session. Such sessions are held in secret. Their objects are to ratify or reject treaties with other nations and confirm or reject ajj- pointments to federal offices. In the exercise of a veto power the Senate is a part of the executive. Some appointments are regarded as too trivial to THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. come before the Senate. The classification is fixed by law and has never occasioned difficulty or contro- versy. The exercise, however, of executive func- tions by the Senate has often given rise to bitter controversy. Such confiicts of opinion (for that is all they are or can be) have always been temporary ui their efEect. The legislative functions of the Presi- dent are trivial, comparatively. The great burden of his duty is to administer the laws. He is the chief executive, most emjDhatically. To be President of the United States or Vice- President, one must be a native citizen. Naturalized citizens are barred from the presi- dency, in- cluding the vice -presi- dential con- tingency, and from no otlier politi- cal prefer- ment. The President must be thirty-five years of age, orover. The term is four years, be- ginning on Marcli 4 There is no law against repeated re-elections, except the unwritten law of custom, which has restricted every President so far to two terms, at the most. The salary of the President is $50,000 a year. It was half that until 1873. The proper title of the Presi- dent in addressing him is "Mr. President." The Executive Mansion, familiarly called the " White House," is both office and residence. It is located one mile from the capitol at "Washington. The President is provided with a small corps of private secretaries for subordinate routine duties, at the jiub- lic exjiense, and the mansion is furnished by ihe government. The President has for his chief assistants in the discharge of his duties a body of advisers and high functionaries called a Cabinet. That body "n i\^ HI il^ GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 573 consists of the Secretaries of State, Treasury, "War, the Navy, and the Interior, together with the Post- master-G-eneral and the Attorney-General. The de- partments over which they resiDectively preside are indicated by their titles. Originally the idea was that the Secretary of State should be a premier, in the English sense, but practically, he is simply the head of foreign af- fairs, having super- vision over all dip- lomatic and con- sular matters. Each cabinet officer re- ceives a salary of $8,000 a year, is appointed by the President, the Sen- ate consenting. The cabinet forms an official household, with the President as its head. In many of the details the duties of the different depart- ments vary with the enactments of each Congress ; but in fundamental du- ties and divisions of responsibility the departments remain unchanged. The Cabinet has grown in numbers with the growth of the nation and the necessities of the general government. Originally there were but three ministers — Secretary of State, of the Treasury, and of War. In 1798 the portfolio of the Navy was added. During Jackson's administration the Postmaster-General was made a member of the cabinet, and during Tyler's the Attorney-General was admitted into the political family of the Presi- dent. Before those promotions they were mere heads of bureaus. In 1849 the Department of the Interior was created, since which time there have been no changes, except that during the administra- tion of President (j-rant the functions of the Attor- ney-General were materially enlarged by the creation of the Department of Justice. Prior to that time the Attorney-General was simply the legal adviser of the President and the Cabinet. The Constitution does not distinctly recognize the Cabinet, excepting by the nominal distinction of "heads of departments." The Secretary of State was designed originally to be the head secretary of the government, including both Congress and the President. To him is intrusted the duty of promulgating the laws. In his office are kejjt the original bills and joint resolutions, the seal of the United States, and all treaties, postal conventions and other state papers, jiroperly so called. But the especial department of state is Foreign Affairs. All communica- tions with foreign governments, di- rect or indirect, and all diplomatic and consular matters, are withbi the ju- risdiction of this secretary. Any. American citizen going abroad is entitled to a passport issued by the Secretary of State, which document wiU serve as his credential of citizenship in case he may have occasion to want the protection of his government. The Secretary of State is supposed to be the most intimate polit- ical friend the President has — his most trusted adviser on all j^oints. He makes no departmental report to Congress, as the other secretaries and the Postmaster-General do. He is frequently called upon to make special reports, and the voluminous ^- Ul^ 574 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. diplomatic eorrespoudeuce is published. The State Department also is- sues monthly con- sular reports, giving commercial and in- dustrial information in regard to the countries and cities with which this gov- ernment sustains consular relations. The representa- tives of the United States are called en- voys extraordinary and ministers plen- ipotentiary ; min- isters resident; charge d' affairs ; consul generals, con- suls and consular agents, according to their several ranks and duties. The im- portant ministers have secretaries of legation. Treaties may be negotiated by ministers, by commissions ap- 23ointed especially for the j)urpose of settling some specific matter of an uiternational nature, or by the Secretary of State and the representative at Washington of the other high contracting par- ty. Extradition treaties are the arrangements made for the surrender of persons accused of crime who have fled from one country to the other. Nearly all civilized nations HALL OP REPRESENTATIVES, WASHINGTON. THE WHITE HOUSE have such treaties with each other. The Secretary of the Treasury has charge of the finan- cial affairs of the government, under such laws as Con- gress may enact. He receives the money of the gov- ernment and makes its disbursements. No money can be paid out unless there is warrant for it in an appropriation by Congress. In a Treasury, or fiscal, point of view, July 1 is new year's day. All annual reports and estimates of the government receipts or disbursements are for tlie year end- ing June 31. Tins Secretary has under him several heads of bureaus and two associated secretaries. The Com ptroUer, Second Comptroller and five auditors have charge of disburse- ments; the Com- missioner of In- ternal Revenue and the Com- missioner of Customs look after the collec- tions, although one of the assist- ant secretaries is virtually chief of customs. The Treasurer has the control of the funds. The Comptroller of the Currency supervises the national banks, the MBiM ^ GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 575 ^1 Director of the Mint has charge of the coining of money. The Independent Treasury is the term ap- phed to the system of sub-treasuries or branch offices of the Treasury in the larger cities of the country at which the actual receipts and disburse- ments of the government are largely transacted. The head of a sub-treasury is called Assistant Treas- urer. The Sub-Treasury at New York contams very much more money than the Treasury at Washington. Miirate daily reports must be made to the Sec- retary of the Treas- ury and the Treas- urer, and the Yaria- tion of a penny in the account would be detected at head- quarters and call for an explanation. During the late war nearly every conceivable method of taxation was re- sorted to. Before that time the receipts from customs or the tariff and from the sale of public land amply sufficed to meet the demands of the government. At one period the rev- enue was excessive and Congress was sorely puzzled to know what to do with the surplus. The exigencies of war rendered necessary the creation of the Bureau of Internal Revenue. Since the restor- ation of peace the domestic taxation has been great- ly reduced and simplified, until now it is almost wholly confined to spirits, distilled and brewed, and to tobacco. The tax on highwines was 83 per gal- lon for several years and the temptation to defraud the government was so great that the enormous combination was formed known as the Whisky Ring. It was' a case of spontaneous production. The evil spread and seemed to be incurable until it 72 THE CABINET CHAMBER. was exposed, prosecuted and crushed during the two last years of Grant's last term of office. The most complicated and elaborate feature of the Treasury Department is the one having to do with the col- lection of duties on imports. Nearly every Congress " tinkers " the tariff, and it takes a rare expert to be master of the subject in its practical workings. The objects of these levies are twofold, the raising of revenue and the fos- tering of domestic interests, productive and manufacturing. Those who insist that a tariff should be for revenue only are called free-trad- ers. As a rule, the protecti-ve policy has prevailed in this country. The Secre- tary of the Treasury has no voice in de- termining the pohcy to be adopted ; but the rules and regu- lations promulgated by him bear to the statutes much the same relation that the decisions of the courts do to law in general. This re- mark ajiplies, only less conspicu.ously, to the other depart- ments. There is a tax on the tonnage, or carrying capacity, of vessels, and out of the relations of the Treasury Department to transporta- tion by water grow many complications. The con- stitution contemplates the regulation by the general government of commerce between the states, but that part of the organic law has thus far remained very nearly a dead letter. The constitution forbids the imposition of duties upon exports, also upon trade between the states, and therein it has never been violated. The Secretary of the Treasury is forbidden by law, as are his subordinates, -to be in any way inter- ^< 576 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. ested in any branch of business whicli niiglit come before them for official action. The Secretary of War became, under E. M. Stan- ton during the great Conflict, virtual commander- in-chief of the army, a position assigned by the con- stitution to the President. In time of peace the standing army is so small that this department in less important than any one of the several bureaus of the Treasury. Small as is the army, it might Pierce, and a son of Presideiat Lincohi was appoint- ed to the position by President Garfield, but the one great reputation made in the Department was that of Edwin M. Stanton, who sustained that great bur- den from 1862 to 1868, doing as much to preserve the Union as any one man. The office was con- spicuously disgraced by Secretary Belknap, who held it from 1869 to 1876. Besides strictly military mat- ters, the War Department has charge of pubhc works THE NEVi^ DEPARTMENT OF STATE. be much smaller if it were not for troubles with the Indians of the far west. The military officers are : general, lieutenant-general, major-general, brig- adier-general, colonel, lieutenant-colonel, major, captain, first lieutenant, second heutenant. These are regularly and formally commissioned, and for the most part are graduates of the mihtary acade- my at West Point, ISTew York, the only institution for instruction in the science of war maintained by the government. The Secretary of War has a super- visory charge of that academy, also of depots of war material, arsenals, military hospitals and asy- lums. Jefferson Davis was Secretary of War under involving civil engineering. The erection and care of United States buildings belong to the Treasury Department, but river and harbor improvements are made through the Department of War. The least of all the Departments is the Navy. The President sustains the same relation to the navy that he does to the army. There are, besides pay- masters, nine grades of naval officers, correspond- ing in rank with major-general and the lower grades m the army. These are: rear-admirals, vice-ad- mirals, commodores, captains, commanders, lieuten- ant commanders, lieutenants, masters, ensigns. The government has one naval academy. It is located at ^^i GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 577 L Annapolis, Maryland. Like the military academy at West Point, this naval school is expected to hare one student from each congressional district and ten appointed by the President, without regard to local- ity. The course of study in both covers a period of four years and has special reference to the profes- sion in view. The students are educated at the ex- pense of the government, and must give at least four years to the service after graduation, unless specially relieved or dismissed. There are several navy-yards and one naval observatory, the latter being in Wash- ington. All coast surveys belong to the Navy De- partment, but lighthouses, buoys and beacons, de- signed to protect the shipping interest, and marine hospitals for sick or disa- bled seamen, are attach- ed to the Treasury De- partment. The present navy of the United S fcates is almost a nonentity. In the event of war with any foreign power lajaug the slightest claims to naval preparations, it would be necessary to make vast exjienditures for men-of-war. No splendid reputation was ever made in the office of Secretary of the Navy, but besides the brilliant achievements of Paul Jones, Perry, Decatur, Foote and Porter, this country can boast a citizen, John Ericsson, whose genius for invention revolution- ized naval architecture, and rendered obsolete the navies of the world. The Interior Department, once the least of all the portfolios, has steadily risen in importance until it is hardly inferior to that of the Treasury. It was designed originally as a rehef to the State Depart- ment. It has several bureaus of great responsibil- ity. Indian Affairs is the chief of these. The agents, inspectors and others employed in this branch of the service, as explained in the chapter on the American Indian, are under the Comniis- sioner of Indian Affairs. The Pension Bureau is in that department, and it is no exaggeration to say that the Army and the Navy Departments com- bined are not in time of peace as important and dif- ficult of administration as this one bureau has been since the war of 1861-65. Only sick or crippled soldiers of the Federal army or their widowed still unmarried, or those actually dependent for support upon the soldier who died in the service, are entitled to j)ensions, but the disbursements are so immense and the liabilities to fraud so very great that the highest order of executive ability is required, and even then enormous frauds are inevitable. No other branch of the service is so open to abuse. The actual payments are made by local pension agents, who handle no monej^ but have credits from time to time at a sub-treasury and check against it. The public lands of the country, an elaborate statement in regard to which will be found ia the chapter on The Present United States, are iinder the care of a bureau of the Interior Dejiartment. Besides the commissioner at Washington there are surveyors-general and registers and receivers of public money for lands. The former di- vide the land and define boundaries, so that the government can con- vey a title, and the reg- isters and receivers attend to the business incident to such conveyance. A section is the unit of measure- ment. It contains 640 acres, or a mile square, and thirty-six sections make a township. Even since the organization of the first territory, the Northwest Ter- ritory, the government has set aside one section in each township for the support of public schools. The original policy of the government was to sell the public land, and that in large quantities only. Later it adopted the plan of encouraging pur- chases by actual settlers. This pioneer policy was supplemented in 1863 by the homestead act, under which the actual settler can, by the payment of fees hardly adequate to pay the cost to the government of doing the business, secure a farm, only he must re- side on it long enough to give assurance of good faith. If the homesteader served in the Federal army and was honorably discharged, the time sjjent iu the service will reduce that much the time re- quired to perfect a homestead title. The period re- PENNSTLTANIA AVENUE, "WASHINGTON. Spy ^w- 578 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. quired is five years, and the amount of land that can be taken up in that way is 160 acres, or a quar- ter-section. Public land can also be secured by pre- emption, or purchase, the price varying from $1.25 to $2.50 per acre. All letters patent designed to stimulate invention and secure to the in- ventor his riglit of prop- erty therein, are issued by the Patent office, which is a bureau of the Interior Depart- ment. Patents are granted for seventeen years, and cannot be renewed. It is often difficult to determine whether an ajjplication for a patent should be granted or denied, and much litigation grows out of this branch of the government. The census is taken by the Interior Department. The original idea of a census was simply the ascertamment once in ten years of tlie actual population of the country, with the details of locality, with a view to determin- ing the api^ortionment of members of the House of Kepresejitatives. Each new census has been more elaborate and varied than its prede cesser, and under Gen- eral F. A. Walker, wlio tookthe censuses of 1870 and 1880, the range of statistical infornuition afforded by the reports of this bureau is most exhaustive. It is a marvel of complete- ness and accuracy. The bureau of railroads has been created to ascer- tain and conserve the interest of the government in the railways of the country which received subsidies, land or bonds, in aid of their construction. The bureau of education is hardly more than a bureau of educational information. The bureau of asrriciil- ture is another branch of the Interior Department which has a high-soiinding name without having ac- IINITED STATES POSTOFFICB. complished much real good. Congress maintains it at considerable expense. It should be a department on a plane of equality with the other cabinet offices. The obligation owed it, thus far, by the agricultural interest of the country is infinitesimally small. The Postoffice Department is devoted to one line of duty, the transmis- sion of mail matter from one place and person to another place and person. Distance is not taken into ac- count in determining the charge for this ser- vice, but there are sev- eral classes of mails, with rates according to classification. The Postmaster-G-eneral has a great army of assist- ants, superintendents, postmasters, postal-clerks, route agents and others under him. The real paternity of the postoffice of this country belongs to Benjamin Pranklin, who organized it nearly a generation before independence was declared. It should be a strictly business in- stitution, as much so as an express company or a railroad enterprise ; but as a matter of fact it has long combined jDoli- tics with postal mat- ters. The most notable improvement made m this branch of the ser- vice was not due to any postmaster-general, but to a subordinate officer, George B. Armstrong of Chicago, the father of the railway mail service, which was es- tablished during the civil war. Other improve- ments have been made within a comparatively short time, such as the registration of impor- tant letters, the issuance of postal money orders, and the distribution of mail in large cities by carriers. The dead-letter office is located at Wash- ington, and is designed to return to the writer letters which have for anv reason failed to reach ■^ GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 579 their destination. In due time all such waifs reach the morgue of the mail and the sender is no- tified. It is exceedingly difficult in many cases to arrive at the proper allowance to be made for carry- ing the mail, especially by routes ofE the line of rail- roads. AU such routes are called " star routes." For the most part these lines of mail, are on the frontier and in out-of-the-way places where they are indis- pensable aids to settlement. They are often the yeritable harbingers of civilization and development. The Attorney- General is the head of the Depart- ment of Justice, and as such, has a general supervis- ion over the attorneys and marshals of the United States in the several judicial districts. He is often called upon to render an opinion upon the interpre- tation of a statute of the United States. The gov- ernment has in him its " senior counsel." Besides these two branches of the government, the legislative and the executive, is one more, the Judiciary. The constitution provides for one Su- preme Court, and such inferior courts as Congress might create. In addition to the Supreme Court with one chief justice at a salary of $10,500, and eight associate justices with a salary of $10,000, there are nine circuits, presided over sometimes by a member of the supreme bench and sometimes by the judge of that particular circuit. The salary of the circuit judge is §6,000 a year. The number of the district judges varies from time to time, and their compensation is not uniform. There are now 60 districts. AU these judges are appointed for life or good behavior. The judges appoint their own clerks, and generally for life. The United States marshals are appointed by the President and con- firmed by the Senate, for terms of four years. The same is true of district attorneys. It remains to speak of the territories, from a gov- ernmental point of view. The govei'nor, secretary, and judge, or judges, as the case may be, are ap- pointed by the President, the people bemg allowed to elect their own legislatures. A territorial gover- nor or judge receives a salary of $3,600, the secre- ■ tary $1,800. Besides the regular territories, which are prospective states, is the District of Columbia. Its afEairs are under the control, in the main, of three commissioners, ajopointed by the President, and entitled to a salary of $5,000 per annum. It may be added in this connection that in almost all cases appointments are for four years in the Presidential offices, as those are called which require the President to submit the name to the Sen- ate, while subordinate positions are subject to the caprices of politics, the mutations of friendship or the freaks of personal whim. As a matter of fact the great bulk of the civil service is performed by officers, clerks and employes who are retained on their merits by their respective chiefs. Since 1861 women have been freely and satisfactorily employed in the public service of the United States. In concluding this chapter it may be well to define the rights of suffrage and mode of election in this country. No one can be debarred from this right on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The details on this subject are given in tabular form, the conditions of elective franchise being difEerent in diiferent states. In choosing a President and Vice-President the mode required is for each state to elect by the people or appoint by the legislature (the latter is now no- where done) as many electors as the state has mem- bers of both houses of Congress. Those electors are all chosen on the same day, the first Monday in the November preceding the expiration of a presidential term. The electors of each state meet on the first Wednesday of December at the state capital, form- ing an Electoral College, and casting their ballots for President and Vice-President, and send the re- turns to the President of the Senate the first Wednes- day in January. The second Wednesday in February both houses of Congress meet as one body and the President of the Senate opens and declares the vote. If no candidate has received a majority of all the votes cast, the House proceeds to elect a President, the Senate a Vice-President. In the House the voting must be by states, and only the candidates having the three highest Electoral College votes are eligible. Such is the government of the United States in the more important of its many ramifications. "TIF l^" ^ CHAPTER LXXXV. The Presidents op the United States — Biographical Sketch op Each op the Twenty-one Presidents, in the order op their Respective Terms op Ofpice — Historical Sketch op Each of the Twentt-potjb Presidential Elections in Chronological Order. %i T is proposed iti this chap- ter to give brief biographies of the Presidents of the United States and present Sjjecifically the several pres- idential elections. As some of our Presidents were elect- 1 ed twice and others again were only elected to the vice-presidency ,it is thought best to keep the two branches of the subject distinct. In both cases the chronological order Avill be followed, be- ginning with the Presidents themselves and closing with the elections. Care will be observed not to repeat what has been brought out in previous chapters, so far as possible. George Washington was born in Vir- ginia, February 22, 1732. His death occurred Decem- ber 14,1799. He was a planter with some knowledge of surveying and experience in the Virginia House of Burgesses, or Ijegislature. His military career and presidential service belong to history rather than to biography. When the war closed he retired to his plantation at Mount Vernon until called to serve as president of the constitutional convention, and later, of the United States. He refused a third term. His private life was without reproach. The >^ii management of his estate was more to his taste than the cares and perplexities of office. In man- ner he was courtly. He never fully identified him- self with any political party, but leaned strongly to- ward Federalism. John Adams was born in Massachusetts, October 19, 1735, and died July 4, 1836. He was a gradu- ate of Harvard College, a lawyer by profession, and by temperament an imperious partisan. His public career may be said to date from the passage of the Stamp Act by Parliament. He early and eloquently advocated the union and indejiendence of the colo- nies. From 1778 until 1788 he represented the United States at either the French or Enghsh court. He sympathized with the aristocratic tastes of Washington rather than the democratic ideas of Jefferson. He attributed his defeat for re-election to the presidency quite as much to Hamilton's luke- warmness as to republican opposition, and retired to private life embittered and unhappy. He lived to witness tlie election of his son to the presidency. Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia, April 13, 1743, and died July 4, 1826. The family was of Welsh extraction. Educated at William and Mar/s College, he adopted tlie profession of law. His ser- vice in the Continental Congress was brief. The Revolution fairly inaugurated, he returned to Vir- ginia and devoted himself to the establishment of (580) l\^ ^^o ■^HiiO-By : -=.=; OUR PRESIDENTS. I PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 583 ^ republican institutions in that state. He represented this country at the French court from 1784 to 1789. During Washington's administration he was Secre- tary of State. After he retired from public life, at the close of his second presidential term, Jefferson devoted himself to the advancement of the cause of education and the interest of agi'iculture. He was a voluminous writer, and his works constitute a storehouse of political wisdom. James Madison, also of Virginia, was born March 16, 1751, and died June 28, 1836. He was a gradu- ate of Princeton College, and remarkable for his studious habits. He had no gifts of oratory. He first distinguished himself as an advocate of relig- ious liberty in Virgmia. He served a short time in the Continental Congress, but not conspicuously. His supreme service was in the convention which framed the Constitution of the United States, where his profound learning and thorough republicanism made him greatly useful. He was a member of the first four Congresses. He might have been a formid- able rival of Jefferson's, but preferred to bide his time. Jefferson made him his Secretary of State and secured his acceptance by the Republican paxtj as heir to the jiresidency. In private life he was hardly less useful to education and agriculture than Jefferson. His life was serene and faultless. James Monroe was born in Virginia, April 28, 1758, and died in New York, July 4, 1831. He was the first poor man in the presidential office. He in- herited no estate^ and was too continuously in public life to acquire wealth. He served in the Continen- tal Congress from 1783 to 1786 ; in the United States Senate from 1790 to 1794 ; as governor from 1799 to 1802, and again in 1811 ; as minister to France, Spain and England from 1802 to 1808 ;as Secretary of State from 1811 to 1817, and as President from 1817 to 1825. He was a justice of the jieace in Vir- ginia for some time after the expiration of his pres- idential term. His last years were clouded with the perplexities of poverty. His ability was hardly above mediocrity. The " machine " set up by Jefferson made him President. John Quincy Adams was born in Massachusetts, July 11, 1767, and died at the national capital Feb- ruary 23, 1848. Although a graduate of Harvard College, the second Adams was mainly educated abroad. He was a ripe scholar, a tireless worker, and a great orator. He had none of the tact of the politician. His best services before the presi- dency were diplomatic. In the Senate from 1805 to 1808 he failed to give satisfaction to his constitu- ents. His state was strongly Federal, but he joined the EepubKcan party. Monroe made him his Sec- retary of State, and he was' on the "slate" for President. He won the prize, but it was a victory which left him without the su^jport of any party. His great life-work was wrought in the House of Repre- sentatives from 1830 to 1848, where his advocacy of freedom won him the appellation of " The Old Man Eloquent." He was stricken down by paralysis in his seat in Congress and died two days thereafter. Andrew Jackson was a native of Korth Carolina, of Scotch-Irish descent, born March 15, 1767, and died in Tennessee June 8, 1845. Jackson was the first President chosen from the humblest ranks in life. His father was a poor farm-laborer, and his education was sadly neglected. A lawyer by pro- fession, his life was mainly spent in war and poli- tics. In both he was a brilliant success. No man ever exerted a deeper and more enduring influence upon the politics of this country than he. As Jef- ferson was the father of the first Republican party, so Jackson was of the Democracy. He was rough, quarrelsome, headstrong and outspoken. His elec- tion to the presidency was the triumph of the com- mon people, and formed an era in pohtics. To him belongs the bad pre-eminence of having inaugu- rated the policy of parceling out the offices as the reward of political service. He fought several duels, but finally died in the odor of Pres'byterianism. Martin Van Buren, a representative of the Dutch of New York, was born December 5, 1782, and died July 24, 1862. He was a politician of the most par- tisan character and a remarkable ade23t in the arts of politics. He began the study of law at the age of fourteen and entered the legislature of his state in 1812. In 1821 he was elected to the United States Senate. He served later as Governor of New York, Secretary of State under Jackson, and during the second term of the latter he was Vice-President. The favor of Jackson and his own adroitness made him President. He did not abandon the hope of a second term when beaten by Harrison in 1840, and was tlie choice of a majority of the delegates to the National Convention of 1844, but failing to secure a two-thirds majority, he was defeated. That closed his public career, except the inglorious episode of ^ 73 JTv^ 584 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. ^ 1848. In retirement he irrote a history of iDoHtical parties in the United States. William Henry Harrison was a citizen of Ohio when elected to the jDresideucy, but a native of Vir- ginia. He was born February 9, 1773, and died April 4, 1841. He was the first President to die in office. His father was Governor Benjamm Harri- son, and his grandson of the same name is now a senator from Indiana. He entered tlie army in 1791 and was stationed at Fort Washington, now Cincin- nati. He was secretary of tlie Northwest Territory, a delegate to CougTess,and later governor of Indi- ana. He was in the Ohio State Senate ; both houses of Congress ; minister to Colombia, South America, and a county clerk during the twelve years immediately preceding his election to the presidency. His success at the Indian battle of Tippecanoe really made him President. Harrison was charged by the Democrats with living iu a log cabin and drinking hard cider. His political friends turned the accusa- tion into an element of enthusiastic popularity. John Tyler was born in Virginia March 29, 1790, and died in Piichniond January 17, 1862. He was educated at William and Mary's College and early entered public life. His career was sucli as to make him singularly unpopular. He was a member of the United States Senate when South Carolina passed the nullification act, and approved its pas- sage. He was an intense anti- Jackson man, and that endeared him to the Whigs, who nominated him for Vice-President because he had resigned his seat in the Senate rather than obey the behests of the Democratic legislature of Virginia. He was not in accord, throughout, with any party, and he went out of office the most unpopular man who ever filled that position, not excepting the other vice- presidential,Presidents of a later date. His last ap- pearance in public was as President of the Peace Convention of 1861. He asf)ired to the presidency in 1844, but found himself a candidate without a party or a following. James K. Polk, like the two other Presidents of the United States furnished by Tennessee, Jackson and Johnson, was a native of North Carolina. He was born November 2, 1795, and died June 19, 1849. He was educated at the University of Nashville. His Congressional Ufe began in 1834. He served as Speaker of the House two terms, and governor of his state one term. Polk Avas a staunch supporter of Jackson and all his measures. Like Abraham Lincoln, lie had aspired to the vice-presidency four years before his election to the presidency. He was not a candidate for re-election in 1848. The issue on which he was elected, tlie annexation of Texas, was settled by Tyler before he came into the presi- dency, but the Mexican war which followed was the natural sequence of that annexation. Polk was a Presbyterian in religion, and his life was consistent with his jirofessions. Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia September 24, 1784. His family residence when elected to the presidency was in Louisiana. He died in the Exec- utive Mansion, Washington, July 9, 1850. General Taylor remained upon his father's plantation until 1808, when he was appointed an officer in the reg- ular army, and he remained in the service until his elevation to the presidency on the strength of his record in Mexico. He was a slaveholder, but not in sympathy with the prevailing Southern eagerness for more slave territory. Some suspicion of foul play and iioisou lingers about his death which was attributed to an attack of bilious fever. He was father-in-law to Jefferson Davis and father of General Richard Taylor of the Confederate army. Millard Fillmore, who came to the presidency iu consequence of the death of General Taylor, was a native of New York, born January 7, 1800, and died at Buffalo March 8, 1874. His early education was meager, but being of a studious disposition, he be- came a well-informed man. He was a lawyer by profession. Fillmore entered Congress as a Whig in 1833, and gradually rose in influence until he be- came chairman of the committee of Ways and Means in 1842. He was the AVliig candidate for gov- ernor of New York in 1844, but was defeated. When nomuiated and elected for the vice-presidency he was comptroller of the state. He aspired to the presidency by election, but the Whig jDarty may be said to have died upon his hands. His last years were spent in the practice of law in Buffalo. He was an elegant gentleman and an honest man. Franklin Pierce was a native of New Hampshire. He was born November 23, 1804, and died October 8, 1869. His father, Benjamin Pierce, had been governor of the state. Bowdoin College was his alma mater, where Nathaniel Hawthorue was his classmate. They became and remained warm friends. Pierce was in the lower house of Congress PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 585 ¥ from 1833 to 183T, aud iu the Senate from 1837 to 1843. Polk ofEered him a seat iu his cabinet, but he preferred to accept a brigadier-geueralship iu the army during the war with Mexico. He did not dis- tmguish himself, but acquired availabihty, as it proved, for the presidency to which lie was elected in 1852. He was always strongly Southern in his sym- pathies. After his retirement from the presidency he lived quietly at Concord, New Hampshire. He made a feeble effort to secure a re-nomination in 1856. James Buchanan was a native of Peimsylvauia and never changed his residence. He was born April 23, 1791, and died June 1, 1868. He was edu- cated at Dickinson College. He began his long po- litical career as a Federalist, but rallied around the standard of General Jackson. In 1828 he was elected to Congress. Three years later he was ap- pointed minister to Russia. Two years later he was elected to the United States Senate and served cred- itably in that body twelve years. In 1853 he was appointed minister to England. It was while he was holding that position that he was nominated for the presidency. His election in 1856 was the last national triumph of the Democracy. In 1866 he published in self-defense a volume entitled,' " Mr. Buchanan's Administration." As an attempt at vindication it was a failure. Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky Febru- ary 19, 1809, and died at the hand of the assassin, J. Wilkes Booth, April 15, 1865. Like Jackson aud his immediate successor, Johnson, he sprang from the very humblest rank. His education was almost wholly self -procured. His early life was spent upon a pioneer farm. He was elected to the legislature of Illinois in 1834 and studied law. He removed to Springfield and gradually rose to con- siderable eminence in his profession and as anefEect- ive political speaker. In 1846 he was elected to Congress as a Whig and served one term. When the Republican party was organized he was its recog- nized leader in Illinois. He received 110 votes as candidate for the vice-presidency in 1856. In 1858 he canvassed Illinois in a joint debate with Douglas, acquitting himself so grandly that his nomination for and election to the presidency was his reward. From that time to his tragic death the life of Lin- coln was historical rather tlian biographical. Andrew Johnson was born December 29, 1808, and died July 31, 1875. A tailor by trade, he was taught to read and write by his wife. His first office was that of alderman. He drifted into politics natur- ally, being always very j)opular with the industrial class. He entered Congress in 1843 as a Democrat, where he remained until chosen governor of Ten- nessee in 1853. In 1857 he was elected to the Sen- ate. When secession came he was a staunch sup- jDorter of the Union, and that gave him a popularity at the North which secured him the vice-presiden- tial nomination in 1864, and ultimately the jiresi- dency. His presidential term was one long struggle against the party which elected him. He made two unsuccessful attempts to get back into the United States Senate, and finally, in 1875, his wish was grat- ified, but he died before taking his seat. Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio, April 27, 1822. His father was a sagacious business man, and the son was educated at West Point. He took part in the Mexican war and served for a time upon the frontier. In 1854 he resigned his position iu the army and devoted himself to business. His career from 1861 to 1877 forms a conspicuous part of American history. In the spring of 1877 he started on a trip around the world, and was everywhere re- ceived with distinguished honors. He returned to America in the fall of 1879. He became a promi- nent but unsuccessful candidate for the Republican nomination for the presidency in 1880. General Grant now resides in New York City. Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio. He was educated at Kenyoii College and adopted the profes- sion of law, entering ujjou its practice in Cincinnati. When the civil war came he entered the service and was a very creditable but not very conspicuous Briga- dier-General. After the war he served one term in Congress and was elected to the governorship of his state, which office he occupied at the time of his elec- tion to the presidency. Since the expiration of his term of office, March 4, 1881, he has lived in retire- ment at his home in Fremont, Ohio. James A. Garfield was born in Ohio November 19, 1831, and died at the hand of the assassin Guiteau September 19, 1881. Young as he was, his public life had been long and eventful. He graduated at Williams' College in 1856 and adopted teaching as a profession. In 1859 he was elected to the State Sen- ate of Ohio. He studied law and prepared to enter the legal profession. When the war came he entered -7c l^ ■^,, S86 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. -ten- the military service. He rose to the rank of Major- General. In 1862 he was elected to Congress. He remained in that body until elected to the presidency in 1880. In the previous winter he had been chosen United States Senator for the term beginning March 4, 1881. His election was the triumph of genius and goodness over calumny, and he entered upon the oiSce of chief magistrate with every prospect of a great future. Chester A. Arthur, the third Vice-President to reach the presidency, was born in Vermont. He is a graduate of Union College. Choosing the law as his jirofession, he made New York City his home. His first public effort was tlie defense of a fugitive slave, and he acqviitted himself with great credit. During the gubernatorial term of Governor Morgan he was Adjutant-General of the state of New York, rendering important service during the first year and a half of the war in that capacity. Late in the second term of President Grant, General Arthur was appointed Collector of the port of New York. He was removed by President Haj'es, but not upon any charge of malfeasance. His removal was due to a difference of opinion upon the political features of the civil service. He was a member of the National Republican Convention of 1880, in which body he supported General Grant for a third term. Having finished what may be called a key to the jjresidential group introductory to this chapter, we turn to the elections which have been held. The United States has had twenty-one Presidents and twenty-four presidential elections. During the Revolutionary War this country was without an executive head in distinction from a leg- islative body, the Continental Congress exercising all the political functions of a national nature. The President of , that body was its presiding officer and nothing more. The first presidential election occurred the first Wednesday in January, 1789. It was held by order of the Continental Congress. The electors were chosen that day in accordance with the Constitution which had been duly ratified during the previous summer, taking the place of the Articles of Confed- eration. On the Wednesday next following, the electors met, those of each state by themselves, in their respective state capitols, to vote for President and Vice-President. So perfectly harmonious and well understood was the whole matter that the elec- tions of George Washington to the presidency and John Adams to the vice-presidency were unanimous. The same law of the Continental Congress which provided for the presidential election also provided that a new Congress should be elected when the electors were chosen, and that body is known as the First Congress. It was further provided that both Congress and the President should enter upon their official duties the first AVednesday in the following March (which fell upon the fourth day of the month) in the city of New York. Washington and Adams were on hand in time, but it was April 30 be- fore a quorum of Congress convened and the new exe- cutive actually came into power. North Carolina and Rhode Island had not ratified the constitution and took no part in the first election of a President. The second presidential election was also unanimous, the President andVice-Presidentbeing re-elected without opposition. Fifteen states took part in it, Vermont and Kentucky, as well as the original thirteen. Washington refused a third term. The candidates balloted for, with their electoral votes, were these : John Adams, Massachusetts, 71 ; Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, 69; Thomas Pinckney, South Carolina, 59 ; Aaron Burr, New York, 38. As the constitu- tion then stood, the second choice of the people for President became Vice-President. Tennessee was added to the list of states by that time, 1796, and the existence of two well-defined jjolitical parties was manifest. Washington was not a partisan, but leaned toward Federalism, or a strong central gov- ernment. John Adams, Pinckney and Alexander Hamilton were the leaders of the Federalists ; Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr were the leaders of the Republicans, or State-rights jjarty. In 1804 the same candidates were in the field as in 1796, and the election resulted, Jefferson and Burr 73 votes each, Adams 64 and Pinckney 63. There was thus a tie and a tangle which threatened very serious consequences. The election was thrown into the House. After balloting seven days that body chose Jefferson President and Burr Vice-Presi- dent. Before another election was held, the con- stitution was so amended that the electors have since voted directly for presidents and vice-presidents. With that defeat Adams and his j)arty went out of power forever. It continued to exist and vainly strive for the ascendancy until after the war of 1813, when, with the election of Monroe, it ceased to exist. ^F ^ kit ^ ^ . o ■8 . a ft I ^' o O s ^' a ^ o S3 o r, ; i -^ PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 589 The fifth election brought another member of the Pinckney family, Charles C, to the front as the can- didate of the Federalists, with Rufus King of New York as candidate for Vice-President. The duel between Burr and Hamilton, resulting in the hitter's death, had made the name of Burr second in odium only to Arnold, and in his place New York furnished, as second to Jefferson, George Clinton. It may be remarked that if Virginia is the Mother of Pres- idents, New York is of Vice-Presidents. Jefferson and Clinton received 163 votes ; their opponents only 14. Ohio had been admitted to the Union in 1802. Following the example of Washington, Jefferson retired to private life at the close of his second term. James Madison of Virginia came to the front as the leader of the Republican forces, with Clinton still second. Pinckney and King were again the candi- dates of the Federalists. They received 47 each, to 123 for Madison and 113 for Clinton. Four years later Madison was re-elected, but George Clinton had died in office, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts took his place as Vice-President. The Federal candidates were Do Witt Clinton (nej)hew of George) of New York and Jared Ingersoll of Penn- sylvania. By that time Louisiana had been admitted to the Union. The Republican candidates received 128 electoral votes each, Clinton 89 and Ingersoll 57. The second war with England was fouglit during that seventh administration. The election in 1816 stood, James Monroe of Vir- ginia for President and Daniel D. Tompkins" of New York for Vice-President, 183 votes each ; and Rufus King of New York and John E. Howard of Mary- land, 34 votes each. Indiana took part in that elec- tion. The Federalists who had carried the second presidential election, and struggled vainly for the mastery in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth, now at last gave up the contest, accepting the inevitable. The condition of the country was one of measure- less content. Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected in 1820 without opposition. Four new states had been added to the Union, Illinois, Alabania, Mauie, and Mississippi. The Republicans had been in power twenty-four years, and selected the President all the time from Virginia. Before 1824 the contest over Missouri had been waged, resulting in the compromise which was in reality the first battle of the war between the states. In that, the tenth election, there were four candi- dates for President, none of tliem representing a party. The persistence of the FederaUsts in hold- ing together had been, as it proved, the cohesive power of Republicanism. The four candidates in 1824, and their respective votes, were as follows: Andrew Jackson, 99 ; John Quiucy Adams, 84 : Wm. H. Crawford, 41 ; Henry Clay, 31. The num- ber necessary to a choice was 131, consequently the election of a President devolved upon the House. The result Avas the selection of Adams for the presi- dency. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina had received 182 electoral votes for the vice-presidencj'. Adams and Clay combined their forces against the hero of the battle of New Orleans. Being a great statesman but no politician, Adams failed to rally to liis support a party organization, and the time came for another presidential election. Hitherto no national conventions had been held. The candi- dates for President and Vice-President had always been selected by congressional caucuses. The year 1824 saw the last of "King Caucus" as presidential dictator. The eleventh election, 1828, was a clear-cut, bit- ter and exciting contest between President Adams and Richard Rust of Pennsylvania on one side and Jackson and Calhoun on the other. It was culture and the Northeast against uncouth vigor and the South and West. The result was that out of 261 electoral votes Jackson received 178, Calhoun 171, and Adams and Rush 83 each. Jackson was not particularly skilled in the arts of the politician, but he was the material out of which to construct an ideal leader in those times, and served as the nucleus of a new party, the Democracy. This or- ganization really dates from Jackson's accession to power. During that first term of Jackson the abor- tive nullification movement in South Carohna oc- curred. It was countenanced by Calhoun and crushed by Jackson, and thus was the former ren- dered unavailable as a national candidate for any office, while the latter was immensely strengthened by it. In 1832 Jackson was re-elected, receiving 219 out of 288 electoral votes. With him was elected to the vice-jjresidency Martin Van Buren of New York. There were several opposing candidates, Clay, Wil- liam Wirt and John Floyd, but " Old Hickory," as his friends delighted to call him, was invincible. ssr ^ 590 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. -71 In 1836 Van Buren was the candidate of the Democratic party, with Ricliard M. Johnson of Kentucky on the ticket with him for Vice-President. The opi^osition was still fragmentary. William H. Harrison of Ohio, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, W. P. Mangum of North Carolina, and Hugh L. White of Tennessee, were all in the field, but Van Bu- ren received 170 out of 294 electoral votes. Johnson was elected Vice-President by the Senate, no choice for that office having been made by the electors. The imjDortance of political organization was now so well established that in 1840 the opposition, which had gradually come to be known as Whigs, held a national convention. In the meanwhile the panic and hard times of 1837 had occurred. Van Buren and Johnson were the nominees of the De- mocracy. The Wliigs chose as their candidates Gen- eral Harrison and John Tyler of Virginia. The campaign was very exciting. It resulted in a bril- liant Whig victory. Out of 294 votes cast, Harrison and Tyler received 224. Harrison died almost im- mediately, and April 6 John Tyler became acting President. That was the first time in the history of the country that the Angel of Death elected the President. In 1844 the Democrats nomuiated James K. Polk of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas of Penn- sylvania, as their standard-bearers; the Whigs selected Henry Clay and Theodore Prelinghuysen of New Jersey. Out of 375 votes cast, Polk and Dallas received 170. The Abolitionists had by this time become something of a power in the North, just enough to draw from the Whigs sufficient votes to give the victory to the Democracy. Before the next or sixteenth election, the Mexican war had b^en' fought and gold discovered in Cali- fornia. The Whigs chose as their presidential can- didate General Zachary Taylor, nominally of Louis- iana, but really a soldier with no civil life. He had never voted in his life. On the ticket with him was Millard Fillmore of New York. The Democratic candidates were Lewis Cass of Michigan and Wm. 0. Butler of Kentucky. "Old Eough and Eeady" was the popular name for Taylor, and he swept the country, aided by the fact that Martin Van Buren, out of hatred for Cass, ran as Free-soil candidate, drawing ofE votes enough to give Taylor the state of New York. The vote stood : Taylor and Fillmore, 163 ; Cass and Butler, 127. The seventeenth presidential election (1852) found both parties eagerly disavowing anti-slavery sentiments and vjdng in subserviency to the South. The Democratic candidates were Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire and William E. King of Alabama. The Whig candidates were General Winfield Scott, of military renown, and William A. Graham of North Carolina. The disparity in the popular vote was not very great, but in the electoral vote the Democratic ticket stood 254, the Whig 42. There were, by that time, 31 states, the latest being Cali- fornia. In 1856 the slavery question became more promi- nent than ever, owing to the rej^eal of the Missouri Compromise. The Whig jDarty died with the defeat of Scott. The modern Eepublican party came into existence, as a national organization, June 17, 1856, at Philadelphia, at which time John C. Fremont of California, and William M. Dayton of New Jersey, were nominated for President and Vice-President. Fifteen days before, the Democrats had put in the field James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. The " Know-Noth- ing," or American, party had a ticket in the field, headed by ex-President Fillmore. The latter had 8 electoral votes ; Fremont, 114; Buchanan, 174. Fillmore's votes came from Maryland, Fremont's from the North, he being the first candidate of any prominence to furnish the occasion of sharjily de- fined sectionahsm. In 1860 there were four candidates, if we include the insignificant candidacy of Bell and Everett (American party). The Democrats were divided in their support between Stephen A. Douglas and John C. Breckenridge. The Rejjublicans put in the field Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine. The contest was fierce and close. The po^Dular vote of the two wings of the Democ- racy were several hundred thousand in excess of the Eepubhcan vote, but being divided, the result was that Lincoln had 180 votes ; Douglas, 12 ; Breckenridge, 73 and Bell 39. Douglas had sub- stantially the same pojDular vote as Breckenridge and Bell combmed. The twentieth election occurred during the civil war, and was the triumph of the war party at the North. The Eepublicans re-nominated Abraham Lincoln, and placed Andrew Johnson of Tennessee upon the ticket \vith him. The Democrats ran D > -4. PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 591 General George B. McClellan on his military record with George H. Pendleton of Ohio second ujDon the ticket. The vote stood, Lincoln, 313 ; McClellan, 31. In little over a month after his second inaugu- ration Mr. Lincoln was assassinated, and Andrew Johnson came to the presidency in his place. John- son became so very unpopular that he was finally impeached, and only by one vote escaped conviction. Had he been convicted, B. P. Wade of Ohio would have filled out the balance of the second Lincoln term. In 1868 occurred the twenty-first national elec- tion. The candidates were Ulysses S. Grant of Illi- nois and Schuyler Colfax of Indiana, on the Repub- lican side; Horatio Seymour of New York and Frank P. Blair of Missouri, on the democratic side. Three states, Virginia, Texas, and Mississippi, had not been restored to the Union, and took no part in the election. Grant received 314 votes ; Seymour, 80. Grant's popular majority was about half a million. By 1873 a great deal of disaffection had develojjed within the Republican party, owing to long contin- uance in power. This discontent found expression in the assembling of the National Liberal Conven- tion in Cincinnati which nominated Horace Greeley of New York for the presidency, and B. Gratz Brown of Missouri for the vice-presidency. The Democrats in their national convention imi the same ticket in the field. The Republicans re-nom- inated General Grant, jjutting Henry Wilson of Massachusetts upon the ticket with him. The Re- publicans carried 386 electoral votes, the opposition only 47. Mr. Greeley died between the popular election and the meeting of the electoral colleges. Vice-President WUson died during his term of ofiice. The Liberal movement was abandoned and the Democracy returned to its trenches and general line of battle. The centennial, or twenty-third, presidential cam- paign was peculiar in the fact that it was continued almost to the very day of inauguration. The Re- publican candidates were Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler of New York ; the Democratic candidates were Samuel J. Tilden of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana, all, except Wheeler, being governors of their respec- tive states. No other candidates received any elec- toral votes. It was conceded that Tilden had 184 votes out of a total of 369. The votes of South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana, especially the lat- ter, were stoutly claimed by both parties. Finally, it became necessary for the conservative element in both parties to agree upon a plan of arbitration. A bill was passed which created an Electoral Commis- sion to decide the matter in dispute. The result was that Hayes received 185 votes and was duly de- clared elected. The last election held was the twenty-fourth, in 1880. James A. Garfield and Cliester A. Arthur were the nominees of the Republican jDarty ; General Winfiekl S. Hancock, of the regular army, and William H. Eughsh of Indiana, were the nominees of the Democracy. The vote stood, Garfield, 314 ; Hancock, 155, and the validity of the election was not questioned. -i)\ -^ 9 k THE STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER LXXXVI. The Scope of this Chapter — The States and Territories in their Alphabetical Order — The Original Thirteen States, from the Date of their Emergence from Colonies INTO Independent Commonwealths — Productions, Resources and other Features op bach State, and Territory. Actual and Prospective. HE United States consists of tliirty -eight states, eight territories and two dis- tricts, the latter being Alaska and the District of Columbia. It is proposed in this connection to give the more important and interest- ing facts, historical and actual, about each state and territory, taking them up in their alphabet- ical order, omitting such informa- tion as may be found either in preceding chapters or in subse- quent statistical tables. In giving longitudes and latitudes it will be unnecessary to add "north" to one and " west from Greenwich " to the otlier, this being understood as a matter of course. The seal of each state will be given. The states are older than the United States. There is no limit fixed to the number of states which may be admitted by Congress. No provision is made for dividing a state, except in the case of Texas, which, it is con- templated, may eventually be several states ; but any instance occurring of an attempt of that kind could be decided upon its merits. ALABAMA. Alabama was the twenty-fiftli state, in the order of its admission to the Union. The name is Creek (Indian) for "Here we rest." It is situated between latitudes 30° 15' and 35, and longitudes 84° 56' and 88'= 48'. It is 336 miles long and from 148 to 300 miles wide. The soil is easily tilled and quite productive. Its principal rivers are, the Tennessee, the Mobile, Tombigbee, Alabama, Coosa, Black Warrior, Perdido and Chattahoochee. The north- ern portion of the state is somewhat mountainous, and the farther south you go the lower is the aver, age level. It is a great cotton-growing state. It has one good seaport, and only one. Mobile. The bay of that name is about 30 miles long and from three to four miles wide. The main manufacturing industry carried on tliere has iron for its base ; but some cotton cloth is made. For a long time it raised more cotton than any other state in the Union. AVith the exception of Mobile, the state can 7i= (592) ePv ' >>. STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 593 hardly be said to have a city, and its ijrosperity is almost wholly industrial rather than commercial. In 1819 the territory of Alabama was organized, and two years later the state, having a population of 127,901, was admitted into the Union. It was at Montgomery, the capital of Alabama, that the Southern Confederacy was organized. It remamed the Confederate capital until the July following, about six months. Several battles were fought within the borders of that state during the civil war, the naval action in Mobile Bay, August, 1864, being the chief. The land engagements were com- paratively trivial. After the close of the war, June, 1865, President Johnson appointed a provisional governor. Tlie state rescinded the ordinance of secession in September following and sought re- admission to representation in Congress. It was not reconstructed until 1868. It was Republican in poli- tics for several years, but with nearly all political disabilities removed, it reverted to the Democracy. It suffered less probably from the ravages of war than any other Confederate state. ALASKA. Alaska was known as Russian-America until the United States purchased it from Russia in 1867. The price paid was $7,300,000. Wm. H. Seward was Secretary of State at that time, and was very eager for the acquisition. Some very absurd reports were widely circulated representing the country to have some agricultural value. It may possibly have some valuable mines, but the soil is frostbouud and sterile. It extends north as far as the Arctic Ocean, between latitudes' 54° 40' and 71° 33'. Behring Strait separates it from Asia. Its only intrinsic value lies in its seal fisheries. From these the gov- ernment derives some revenue and the world some furs. The peninsula, sometimes known as Sitka, is about 350 miles long and 35 miles wide on an average. It is a strip of land between British Colum- bia and the main body of Alaska, having Mt. Saint Elias on the north. New Archangel, the cajjital of Alaska, if capital it may be said to have, is on an island which virtually forms a part of this peninsula. The United States does not main- tain a regular territorial government there. The population consists mostly of Esquimaux. It forms a collection district for the protection of the gov- ernment interest in the seals. Alaska has a vol- cano of grand projjortions, Mount Saint Elias. It has otheis of less altitude. St. Ehas is about 18,000 feet in heigiit. ARKANSAS. Arkansas was organized as a territory in 1819. It had once formed a part of Louisiana. Its first settlement was by the French in 1670, at or near the point where the St. Francis River empties into the Mississippi. In 1813, when Louisiana became a state, Arkansas was made a part of Missouri. It had a long territorial existence, not having bean ad- mitted to the Union until 1836. Its growth was slow until 1850, when Southern planters began to go there hi large numbers, attracted by its rich soil and adaptability to cotton raising. It was in full sympathy with secession and passed the ordinance, taking itself out of the Union on the very day that Lincoln was inaugurated. .A.s early as January, 1864, stejis were taken in the direction of restoration to the Union, but it was not until the summer of 1868 that Congress passed the bill for its restoration to representation, and it was not until 1874 that the state had rest from reconstruction. Arkansas has several kuids of mineral wealth. Its zinc ore is said to be equal to that of Silesia. Copper, manganese, iron and coal are aliundant, es- pecially the latter. The most remarkable feature of the state is its cluster of hot sjjrings, widely famed for healing properties. Rheumatism yields more readily to those waters than to drugs. Hot Springs, the town, is about 60 miles southwest of Little Rock, the capital. The state is adiuirablv adapted to grazing. Its hay crop is im2:)ortaiit. Its area of arable laud is very large. It is a fine country for fruit. The navigable waters of the state exceed 3,000 miles in length. Its principal rivers are the Arkansas, the St. Francis, the White and the Oua- chita (pronounced Washitaw). In the order of its admission Arkansas is the twenty-fifth state in the Union. The climate is fine. The mean tempera- ture for the year is about 63°, and except in the malarial marshes the state is remarkably healthful. sl>V -V 4, 594 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. ARIZONA. Arizona Territory was organized from New Mex- ico early in 1863. Tucson is the capital. That city is the center of quite an important minuig region. This territory is at once old and new, having a com- paratively remote past, and yet in its actual devel- opment and attitude toward civilization it is almost entirely prospective rather than retrospective. It is highly probable that ISTew Spain, as established by Cortez, took in, definitely, the most of Arizona. Certain it is that there were Jesuit missionaries and other Spaniards in that vicinity, as permanent set- CAUIFORNIA. California may be called the reward of demerit. The United States waged a war with Mexico which had in it no redeeming feature. It was a strong nation, taking mean advantage of a weak neighbor VIEW OP SAN FKANC tiers, as early as 1600. Imposing and interesting ruins attest the zeal of those propagandists of the faith. There are many mines there which were worked two' hundred years ago, and abandoned from the lack of machinery requisite to deep min- ing. There is not much tillage, nor hardly any possible, except by irrigation. Other minerals be- sides gold and silver are found there in great abundance. High mountains and deep canons prevail. It has immense tracts of good grazing land which are largely occuisied by vast herds of cattle. The flourishing mining town of Tombstone, so named on account of the natural aspect of the immediate country, is in this territory. That por- tion of the mineral belt is largely peopled, and developed by enterprise from the Pacific Slope. ISCO, CALIPOENIA. in a cause which was bad in itself. But the result was an acquisition of incalculably greater value to the country than any one could have anticipated. California was the chief, but by no means the sole, territorial acquisition of the United States from Mexico. As eariy as the sLxteenth century, that great English navigator. Sir Francis Drake, coasted along the Pacific Slope. In 1578 he landed in California and took possession in the name of the British sover- eign, calling the land Xew Albion. But the English never attempted to establish their claim. The bay of San Francisco was discovered in 1769. A Jesuit mis- sion was founded there in 1776. For fifty years quite extensive missions were maintained in that vicinity by the Franciscan monks. When Mexico became ^ '-^ STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 595 independent the missions declined, and in 1845 the government confiscated the Franciscan property. When the country fell into the hands of the United States it was almost a -virgin wilderness, for practi- cal purposes. Except that some tracts of land are held under old Mex- ican titles, Cal- ifornia hardly has a vital trace of Span- ish occupancy. It can hardly be said to have had a territori- al existence at all. There were military gover- nors, martial law, lynch law and no law at all in those early days, but hardly had the tide set in when Califor- nia found it- self with a pop- ulation amply' entitling it to admission into the Union. It was admitted in 1850. California is 700 miles long, and has an average width of 200 miles. Beside its gold, it is a very rich state agriculturally. The corn and wheat, the wool and fruit, the wine and cattle, yield more real wealth than the mines, many times over. Southern California is especially favorable to grape and orange raising. The climate is delightful. The gold prod- uct of the state during the first quarter-century 73 of its development was $990,600,000. The most prolific year was 1853, $65,000,000. San Francisco is, and always has been, the chief city of California. There are, however, several other cities of very consider- able imjDort- ance, Sacra- mento, the cap- ital, Stockton, Los Angeles, Oakland, San Diego, Marys- ville and San- ta Cruz. The great misfort- une of the state is that its gi'eat proper- ties are largely held by a few monopo- lists who spend their money ■ elsewhere. An- other misfort- une is the class of menial la- borers, the Chi- nese. From the standpoint of economy, Mon- golian labor is beneficent, but the very gen- eral opinion of the people is that the state would have been better off if no Asiatic had ever cross- ed the Pacific. California has many natural curiosities. The Yosemite Valley is the most remarkable valley in the world for grandeur. Lake Tahoe is a marvel of purity and transparency. Nowhere else does the pine reach such stupendous proportions. There are several groves in which may be found many trees to ^2 596 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. over 100 feet in circumference. The most notable wild beast of that region is the bear — grizzly, brown and black. COLORADO. Colorado receives its name from the Rio Colorado river and its Grand Canon between longtitudes 112'^ and 115°, where the river flows for three hundred miles be- tween perpendicular walls of rock, some- times 6,000 feethigh, forming one of the greatest natural cu- riosities. The state itself, the thirty- eighth member of the Union, lies be- tween latitudes 37? and 41° and longi tudes 102° and 109°. Like Arizona, it is one mighty treasure- house of gold and silver, with no a- daptation to agricul- ture, except as the land is irrigated. The valleys and plateaus yield nutritiy.e grass sparcely, but abund- antly for the encour- agement of grazing as an industry. The state has these two industries — mining and herding — which furnish its exports. It is comparatively easy to irrigate the land and secure bountiful harvests, but the state is" too far from the seaboard to raise srrain for THE GRAND CANON OP THE COLORADO. the general market. Besides, the home prices are high, making the profits of agriculture satisfactory. The discovery of gold in paying quantities was made in 1858, and the next year the reports of rich mines of free gold near Pike's Peak created a perfect furor. Thousands of people rushed thither, expecting to find a second California. A great deal of suffering ensued and disappointment. Still the report had a substantial basis. By 1861, when the territory was formed, the population was 35,000. It was admitted as a state in 1876. Denver is the capital and chief city. Colorado is a great resort for invalids, especially those affected with pulmonary diseases and throat troubles. Leadville sprang up about the time the territory became a state. It was born of a new-mining dis- covery of very great richness. It is far- ther south and high- er than Denver. The air is rarified and light. The area of mineral development is steadily enlarging, and the business now rests upon a legiti- mate basis. The Gun- nison country and the San Juan coun- try are terms used to designate distinct and important min- eral regions in the southern jiortion of the state. In its yield of gold and silver, Colorado is the leading state in the union. It has three colleges, all small, but fraught with hajspy omen for the future of the state. The mere min- ing camp of territorial days is fast giving place to villages and cities filled with, families. -^1 ikn STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 597 CONNECTICUT. Connecticut is the first of the old thirteen colo- nies to come before us in this connection. It had won some renown as a colony, by its preservation of its royal charter and the strictness of its religious ob- servances. In the Revolutionary War its most illus- trious soldier was General Is- rael Putnam. He was born in 1718, and was rather old for the service when the war began, but he entered upon it with great enthusiasm. Eoger Sherman was the most conspicuousrep- resentative of that colony in the Continental Congress. Gav- ernor Jonathan Trumbull was a trusted counselor and devoted friend of General Washington, who was accustomed to address him as "Uncle Jonathan," since then the typical name for the American people. The war of 1812 found Connecticut largely en- gaged in commerce, much more so than it is at the present time. That war was a gi-eat calamity to its commerce, and although the state did its part fully in the way of supplying meu and means, the pol- icy of peace-at-any-price had a great many ardent advocates there. A convention was held at Hart- ford for the purpose of denouncing the war just be- fore the news of the battle of New Orleans was re- ceived, which became historic from its unpopularity, as soon as the good news came. The especial pride of Connecticut is Yale College, one of the truly great universities of the world. It was founded as early as 1 701. It is located at New Haven. Orig- inally a college only in the restricted sense of the term, it is now an institution fully equijjped for all higher educational purj)ose. There are other col- leges of some imjiortance in the state, but they are not to be compared to Yale. Insurance, fire and life, is a very prominent feat- ure of Connecticut business. In no other state is there so much surplus capital devoted to underwrit- ing. New Haven and Hartford are the chief cities of the state, and insurance their chief business. There are, however, a great many branches of man. ufacturing car- the of- YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN. CONNECTICUT. ried on exten- sively in the state. It is native soil " Yankee no- tions." Besides raising the farm products com- monto the north- ern part of the country, it raises large quantities of excellent to- bacco. The low- er valley of the ConnecticutEi\'- er is admirably adapted to this l^lant. The state had two capitals. New Haven and Hartford, for a long time, but now Hartford alone has that honor. Connecticut laid claim under its colonial charter to a tract of land nearly 60 miles wide and extending to the Pacific Ocean. After the Revolu- tion that claim was quieted and disposed of by grant- ing to the state the fee simple as projjerty (but not the political control) of a largo tract of land in the vicinity of Lake Erie. It was called " The Western Reserve." Most of it is now in the State of Ohio. The proceeds of that land form the basis of the public school fund of Connecticut. It it due to the good name of this state to add that its reputation for exceptional austerity is unjust, resting upon a lit- erary fraud perpetrated by a clergyman named Peters, who published a bogus volume of " Blue Laws.'' DfT \ <&- tk. 598 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. DAKOTA TERRITORY. Dakota Territory is the most populous of all the territories, and the largest in area. It was organized in 1861. The census of 1880 showed a population of over 130,000, and later enumerations and esti- mates place the population in 1882 at 150,000. The cities of Yanktou and Sioux Falls, the largest in the territory, have each a population of 3,500. The number of the cattle has increased, it is estimated, 800 per cent during the last two years. The yield of gold bullion for 1881 was $4,500,000 ; of silver, $3,000,000, taken from the famous Black Hills mines. The territory is also rich in copper, lead, mica, coal and gypsum. But wheat is the supreme source of wealth in Dakota. It may be called a con- tinuation, in this regard, of Minnesota. The popu- lation is largely made up of Swedes and Norwegians, with a very considerable jDopulation drawn from the native population of the North. It is expected that the territory will be divided, and the southern por- tion admitted into the Union as the State of Dako- ta, and the northern portion organized as a separate territory. DELAWARE. From the great Territory of Dakota to the httle State of Delaware there is a long stride. This least important of all the states is one of the original thirteen. It was being governed as a part of Penn- sylvania at the time the war for independence was declared, but promptly demanded recognition as a " sovereign " state. Pennsylvania consented, and the " three lower countries on the Delaware " became an independent political unity. In the war then in prog- ress for national freedom the citizens of Delaware won distinction for bravery, and on account of the peculiar flag of the state were known as " The Blue Hen's Chickens." When the war was over and in the progress of political events there was a tie vote between Jefferson and Burr, it was Delaware (a strongly Federal state) which decided the matter, its leading senator, James A. Bayard, preferring Jeffer- son as the less of two evils. The present Senator Bayard is a grandson of the elector of Jefferson. The senatorship seems to be an heirloom in that family. James A. Bayard, Jr., was for many years a senator. When it is added that Delaware is famous for its peaches and its garden products, in- cluding berries, the entire record of interest is dis- closed. It is singularly lacking in enterprise. The people do not push westward nor establish skilled industries to any considerable extent. Dover, the capital, is a sleepy inland village, and Wilming- ton, its chief seaport, has only a very small com- merce. The state is divided into three counties, Kent, New Castle and Sussex. Before the war there were a few slaves there. A majority of the people were friendly to the Union. Delaware furnished 10,000 volunteers to the Union army. FLORIDA. The chief interest of Florida belongs to its colo- nial history. Apart from that, it presents very few points of attraction. It was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1831. The first census taken was in 1830, and at that time the population was only 34,730. By the census of 1860 the population was 140,434, about one-half of the number being slaves- The first territorial governor was General Jackson. He acquired much of his popularity, especially in the South, by his successful warfare upon'the blood- thirsty Seminole Indians, who were finally eradicated from the territory, with a few exceptions, and trans- planted in Indian Territory. Those still remaining are peaceable. Florida was admitted as a state in in 1845. It seceded in January, 1861, and was read- mitted in June, 1868. The peninsula portion is nearly 400 miles long. The soil is very largely either sandy or swampy. Its rivers and lakes are many and well supplied with a great variety of fishes and reptiles. The forests abound in timber which would be of great value if it could be marketed. The chief attraction of Florida, and its great source of wealth, is its vast extent of orange orchards. It also el L-^ STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 599 produces rice and a fine quality of tobacco. It is a favorite resort in winter for invalids and others from the North. Jacksonville is the largest city. Tallahassee is the capital. Key West, on the island of the same name, is strongly fortified, and is a United States naval station. St. Augustine, the oldest city in the United States, was founded by the Spanish freebooter Menendez. in 1565. GEORGIA. Georgia is well called the Empire State of the South. It was one of the original thirteen states. Its colonial history is indeed brief, but it is, as has been seen, exceptionally creditable. Its extent north and south is 320 miles, and its extreme breadth east andwest 254 miles. From its colonial birth to the present time it has been exceptionally prosperous. It did suiier, and that severely, it is true, from British soldiers during the Revolution, and from Northern soldiers, especially those under General Sherman, in the late war between the states, but it has shown great recuperative powers. It combines in its soil and climate the advantages of the North and South, producing with equal prodigality cereals and cotton. It is also rich in iron, which is being mined on a large and profitable scale. Georgia has several flourishing cities. Savannah was long the chief town in the state. Atlanta is now the most flourishing. It is the capital. It has been called, and with reason, the Chicago of the South. Augusta, Milledgeville, Macon, Columbus and Athens are among its more important centers of population and capital. It has several fairly good institutions of learning. IDAHO TERRITORY. Idaho Territory is the least thrifty of all the ter- ritories of the United States. It has Wyoming and Montana on the east; British Columbia on the north; Washington Territory and Oregon on the west, and Nevada and Utah on the south. Gold was first found there in any considerable quantities in 1860. The next year there was quite a large influx of miners from both tlie East and the West. Tlie placer-diggings, or free gold, yielded richly. The ter- ritory was organized in 1863 and re-organized in 1864. In a few years the rich gold-bearing sand had been washed and the population fell ofE. The diffi- culty of reaching the quartz mines with adequate machinery has delayed the development of those re- sources. The country is well adapted to grazing, and vast herds of cattle and flocks of sheej) roam over the plains and valleys of the territory. It lies between the 42°. and the 49° of latitudes, laying mainly in the basin of the Upper Columbia Eiver. The cUniate is delightful, and eventually Idaho will be a prosperous state. ILLINOIS. The first white settlement in Illinois dates back to the seventeenth century. The first settlement in distinction from Jesuit missions, was made by tlie French at Kaskaskia in 1700. But in the present development of Illinois the French can hardly be said to have taken an appreciable part. It requires the skill and patience of the antiquary to discover even the faintest trace of the first settlers. The ter- ritory of Illinois was organized in 1809, when a ter- ritory of that name was cut off from Indiana. The southern part of the state was settled first, the course of pioneer enterprise being along rivers, especially down the Ohio and up the Mississippi. Tlien, too, the Indians of the north were particularly trouble- some. A military post was early established at the mouth of the Chicago River on the site of the pres- ent city of that name. It was called Fort Dearborn. In 1812 the fort was taken by the Indians and the whites cruelly massacred. This massacre led to tlie expulsion of the Indians from the vicinity, and prepared the way for the permanent settlement of the northern portion of the territory. Illinois was admitted into the Union in 1818. The population at that time was 35,220. Nearly all of it is level and arable. It is the " Prairie State," -Tt^ SnT ■^ 600 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. most emphatically. The soil is rich and easily tilled. Tlie coal area is estimated at 45,000 square miles. This inexhaustable supply of fuel is bituminous. Illinois can boast more miles of railroad than any otlier state in the Union, and the coal-fields have had much to do with the development of this in- terest. Illinois has several large cities, the chief being Chicago, with a population of over 500,000, according to the census of 1880. It is the com- mercial capital of the West, or Interior, more proper- ly speaking. It became a city in 1837. Early in A. Douglaswas the first Illinoisan to reach eminence, and Abraham Lincoln, General Grant and Kobert G. Ingersoll followed, each in his way the foremost man of the nation — one as statesman, one as soldier, and one as orator. The state adopted in 1870 a new constitution containing many radical changes, and which proved to be a landmark in the constitu- tional history of the country, many states, since then, having adopted its more important features, the chief being the restriction of the power of muni- cii3alities to incur debts, and of railways to make un- feTATK SI KELT LHICAGrO t-i n 1011 L'Jlicat;u £lig. Co. the evening of October 8, 1871, a fire broke out in the southwestepn part of the city, and raged with increasing and ungovernable fury that night and the next day, sweeping over 3,134 square acres, in- cluding the heart of the city, and leaving only shape- less ruins in its track. It is more particularly refer- red to in the chapter on The Present United States. Springfield is the capital. It is a thrifty inland city, ranking nexttoQuincy on the Mississippi River, and Peoria on the Illinois River, in size. The latter has long been famous for its highwines, being in the very heart of the corn belt. Cairo became somewhat famous during the war. The state has more occa- sion to be proud of its men than its cities. Stephen just transportation charges. It was a test case from Illinois which secured from the supreme court of the United States a decision to the effect that a railway is a highway, and that railroad companies are subject to all the limitations, as to uniformity of charges, of other common carriers. Illinois contains abovit three hundred rivers and creeks, not counting the mere streams. Drouths are almost unknown, of late years, in nearly the entire state. It is the foremost commonwealth in the Union in the production of corn, wheat, rye and oats, also in the number of its horses, the man- ufacture of highwines and agricultural machinery and utensils. ■71 =Sr" STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 60 1 INDIANA. Indiana is surrounded by Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio and Michigan. Like all the prairie states, it has no tional scale. The state was greatly dejjressed by the reaction, and cannot be said to have recovered from it until the prosperity of the war period brought re- lief. The capital, Indianapolis, is the principal city in the state, and second only to Chicago as a West- ern railway center. Evansville, Terre Haute, Fort Wayne, South Bend, New Albany, JefFersonville and Vincennes are all prosperous towns. The state furnished the third Eepublican Vice-President, Schuyler Colfax, and, in the person of Senator Mor- INBIANAPOLIS FKOM THE COUKT HOUSE. mountams nor any under-ground wealth except coal. It has a greater variety of valuable lumber than Illi- nois. It was admitted into the Union in 1816. A French settlement had been effected at Vincennes as early as 1703, which flourished and withered away, much as the Kaskaskia settlement did. Early in the third decade of this century an era of wild spec- ulation was inaugurated in Indiana, culminating in the crash of 1837. No other state in the Union was so deeply affected by that revulsion. Railroads and canals, especially the latter, were projected and un- der process of construction on a grand and irra- ton, the greatest parliamentary leader in the senate since the days of Douglas. INDIAN TERRITORY. Indian Territory is not a territory at all, in the ordinary sense of the term. It is not dependent upon the national government, but is a nation with- in a nation. It has been considered m a previous chapter in connection with the American Indians, and it is enough to add in this connection that it dates from 1833, and is one of the best portions of the continent for grazing and grain-raising. ^F^ 6o2 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. IOWA. Iowa lies Ijetweeii the two great rivers, the Miss- issippi and the Missouri, with Minnesota on the north and Missouri on the south, extending north and south about 200 miles, and east and west, 300 miles. There is hardly a foot of waste land within its border. Its agricultural capacity is almost incal- culable. It has no imjoortant river or lake. Its cities are comparatively small, Chicago being the great center for the entire state. The capital, Des Moines, is a thrifty inland city, and so is Iowa City- Several river towns of some importance are found along the Mississippi, Dubuque, Muscatine, Daven- port, Burlington and Keokuk, also Sioux City on the Missouri. Iowa was created a territory in 1838, and admitted into the Union as a state in 1846. Its growth has been uninterrupted and prodigious, but almost exclusively agricultural. It has very Uttle timber, a great deal of coal, and some lead in the vicinity of Dubuque, as Illinois has across the Miss- issippi near Galena. It also has some gypsum, and is begmning to manifest manufacturing enterprise to a very considerable degree. KANSAS. Kansas is a striking example of the advantages of advertising. The politics of the country, as has been seen, served to make the jjublic familiar with the name and interested in the settlement of Kansas. This territory and Nebraska were organized in 1854. Almost immediately the North and South started on a race for the ascendancy in Kansas. It was not long before there were people enough to justify its admission as a state. A majority came from the North and were utterly ojiposed to slavery, and re- peatedly framed and adojDted constitutions prohibi- tory of it. Tlie Southern influence in Congress pre- vented its admission. A constitution framed by a muiority convention held in Lecompton in 1857 pro- tected slavery. It received only 2,000 votes. Mr. Douglas favored the admission of Kansas as a free state, that being the practical outcome of his favorite doctrine of " squatter sovereignty," and that jjosition made him obnoxious to a large party of the Democra- cy, and caused the schism in favor of Breckenridge for the Presidency in 1860. It was in January, 1861, that Kansas was admitted. In the period from 1824 to 1861 the territory had amply earned the title of " Bleeding Kansas." During the four years of war it was the scene of much bloodshed and destruction. Lawrence was twice burned, and several other towns partially destroyed by border ruffians, or guerillas. After the war the influx of population was without parallel in pioneer history, and that notwithstand- ing drouth and grasshoppers conspired to discourage immigration. The soil is rich, and the i^eojjle pros- perous. Topeka is the capital, and the chief city of the state. Leavenworth and Lawrence have not fulfilled the promise of their infancy. Across the state line in Missouri is the commercial cajoital of the state, Kansas City, wliich is almost wholly in- debted to the State of Kansas for its great jDrosper- ity. At the present time Kansas has the most stringent prohibitory liquor law of any state in the Union. The coal field of the state is supposed to have an area of over 32,000 square miles. It is the most central state of the Union, having Missouri on the east, Indian Territory on the south, Colorado on the west and Nebraska on the north. It has no lakes of any magnitude nor any considerable rivers. Its railway system is extensive, secured at tlie cost of enormous municipal indebtedness. The jKinci- pal institution of learning is the University of Kan- sas, at Lawrence, but the chief educational facilities afforded are an admirable system of j)ublic schools for elementarj' instruction. The western portion of the state has suffered much from drouth, but every year is adding to the volume of rainfall, and grad- ually the " desert," as it was once supposed to be, is being brought into subjugation to the plow. Herding is carried on upon a large scale, both cattle and sheej). The state has a great variety of vegetation, not less than twelve hundred species of plants being indigenous to its soil. ■f' ■Vja- -^ y- STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 603 KENTUCKY. Kentucky traces its origin to Daniel Boone, a famous hunter who established himself at what is now Boonesboro' in 1769. It was then a part of Virginia, and so remained until 1790, when it was created into a separate territory. For fourteen years it had been the County of Kentucky. In 1792 it was admitted as a state, having a population of 75,000. It was the " out west " of Virginia for many years. It formed for a long time the extreme southwest of the United States, boundaries between French and Spanish America and the United States being vague. It was supposed that Aaron Burr contemplated seizing the region in dispute and erect- ing there a Southwest Empire. That was the " trea- son " for which Burr and Blennerhasset were tried. The evidence of guilt was strong but insufficient for conviction. Kentucky suffered seriously from hostile Indians in the early day, and the people have always been noted for their martial sjiirit. From 1861 to 1865 it furnished, as has been aptly said, its quota for both armies. Politically it was a stronghold of the Whig party during the period of that organization. Since then it has been over- whelmingly Democratic. It is noted for the chivalry of its men, tlae beauty of its women, the excellence and abundance of its whisky and horses. It has only one city of any considerable magnitude — Louisville. Frankfort is the capital. The eastern portion of the state is mountainous, the western a rich table- land. The soil is adapted to grain and tobacco. Its famous blue-grass is the finest of pasturage. There is some iron and a great deal of coal in Kentucky. Of its mineral wealth, mostly undeveloped as yet, Professor Shaler says : " The coal resources of Ken- tucky are only exceeded by those of Pennsylvania, and the quantity of iron ore is probably not exceeded by any American state." The state contains twelve colleges and universities, none of which are heavily endowed. The chief of these is Kentucky University, located at Lexington. LOUISIANA. Louisiana originally included not only the present state of that name, but Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Mumesota, Dakota, Nebraska, the greater part of Kansas, Indian Territory, a small part of Colorado, all of Montana, Oregon and Idaho, and the greater part of Wyoming. That vast region was first penetrated by European adventure in 1541, when De Soto, a Spaniard, discovered the Mississippi Eiver. Tlie first actual settlement was made by the French in 1699. For over a century it was, in effect, a part of New France. In 1803, the United States, through President Jefferson, bought that imperial area of Napoleon Bonaparte, while he was First Consul of Prance, for $15,000,000, including what are known as " French Spoliation Claims." The next year the southern portion was organized as the Territory of Orleans. Original Louisiana did not include, however, that portion of tlie state between the Mississippi, Amite and Pearl Rivers. That was ceded to the United States in 1810 by Spain in exchange for undisputed title to Florida. In 1813 Orleans was admitted to the Union as a state under the name of Louisiana. The local customs and state laws have never ceased to bear the marks of France, and the Code Napoleon may almost be said to form the common law of the commonwealth. The state seceded in December, 1860, but the ordi- nance was adopted by the close vote of 117 to 113. Louisiana was restored to the Union in the summer of 1868. The great staple of Louisiana is sugar. Cotton is also raised to good advantage. About one-fifth of the state is beneath the high-water level of the Mississippi River, and has to be protected from inundation by levees, maintained at great cost by the state government. There are about 1,500 miles of levees within its border. It would require an annual expenditure upon them of $1,000,000 to afford thorough protection. New Orleans, with a population of over 200,000, is the one city of any magnitude in the state. It is also the political capital. ^i 75 IK^ ■v« 604 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. MAINE. Before and during the Revolutionary War the northern boundary of Massachusetts was uncertain. By tlie treaty of peace with England it was fixed so as to include the State of Maine, long known as "the District of Maine." From the first Mame demanded indejoeudence, but it remained a "district" until 1830. During that period a great deal of ill feeling existed between Massachusetts proper and Maine. The treaty of 1783 had not, as it proved, settled the boundary question with precision, and it remained an occasion of diplomatic controversy until 1842, when, by the terms of the Ashburtou treaty, the St. Johns and St. Francis Rivers were agreed upon as the northern and northeastern boundaries between the Province of Quebec and the State of Maine. The state is largely covered with pine-trees, and most of the soil is almost worthless for cultivation. A very considerable revenue is derived from granite quar- ries on the seaboard. There are a good many Cana- dian French in the State, and a colony of Scandi- navians occupy a tract by themselves. The Indian jDopulation has not wliolly disappeared. The woods still abound in game, and many of the streams are still well-stocked with fish. Portland, the chief city, is an important seaport. Augusta, the capital, is little more than a village. The state has reason to be proud of one great statesman to whom it gave birth, Pitt Fessenden, and a still greater, who is a native of Pennsylvania, but for many years a citizen of Maine, James G-. Blaine, the fourth great parliamen- tary leader the United States has produced. Clay, Douglas and Thaddeus Stevens being the other members of the quartet. It gave birth and educa- tion to America's laureate, Henry Wadsworth Long- tellow. Bowdoin College, from which he graduated, was founded in 1794, and has long ranked among the more illustrious higher institutions of learning in the country. It is in the forests of Maine that the moose must be sought. That state became fa- mous in 1851 for its strmgent prohibitory liquor law, to which it has tenaciously held ever since. MARYLAND. The early history of Maryland belongs to the colo- nial period. The boundary line between that colo- ny and Pennsylvania, run in 1750 by the two com- missioners, Mason and Dixon, settled a long and troublesome dispute. The term " Mason and Dix- on's line" came afterwards to be used to designate the boundary^ between the free and slave terri- tory throughout the United States. In the war for independence the "Maryland line" bore conspicuous and efEective part. In the late war the state would doubtless have cast in its lot with the South had not its chief city, Baltimore, been placed under military su- pervision. Many of its sons joined the Confederate army. The great battle of Antietam was fought on the soil of Maryland. Slavery was abohshed by constitutional law in 1864. Baltimore is a very im- portant seaport, not only for this state, but for the South and West. The Baltimore & Ohio railroad, one of the great trunk lines of the country, has that city for its eastern terminus. A little more than one-half the state is under cultivation, grain and tobacco being the chief productions. Bituminous coal is found in the northwestern jiortion of the state, and in small quantities gold and silver. The climate is delightfully mild. The oysters of the Chesapeake Bay form an important source of reve- nue. Annapolis is the capital. MASSACHUSETTS. Of all the states in the Union none has had greater prominence in American history than Massachu- setts. The early American chapters were largely occupied with its establishment and growth. From its first settlement to date its importance has been maintained. Beginning this record with the emer- ^K" JV'^ :k STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 605 o-euce of the state from its colouial dependence Ave find that its first governor Avas John Hancock, elect- ed in 1780. From 1775 to 1780 the executive de- partment of the state was in the hands of The Council. That small yet great commonwealth has several important rivers, the Connecticut, Merrimack, Hou- satouic and Hoosic beuig the chief. Along its streams of sufficient magnitude to form water-pow- nierce and wealth, but in the higher ranges of activ- ity there has been no falling back. Among the other cities of the state may be named "Worcester, Lowell, Cambridge, Lawrence, Lynn, Springfield and Pall River. Harvard College dates back to 1636 ; Williams College to 1793 ; Amherst to 1837; Andover Theological Seminary to 1808, and Tuft's College to 1853. It has a higlily creditable list of institutions for special education, such as schools for er, mills of almost every conceivable kind are found, the manufacturing interest being largely in excess of the agricultural. Its great achievement in en- gineering is the Hoosic Tunnel, begun in 1855, com- pleted in 1874, at a cost of 89,000,000. But the proudest achievements of the state have been in the line of political and intellectual superiority. In the cause of human rights and mental improvement it has always been foremost. Its list of statesmen, from "Winthrop to Sumner, is long, and of its authors and inventors is still longer and more creditable. Bos- ton has indeed been eclipsed by ISTew York in com- THE CITY AND HARBOR OP BOSTON. deaf mutes, the bluid, idiots and young criminals. This home of the Puritans is gradually becoming the home of the foreigner. The bleak and rocky farms of Massachusetts are being deserted by the Yankees, and going into the hands of Irishmen and Canadians to an almost revolutionary exteut. There are a few of the original Indians left in the state — not far from two thousand, including the mulattoes with whom they have intermarried. " Shay's Eebell- ion" was a Massachusetts episode. It occurred in 1806. It was a popular uprising against the "boss system" in state politics. V 6o6 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. MICHIGAN. The name of Michigan was derived from the Indian words meaning Lake Eegion. Tlie first settlement was a Jesuit mis- sion at the falls of the St. Mary, 1641. Detroit was founded by the French in 1701. The silver and copper mines were discovered and worked as early as 1773. Michigan was regarded as a part of Canada univee%it\ during the Kevolutionary War. Its status after peace had been declared was uncertain until 1796, when England ceded it to the United States, and it held that position and was also military command- er when, early in the war of 1812, the British demanded the surrender of Detroit, to which he yielded, for which he was severely censured, and from which the city was rescued by the victory of Lake Erie (Commodore Perry), in 1813. General Lewis Cass was soon after appointed governor of the territory. Michigan was admitted into the Union in 1837. Lake Michigan and the Straits of Mackinaw divide the state into two peninsulas, the lower and the upper. The latter comprises about one-third of the state, and is rich in copper, lead, iron and timber ; the for- mer is devoted to agriculture. Michigan is not a prairie state. It was made arable OF MICHIGAN. by the same hard process as the Eastern States. Forests had to be felled and roots of trees grubbed out. The farms are usual- ly small and carefully tilled. The farmers raise a \ 11 W (II ( KVM) I \.111)S formed a part of the Northwest Territory from that time until 1800, when it was included in In- diana. Michigan Territory was organized in 1805, and General Hull appointed first governor. He great variety of jDroducts, and in the aggregate real- ize handsome returns for their industry. Lansing is the capital, and Detroit and Grand Eapids are its chief cities. The State University, at Ann Arbor, WT _^2 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 607 ranks with Yale, Harvard, and Cornell, as a really great seat of learning. It has several flourishing denommational colleges also. It has furnished one poet of very considerable reputation, Will M. Carle- ton. MINNESOTA. Minnesota is very largely peopled by Scandina- vians, and in view of its great staple might well in 1833. A Swiss settlement was effected near there a short time after. The territory was organized by Congress in 1849, with Alexander Ramsey, who was Secretary of War under President Hayes, as first governor. It was admitted to the Union as a state in 1858. In 1863 occurred the horrible Sioux massa- cre, ui which not less than 1,000 whites, mostly women and children, were killed. The Sioux were removed from the state, and no troixble has since been experienced from the aborigines. There are many friendly ChipiDewas still in Minnesota. St. Paul and Minneapolis, only a few miles apart, are both large and rapidly growing cities, the former being more commercial, and the latter more devoted have been called Wheatland. Its name was bor- rowed from that of one of the rivers which dram the southwest portion of it. Minnesota has a navi- gable water-line of about 15,000 miles. It abounds in beautiful lakes. The state has a length from north to south of 380 miles, and a width of 337 miles, extenduig from Iowa to Canada one way, and from the Mississippi to the Missouri the other. The Palls of St. Anthony, to which MinneapoUs with its flouring mills and saw mills is indebted for its growth, were discovered by Hennepin, a French Jesuit, iu 1680. A fur-trading post was estabUshed there, but the traders gradually lapsed into the surrounding barbarism. The first steamboat ascend- ed the Mississippi as far as the Falls of St. Anthony VIEVP" OF ST. PAUL. to manufactures. Duluth has great expectations. St. Paul is the capital. MISSISSIPPI. That part of Mississippi now Iviiown as the Great Yazoo Bottoms was visited by De Soto in 1539. He is supposed to have remained there about a year. That region is still largely undeveloped. A territory bearing the name of Mississippi was organized in ^- a \ ^'. 608 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 1 798, but it was by uo means the present state bear- ing that name. Its boundaries were fixed as now in ISl?, -when it was admitted as a state. It was one of the first states to secede, and did not regain state rights until 1870. Nearly all of its area is cajDable of cultivation, but only a small part is actually im- proved. It is densely wooded. Cotton is the great staple. The state is well adapted to general farm products, including livestock. Jackson is the cap- ital and Vicksburg the chief city. It has produced south, stretches the great State of Missouri. Its chief city, St. Louis, grew out of a fur-trading post, and as early as 1775 had acquired considerable prom- inence. After the Louisiana purchase aud the or- ganization of the Territory of Orleans the unorgan- ized portion of the purchased possession was known as the District of Louisiana, and in 1805 as the Ter- ritory of Louisiana, with St. Louis as its capital. The name was changed to Missouri in 1812. It ap- plied for admission to the Union as early as 1817. VIEW OF only one man of great note, JefEerson Davis, the first and only President of the Southern Confederacy. MISSOURI. With Illinois on the east, Kansas and Nebraska on the west, Iowa on the north, and Arkansas on the ST. LOUIS. The contest over slavery to which that ai^plication led is already known to the reader. Like Kansas, it occasioned controversy and coniiict, but uuhke its border state, it was not the actual field of conflict. Immigration came in accordance with the nat- ural progress of events, and there was no clashing between the representatives of different sections. The Southern element predominated and Missouri became a slave state, without, however, being wholly dependent upon slave-laboi'. On the contrary, the state was always indebted to free white labor for its development. "When the civil war came, the people were very nearly evenly divided in sympathy. It -^- >f- . STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES.- 609 -7T- never seceded, but many of its citizens were to be found in both armies. For the most part Missouri is very rich soil. The iron deposits are of incalcula- ble value. Copi^er is found, but not in quantities to compete with the Lake Superior Eegion. The coal supi^ly is abundant. Lead is mined in immense quantities. The timber of the state is excellent and abundant. The products of the state embrace the usual cereals, also tobacco and gi'apes. The latter are raised in large quantities and the wine manufactured by Wyoming and Idaho, and on the west by Idaho. It is well named, but its mountains abound in nutri- tious grasses and rich beds of gold and silver. The cli- mate is milder than that in the states further east and on the same lines of latitude. The placer-dig- gings have yielded richly, and the quartz mines are now being developed to great profit. The territory was organized in 1864. Virginia City is the capital, but Helena is the chief city. Fort Benton, the head of navigation ou the Missouri Eiver, is in Montana. VIEW OF OMAHA. forms a prominent brand in the market. Jefferson City is the capital. Kansas City is often called a second Chicago. It is greatly prosperous. Missouri has a good common school system, but gangs of rough outlaws infest the western part of the state and commit train robberies with impunity, shel- tered by the dense forests and the barbarism of the sparse settlers. The only great name in the an- nals of Missouri is that of Thomas li. Benton, thirty years senator from that state. MONTANA TERRITORY. Montana Territory is bounded ou the north by British America, on the east by Dakota, on the south In its sheltered valleys immense herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are grazed the year round, and to much profit. What was formerly a hunting-ground for trappers and hunters is now about equally di- vided between miumg and herding. NEBRASKA. By the terms of the Missouri Compromise, slavery could have been extended to Kansas, but not to V ■«y ihL. 6io STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. Nebraska. The latter was therefore the bone of conteution upon tlie origiual reopening of the ques- tion of "squatter sovereignty." In the progress of events, however, it was ahnost lost sight of, and has never shared in the benefits derived by Kansas from political notoriety. In the far West tlie rainfall is inadequate, but the quantity is gradually increasing. The majestic Platte and Niabrara are its chief rivers, and there are numerous streams. The live- stock of Nebraska is the main reliance of the far- mers for income. The cost of marketing gram in its natural form is such as to render it impracticable to rely upon grain-raising alone. The territory was created at the same time that Kansas was, 1854, but it was not admitted into the Union until 1867. Lincoln is the capital, and Omaha its principal city. There are several Indian reservations in the State. There is some coal in the State, but the strata for the most part are too thin to be worked with profit. Nevada is an offshot from California. It is a rugged mining region with Oregon and Idaho on the north, Utah and Arizona on the east, and Cali- fornia on the west. The State is wedge-shaped running to a peak in the soutli. Of all the states in the Union Nevada is most dependent upon its gold and silver resources for wealth. There is a little good agricultural land witliin its border, but not much. The silver and gold are found together, the former in great abundance. The famous Comstock lode, or vein, is in Nevada. From it was taken in one year as high as $22,000,000. The Sutro Tumiel penetrates tliat vein. Virginia City and Gold Hill are mining camps grown into cities above the Comstock, and in consequence of it. Nevada was oi'ganized as a territory in 1861, and admitted as a state in 1864., In population it is the least of all the states. Carson City is the capital. From tlie standpoints of church and school, Nevada cannot be said to make a favor- able exhibit. From the standpoint of crime, how- ever, the exhibit is highly favorable to the miners. NEW HAMPSHIRE. The first settlement within New Hampshire was made at Portsmouth in 1623. Its growth was slow. In 1714 it only had eight towns, and they were very small. Oolonially it had a varied political expe- rience. Much of the time it was a part of Massa- chusetts ; later it belonged to New York, and final- ly it was a separate colony. When it separated from New York the region now comprising Vermont was in dispute and was known as the " New Hampshire Grants." Concord was made the capital in 1807, and so remains. Manchester is the largest city in the state ; Portsmouth its only seaboard. Its most notable features are Mount Washington, or the White Mountains, and Dartmouth College. The grand and sublime scenery of its mountains attract sum- mer tourists from all jiarts of the country, and Dartmouth, established in 1770, is in reality a uni- versity,ample in all its educational provisions. The land of the state is poor, much of it absolutely worth- less. About three-fifths of the state is included in farm lands. The climate is very cold. Some iron is found in paying quantities ; also mica, isinglass and graphite. Building granite is an important source of revenue. There are several thrifty manu- facturing towns in New Hampshire. The state has given birth to several great men, the most famous of her sons beina; Daniel Webster. NEW JERSEY. New Jersey has the Atlantic Ocean on the east and the States of New York, Pennsylvania and Delaware on its north, west and south. In the southeast are large marshes, and so there are on the Jersey side of the Hudson Kiver. Three mountain ranges traverse the state. But there is a very considerable area of ex- ^7- IK*- J- . STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 6X1 celleufc agricultural laud. It is under a high state of cultivation. There are several important mauu- facturing towns, Newark, Jersey City, and Pater- son being the chief. Trenton is the capital. The state is largely a suburb of New York City. Its early history as New Sweden belongs to the colonial period. New Jersey, as a distinct colony bearing that name, dates from 1708. Its first royal gov- ernor was Louis Morris, and its last, William Frank- lin, natural son of Benjamin Franklin, and a pro- nounced Tory. He was appointed in 1763. A state constitution was adopted July 3, 1776, under which the state was governed until 1844. Gov. Franklin was deposed and seutwith- in the British lines. During the Revolu- tionary war New Jer- sey suffered severely, but its patriotism nev- er faltered. Female suffrage prevailed there until 1807. The state has numerous higher schools of learning, two of which were founded in the eighteenth century, namely, the College of New Jersey, at Prince- ton, 1740, and Rutgers College, New Bruns- wick, 1770. Both are now universities, former is very richly endowed. protected in 1859, but in 1861 it was abolished, and with it peonage, a modified system of slavery which had existed there for two and a half centuries. The population is still mainly Indian and Mexican. The language employed in legislative debate is the Spanish. Gradually the influx of miners and cat- tle-men from the North and East is Americanizing the territory. The herding business is carried on upon a large scale, and very rich mines have been so far developed as to establish their high grade. The climate varies widely. In the vicinity of Santa Fe the great altitude renders the winters severe. Very little rain falls and the NEW MEXICO. New Mexico was visited by the devastating Span- iards before the middle of the sixteenth century. It had quite an advanced native civDization, Aztec or Toltec. The destroying visitors cared only for gold and silver, and that region abounds in both. Aban- doned mines attest the operations of long ago. When the republic of Mexico ceded a large part of its territory to the United States, New Mexico was included. It had been conquered by Gen. Kearney in 1848. He raised the American flag over Santa Fe, then as now its cliief town. The territory was organized in 1850. Slavery was recognized and 76 in that region. The Apache Indians hin- der development by their cruel hostilities ; but the Pueblos are a peaceable and some- what civiUzed people. Theymaintain schools and have been de- cided by the courts to be citizens of the United States. They are not disposed to avail themselves of the rights of citizens, preferring to adhere closely to their tradi- tional tribal or village form of government. The Pueblos are less in the way of civilization, in that remote region, than are the Mexicans, called "Greasers." NEW YORK. New York is the Empire State of the Union, first in population and wealth, but it is not much over one-third the size of New Mexico. It has a small strip of Canada on the north, but for the most part its north and west boundaries are the St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario with Lake Champlain, and l^ jVo 612 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. the States of Vermout, Massachusetts, aud Con- necticut along the east, and 'New Jersey and Pennsylvania along the south. With the excep- tion of the John Brown tract of the Adirondacks the greater part of the state is capable of and actually under a high state of cultivation. In the northeast iron ore is found in paying quantities, aud lumber- ing is conducted upon a large scale. It is a great dairying state. It has two col- leges dating back to the eighteenth century, Columbia, formerly King's College, New York City, 1754, and Union College, Schenectady, 1795; but it was not until Cornell University was estab- lished, 1868, that the state could boast a really great from 1614. Its first name was New Amsterdam. Originally a sleepy Dutch town, it had only about 60,000 inhabitants when this century began. It now has more Irish than Dublin and more Yankees than Boston. It has a history which is, in the main, highly creditable. But in 1872 there was disclosed a condition of corruption in its government unpar- alleled in municipal politics anywhere or at any time. That was known as the " Tweed Ring." After years of persistent effort reform was effected, the leader of the ring brought to justice, and a reign of comparative integrity established. Brooklyn is the second city in size. It is just across the river from New York, of which it is a \IEW 01 Mw\orKCiT\ ASDn\RroR university. The great name in the history of New York is Clinton. It appears among the list of roy- al governors (1743-1753) and twice among the state governors. The great Clinton was De Witt, the father of the Erie Canal. He was governor of the state sixteen years. His prescience and energy secured for New York City a connection with the Northwest, by a canal from Lake Erie to the Hud- son River, which gave it a pre-eminence over Bos- ton, Philadelphia, and all other possible rivals. Among its statesmen of renown were also Hamilton, Jay, Van Buren, Marcy and Seward, the least of them all. Van Buren, being the only one to realize the great goal of American ambition. This great state is noted for its pros]3erous cities. Its greatest city bearing the same name as the state, is the commercial and financial capital of the New World, surely destined to rival London. It dates suburb. It is almost entirely composed of resi- dences, the men of Brooklyn being occupied in New York duruig the day. It is sometimes called The City of Churches. Its most pojDular preacher is Henry Ward Beecher, but it has manj^ great preach- ers and large and well-filled houses of worship. Buff- alo, the head of lake navigation, has been an import- ant city ever since the Erie Canal was constructed. It is opulent and beautiful. Rochester owes its existence to inexhaustible water-power, the richness of the Gen- esee Valley, and the Erie Canal. Of late years it has been famous for the excellence of its adjacent seed farms and nurseries. The soil and climate of that portion of New York are admirably adapted to both vegetable raising and fruit growing. Syracuse owes its existence aud prosperity to its salt-works which yield at least 7,000,000 bushels yearly. The other manufactures of that city are numerous and prosper- -71-. Lk- STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 613 ous. Albany, tlie capital of the state, is an old and populous city, the head of navigation on the Hud- son River. Five miles above it is Troy, which is a great center for stove manufactures and lumber. Utica, Lockport, Binghamtou, Elmira, Auburn, Poughkeepsie, Oswego, Saratoga Sprmgs, Ogdens- burg, Youkers, Newburg, Schenectady, Rome, East New York, Kingston, Cohoes and Flushing are thrifty minor cities. But with all its urban splendor, the State of New York is greatest and best as the home of a vast and highly intelligent agricult- ural population. NORTH CAROLINA. North CaroHna claims to have sounded the key- note of American Independence, and the claim has foundation. Tiie Mecklenburg Declaration of Inde- pendence dates back more than a year prior to the declaration adopted by the Continental Congress. It was in effect a petition to Congress in favor of nationality. The action of Congress was ratified by North CaroHna in less than a month. A state organization was effected in December following. The constitution of the United States was rejected by North Carolina once, but later it concurred in its ratification. The secession movement found the " Old North " much divided in sympathy, and it re- quired several efforts to secure a vote in favor of secession. The ordinance was passed in May, 1861. The state was restored to the Union in the summer of 1868. Its principal city is Wilmington on the seaboard. Raleigh is the capital. Before the war the University of North Carolina, founded at Chapel Hill, in 1793, was a flourishing institution, but it has been feeble ever since. It was closed from the outbreak of the war until 1875. The state produces rice, tobacco, cotton, peanuts, tar and turpen- tine. Before the discovery of the California mines its gold-mines were worked to a considerable ex- tent. Coal and iron are abundant in some por- tions of the state, but the people are sadly lacking in energy. OREGON. Oregon is the most remote state of the Union, and the least frequented. It is between the parallels of 42° and 46° 18' of latitude, and longitudes 116° 33' and 134° 25'. The voyage from San Francisco to Portland, its commercial capital, as Salem is its po- litical, is long and dangerous. The state has three well-defined divisions, the western, middle and east- ern. Tiie western or coast division is well watered and arable ; the middle division is arid and uninvit- ing, and the eastern abounds in high mountains and fertile valleys. The best part of the state is the de- lightful Willamette Valley. Considerable gold has been washed from the sands of Oregon and some quartz-mining carried on. It is an excellent coun- try for wheat and livestock. It has several colleges, the Pacific being the oldest and the Willamette the largest. The Territory of Oregon was organized in 1849, mcludiug then the present Territory of Wash- ington. Ten years later it was admitted as a state. The war with the Modoc Indians in 1873 was fought within the limits of Oregon. OHIO. Ohio was once peopled by Indians possessing some civihzation. They lived by bread, rather than game, and cultivated the soil in preference to following the trail. They built mounds which still attest their skill in engineering and the largeness of their con- ceptions. But by the time the region began to be settled by white pioneers the inhabitants were sav- ages, with only faint traces of civilization. The first settlement was made at Marietta in 1788 by a colony from New England. Cincinnati was founded later in the same year. Virginia, Massachusetts, New York and Connecticut all laid claim to the country, the for- i.T^* -3i 614 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. mer having the best claim, the latter the least. They all surrendered their claims, except Connecticut, which held on, partially, to the northwest corner of Ohio, known as the AVestern Eeserve. The Northwest Ter- ritory was organized in 1788, with General St. Clair who had been President of the Continental Congress, as first governor. The ordinance es- tablishing the Territory forever prohibited slavery, and set apart for educational purposes a portion of the public domain, on a policy which has always been dependence of the people. In some portions of the state grapes are raised in immense quantities, espe- cially in the vicinity of lake Erie. There is a great deal of manufacturing industry. The large cities, Cincinnati and Cleveland especially, are extensively engaged in all sorts of manufactures using iron and wood. The state has a very large number of col- leges, most of them merely academies, Oberlin and Antioch being best known. The state has produced some eminent men, Thomas Corwin, the great ora- ■■\ I VIEW OF CINCINNATI. adhered to in the organization of territories. The state, under the name of Ohio, was admitted to the Union in 1803. From a geographical point of view Kansas is the central state of the Union, but in practical matters Oliio is really the central state. It is rich and prosperous in a pre-eminent degree. It has no mountains, neither is it a prairie state. It is a rolling tableland, admirably adapted, for the most part, to agriculture. It abounds in coal, and in the southern part are found immense deposits of iron. Petroleum has also been found in large quan- tities. AVheat, corn and livestock are the main tor, Salmon P. Chase, statesman and jurist, Joshua R. Giddings, statesman, and James A. Garfield, sol- dier and statesman. It is also the home of Ex-Presi- dent Hayes and the birthplace of the three great soldiers of the Union, Grant, Sherman and Sheridan. Columbus is the capital. Politically it is almost evenly divided, but generally goes Republican. The native American element is largely composed of New Englanders, or descendants of the Puritans. Between this part of the population and the large German element there is a sharp antagonism on sumptuary and Sabbatic legislation. *7F c) "V K^ STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 6^S PENNSYLVANIA. In importance, historical and actual,the great State of Pennsylvania is the peer of Virginia, Massachu- setts and New York. It has a large area and the re- gions not adapted to agriculture abound in coal, plati- is the capital. The Wyoming Valley is picturesque, fertile and populous. Philadelphia was, for the most part, the capital of the country during the period of struggle with England. The great battle of Gettysburg was fought on the soil of Pennsyl- vania. The state is more famous for its prominence in public affairs and for its wealth than for its influ- ence upon the intellectual development of the nation. In the domain, however, of professional treatises, legal and medical, especially the latter, it has excelled. Girard College, the munificent gift of Stej)hen Gi- rard, is the most notable of its institutions. It has num or iron, which greatly enhance the value of the surrounding arable land. Nearly 70 per cent, of the entire land area of the state is under cultivation, including the fenced woodland. Autliracite coal is a Pennsylvania monopoly. From twenty-five to thirty millions of tons are consumed every year, all from a few eastern counties. In Western Peuiisjd- vania bituminous coal is found and mined. Petro- leum is found in a few places in Ohio, and a little in New York, but the supply nearly all comes from Western Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, once the most important city on the continent, is now second only to New York. It is largely devoted to manufactur- ing now. Pittsburgh in the western portion of the state is the iron capital of the country. Harrisburg an endowment, includuig the cost of the buildings, of 82,000,000. The oldest college in the state is the University of Pennsylvania, which dates from 1749. Like Girard College, it is located at Phila- delphia. When the Revolutionary War began, that city was an imj)orfcant center of scientific research, David Eittenhouse being hardly less famous at that time for his astronomical observations and calcula- tions than Franklin for his experiments in electricity. Political and military exigencies arrested scientific progress. There are sections of the country where the inhabitants speak only German, although their ancestors came to this country several generations ago. They are called Dunkers. They are simple in habits and singularly fi-ee from vice and indigence. ipr- JV' 6i6 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. RHODE ISLAND. Rhode Island is the smallest state in the Union, but Narragansett Bay extends in such a way as to give the state a water frontage of 350 miles. The soil is not very good. About one-fourth of it is still covered with forests. The state is largely devoted to manufactures, moi'e especially cotton, woolen and worsted goods, also jewelry. Providence is its leading city. Newport is famous as a summer resort for the wealthy of New York, Boston and other parts of the country. Its villas are noted for their elegance and luxury. Kewport aspired, a century ago, to rivalry in commercial importance with Boston and New York. The commodore appointed by the Continental Congress to take charge of the American navy was Hopkins of Khode Island. Paul Jones was a Ehode Islander. So too was General Greene, one of the bravest and ablest of the Revolutionary generals. The state was the last of the thirteen to accept the national constitution, not coming into the Union until May 29, 1790. In the war of 1813 a Rhode Islander won renown. Commodore Perry, and most of his men were from the same state. In both wars with England Rhode Island privateers rendered im- portant service. The constitution of the state re- stricts suffrage to property holders and taxpayers or those who may have performed military service dur- ing the year. The legislature meets twice a year. Brown University is the only college in the state. It dates from 1765. It is under the auspices of the Baptist denomination, and is liberally endowed and largely patronized. SOUTH CAROLINA. South Carolina is triangular in shape, lying be- tween North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee and the Atlantic Ocean. It has an area of 34,000 square miles. It is well adapted to grain-raising and cot- ton-^Dlanting. The islands along the coast are nu- merous and produce peculiarly good cotton. Rice is raised on a very large scale in the lowlands of the state. The palmetto, a species of the palm, is the distinguishing tree of the state. There are three ports of entry in South Carolina, Charleston, Beau- fort and Georgetown. The former was once a more important city than Philadelphia or New York, but it lost its pre-eminence long ago. Columbia is the capital, and it is there that the State University, the only prosperous higher institution of learning in the state, is located. South Carolina was effective in support of the patriot cause in the Revolutionary War, promjit to ratify the constitu- tion and join in cementing the Union, but it was the first state to secede. In 1833 it attempted to break up theUnion and on the very day that President Lin- coln was elected the governor of the state issued a call for a meeting of the legislature for the purpose of seceduig. The ordinance of secession was passed December 20, 1860, and in June, 1868, the state was restored to the Union. TENNESSEE. Tennessee first comes to view as Washington County, North Carolina, in the Revolutionary period. In 1785 the settlers concluded to organize as a state under the name of Franklin. North Carolina re- fused to sanction this movement, but in 1789 it ceded the region to the United States, and the next year the Territory of Tennessee was organized. In 1796 it was admitted into the Union as a state. Knoxville was the first capital. The state seceded in May, 1861. It was restored to the Union hi 1866. The state is well supplied with coal, iron and marble. The latter is black, gray, red and variegated, very beautiful and abundant, but difii- cult of access. The country is uneven, often mount- ainous, but the soil is usually good and the crops liberal. Memphis, on the Mississippi River, is the R STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 617 largest city in the state, and Nashyille, the capital, ranks next. The princif)al seat of learning is Van- derbilt University at Nashville, founded by Corn- tried to prevent the secession of the state, but failed. It wont out of the Union in 1861 and did not I get back again until nine years later. During the modore Vanderbilt in 1875. come of $42,000. It has an annual in- TEXAS. Prom 1827 to 1839 Sam Houston Avas governor of Tennessee. He then pushed off into the wilds of the Southwest and was lost sight of. But in 1836 he came to the front as President of the Republic of Texas. The year before he had been appointed commander of the little army raised in Texas to achieve independence of Mexico. The decisive bat- tle was fought at San Jacinto in the spring of 1836, Santa Anna being taken prisoner. He purchased hberty by signing a treaty acknowledging the in- dependence of the revolting republic. The Lone Star, as it was called, remained independent until 1846, when it was admitted into the Union as a state, with the privilege of forming five states. It has an area of 374,365 square miles. Gen. Hous- ton represented the state in the Senate many years, and then in 1859 was elected governor. He held the office when the confederacy was organized, and last decade the state has made wonderful progress in population. Texas and Kansas may fairly claim unrivaled pre-eminence in this regard. The state is especially well adapted to herding. Austin is the capital and Galveston the chief port on the Gulf of Mexico. San Antonio is a prosperous town. The state has an immense amount of land at its dis- posal, and recently contracted for the erection of a capitol, to be paid for in land. UTAH TERRITORY. Utah Territory has Arizona on its south, Col- orado on the east, Nevada on tlie west, Idaho and Wyoming on the north, lying mainly in the Wali- satch basin, between the Eocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. It has numeroirs lakes, none of which have any apparent outlet, although fed by very considerable rivers. One of the bodies of water contains twenty-two per cent, of pure salt, and is known as Salt Lake. No fish can live in it. It is 100 miles long and fifty miles wide. But this natural phenomenon is less remarkable than the people 6i8 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. who constitute the iiiahi body of the inhabitants. Tliey are Mormons, or "Latter-day Saints," be- having in polygamy as a divine institution and Joseph Smith, a native of Vermont, as an inspired guide. They liave a bible whicli they received througli him. He attempted to establish a commu- nity ui Nauvoo, Illinois, which should be independent of the state. He was killed in 1844, and his fol- lowers driven out of the state. They crossed the MississipjDi and pushed westward to Council Bluffs, opposite Omaha, intending to establish themselves there, remote from white settlements. But after de- liberation and investigation it was decided to leave the United States and found a theocracy in the wilds of Northern Mexico. The valley about Salt Lake was chosen as their retreat, and in 1847 they took up their residence there. Hardly had they done so before the region became a part of the United States, and Congress organized the Terri- tory of Utah. That was in 1850. Brig- ham Young, the suc- cessor of Smith, was made governor. He held the office four years. Since then the government has ap- pointed "gentile" gov- ernors and there has always been bitterness between the few gen- tile uihabitants and the Mormons. The latter number nearly 100,000. In 1857 oc- curred the Mountain Meadow massacre, by which a large number of pioneers on their way to California, men, women and chil- dren, were slain by the Mormon "Danites," and their Indian allies. The Government has tried to eradicate polygamy by prohibitory law, but without success, and recruits are beuig gathered all the time from the lower classes in England, Wales, and the Scandinavian countries. The Territory derives its name from the Ute tribe of Indians. Salt Lake City, the capital, is a thrifty city. It contains the great tabernacle of the Mormons, with a seating capacity of 7,000 or 8,000. Utah is very rich in f)recious minerals, but the Mormons confine their industry to agriculture. The land has to be irriga- ted. The Mormons are very anxious to be admitted as a state, thus escaping from Federal control. Utah has apphed for admission as Deserett. Wo- men are allowed to vote in that territory. VERMONT. Vermont deserved to be one of the original thir- teen states, but was not admitted to the Union until March, 1791. It be- gan to be settled im- mediately after the French war of 1755 -58, by pioneers from New Hampshire. In a few years there were settlements from New York, also from Mas- sachusetts. From 1777 until admitted to the Union, Vermont may be said to have been entirely independent. The people were de- voted patriots. Ethan Allen and Seth War- ner with their "Green Mountain Boys," dis- tinguished themselves at Ticonderoga. The battle of Bennington also attests the bravery of the Vermonters. The state is almost wholly given to agriculture ; man- ufacturing being little cultivated. The Green Mountains constitute its backbone. The state has two colleges of some standing among the higher institutions of learning, the University of Vermont at Burlington, and Middlebury College, Middlebury. Rutland, St. Albans and St. Johnsbury are the ■^^ r STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 619 4i^ principal towns of the state, and Montpelier the cap- ital. It has the honor of being represented iu the Senate of the United States by Geo. P. Edmunds. It was the birthplace of the poet Saxe. VIRGINIA. If no specific mention were made in this connec- tion of Virginia, or the "Old Dominion," it would of breaking the political solidity of the South. When Richmond ceased to be the capital of the Confed- eracy, and Lee gave up his sword, Virginia sub- sided. On the 17th of April, 1861, it seceded, and it did not regain its foothold in the Union as an in- dependent, self-governing state until January, 1870. Eichmoud is the state capital and the chief city of the state, with Norfolk and Petersburg next. As early as 1693, the college of William and Mary was founded; Washington and Lee University in 1749; Hampden Sidney in 1775, and University of Vir- ginia in 1835. The state has always taken com- mendable interest in education. The plantations were so large and the population so scattered as to render impracticable the common school system ■Tfi still fill a large place in the American department of this volume, so prominent was it iu Colonial and Revolutionary days, and during the first century of the Republic. From 1607, when the first perma- nent English settlement was made on American soil upon the banks of the James River, until the close of the war between the North and the South, nearly two hundred and sixty years later, Virginia was almost constantly at the front. Since that time it has not been specially prominent, except as made conspicuous in politics by the "Readjusters," led by Senator Mahone, who is urged forward in the hope 77 of the North, but as the land is being divided, and the negroes are now a part of " the people," public schools are beginning to flourish. The state contains some coal and iron. The soil is generally good, and the climate mild. Tobacco has always been the leading staple of the state. General farming can be carried on to advantage, as nearly all grains and grasses thrive there. Gold has been discovered in rich quartz within the limits of the state ; but, thus far, the mines have never been worked to advantage. Virginia is very proud of its record, and justly so- It is familiarly known as "The Old Dominion." JV< 620 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. -f WASHINGTON TERRITORY. Washington Territory is the extreme northwest (except Alaska) of the United States, having Brit- ish Cokimbia on the nortli, Idaho on the east, Ore- gon on tlie soutli and the Pacific Ocean on the west. It was once known as the Puget Sound Region. It was visited by Lewis and Clark in 1815. The Hud- son Bay Company tried to seize and ajipropriatc it in 1828. The territory was organized in 1853. Its present boundaries were fixed ten years later. It contauis some gold and a great deal of coal, but its chief attractions are its fertile wheat-lands and broad pastures. The climate on tlie coast is softened by warm sea breezes. Olympia is the capital. AVith the Nortliern Pacific railroad completed, it is ex- pected that Washington Territory, thus far slow to develop, will rapidly fill up with agriculturists. people in the mountainous northwest portion of the state remained loyal to the Union. They had long wanted to eseajje from Virginia and form a separate state, and the opportunity was then afforded for do- ing so. In June, 1801, steps were taken for effect- ing a state organization, and two years later West Virginia came into the Union. Nearly two-thirds of the state is covered with the original forest. Wheeling, the capital and chief city, is a great cen- ter for iron works. The state is largely indebted to its iron and coal for its prosperity. The state of Vir- ginia insists that West Virginia should assume its proportion of the old state debt, but West Virginia is not disposed to entertain the proposition, and there is no way to compel the state to pay any part of that obligation, nor is there the slightest prospect of any cliange of opinion on the subject. WEST VIRGINIA. West Virginia is an offshoot from Virginia. When the latter joined the Confederacy a majority of the WISCONSIN. As early as 1636 a white settlement was made at Green Bay. That was the beginning of civilization Slv" '-^ STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 621 iu Wisconsin. But no present connection can be traced between the French missions of the 17th century and tlie modern state. The territory was organized in 1836, and included the extreme north- west, in a somewhat vague way. Two years later Wisconsin was admitted to the Union with its pres- ent boundaries. It has Illinois on the south. Lake Michigan and the State of Michigan on the east. Lake Superior on the north, and Minnesota and Iowa on the west. The state is very uneven in the character of its soil, having much good farming land and some barren sand-fields. The lumber tracts are extensive and very valuable. Milwaukee, once a rival of Chicago and still an important city, is tlie principal center of business in the state. Madi- son is the capital. The population, originally, was comjjosed of pioneers from New England and New York. Of late years a great many Scandinavians and Germans have settled in the state. Lakes of great beauty abound. The country is rolling. The state has at its capital a university under state con- trol wkich ranks among the great institutions of learnuig. W^isconsin has several important rivers, which have been and are still of great advantage for milling and commercial purposes. The chief of these are the Wisconsin, the ChipjDewa, and the Fox. Tlie former and latter are connected by a canal. Immense quantities of pine logs are floated down these rivers and manufactured into lumber upon their banks. WYOMING TERRITORY. Wyoming Territory is at the foot of the hst of states and territories in every respect. With an area of nearly 100,000 square miles, it has almost no land at all adapted to agriculture. The sparse bunch- gi'ass of its plains affords pasturage for cattle. Chey- enne, its capital, is the only town within its limits of any considerable magnitude. It is a great center for the cattle trade and shipment of the plains. The territory was organized in 1868. There is some coal along and near the Union Pacific railroad. The National Park forms the extreme northwest corner of Wyoming. That is the region of geysers so wonderful that Congi-ess by specific legislation reserved the tract as a public domain forever. It comprises an area of 3,575 square miles. No other equal area contains so many natural phenom- ena of interest. " There are more hot springs and geysers in this area," says Hayden, "than in all the remainder of the world besides." Having now considered alphabetically the several states and territories of the United States, it only remains to add that the combining of so many es- sentially independent commonwealths in one nation is no longer an experiment, and every vestige of hos- tility to the union of the states has disappeared, be- longing exclusively to historical, in distinction from actual America. >pr 3S ^k ^ AXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX *' ■^^■^W' AMERICAN +**+***+ ^INVENTIONS AND^ INVENTORS. ^*»»*iK*****=i=***»** »****^ii!»^' ^ AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 633 ik. Iron is aii industry wliicli dates, so far as concerns America, from 16^0. Bog iron-ore, found near Jamestown, was used. In 1643 bog-iron was util- ized in Massachusetts. The manufacture of iron received quite an impetus in 1653, and now this country makes one-fourth of the steel and one- fourtli of tlie iron of the whole world. The iron production of 1880 in this country was 3,320,000 totis, and the steel 800,000 tons. The United States is second only to Great Britain in this great branch of industry. Our ore beds are so ricli that bog iron is almost as obsolete as hand-made cloth. Sheep were introduced into New York in 1635, and into Massachusetts in 1633. In 1777 the mak- ing of wool-card teeth by machinery instead of by hand, was invented by Oliver Evans. These three beginnings may be called the foundation of the woolen interest in America. The clip of 1879 in the United States amounted to 165,000,000 pounds, and the textile production of 1880 was 358,000,000 pounds. The foregoing are the great staples of manufac- ture. In a discussion of the balance-sheet of this country, Mulhall says, " It would be impossible to find in history a parallel to the progress of the Uni- ted States in the last ten years," referring to the de- cade from 1870 to 1880. The aggregate of indus- tries was in round numbers $10,030,000,000 during the year 1880. Of this amount $4,440,000,000 must be set down to tlie credit of manufactures, while agriculture can claim $3,6,35,000,000, leaving tlie remainder to be divided between commerce, mining, transportation, banking and sundries. Of agriculture Mulhall observes that it has not kept pace with population, as regards value, but in amount of production it has increased more rapidly than jiopulatiou. The grain of 1880 was 3,390,000,- 000 bushels; the hay, 34,150,000,000,000 tons ; the cotton, 3,773,000,000 pounds. The census of that year gave the number of farming stock thus: horses, 13,550,000 ; cows, 33,600,000 ; sheep, 38,000,- 000; hogs, 35,000,000, making a grand total of 119,150,000 head, or 3.39 head per inhabitant. This is surely a very satisfactory showing. The mineral production makes a very favorable showing for the same year, namely: iron ore, 9,500,000 tons ; copper, 30,300 tons ; coal, 55,000,- 000 tons ; petroleum, 860,000,000 gallons. As for gold and silver, one-half of the world's supply came from this country. Of all the mining industries of the world, this country represents thirty-six per cent. Great Britain comes next and represents thirty- three -peT cent. During the ten years ending with 1880 the United States coined nearly one-fourth of the gold and one-sixth of the silver turned out by all the mints of the world. The shipment of American fresh beef to England began in 1875, and has become a great branch of commerce ; but for the most part, American meats are exported cured or cooked. Pork is salted and the hams smoked, but the beef is cooked and then canned. This industry has its chief center in Chi- cago, the central point for cattle shipments from the whole West. In 1880 the meat supply of the country was reported thus : cattle slaughtered, 5,600,000; sheep slaughtered, 13,666,000; hogs, 14,480,000, making the following tons of meat: beef, 3,100,000 ; mutton, 434,100 ; pork, 1,391,560. It is estimated that the American people, who are the best fed of all the peoples of the earth, consume on an average 135 pounds of meat per inhabitant a year. The total production is 3,815,660 ; the total home consumption is 3,740,000 tons, leaving 1,076,- 000 tons for export. Turning now to railroads, it may be observed, upon the threshold, that the first railroad charter was given in this country to the Mohawk and Hudson River Company, the parent of the New York Cen- tral trunk line of the Vanderbilt combination and monopoly. The first railroad in the land was built to transport from Quincy the granite used in the erection of Bunker Hill monument. That was in 1837. It was a horse railroad, originally. The first spadeful of dirt in the grading of the Bal- timore and Ohio railroad was thrown up, with great ceremony, July 4, 1834, by Charles Carroll of Oar- roUton, who proved to be the last survivor of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. The mileage of railroads in the country is constantly in- creasing, and is now about 110,000 miles. The increase during the last decade was 41,883 miles, or more than that of all Europe combined, and an average of twelve miles a day. It is a moderate estimate to say that during the first two years of the current decade the increase was 10,000. During the last decade many railroads became bankrupt, the total number being 138, and their aggregate mileage, 13,- 130, representing a cost of about $1,150,000,000. ^ Q V ^ ' i^ 634 AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. o Since the more prosperous times wliich followed the resumption of specie payments (1879) the stock and bonds of these roads have greatly increased in vahie. Tlie total cost of the railroads built up to 1880 were $5,000,000,000. Many of the roads built have penetrated the prairies in advance of home- seeking enterprises, and the locomotive has been " the voice of one crying in the wilderness." The shipping interest has steadily declined ever since 1860, except as regards shipping on the lakes and great rivers, and even there, especially on the rivers, rail competition has been de- pressing, and often absolute- ly destructive. The total traffic of the country for 1880 was 310,000,000 tons, of which 310,000,000 Avent by railways, 80,000,000 by in- land water ; 34,000,000 tons by coast traffic, and the re- mainder, 16,000,000, is set down as "entirely by sea." An important branch of business, one interwoven with every industry and all sec- tions of the country, is insur- ance. Tlie first American insurance was marine. It was inaugurated at Philadel- phia by John Copson in 1731. Fire insurance dates from 1 753. Benjamin Franklin was the President of the first company. Its headquarters were Philadelphia. That cor- poration was organized on the mutual plan and is still in existence. Marine insurance did not really flourish until the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury. Philadelphia also took the lead in life msur- ance. Franklin was prominent in its promotion. It began business in 1769. That was confined to Episcopal clergymen. The first general life insur- ance company was the Philadelpliia of 1813. For a long time there was a superstitious prejudice against all insurance, as resistance to the will of Providence. Insurance against accident dates from 1864, and was started at Hartford, Connecticut, then and now specially devoted to insurance. The banking system of the United States rests upon a solid foundation, and no country can boast so convenient and complete a medium of exchange as this country. The history and present condition of American money will serve to conclude this in- dustrial survey of America. Alexander Hamilton has many claims to the per- petual gratitude of the American jDeople, but his chief claim is the service he rendered in organizing the national treasury and establishing American finances upon a substantial basis. The jiresent monetary system of this country is, in its funda- mental principle, whatever may be said of its details, Hamiltonian. The year 1690 witnessed the establishment of the first American newspaper, the first paper-mill and the issue of the first paper money. The colony of Massachusetts issued bills of credit to the amount of £40,000 in pay- ment for an expedition to Quebec. Pennsylvania issued £45,000 of paper money iji 1733, and Maryland followed the same example in 1773, greatly to its disadvantage Paper money is so easily made that it is very difficult to jjreveut an over-issue. In the Revolutionary War the Continental Congress put so mucli paper money in circu- lation that it depreciated and finally became worthless. During the latter part of the Revolutionary War the system of banks and bank notes was inaugurated. The first ex- periment was tried in Philadelphia under Con- gressional auspices. The Bank of Pennsylvania was chartered early in 1780, the Bank of North America, also a Philadelphia institution, was started early in 1783, and proved of great usefulness. It is still in existence, changed into a national bank. Others followed and gradually filled the land with bank-notes. Every considerable towji had its bank with its bills redeemable in coin on de- mand. For the greater part of its existence this republic has done business upon a bank-note basis. -»>>■. AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 635 15 O w a En o w s o Bl E r Mj\ AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 637 no other medium of exchange being uuicli em- ployed. The system was very objectionable, for the reason that many bills were never redeemed at all, and entailed loss upon the holder. But no substi- tute was devised until military necessity, during the late civil war, compelled the government to issue notes of its own, a legal tender for all payments except duties on imports and interest on the public debt. These greenbacks, as they came to be called, were supplemented by a system of national banks, under which the bolder of bank-notes is absolutely protected from loss, even if the bank itself should fail, and so for about twenty years the industries of this country have had as a medium of exchange the best system of paper money the world has \~ ever seen. Since 1879 all this paper money has been equal in pur- chasing power to its face in coin. Industri- al stability and pros- perity demands mon- etary stability and a convenient medium of l>? 1 Srx DOLLARS ^ savTO'i'S^o^a XI clc^ exchange. The outlook for the material thrift of America, from what- ever point viewed, is most encouraging. The record of American art is brief. In the long list of famous jiainters the first American name is John S. Copley, a historical painter, born in Boston in 1737. His work attracted attention in England as early as 1760. The greater part of his life was spent in London, where he died at the age of seven- ty-eight. Benjamin West, a Pennsylvania Quaker, is better known. He was born in 1738, and studied his profession in Rome, the first American painter enrolled as a student in the Italian school. In 1792 he was elected to succeed Sir Joshua Eeynolds as president of the Royal Academy, London. In his life- time West was ranked among the foremost artists of all time, but his posthumous reputation is somewhat less conspicuous. Gilbert 0. Stuart, a native of Rhode Island, born in 1756, was a great portrait painter. He painted three portraits of Washington, and the standard portraits of many of the eminent men of tliat period have came down to us from his easel. Stuart died in Boston in 1828. John Trumbull of Connecticut, was born in 1756. He was the son of Governor Trumbull, " Uncle Jonathan." Many of his paintings are commemo- rative of American independence and the strug- gle through which it was achieved. Trumbull did much for art in connection with his almaniater, Yale (College. He died in 1843. In 1777 Edward G. Malbone first saw the light of day. This famous miniature painter was a native of Newport, Rhode Island. As a colorist lie was especially excellent. He died at the early age of thirty. Another name is conspicuous in the annals of American art, Washington All- ston, a native of South Carolina, where he was born in 1779. Allston was a charm- ing poet and a bril- liant artist. He was most at home in delin- eating biblical scenes. Allston died in 1843. He deserves special consideration as a happy blending of art and literature. His manhood home was a conspicuous illustra- Among modern paint- of the Atlantic may Healy, Bier- ) lX,DrO.^?SNt p LAUS-, mA^^M Six ayoie'm.g. TmSBiTtEnUtlct^lM _^,„Bcarei' to -receivft SIX SPANTStt WILLED DOILAKS. ot tv Value tKe-PRo/ in a OLD or S ILVER- otroTd .»«• 1 aRixoIutlon of COAS GRESS puli„lJrt Phi. laJeipKn Nov2.- '//G- BILL OF CREDIT, OR CONTLNENTAL MONEY. m Cambridge and he was tion of " Boston culture." ers of fame on both sides be mentioned Church, Beard, Hart, stadt, Shirlaw, Dyer, Hope. In sculpture, Hiram Powers and W. W. Story, both New Englanders long resident in Rome, are unsurpassed in the use of the chisel. Powers was born in Vermont in 1805. His " Greek Slave," fin- ished at Rome in 1843, secured for the sculptor a rank among the master workers in marble. Storey, a son of the great American jurist, Justice Story of the Supreme Bench, was born in Boston in 1819. He early took up his residence in Rome, where he did not fail to acquire recognition not only as a poet, but as an artist of rare accomplishments and power. ^w J^ ,^ ® AMERICAN LITERATURE. ^ ■:N»^r iH^ii I ft'^-Ji^jig'jj^.^^i'ljj'j.wttl) f iw 4 i i \ tt^_r, iSSsM' aJfr 11 r iWii It ''^ KtAr i^ilb, laiuui iWa-t'i* ^^fl^l/' Jtelij; j^«3.giAa3)aiaaHL flsftfwt<'sitf a A i*'ia*''l.'iajlii'-iM»Xr)Mfi' T ^~i'" CHAPTER LXXXIX. English Litekatuke and America — First American Author — Eliot and His Indian Bible — First" Authoress in America — John Woolman — Jonathan Edwards — Cotton Mather — Benjamin Franklin and Poor Richard — Revolutionary Literature — Common Sense and THE Crisis — Poetry of the Period — The Federalist — Madison State Papers — A Sterile Age — Minor Poems — Poe and Dana — Cooper and his Novels — N. P, Willis and G. P. Morris — "Fanny Forrester," Mrs. Sigourney and Mrs. Willard — Washington Irving — Jared Sparks — Margaret Fuller and R. W. Emerson — Kent and Story — Webster and Worcester— Theological Controversy— Great American Historians — The Scientists — The Journalists — The Great Poets — American Humor — Hawthorne and Others — The Noted Writers now .\t their Desks — Pulpit Literature. NGLISH literature, in the broad sense of the term, is something more than the hterature of England, and includes the literary pro- duction of all the English- speaking peo^Dles ; but the writings of American authors form so important a branch of this greatest of all literatures that it may well be hon- ored with a distinct classification. The first literary effort in the En- glish language in the new world, apart from mere reports, was a translation of Ovid's Metamojyliods by George San- dys, in 1621. Dryden was gxeatly pleased with the versification. Sandys was treasurer of the Virginia colony. Several pubhcations de- signed to stimulate emigration from England to America appeared about that time, penned by colo- nists, but they had no special merits. The first printing piress in the colonies was set up in the house of the president of Harvard College in 1639, and the first book jjrinted in this country was the "Bay Psalm Book" (1640) prepared for use in Puritan churches by John Eliot and others. The first really great literary work in America was performed by Ehot in reducing the language spoken by the Indians of Massachusetts to writing. He not only made a translation of the Bible in the language of the Mohegans, but a grammar, besides translating several religious books of high repute in that day. Eliot's Bible was printed on the Har- vard press in 1658-63, and was the first Bible printed iu America. The ilrst strictly American authoress was Mrs. Anne Bradstreet, wife of Governor Bradstreet, of Massachusetts. She was born in 1612 and died in 1672. " The Tenth Muse " was an appellation be- stowed upon her. From her the Danas, to be men- tioned later, were descended. The most illustrious name in the literary annals of America in the sev- enteenth century was Mather, father, son, grandson and great grandson, the third. Cotton Mather, being the chief. He was a man of many wonderful gifts. His Magnalia Ghridi Americana was a historical and biographical memorial of primitive New England, a book showing fine powers of characterization. But ^ (638) ^ AMERICAN LITERATURE. 639 lie was greater as a man and a preacher than he was as an author. His account of witchcraft in Salem and Boston has proved a monument to his own dis- honor, giving him more prominence in that disrep- utable episode of colonial history than he actually deserves. The first American book of real genius came from the pen of a native of New Jersey and a member of the Society of Friends, to whom Charles Lamb paid this high tribute, " Get the writings of John Wool- man by heart, and learn to love the early Quaker." The best of his writings is his Journal. Wool- man was born in Burlington County, New Jersey, 1730, and died of the small-pox, in York, En- gland, whither he had gone to attend a quar- terly meeting, in 1773. Con- temporaneous withWoolman, equally relig- ious, but other- wise widely dif- ferent from luni, was Jona- than Edwards, who was born in East Windsor, Connecticut, 1703, and died, also of small-pox, at Pruiceton, New Jersey, 1758. Edwards was at the time of his death jiresident of Princeton College. He was a metaphysician of wondrous powers of logic. Accepting the dogmas of Calvinism, he carried them to their logical conclusions with a clear- ness and thoroughness baffling refutation, if only his jaremises are conceded. His treatise on the Will and the History of Redemption are still standard text-books of orthodoxy. "The English Calvinists," wrote Sir James Mackintosh, " have written noth- ing to be put in competition with it" [the treatise on the Will^ Jonathan Edwards is the only colo- nial author to achieve and maintain a place among the great authors of the world. The next name of note in American literature is JONATHAN EDWARDS. Benjamin Frankhn. He too attracted attention upon the other side of the Atlantic, and was ac- corded rank among the best iiitellects of the period. But his fame rested upon his discoveries in science rather than upon his merits as a writer. His pen was plodding and commonplace. He wrote much aud wisely, with good taste, but not brilliantly. Born at Boston in 1706, his manliood home was in Philadelphia, where he died in 1790. He was a man of science and pohtics, writing with a view to practi- cal results. With theology he never meddled. Without any polemical disposition, he was purely and uniformly secular. Many of his wise sayings have passed into proverbs. For many years he publish- ed " Poor Richard's Almanac," an annual so full of homely wis- dom as to acquire a great hold upon the public. For a long time he publish- ed and edit- ed the Penn- sylvania Ga- zette, the most influential journal in all the colonies. He did more by his pen for the promotion of colonial union and resistance to English desjootism than any other man. His Autobiography is the best of his literary remains, and will always be valued as a storehouse of history and sage observations. Mirabeau paid this deserved tribute to Franklui: "Antiquity would have raised altars to this mighty genius, who, to the advantage of mankind, compassing in his mind the heavens and the earth, was able to restrain alike thunderbolts and tyrants." Franklin's great reputation made him especially available as a representative of the colonies at the British court. If the authorities were contemptuous of the colonies as such, they would surely listen to the great Dr. Franklin on any subject. For this reason he was much abroad, both in England before THOMAS PAINE. Ekn 640 AMERICAN LITERATURE. tlie conflict actually begun, and in France during the progress of the war. While in England he formed the acquaintance of Thomas Paine, the son of a Quaker, a corset-maker, a sailor and a reve- nue official in a small way. The quick eye of Frank- lin saw the genius of the man, and advised him to cast his fortunes with the American colonies. He emigrated to this country in 1774, in the forty- fourth year of his age. He had shown facihty with the pen in a pamphlet criticising the service with which he was connected. That pamphlet cost him his offlce and served to introduce him to Franklin. In this country he wrote several publications of some merit. His claim to recognition in this connec- tion rests upon the series of short papers issued at irregular intervals during the Eevolutionary War, entitled Common Sense and the Crisis. The ajDpeals of the former series for union and republi- canism produced a great effect upon tlie thought aud purpose of the people. The Crisis served to stimulate the patriotism of the country, and was almost universally read, both by the fireside and in tlie camp. They were issued as tlie cause of inde- pendence required; Two subsequent works from the same pen, 2]ie Rights of Man, and the Age of Reason, can hardly be classed as a part of American literature. Paine died at Koclielle, New York, in 1809. Tliomas Jefferson wrote much, as the posthumous puljlication of his writings attest, and wrote admir- ably well, but his life was one of activity, and apart from state papers (including the Declaration of In- dependence) he never contributed much to the cur- rent thought of his day. The Eevolutionary period may be said to have had its laureate, Philip Freneau, a thorough Frenchman in style and temperament, having that honor. He was born in New York, 1752, and pierished in a New Jersey snowstorm at the age of eighty-two. Joel Barlow, of Connecticut, attempted to be a poet, and for a time passed for one, but he was long since pronounced a failure. - The Federalist, which was for the most part the joint product of Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James Madison, consists of uring his early manhood he was a great pet with J a large class of'' readers. His best ». r. willis. work was done on the New York Mirror and the Home Journal, two fireside weeklies of large circula- tion. He wrote nothing which deserves to be men- tioned specifically. His friend, George P. Morris, wrote less and generally not as well ; but his " Wood- man, Spare that Tree," is a gem of rare beauty. hi' G 642 AMERICAN LITERATURE. Mrs. Sigourney also stood very high as a poetess in her time. She was a prohfic writer of verse, being often called upon to grace special occasions. She was born in Connecticut in 1791 and died in 1865. AVashingtou Irving is the supreme landmark in American prose. He was born in New York in 1783 and died in 1859. He begun his literary career as the anonymous writer of a comic history of New York under the primitive Dutch. It was a. very ■ brilliant success. That was in 1809, when he was young and rich. Pie wrote simply as a recreation. WASHINGTON IRVING. But about teu years later his fortune disappeared, and he took up literature as his life-work. Others had made it a trade : he took it up as a profession. He was not a literary artisan, but an artist. His sketches and 'tales attracted the attention of Sir Walter Scott and others in the old world. It was then admitted by the British critics that jierhaps some good thing could come out of republican America. He wrote several elaborate histories, "his Columbus being the first and his Washington the last. His fine style could invest any subject with interest. Irving was a very fortunate man in his temperament. For many years he was the most popular man in the country, always praised and never dazed by adulation. As a historian Irving lacked the critical faculty which is necessary to the very highest merit in that department of literature. But America can justly boast of her contributions to historical literature. Several names present themselves in this connection. iJared Sparks (1794-1866) did a great work in bring- ing out twenty-five volumes of American biography. Several of the volumes were from his own pen and all were under his editorial supervision. Sparks was followed by John G. Palfrey and several minor historians. But it was not until a later period that the great galaxy of American historians appeared in the heavens. Two other names come to the front at this point of our sketch, Margaret Ful- ler and Ralph Waldo Emer- son. The for- mer was born in 1810 and was lost at sea in 1850, while the latter, born in 1803, died ml882. In life they were warm friends. Mar- garet Fuller (for the Mar- chioness D'Os- soli is best known by her maiden name) was a brilliant critic. Her young life had in it the promise of a great future. She is remembered more for what she was than for what she had already accomplished. Emerson combines the philosopher, poet and critic. Edu- cated for the ministry, he was adapted rather to the life of a student untrammeled by any pro- fessional obligations. He did a very great work in elevatinsr the general tone of American literature. Writers and readers were alike lifted by his genius into higher ranges of thought. Without ridiculing or condemning the vapid productions which held the field in his younger days, he set about the culti- vation of better ideals and tastes. Therein was his chief work. Emerson may be said to have not only introduced Thomas Carlyle to America, but to his own countrymen. He long ago won recognition the world over as one of the areat thinkers of our age- RALPH WALDO EMERSON. -^'^ IK^ \< ■k^ AMERICAN LITERATURK. 643 NOAH WEBSTER. Chancellor Kent of , New York (1703-1847), de- serves prominent mention for his great legal work on American law. He is the Blackstone of the United States. His commentaries have been a text book with law students for fifty years and have lost none of their value. Judge Story, of the Supremebench of the United States (1779- 1845),produced a work on the constitu- tion which is an indispensa- ble manual for every states- man in this re- public. A good many valuable legal treatises have been produced ui this country, but Kent and Story are the only really great and immortal names in ihe annals of American law literature. The name of Abbott deserves honorable mention. There were two brothers of note, Jacob, the author of the " Rollo Books" and a long list of works designed to instruct and entertain the young, and John S. C. Abbott, two years younger, whose histories of Napoleon and other famous characters were received with favor. In lexicography America has two great names, Noah Webster (1758-1843) and Joseph E. Worcester (1784- 1865). Either is good au- thority on both spelling and pronunciation, and that not only in America, but wher- ever the English language is Webster began as the mere maker of a spelling-book for the school-room. He was a grad- uate of Yale College, and so, too, was Worcester. They were independent workers in the great field of lexicography, but not rivals in any in- vidious sense. Webster's great work first appeai-- ed in 1828, Worcester's in 1860. Each has passed J", E. WORCESTER. spoken. GEORGE BAKCROFT. through numerous editions, and been improved and enlarged many times. America has brought the art of preparing text-books for the school-room to a degree of jKrfection unknown in the old world, and in that line Noah Webster was the pioneer. He may be called thef ather of Amer- ican school books. Ill the first half of this century there arose a tem- pestuous contro- versy in Massachu- setts over the doc- trine of the trinity. On one side were Prof. Moses Stuart and his compeers of Andover The- ological Semmary, and the orthodox ministers of the Congregational church generally, and on the other side were Dr. Channing (1870-1842) and the Wares, Hem-y and William, with their Unitarian sympa- thizers. This controversy was mainly carried on in the pulpit and through the jour- nalistic press, but some of the litera- ture forms a part of a great intellectual contest. The most illustrious product of it, however, was Theodore Parker, who was so very liberal that even Unitarians could not tolerate him. Parker's works are not widely read, but they have been highly praised for their literary merits. The historians of America besides those already named, and who are really second to none in any land or time, are Preseott, Hildreth, Bancroft, Mot- ley and Parkman, all natives of Massachusetts and araduates of Harvard College. Wra. H. Preseott JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY. 3 V Lk- 644 AMERICAN LITERATURE. was born in 1796 and died in 1850. He wrote the liistory of Ferdinand and Isabella, also of the con- quests of Mexico and Peru. They were at once rec- ognized as the productions of a genius. Kichard Hildreth (1807-1865) was the author of an elaborate liistory of the United States, which has only one rival, and that is the great work of George Bancroft. Mr. Bancroft was born in 1800 and still survives. He was Secretary of the Navy in 1845, and he held several other high jjositions under the government. Fifty years ago he began his history of the United States, and a new volume has been hailed from time to time as an event. His style, however, is heavy and his volumes dull. John Lothroj) Motley was born in 1814 and died in 1877. He devoted his life to the Rise and Fall of the Dutch lie- puUic, and in that field never had a joeer. His style is elegant and fascinating. Mr. Mot- ley wrote several dis- tinct yet kindred vol- umes. He represented the United States at the Austrian court under Mr. Lincoln, and at the English court under a jjart of General Grant's first term. In diplomacy he was not a success, but in history he won the admiration of Eurojse and America. Francis Parkman was born 1833. The field which he has cultivated with a success which gives him rank with Prescott and Motley, is New France and tl\e early settlement of the West. In scientific literature this country can boast sev- eral names of note, Silliman, Hitchcock, Agassiz, Dana, Wincliell, Gray, Bache, Maury and Draper, besides those early lights of America, Dr. Franklin and Count Kumford (1753-1814). The latter was a great natural philosoplier who did much good work in his department of thought, but being a Tory in the Eevolutionary period, he had to leave the coun- try and was almost, lost sight of. Of tliese latter- day scientists, Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864) is best known as the founder of Silliman's Journal of Science and Art. He was professor of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in Yale College from 1804 LOtnS AGASSIZ. to 1855. Edward Hitchcock was born in 1793 and died in 1864. He was professor of geology m Am- herst College for many years, and later President of that institution. He was among the greatest geol- ogists of his day. Louis Agassiz was a native of Switzerland, born in 1807. He came to this coun- try in his early manhood and became connected with Harvard College. Zoology was the branch of sci- ence to which his life was devoted. He died in 1873. James D. Dana, born in 1813, ranks very high as a geologist and mineralogist. His writings gave him a high reputation among scientists. Prof. Alexander Winchell, born in 1824, may be said to have brought geol- ogy down to date. The venerable Pro- fessor Asa Gray, of Harvard College, has long ranked as the foremost botan- ist in America. He has written much upon the flora of this country. He was born in 1810. AlexauderD. Bache, who was born in 1806 and died in 1867, was a grand- son of Benjamin Frankhn. His great achievement was the super- intendence of the United States Coast Survey, which position he held for nearly a quarter of a century. His annual reports on the Coast Sur- vey constitute a treasury of scientific information. Commodore Maury, who was born in Virginia in 1806, was an eminent physicist. He is known the world over by his "Wind and Current Charts," and his " Physical Geography of the Sea." Dr. J. W. Draper (1811-1881) is equally famous as a scientist and a historian. He was master of a remarkably ele- gant style of composition and profoundly learned in natural history. He was a native of England, but was educated in this country. For many years Dr. Draper was professor of chemistry in the Uni- versity of New York. In the department of Journalism America can boast some great names besides Franklin. The high- est rank is now generally given to Horace Greeley, W. DRAPER. -71^ ^^t:. AMERICAN LITERATURE. 645 Mr. Greeley the founder of the New York Tribmie. was a native of New Hampshire, born in ISll. His ideal of a newspaper was one which should exert a great and wholesome influence. The more typical journalist of his time was James GordonBennett(]800- 1873) whose only am- bition was to furnish the latest and fullest news. Herein his jour- nal, the New York Herald, became the model of journalistic enterprise. TheAmer- ican press, as a whole, is more enterprising and versatile than that of any other country, and the American people devote more attention to newspa- j5er reading than do any other people. The absolute freedom of the American jiress lias favored the enlargement of its sphere. Closely allied to the newspaper press, yst not by any means confined to it, was Bayard Tay- lor. This remarkable man be- gan his career of eminence as a traveler. He went from land to laud, contributing his observa- tions to the New York Tinbime and difEusing knowledge among the people, becoming one of the best known of our countrymen. Later he achieved success as a novehst, and latest as a poet. At the time of his death he was the representative of the United States at the German capital. Born in 1835, he died in 1878. His translation of Faud is the most enduring monument of his genius. American literature has a galaxy of poets worthy to be classed among the classics of the world, Longfellow, Bryant, Whittier, Low- ell and Holmes. The first and second have ceased from their la- bors, and the three others cannot long survive.. Mr. Long- fellow, born in 1807, died early in 1883, and was mourned by the nation as the lau- reate of the people. Descended from an old New England family, nurtured in luxury, and cultured to the last degree, he seemed the veryimper- sonation of all which is tender, beautiful and pure. There was in his genius no sug- gestion of the organ, but rather of the piano. The merest toucli brought a melodious re- sponse. Mr. Bryant, who was born in 1794 and died in 1878, retained his mental faculties to the last, and did some of his best work in the winter of his days. But his masterpiece, Thanntnpsis, was written when he was only eighteen years of age. William Cullen Bryant was the jjoet of nature in her more tranquil moods. John G. Whittier, born in 1807, spent his early days on a farm, amid the calm of a Quaker house- hold, with no encouragements to the cultivation of poetiy. They belong, however, to much the same school of poets, being exquisitely refined and artistic in everv touch and tone. Whittier wrote much in --• ^\ 646 AMERICAN LITERATURE. the interest of the auti-slavery cause, but he is none tlie less a notable example of the highest art m poetry. HEITRT "W. LONGrELI-OTV. James E. Lowell, now American minister at the English court, be- came first known as a writer of grotesque and humor- ous poetry in the Yan- kee dialect. That was at the time of the Mex- icanwar.He signed him- self as "Ho- sea Biglow." Those pa- pers were strongly anti-sla\ery in sentiment and gaye the author great reputation as a humorist. No Amer- G. WHITTIER. ican humor ever received such high praise in En- ^V1LLIAM CULLEN EBTANT. gland as the " Biglow Papers." But LoAvell is some- thing more than a humor- ist. His jjoet- ry is beautiful and pathetic. In prose he excels as a critic. His es- says, published originally in the North A- merioanReview, on literar}^ top- ics, attracted wide and ad- miring atten- tion in En- gland. As an essayist he has only one equal in the country, E. P. \V hippie, of Boston. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes combines prose and poetry JAMES )U:S:^1::LL LOWELL. •/ -^ M- AMERICAN LITERATURE. 647 Wliile Longfellow and Whittier never venture out- side of verse, and Lowell only entered the smaller field of criticism. Dr. Holmes boldly launched out upon the broad ocean of romance and the exceed- ingly perilous gulf of pro- fessional wit. His EMe VeiiHor is an admirable story, and his Autocrat of the Brmkfad Table is a well of wit untainted by any coarseness. Holmes has the greatest versatil- ity of genius of any Amer- ican author. This prince of magazinists was boru' in 1809. What Goethe and Schiller and their compeers were to the court of Weimar, are Longfel- low, AVhittier, Lowell and Holmes to the hterary capital of America, Bos- ton, and its immediate vicinity. There are bril- liant and somewhat illustrious representatives of the younger and more active school, or set of mag- azinists, but theu' glory fades and pales in compar- ison with the poets who have lifted American literature from the dust of con- tempt and made this country the companion in literary i-enown of Greece, En- gland, Germany and France. On a recent occasion an En- glish lecturer in this country in- cHARLEs F. BRo^Y™. cjuircd, "Wliydo all American journalists try to be humorists?" As compared with any other country American writers with reputations to make are especially given to humor. Some attempts in this line have met with signal success. The Mrs. Partington and her son Ike, of Benjamin P. Shillaber, dates from 1847. Now and then a new joke would come out and gain wide circulation until at length " Mrs. Partington " has come to have a distinct place in the thought of the reading public. John G. Saxe, a poet of rare gifts, was so very humor- ously inclined that his verse sparkles with laugh- ter-provoking wit. C. P.- Browne, as " Artenius Ward," may be set down as the first of our native humorists who aimed sole- ly at the ludicrous. He has no underlying pur- pose. His preposterous spelling and grotesque con- ceits were moj'e highly ajj- preciated after his death (1867) than during his life. "Mark Twain," Mr. Clemens, began as a journalist upon the Pacific Coast. But ever since his " Innocents Abroad " (1868) he has been a resident of the East, and has been recognized as the greatest of American humorists. Under his cap and bells may begeneral- ly discern- ed an ear- nest and commend- able pur- pose. He has been sharply criticised by English critics, but others again do not scruple to place him at the head of contemporaneous humor not only, but to claim for him rank among the immortal wits. SAMITEL L. CLEMENS. til •- 648 AMERICAN LITERATURE. NATUANIEL HAWTHORNE. If Cooper was the first American novelist to at- tract attention abroad, Nathaniel Hawthorne was the first to gain recognition as a great genins. Born in 1804, he was not swift to make his mark upon litera- ture. His Twice- told Tales were well received, but it was between the years of 1846 and 1853 that he achieved greatness. His Seen-- let Letter and other long stories are among the few novels destined to be read and ad- mired by future generations. Mr. Hawthorne died iu 1864. His son, Julian, has written some good but not great novels. Of a very different type is J. T. Headley, who was born in 1814. He was educated for the ministry, but his taste took him to Uterature as a profession. In word-painting he has a most admirable facility. iVa- pokon and His Marshals, published in 1840, was an exceedingly popular book, and so too, was Washington and His Generals. Both continue to be in considerable demand, especially the former. Mr. Headley met a popular demand very creditably. His younger brother, P. C. Headley, is the author of several hardly less well received publications. George William Curtis (1824) is a rare combina- tion of high talent. During the first half of the fifth decade of this century, he published several Ijooks which excited high hopes of a brilliant future. The best of these was his Potiphar Papers. But he abandoned the field of book-making and devoted himself to the writing oi brief essays on current subjects and to lecturing. He is a fascinating speaker and a charming writer. Through the Easy Chair of Harper's Monthly and tiie Editorial department of Harper's Weekly he has wrought a great work in educating the public mind on polit- ical, social and other subjects. Mr. Curtis has been and is a great lever for the elevation of pubhc sen- timent. J. Gr. Holland, whose sudden death iu the fall of 1881 was felt to be a national calamity, was one of the few writers who steadily grew m power and favor. Born in 1819, he first won renown as the author of the immense- ly popular Timothij Tit- comb Letters. A few years later the mor- alizer devel- oped into a poet {Bitter Sweet). Still a few years later, and Dr. HOLLAND. Holland entered the list as a novelist, and won dis- tinction. His Arthur Bminicastk was well received by the most critical readers and very popular with the many. Walt Whitman is one of America's most remark- able men of letters. Tlie Edinburgh Eevieiv and a very considerable class of British critics, pro- nounce him our greatest poet. Many fail to see any poetry and much indecency in his Leaves of Grass. He is as defiant of rules as Carlyle. Many of his leaves should have been left out, while some of them are very tender and will always be green. Whitman was born in 1819. The most widely read book ever produced in America is Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. It was accepted as a faithf ltI pen picture of African slavery in America, and as such, read with the utmost avidity. It was published in 1852, and had a success absolutely unparalleled in all the annals of literature. Millions of copies were sold in America and England alone, and translations speedily made of it into every language of the world which might be said to possess a popular literature. Mrs. Stowe is the daughter of the great preacher, Lyman Beecher, and sister of the still greater pulpit orator, Henry Ward Beecher. She has written sev- eral other stories of considerable merit, but her first stands upon an elevation of its own. There are several American authors of great promise now in the midst of their career, Bret Harte and Joaquin Miller in poetry, J. D. Howells and Henry James, Jr., in romance, who have done much ~s pV AMERICAN LITERATURE. 649 iiud have iu them the promise of many years of usefulness. Mr. liarte combines humor and pathos. He can strike with deft fingers the chords of sentiment, or he cau make the waters dance with ripples of laugh- ter. His tribute to Dickens and his " Heathen Chi- nee " are conspicuous examples of his splendid pow- ers. Joaquin Miller is nearly always the same, whether he writes prose or poetry, cuts an intaglio or rears a monument, his mood and attitude is ever that of a pre-Raphaelite, more plaintive than Joy-- ous. Miller was never popular iu America, but attained au enviable reputation in England. Mr. Howells has written several stories of great fascina- tion, and he is still in the midst of his labors. He shares witli Henry James, Jr., the honor of bemg the most conspicuous representative of the latest mode in I'omance. They are exquisitely esthetic and are doing much to cultivate in the public mind a' taste for the purely artistic in literature. In no otlier part of Christendom is the pulpit so important a factor and potent an influence as in America, for here sermons, rather than rites, are the maui reliance of the clergy for the accomplishment of religious purposes. The success of a discourse cannot be measured by a distinctively literary stand- ard, and without implying any comparative dispar- agement of others, it is proper in this connection to refer specifically to the three American preachers whose every sermon, as soon as preached, becomes a part of current literature. These three pulpiteers are — Henry Ward Beecher, T. De Witt Talmage, and David Swing. Mr. Beecher was born in 1813, and is one of sev- eral brothers who have attained eminence in the clerical profession. His collegiate career gave no promise of a great future. His first pastorate was in a rural town in Indiana. He soon removed to the capital of that state, where he built up a flour- ishing church and delivered a course of lectures to the young which were published and attained a wide circulation. Over thirty years ago a small church of anti-slavery proclivities was organized in Brooklyn as au offshoot from the Church of the Pilgrims, Rev. Dr. Storrs pastor, and to that new church, called Plymouth, Mr. Beecher was called- He accepted the call, and soon found himself the most popular preacher on the continent. The his- tory of Plymouth Church is a prominent chapter in the history of this country, more especially of the anti-slavery movement. For many years his ser- mons have been reported in full and published regu- larly. He has written several books, including a novel of some small merit, but his fame rests upon his pulpit efforts. He is still in full vigor, his dis- courses betraying no seuiUty. Mr. Talmage was born in 1833-. His first settle- ment was in Belleville, Kew Jersey, thence to Syra- cuse, New York, Philadelphia, and finally to Brook- lyn, where he became and remains pastor of the Brooklyn Tabernacle. He has immense audiences always, and his sermons are at once published in no less than twenty-three newspapers, exclusive of the daily press. These papers may be said to gird the globe, issued as they are in New York, London, Melbourne, San Francisco, and other great cities of the English-speaking world. The last name to be mentioned ui this list is David Swing, a native of Ohio, but for many years a resi- dent of Chicago. For ten years and more all of his sermons have been pubhshed in full, and his regu- lar audience upon the Sabbath, large as it always is, is yet a mere handful as compared with the mul- titudes to whom he preaches through the Monday morning press. He is a poet who very rarely writes poetry, but whose every prose effort is melodious. The profound grief of the American people over the loss of President Garfield found its best expression in a dirge from the pen of this eminent preacher, and this chapter could have no more fitting close than these tender lines : Now all ye flowers make room : Hither we come in gloom To make a mighty tomb. Sighing and weeping. Grand was the life he led ; Wise was each word he said, But with the noble dead We leave him sieepins;. Soft may his body rest As on his mother's breast, Whose love stands all confessed 'Mid blinding tears; But may his soul so white Rise in triumphant flight, And in God's land of light Spend endless years. ^iW ^F" REFERENCE TABLES. Embracing Miscellaneous Tables, Showing Contemporaneous History and Literature from B. C. 1500 to A. D. 1880; The Industries, Manufactures, Railroads, Food Supply, Gold and Silver Production, Capital, Wealth, Earnings and Legislatures, of the Countries of the World; The Financial, Political, Military and Naval History of the United States, from 1789 to the Present Time, inclusive. Also other Tables, forming an inexhaustible mine of Important Facts. ^TATISTICS present facts in their most coudeiised, exact and convenient form. It is neither exaggeration nor boasting to say that in the Reference Tables given here- with may be found the very quintessence of knowledge, luch is the nature of all tabular latter. The aim in this comiection as been to group together such sta- tistics as the broad title of the book itself called for, gleaned from many sources. Some good tables are as common as wise proverbs, while others again are covered by copyright. There are both classes in the following- pages. Without going into useless details it is sufficient to say on this j'oint that for its statistics The World, Historical aijd Actual, is under great obligation to "Gaskell's Compendium of Forms" and the three great statis- ticians, Michael G. Mulhall, F. S. S., John JSTichol, LL.D., and General Francis A. Walker. It will be observed that the historical and the ac- tual are accorded about equal sjDace, including in the latter the tables of events so recent as to be- long really to the present. The several tables are a panoramic view of the fiast. Beginning with Egypt when it emerges from the sands of obscurity, the Hebrews when they were transformed from slaves to citizens of a nation having Jehovah for its king, and Greece with the founding of Tiiebes by Cad- mus, all in the fifteenth century before the Christian era, the panorama moves on until the year 1880 is reached. In this broad field of nearly twent3--four hundred years, embracing all lands, it is believed that no great historical event, person or work has escaped attention. Each may be found, and be held >--rj in correlation to other events, persons or works. Literature has been given more prominence than war or any other feature for the reason that it alone is both historical and actual. A good book is in- stinct with a life which takes no note of time. Lit- erature deserves the prominence given it, and so does America deserve the prominence given it in the series of modern tables, for, although not so much as known until the evening of the fifteenth century it is the heir of all Europe, rich in the inheritance of its best estate, divested, for the most part, of the incumberauces of ancient wrongs and immemorial blunders. Having taken a historical survey of the globe its present condition is presented in tables which are distinct and each complete in itself, but which form a grand unity. The whole world as it is passes be- fore us, and of each country we may note its pojDulation, area, rehgion, government, capital, debt, standing army and navy, railways, commerce, manufactures, mining, agriculture, banking and money. Then follows a survey of the world from a somewhat difEerent standpoint, with a view to ascer- taining the industries, productions, manufactures, commerce, etc., of the world, each by itself. In one set of tables the countr}^ is foremost; in the other, the topic is given the preference. It is only by shifting the camera and taking several views that a complete photograph of an object can be obtained. In the later part of the tables much space is de- voted to American statistics, for which, certainty, no apology is needed. The recent completion of the tenth census renders the present a favorable time for the issuance of tabular information relat- ing to the United States. The more important features of the census are herewith i3reseuted to the public. It will be nearly ten years before these ta- bles will be superseded and moved from the ground floor of " the actual to the attic of the historical. ■71 (^>5o) V ^\ a .. i ^ 1 < TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY. 65 1 s * ! I. II. III. IV. TA Table 1. Note.— The follcm. BIBLICAL BLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY. B. C. 1500 to B. C. 750. The World Before Rome. By Centuries. ing dates have been assigned to important events or traditions previous to e. c. 1500:— The Deluge, 2348 b. c. Birtli of Abram, 1996; of Esau and Jacob, 1837. Joseph in Egypt, 1729-1635. Birth of Moses, 1571. Babel. Nimrod. Asshur, 2230. Babylon, 2200, Nineveh. Ninus. Serairamis, 2180. Menes, first Egyptian l\\x\x, 2700. Eg\'ptian Thebes founded, 2280. Hyksos in Egypt, i8o>-i6oo. Foundation of Sicyon, 2088; of Argus (Inachus), 1856; of Athens (Cecrops), 1556; of Sparta (Lelex), 1516. Deucalion, 1503. Foundation of Tyre and Sidon, 2750. ASSYRLV AND EGYPT... GREECE PHCENICIA .: B.C. Egypt akd Maky Lands. Palestine. Literature. Greece. 1500 Rameses III., Sesostris, or Ammon, igth Egyptian Dynasty 1483 Pharaohs powerful, 1500-900 The Exodus 1491 Foundation of Thebes (Cadmus), 1493 Dardanus 1480 Danaus in Argos..„.._ 1460 Foundation omnium . 1425 Deaths of Moses, Aaron and Miriam, 1452-51 Joshua divides Canaan ..— --,.1445 First Judge in Israel (Othniel) 1402 1400 Eglon, King of Moab'. Ehud, second Judge 1394-1354 Wars with Amalekites, Jebusites, Moabites. Ruth 1320 The Vedas. Book of Job. (Ewald.) Sanchuniathon. Eleusinian Mysteries 1383 War of Erectheus and Eumolpus. Foundation of Mycenaa --1344 Perseus. Cyclopes, 1300 Assyria and Babylonia united 1250-772 Conquest of Babylon by the Assyrians 1250 Latinus in Italy 1240 Wars with Philistines. Barak and Deborah^ 1296-1256 Jael and Sisera 1296 War with Midianites. Gideon ...1249-1209 Abimelech _. 1209-1206 Mythical Hymnology (Linus) 1280 Early Minstrels}' (Orpheus), 1260 Pelops 1283 Calydonian Chase (Atalanta). Hercules. 5I1NOS in Crete... 1256 Argonautic Expedition, 1260-1240 Theseus in Athens 1234 Seven against Thebes 1220-1210 Agamemnon. Menelaus. 1200 Proteus in Egypt. ^neas in Italy. Alba Longa Founded 1152 Dawn of Religious Epic (Musffius) 1180 The Trojan War ..1192-1183 Returns of the Chiefs 1183-1170 Orestes in Argos 1176 Lydians on the sea 1169 Shibboleth of Gilead. Wars with Philistines. .iEolian Migration- .. .... 1124 Thessalr settled 1124 a SAMUEL 1141-1112 Dorian Migration. Return of Heeaclid.e I104 Melanthus in Athens __iio4 1 i I9 ■^ 81 ' a "^ 4 < - 652 TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE vVND HISTORY. TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY.— Continued. Table I. B. C. 1500 to B. C. 750. The World Before Rome. By Centuries. Egypt and ]\Iany Lanjjs. Sidon and Tyre 1095 Che()])S (Gt. Pyramid)... 1082 Mycerinus (Egypt). Sidon subdued by tlie PliiJistinps 1050 liirara of Tyre 1014 Qnccn of Sheba. Tyke great 1000-586 Palestine. SAUL (ist King) 1095-1055 DAVID (kingdom greatly enlarged), 1055-1015 SOLOMON (greatest extent of the Jewish kingdom) _ 1015-975 LiTERiTUKE. Psalms of David. Pela'sgi on the sea ...1077 Aletes in Corinth ..1074 Colony from Ghalcis to Cum.e, 1050 CoDKUS in Athens 1045 Ionic jNIigkation _ , _ 1044 Settlement of Poloponnesus, War between Chalcis and Eretria. Shishak (Egypt) invades Judea 972 Tartessns founded by Tyre. Benhadad I. (Damascus) al- lied with Asa. ^ Benhadad 11. " besieges Samaria, 901-892 Jezabel of Sidon marries Ahab. Building of Temple 1012-1005 Revolt of Ten Tribes 975 JUDAH. Rehoboam, 975-958 Abijah . Asa ■-958-955 ■-955-9'4 Jehosaphat. 914-889 ISRAEL. Jeroboam I., 975-954 Nadab 954-953 Baasha 953-930 Elah 930-929 Zimri 929 Omri 929-918 Ahae 918-897 CARTHAGE founded by tlie Tyrians 878 SardanapaUis 875? Revolt of Arbacea the Mede. Ilazacl att :cks Israel 8Jo PhaMiicia under Bcuhadcd III ...840 Syria tributary to Israel. Egyptians on the sea, 787-751 Pul of Assyria invades Israel, 770 Etruscans in Campania,. 760 Foundation of ROME.. -753 Ethiopia independent 750 Jehorara -..889-885 Ahaziah 885-884 Athaliah ...884-878 Jehoash S78-8'^9 Amaziah ..,839-810 Uzziah (or Azariah) 810-758 Jotham 758-742 Elijah 910 Ahaziah ... .S97 Jehoram .. Elisha S96-83S Jehu 884-856 Jehoahaz 856-S39 Joash 839-826 Jeuoboam II. 825-784 Interregnum. 2echariah 773 Shallum _ . 772 Menahem 772-761 Pekahiah 761-759 Pekah 759-739 Proverbs of Solomon. Song of Solomon. HOMER fl. 962-927 Iliad and. Odyssey ...940-927 Creophylus (Samos). Jonah (T.)... c. 862 Hesiod (Ascra) 850 Joel (J.) . -800 Amos (I.) c. 7S7 Hosea (I.) c. 785 Agias of Troezen 776 Stasinns (Cyprus). Arctinus (Miletus). ,,775-740 Cinn^thon (Lacedaamon), fl. 765 Eumelus (Corinth). ..760-730 Thracians on the sea 992 Alexas in Thessaly. Rhodians on the sea 913 Phrygians on the sea ,- 893 Olympic Games 884 Ltcukgus in Sparta 884 Settlement of Lacedcemon. 884-776 Cyprians on the sea 865 Phcenicians on the sea S32 Foundation of Rhegium 812 xEolian colonies 800 Ionian colonies -794 Victory of Corceeus 776 Argos heads a Confederacy 774 Pandosia and Metapontum founded 774 Pheidon of Argos ,- 780-740 Miletus powerful. Colonies. .750 Decennial Archons at Athens. -753 ■^Pv 4^ •- ^^ 5 >-^, ■ 1 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 653 > TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued, Table II. B. C. 750 to B. C. 500. From Foundation of Rome to Beginning of Roman Republic. By Periods of Twenty- Five Years. 15. C. Palestine. .\sia and Egypt. Greece. Italy and Sicily. Litekature and Art. Nabonnssar (Babylon indopena- cnt) -.747 Persians besiege Nineveh 747 Pelvji and liezon of Syria besiege Jenisalera 742 .\baz, of Jndah 742-726 Tilgatli Pileser destroys Syria, and carries 2j^ tribes captive, 740 Jnterregnuin in Israel. Hoslica. of Israel.- 730-721 Shalnianeser (Assyria) invades Israel - 72S Hezekiau, of Judab 726-^->9S Rise of Corinth 745 First Mcsscuian "War 743-723 Chalcis founds Naxos ---735 C'orinthian Colonies— Corcyra.- 734 PniLOLAiis of Thebes 728 Romulus 753-716 War with Sabines 750 Union *' 747 Micah (J.) -.c. 750-710 ISAIAH — .11.747-698 Romulus and Acron, ist Spolia Opiina. Syracuse founded 734 Leontium and Catana founded, 730 CAPTIVITY OF ISRAEL.-. 721 Aclueans found Sybaris 721 nahuji r.. 720-69 Gygcs in Lydia 716-679 NumaPompilius 716-673 Sennacherib invades Judah 713 War between Sparta and Ai-gos, 718 Religious Laws. destroyed 710 Deioccs in Media 709-657 Achajans found Croton 710 Tarentusi founded (Phalanthus), 708 Lcsches (Lesbos) . .. 710 Art.liilochus (Paros) - 708 700 Babylon subject to Assyria 680 Idolatry in Judah Esarhaddon colonizes Samaria, 677 Annual .\RCIIONS at .Vthens-.eSs Second Mcssenian War 685-668 Simoni.lcs (Amorgus).. 693-662 Tyrt.T3as (Sparta) 685 Calliniis 67S Terpander (Lesbos) crowned at Musical Contest 673 fi75 Psammcticus (Egypt)- 671-617 Colony of Naucratis 665 Rise of Megara ..670 Sea-fight, Corinth and Corcyra, 665 Tullus Hostilius 673-640 .\lcman (Sparta) 670 Thaletas (Pyhrrio songs)... 670 Phraortes (Media) 656-635 Wnrof Holoternes (Palestine) 656 ? Bj'zantium founded - 657 Orthagoras in Sicyou 657 Cypselus at Corinth 655 Destruction of Alba 665 Messana founded 660 Zaleucus in Locri.-_ ^60 Eucheir and Eugrammus...6!3o Temple of Zeus at Elis 660 650 Judith? Bacchiadce expelled 655 BUDDHA? i Persian Jlonarchy founded 650 Anion - 642-640 Ctkene founded - 641 JCSIAH - 640-609 Cj'axares .- 634-595 Scythians in Asia ...634-607 Nineveh taken by the Medes. , . 625 Assyrian Empire ends 625 Eclipse in reign of Alyattes (Lydia) 625 JosiAH repairs the Temple 624 Voyages of ColfEus and Corobius. Colony of Battus to Cyrene 641 Sinope founded-- 640 Pebiander at Corinth 625-585 Angus Martius 640-616 Ostia founded 640 Zepiianiah fl. 640-609 JEREMIAH fl. 628-586 Thales 644-548 Miranermus (Smyrna) 629 Ik Is ii> ' ^ (3 V* 1^ 654 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. By Periods of Twenty- Table II. B. C. 750 to B. C.500. From Foundation of Rome to Beginning of Roman Republic Five Years. B.C. Palestine, Asia and Egypt. Greece. Italy and Sicily. Literature and Art. f.1^ Hilkiali finds the book of the Law, Era of Seven Sages— 624 Draco gives laws to Athens. ..624 Passover. Ark restored 62-j [Thales, Bias, Plttacus, So- Pharaoh Necho circumnavi- gates Africa 615? Pharaoh Necho invades Judah, 610 Cylon at Athens .. 620 Tarquinius Pkiscus 616-578 lon, Cleobulus, Periander Chilon.] War between the Medes and Arion 625-610 Lydians 610 .Telioaliaz — -. 609 PiTTAODS at Mitylene... 611 Stesichorus (Himera) 612 .lEHOIAKIM 609-597 CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH, SAPPHO (Lesbos) 610 seventy years 606-536 Pharaoh defeated by Nebuchad- nezzar 605 Cleisthenes at Sicyon ..600-560 Massilia founded __. 600 Haeakkuk fl. 612-598 fir.o Epimenides in Athens 597 Jechoniah _ 1597 First Sacred War -595-585 Nebuchadnezzar sacks Tyre. .-586 Alc.-eus (Lesbos) 684 " takes Jerusalem.. 606-598 Solon at Athens 594 Anaximauder 611-547 Sardanapalus? AIcfEus exiled 590 Anacharsis in Athens 592 .DANIEL fl. 606-534 Servius Tullius 578-534 595-57° Oeadiah fl. 588-583 Astyages or Aliasuerus 595-560 Cypselid dynasty ends... 58. Census. Comitia Centuriata at Susarion fl. 578 Siege of Sidou. Rome. Later Psalms. 575 Civil War in Egypt. EZEKIEL fl. 595-536 Elis subdues Pisa .. 572 Phalaris of Agrigentum 570-554 Periplus of Hanno 570? The DaidalidiE 570 Voyage of Himilco .._ 570? Chersiphron fl. 560 Crcesus in Lydia 568-546 CONFUCIUS. ZOROASTER? Phrygia conquered by the Lydians. Peisistratus at Athens. ..560-527 jEsop fl. 560 CYRUS King of Persia....s59-529 Eugamon (Gyrene) 560 defeats Ast.vages 558 Anacreon (Teos) 560 Medes and Persians united 558 Pherecydes and Phocylides. Cyrus conquers Lydia 554 Amasis (Egypt) 570-526 Nile opened to Greeks Anaximenes fl. 548 55° BelshazzarorLabynetus. Baby- Ion taken by Cyrus 53S Pythagoras at Croton 540-510 Theognis (Megara) 541 Restoration of the Jews by Cyrus, 536 Zerubbabel, Governor Juaea...536 Xenophanes (Colophon) 538 Ibycus (Rhegium) 540 Mago. Carthaginian Colonies. Tarquinius Suiereus 534-509 PTTHAGOR.\S fl. 531 Second Temple built 534-516 Thespis (Attica) 535 Cambyses (.\liasueru8) 529-522 Polycrates at Samos ..532-522 Roman Kingdom extended over Haggai fl. 520-518 Camhyses' Conquest of Egypt., 525 Latium. Zechariah fl. 520-518 Psammeticus (Egypt) 525 5=S Smerdis, Persia, a usurper 522 Insurrection at Athens; Hippar- Wars of Syracuse and Gela. Darius I. deposes Smerdis 522 chus slain 514 Phrynichus fl. 412 Hippias rules 514 Croton destroys Svbaris 510 PARMENIDES fl. 505 Periplus of Scylax. Carthage a Republic. Expulsion of PEisisTKATiDiE, 51° Hippias expelled from Athens. 510 Tarquinus expelled; Eraof tlie Republic 509 Porsena at Rome 509 Heraclitus (Ephesus)..fi. 505 Sea-flght with Phocsea. Cleisthenes at .\tliens . 51° Commercial Treaty with CoRiNNA (Tanagra) 500 Siege of Naxos by Aristagoras, 501 Cleomenes at Sparta -.519-490 Carthage 508 500 Ionian Revolt in Asia Minor.. .501 Embassy of Aristagoras. 5°o ist Valerian Laws 508 Myrtis 500 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 6S5 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. Table III. B.C. 500 to B.C. 325. From Foundation of Roman Republic to Death of Alexander. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. War between Athens and /Egina -.491 •| Heralds from Darius 491 Persian Fleet wrecked off Athos...49 MiLTiADES, Or fl. 515-489 " at Athens 493-489 Battle of Marathon, Gr 490 AnisTiDES, Gr.M. 489-483 and 479-468 THEMISTOCLES, Gr. (514-447). fl. 480-471 Athenian Fleet built, 481; Walls. .478 Leonidas at Thermopyl^, S. Gr . . 480 Artemisium, Salamis, Gr 480 Fla-tjea, S. (??•., and Mtcale, Gj^.^j^ Pausanias, S. Gr fl. 479-471 Growth of Athenian Empire, Gr., 478-445 Greece. OstraciBm of Tiiemistocles 471 Death of Pausanius 471 Argives takes Mycente 468 Athenians at Naxos 4^16 Battle of Eurymedon .,_ 466 Revolt of Thasos 465-463 Kevolt of the Helots 464 Third Messenian War, S. Gr., 464-455 Ithonie taken 455 CiMON, Gj' fl. 466-461 and 454-449 Laws of Pericles and Ephialtes — 461 Long Walls built 457-456 Athenian Victory at CEnophyta 456 Tolmidcs sails round Maiea 455 Five Tears' Truce 450 SiciLT, Asia, Africa. Siege of Naxos 501 Persia, recovers Cyprus, P«' 498 Histiffius sent to the Coast 496 Ionian Revolt subdued 495 Battle of Lade. Miletus taken, Per 494 Mardonius subdues Macedonia, Fer 492 Carthaginians in Sicily, P. C. Xerxes I. reigns, Per 485-465 Egyptian Revolt 486-484 Gelon at Syracuse, S. ff;'. .485-477 Battle of Himera,^'. Gr 480 Theron at Agrigentum 488-472 HiERo I. at SjTacuse, S. Gr., 478-475 Pausanias at Byzantium 477 Victories of Cimon, Gr 476 Naval Victory of Hicro, S. Gr., over Tuscans 474 Syracuse free, S. Gr 466-405 Artaxerxes I., Per. (Ahasucrus), 465-425 Story of Esther 461-451 Themistocles in Ptrsiii 465-447 Egyptian War with Persia, Per., 460-455 Athenians in Egypt 463 Agrigentum powerful, S. Gi:, 470-405 Ezra, Governor in Jndea. .458-449 Literature and Art. ^SCHYLUS 524-456 Ageladus (Argos), S. A., fl. 500 Hecatreus fl. 500 Epicharmus (Sicily) fl, 490 SiMONiDES (Ceos) fl, 490 Pherecydes (historian). .fl. 480 PINDAR --.522-442 Hegesias and Hegias, S. A. Leucippus— Atomic Theory. Hellanicus (Mityiene).. 496-411 Anaxagoras 500-428 Diogenes of Apollonia,.fl.468 Zeno of Elea ...fl. 464 SOPHOCLES 495-406 " Tragic Victory. .468 Polygnotus (Stoa Poicile), Pt., fl. 460 Ion of Chios fl. 451 Bacchylidcs ..fl. 450 Archelaus (Physicus) fl. 450 Phormio fl. 4=10 Crates, Cratinus, Eupolis, fl. 450 Phrynls, M. fl. 456 Democritus (Abdera) -.fl. 450 Rome. Consular Government at Rome, Po7n ..5o8-(:o Battle of Lake Regillus 498 ist Secession to Mons Sacer, 494 Tribunes of the Plcbs, Iio?n., 494 Spurius Cassius 494-483 Latin League 493 Volscian War (Coriolanus), Pom 489 Hernican League 488 Agrarian Law of Cassius -.486 Wars with Veil 481-475 Expedition of the Fabii, Pom., 477 Fabii destroyed at Cremera. 475 ist Puelilian Laws 471 Antium taken 470 Suicide of Appius Claudius, 470 Tercntilian Bill 462 ^quian War (Ciucinnatus), Pom.^ -.458 Icilian Law 454 Commissioners to Greece. .-453 The Decemvirate, Pom., 451-449 The Twelve Tables 450 PERICLES, Gr (499-429) " in power.. 469-429 Second Sacred War 44S Athenian defeat at Coronea 447 Thirty Years' Truce 445 Revolt of Euboea and Mcgara 445 Decline of Athenian Empire ...445-404 War of Corinth and Corcyra 435 Congress of Lacedtemon 433 Peloponnesian War 431-405 Invasion of Attica by Archidamus . . 431 Plague at Athens. .430-429 Death of Pericles 4=9 Siege of Platrea ..429-427 Naval Victories of Phormio.. _ 429 Corcyriean Massacre 427 Demosthenes in ..Etolia 426 Sphacteria taken 425 Athenian Victory at Salamis in Cyprus, G}' 449 Syracuse subdues Agrigentum, 446 defeats Etruscans 446 Athenian Colony to Thurii 444 Carthaginian Voyages. Nehemiah, Governor in Jndea, 445-420 The Samian War, Gr 440-439 Carthaginians in Sicily, P. (7... 431 Revolt of Lesbos —.438 Fall of Mityiene 427 41 Ships from Athens to Sicily, 426 Phidias (Parthenon), S. A., fl. 448-440 Polycleitusand Myron, S. A., fl. 440 HERODOTUS 484-408 EURIPIDES -..480-406 Melissus (Samos) fl. 444 EMPEDOCLEs(Agrigentum), 444 Alcamenes. ^S'. A fl. 440 Meton ("astronomer) fl. 433 Era of the Sophists. Protagoras fi. 444 Prodicus fl. 444 Gorgias fl. 430 Malachi. Judcea fl . 436-420 Ercchtheiom rebuilt, -S*. A.,, 432-393 Diagoras {oi^EOQ) fl 425 Cinesiae, M. fl- 425 Appius Claudius (Virginia), Rom. (Deutatus) 449 2d Secession to Mons Sacer, 448 Valerian and Horatian Laws, Rom 448 3d Secession to Mons Sacer, 44s Canuleian Laws.. 445 Consular Tribunes, Pom., 444 Censors at Rome 443 Famine at Rome .-440 Death of Spurius Melius. ..439 Cornelius Cossus and Lars Tolumnius, 2d Spolia Opima 437 Destruction of Fidena3 426 ■*-^' ; . c >> C3\ 65 T 6 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. > TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.—Continued. able III. B.C. 500 to B.C. 325. From Foundation of Roman Republic to Death of Alexander. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. Ji. c. GllKKCE. SiciLV, Asia, Africa. Literature and-\rt. R031E. 425 Cleon, C?" ---fl. 425-422 Alcieiades, Gr., fl. 424-413 and 411-404 Nicias takes Cythera and Thyrea .424 Revolution atMfgara 424 Buttle of Delium... 424 BuAsiDAS, S. Gk, at Amphipolis.. .422 Peace of Nicias _ 421-415 Battle of Manrinea.- 418 Alcibiades at Ai'gos 416 Darius IL, Per., Nothus ..424-405 Congress of Sicilians at Gela -424 Athenians at Delos, 422 Alcibiades and Nicias off Sicily, Gr - 415 Fleet winters at Naxos and Antiphon 480-4 1 1 Philolaus? THUOYDIDES —.471-402 Zeuxis, Pt 450-400 SOCRATES 468-399 Lysias ...459-380 ARISTOPHANES .... 444-3S0 "The Clouds"-..- 423 Andocides 440-390 Agathon - fl. 415 HIPPOCRATES - 46c^357 Callimachus. S. A fl. 412 XENOPHON 444-362 Parriiasius, -P/l fl. 400 Melanippides, M fl. 400 Twenty Years Truce with Veil, Bom 425 Capua taliec by the Samnites, 423 Four QujEstors in Rome.. 421 ^quian Wars 419-409 Colonies— Bola, Lavicl, Fe- rentinum, Anxur. Victories over ^'olscians, 409-406 Plebeian Quiestors 409 Pay in Army 406 Siege of Veil (CamiUns), Som„ 405-396 Syracusan Expedition.. 41 5-413 Gylippus arrives at Syracuse, S. Gr — ,413 Athenian Allies revolt .,. 412-411 Persian Treaties with Pelo- ponnesus — 412-411 Revol t at Samos. Alci blades, 412-411 Thrasybulus with Athenian Fleet, Gr 411 Battle of Cynossema, ff?' 411 Artaxerxes IL. Per 405-359 Expedition of Cyrus the Younger 401 Agis occnpic!* Decelea 413 .Fleet destroyed at Syracuse 413 Tlie 400 at Athens 411 Callicratidas. ,S'. Gr., defeated at ArgintiSiC Gr. Generals executed, 406 Battle of yEooppoTAMi. Gr 405 Lysandkr, .S'. Gr., enters Athens. .404 Critias and Thirty Tyrants 404 400 Democracy restored (Thrasybulus), 403 Socrates condemned , 399 Coalition against Sparta 395 LysandcT slain- 395 Return of the 10,000 Greeks, S. Gr 400 DioNYsius I. of Syracuse, S. Gr —405-368 Agesilaus in Asia, S. Gr--. 396-395 CoNON at Cnidus, G?' 394 Victory of Dionysius at Helorus,389 Peace of Antalcidas, Per 387 Cyprian War ---385-375 Defeat of Evagoras, Per 385 Wars of Syracuse and Car- tkage, p. c'.. --410-34o Hamilcar and Mago, P. G. Bithynian Kingdom.. 378-75 Carthaginians in Italy, P. 6'— ■.379 Timotheus in Asia, Gr 372 Euclid of Megara --fl. 400 Antisthenes .- 426-371 Aristippus -400-365 PLATO 429-347 ISOCRATES -- 4.-i6-'l^S Embassy to Delphi 39S Battle of the Allla 390 ROME BURNT by the Gauls iBremius) _ 390 M. F. Camillus, Dictator, Bom- - 390 Rome Rebuilt, Bom 389 Execution of M. JIanlius. . . 384 Recovery ol' Revolted Towns — TiiscuUim, Prreneste, An- tium, etc 383-377 LICINIAN Laws, j?o«i. -377-367 zd Battle of Coronea, ^. Gr 394 Long Walls restored by Conon, GV- .394 Battle of Lccli;eum 383 Agcsilaiis in Acarnania. .S. Gr. 391 Olvntiiian War __. 383-379 Height or Spartan Power, S. Gr. Victories of Pelopidas 378-364 Athenians allied with Thebes 378 EPAMINONDAS, Gr —.371-362 Timanthcs, Pi 11.385 Timotheus, M. 446-357 Scopas, S.A c. 395-350 IsEeus — 420-350 Diogenes tlie Cynic 419-324 Xenocrates 396-314 Spensippus il-3i9 375 Battle of Leuctra, Gj- 371 Supremacy of Thebes, Gr. Archytas (.Tarentum) . . _ . d. 370 Eudosus (mathematician), 11.360 Phocion 402-317 "Ludi Scenici" at Rome. .365 Praxitiles, S.A fl. 360 Pamphilus, Pt fl. 360 iEsCHINES -.389-314 DEMOSTHENES..382-322 yEneas Tacticiis II. 360 ARISTOTLE 384-32= Pr-etors and Curule jEdiles at Rome - 366 1st Plebeian Consul 366 Plague at Rome. Death of Camillas - 365 Legend of Jl. Curtius- 365 Wars with Giauls. Etruscans and Hernicans 362-346 Legends of Manlius Torqua- tus and ^'alcrius Corvus. Laws of Debt 357, 352, 347 C. Marcius Rntilus, ist Ple- beian Dictiitor 356 C. Marcius Rutilus, 1st Ple- beian Censor 351 Embassy of Pelopidas, G^\, to Persia 367 DioNYsius IL, S. G9\, of Syracuse, 368-343 Joshua slain by High Priest 366 Plato's -. d Visit to Sicily 361 Samaritans build Temple at Gerizim --. 360 Kingdom of Pontus 360-66 Artaxerxes III., Per., Ochus, 359-33S Revolt of Artabazus —-354 Dion at Syracuse, S. '??'...357-354 Sidou destroyed. Per -- 351 Alexander of Pherre in Thes8aly-"..37o Thcban Invasions of Laconia, 369, 368, 362 Pelopidas inThessaly..- 368 The Tearless Victory 367 Battle of Mantinea, Gr 362 PHILIP II. of*]\Iacedon,JI/(2t'.- 359-336 Social War- __ 357-355 ist Sacred or Phocian War... 355-346 Siege of Methonc... 353 . 350 3=5 Olynthus taken by Philip, J/ac 348 Philip of Macedon in Thrace 341 2d Sacred or LocrianWar 339 Battle of Cu.eronea, Mac 338 ALEXANDER III.. J/ac... 336-323 Destruction of Thebes 335 Macedonian Empire, Mac 334-143 TmoLEON at Syracuse, S. Gr., 345-337 Hanno in Carthage, P. C 340 Darius III., Fer 336-330 Fall of Tyre, J/at? 332 Foundation of Alexandria, Mac. . 332 Babylon taken by Alexander, Mac 331 Persepolis burnt by Alexander. _ 331 Judiea subject to Alexander... 330 Darius slain by Bessus 330 Alexander at the Hyphasis, Mac, 327 Cleomenes, S.A A- 350 Phrotogenes (Rhodes), PL. 360-300 Lycurgus (Athens) fl. 340 Lysippus, S.A fl. 335 Apelles (Cos), Pt 350-30S Pyrrho fl. 350 Hypereidcs .__ 11. 346 Demades fl. 330 Dcinarcluis fl. 324 Theopompus (historian), 378-305 Diphilus and Philemon.. fl. 330 MENANDER 342-291 Treaty with Carthage. 348 ist Samnite War 343-341 Battle of ]\It. Gaurus, Bom. .343 ^lutinv at Lautuhe 342 Genucian Laws 342 Latin War -340-338 Battle of Mt.Vesuvius, Bom. (Devotion of P. Decius Mus. I.) — 340 2d Publilian Laws 339 ist Plebeian Praetor 337 Settlement of Latiu ji, Bmii ■ , 338-32S Servitude for Debt abolished, 326 J Is^"'^ 333 " Arbela, Mac 331 Exile oC Deinosthcnes 324 i Death of Alexander- 323 Voyage of Nearchus 324-323 1 ^ (s ■V 6 ^ ■• a V TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 657 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. -Continued. Table IV. B. C. 323 to B. C. 146. From Death of Alexander to End of Third Punic War. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. K.O. Rome and Carthage. Literature and Art. Greece. Sicily, Asia, Egypt, etc. •525 2d SamniteWar 326-304 Caudine Forks ---321 C. PosTius of Tolesia... il. 321-292 Battle of Lautulnc 315 Roman Victory at Ciniia 314 Etruscan War 311-309 L. Papirius Cursor Dictator 310 Q. Fabius crosses Cirainian Hills; de- feats Tuscans at Vadimon, Bom. Bomilcar at Carthage, P. C- 308 Appius Claudius Censor, i?o»i,.. 3 12-308 Bovianum taken 305 Ogolnian Law 300 EUCLID (Ale.xandriii)., 11.325 Manetho, Egyptian Histo- rian fl. 320? Pytheas, navigator? Philippides fl. 320 Chares iLindus). *S'. --l---fl. 320 Euhemcrus 11. j2o Polemo, Crates, Crantor. fl. 315 Tm.Eus (Tauromenium), M.. 252-357 Diodes, Roman Historian (Peparethus)? Appian Way and Aque- duct, & .1 312 Demetrius Phalereus. . 345-2S3 Eudemua fl. 300 P^ Perdiccas Regent .-323-321 ^ Antipater, J/ac.,inMac'e- 9 donia 323-318 \^ Lysimachus, Mac, in (^ "Tlirace 323-3S1 H Cassander, J/fw., In Greece, •J 317-296 ■fi Ptolemy, Mac, in Egypt, g 322-285 ^/; Antigonus, Mac, in Syria, t/2 323-301 ^ Eiimenes, Mac, (Cappa- docia -323-315 t^ Seleucus. Mac, at Babylon. The Lamian War (Leosthenes), 323-322 Deatll of Demosthenes 322 Cassander takes Athens..- 317 Philij) III. (ArrhidiEUS) killed 317 Olympias killed by Cassander, 316 Roxana and Son killed 311 DE3LETRIUS Poliorcetes, at Atiiens. (?;'. .30S-304 & 295-290 Demetrius Poliorcetes at Thebes 393-301 Ptolemies in Egypt, Mac. 322-30 Ptolemy I. (Soter) takes Jerusalem 320 War of Antigonus and Eii- menes -- 320-315 Agathocles, jS'. 6^;"., at Syracuse 317-289 Agathocles defeated at Hi- mera ---310 Naval War at Cyprus and Rhodes 307-30S Battle of Ipsus 301 300 3d Samnitk War (Samnites, Etrus- cans, Umbriaus, Gauls) 298-290 Gellius Egnatius, Samnito Leader. Battle of Sentinum, Ram. (D. Mus. IL), 293 Execution of C. Pontius 292 Last Secession (Janiculum).__ 286 H0RTENSI.AN Law 286 Renewed Etruscan and Gallic War 283 2d Battle of Lake Vadimon 28:1 ■W.arwitUTarentnm 2S1 PvRRHUs, Gr., invades Italy 281-273 Battle of neracica 280 Battle of Asc?ui.UM, Gr. (D. Mus. III.), 279 Rome and Carthage allied, P. C. 279 Theophrastus 374-287 Capitoline Wolf, S. A 296 ZENO, the Stoic (Cittium), 366-264 EPICURUS 341-270 Appins Claudius Ca3Cus,- 1st Roman Orator fl. 280 ZoiUis and Zenodotus...fl. 280 Hegesias (Cyrene) fl.-28o THEOCRITUS U. 280 Bion and Jloschus fl. 270 Aristarchus (Astronomer), 11. 280-264 SEPTUAGINT 277 Philip IV. of Macedon, Mac, 297-296 Demetrius Poliorcetes in Macedon 294-287 Pyrrhus, Gi:, of Epirus. 318-272 " reigned 306-272 " in Macedon, 287-286 " in Italy and Sicily, 281-275 Death of Demetrius Polior- cetes _ 283 Gauls in Greece.. 280, 279, 278 Brennus at Delphi.. 278 .^TOLiAN League, S, Or., 2S4-167 Seleucid.e in Syria, Mac, 312-64 Sandracottus' Indian Empire, 312-160 Rhodes powerful. .S'. Gr.. 300-2C0 Kingdom of Pergamus. 283-133 Lysimachus defeated and slain by Selencns at Coru- peaion 281 Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus), Mac 285-247 Gauls settled in Galatia 277 Great Wall of China? Battle of Beseyentuji, Rom 275 Tarentum taken 272 South Italy subdued. Bom 270-266 ist PUNIC W.\R 264-241 Hiero of Syracuse joins Rome, S. (?r. . . 263 Agrigentum taken, S. Gr _ 262 Romans build a Fleet 261 Victory of Duilius at Myhe. Bom 260 Roman Naval Victory at Ecnomus 256 Regulus, Bom., invades Africa 256 " defeated by XantUippus, P. C.-255 Carthalo, P. C. recovers Agrigentum.. 234 Roman Vietorv at Panornius "50 Lvconhron . . c. 28!;-247 ACH.EAN League, G^.. 280-146 Antigonus Gonatus, Mac., recovers Macedon 272 Antigonus Gonatas takes Athens 268 Aratus, Gr (271-213) " at Sicyon 251 Aratus (Astronomer) fl. 270 Hieronymus (Cardia) ...fl. 270 Arcesilaus (New Academy), c 300-241 Callimachus (Alexandria) fl. 260 Columna Rostrata, S. ^-..260 Monumenta Scipionum, S.A.. 260 CLEAXTHES 30C-220 E.xtension of -Alexandrian Commerce. Eg3^ptian Embassy to Rome, HiERO II., S. G7\, of Syracuse. 269-219 Rise of Pakthia. The Arsacid^..256 to A.D.226 Kingdom of Bactria.. 254-12' 250 Carthaginian Victory at Drepana 249 Sieges of Lilybfeum and Drepana. .250-246 Hamilcar Barcas, p. C, in Sicily 248-241 Victory of the.EAGTES (Catulus), Pom. 241 War of Carthaginians and Mercenaries, P. C 241-238 Sardinia and Corsica seized 23S Temple of Janus closed .235 ARCHIiVIEDES, 5. ^..287-212 Eratosthenes 276-196 Chrysippus 280-207 Livius Anbronicus, fl. 240-214 1st Tragedies at Rome..24;-235 CN N^TIUS fl. 235-2C2 Sosilus and Silanus Aratus, General of Achcean League 245 " at Corinth and Megara, 243 Agis IV. killed at Sparta . . 241 Antigonus Doson in Macedon, 233-221 Athens joins Achsean League, Gr 229 Roman Embassy to Greece, 228 War between Cleomenes of Sparta and Acheean League 227-222 Reforms of Cleomenes, ■S'. Gr 226-225 Dynasty of Tsln in China, 250-206 Ptolemy III. (Euergetes), Ma<^ , 247-222 Attalus I. (Pesamus)-, .241-197 Illyrian War (Queen Teuta) ,.. 229 Hasdrubal, p. C, founds Cartha;rena .229 Gallic invasion (Boii and Insubres). Battle of.Telamon, Bom- 225-223 Clastidium. Viridomarus and Marcellus. 3d Spolia Opima 222 " defeats Galatians..24i Sicily ist Roman Province.. 241 Gallia Cisalpina a Roman iProvince 222 sPv" A ^ 658 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. Table IV. TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. B. C. 323 to B. C. 146. From Death of Alexander to End of Third Punic War. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. B.C. R03IE AND Carthage. Literature and Akt. Greece. Sicily, Asia, Egypt, etc. 225 HANNIBAL, P. C (247-183) Q. Fabius Pictor.. ) Battle of Sellasia, Mac 221 Antiochus the Great (Syria), Mac 224-187 Siege of Saguntum.. _..2i9 2(1 IlljTian War-. --.219 I ...fl. 220 Cincins Alimentus. ) Aratus and Antigonus take Sparta —.221 Ptolemy IV. (Philopater), Mac - 222-205 2d PUNIC WAR ..218-202 Apollouius Rhodius 238-188 Philip V., Macedon, Mac, Hasdrnbal assassinated in Hannibal crosses the Alps... 218 221-179 Spain, P. 220 PLAUTUS 253-184 Philip and Achssans against First Commercial War — Battle of Tbasimene 217 Greek Works of Art. S. A., ^tolians 221-217 Byzantium and Rhodes. .214 Battle of Cann-e, P. -216 brought to Rome 212 Philip allied with Hannibal, Siege of Syracuse, Bom,, ENNI0S 239-169 Mac 216 Fabins and Marcellas, Bom. Nola — 215 Rome allied with ^tolians, 211 Battle of Anitorgis, P. C...212 Scipios defeated by Hasdkubal, P. C--212 CiEciLius Statius d. 168 Philopcemen, Gr., General " Elinga, Rom 208 Hannibal before Rome _.2ii Rise of Pharisees and of Achfean League. -.208-183 Ptolemy V. , Mac 205-181 B:ittle of Metaurus. Nero. Rom 208 Peace with jEtolians and Attains and Rhodians war Sypiiax and Massinissa 204 Hermippus (Smyrna) ? Rome 205 with Philip 203 Hannibal leaves Italy. 203 Philinus of Agrigeutum..fl. 200 Philip's War with Rome, Antiochus conquers Palestine, Battle of Zama, Horn.- 202 200-197 203 200 Battle of Cynoscephal^ Rom 197 Prusias of Bithynia 200-180 RosETTA Stone, ,S..d 197 T. Quintius Flaminius, Rom fl. 197 Flaminius proclaims free- dom of Greece at the EumenesII.,Pergamus, 197-158 Hannibal with Antiochus, P. 196 Pacutius 220-130 Isthmian Games 196 Ligurian Wars 200, 193, 181, etc. .\PRANnjS fl. 175 Philoposmen defeats Nabis of Sparta — 192 Dynasty of Han in China. War ^VITH ANTloCHtJS 191-190 Sparta joins Ach^an League, Battle of Magnesia, Rom...iqo .^tolian War 191-190 Titinius. Trabea. Atilius. 192 Hannibal at Court of Pru- Deaths of Hannibal and Scipio 183 Cato fl. 170 Antiochus in Greece 192 Philopcemen abrogates Laws sias, P. C. 183 Encroachments of Massinissa 182-174 of Lycurgns, Gr 188 Ptolemy VI., Mac 181-146 Villian Law 181 Carneades (Cyrene) ..213-129 Ltcortas General of Achae- an League 183 Pharnaces of Pontns cedes M. Porcius Cato, Rom (234-149) Paphlagonia to Rome 179 T. Sempronins Gracchus in Spain, Rom., POLYBIUS 207-122 Embassy of Callicrates 179 Perseus of Macedon, Mac, Antiochus Epiphanes, Mac, 179-168 176-iDs >7S TERENTIUS Afer (Carthage), War of Perseus and Rome, War of Antiochus and Egypt, 2d Macedonian War 171-168 195-139 171-16S 172-168 1,000 Achreans in prison at Rorae..i67-i5i L. iEmilins Paulas, Rom fl. i68 Zeno (Historian) fl. 160 HIPPARCHUS fl. 160 Battle of Pydna, Rcym., Mac, 168 Athenians attack Oropus. Revolt of Jews under Mat tathias 168 AsMON^ANS in Juda;a... 168-37 Romans intervene in Egypt 161 " lined by Rome.. 155 Cvrene and Libya separate Embassy of Carneades, Diogenes and Calpurnius Piso fl. 160 from Egypt 164 Critolaus 155 Sempronius Tnditanus..fl. 160 Audriscus in Macedonia 149 Judas MACCAEiEUS 166-161 War in Spain 153-152 Achcean War with Rome, 147-14C " allies with Rome, -ffom.. War with Audriscus 14S Cassius Hemina fl. 160 j6i Diaaus defeated at Leucopetra, Bactrians in India . . 160 3d PUNIC WAR 149-146 Cn. Gellius fl. 160 146 Acu.eanWar _,, .. _ 147-146 Aristarchus (Grammarian), 156 Destruction op Corinth, -Z?o/n. {l\Iummius), Gr — 146 Greece constituted a Roman Jonathan Maccab.eus, 161-143 P. Cornelius Scipio Minor, Rom fl. 146 Demetrius Soter and Alex- ander Balas. DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE, .\pollodorus (Grammarian), 146 Province (Achaia) Som. . Judaea free with tribute to ISO Rom., P. C 146 146-145 Syria. ■\, o •. - ^:i ^ 13 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 659 > TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table V. B. C. 146 to B. C. 0. From Destruction of Carthage to Christian Era. By Periods of Twenty-Five years. B.C. ISO Rome. Latin Literature. Othek Nations, Other LiTERATtniE and Ajvl. Lusitanian War 150-138 Death of ViriaLhus .-140 Scipio Alricanus (iVIinor) Censor..i42 C. LJElias (phil.) 186 A. Postumius Albinus (hist.), fl. 150 Polybius legislates for the Antipater of Tarsus (Stoic). Demetrius Nicator (Syria), 145-141 Simon Maccabeus 143-136 Numantinc War ^43-133 Scipio takes and destroys Numantia, 133 Tiberius Gracchus (164-133) P, Sempronius Asellio (hist.), fl. 130 Attius (dramatist) ..170-76 The Gracchi (orators). JuD^A independent. Macedon formftUy absorbed by Rome. Hyrcanus governs Judsea.. 136-106 " in Parthia 131 Panaetius d. Ill Glycon (sculptor). Servile War in Sicily 134-132 L. Cffilius Antipater (jurist), fl. 125 Demetrius Nicator restored. 130126 Attains m. leaves Pergamus to « Sempronian Laws 133-123 Gaius Gracchus (154-121) JI. ^milius Scaurus (orator) 163-90 LUCILTUS 148-103 Rome _ 130 Hyrcanus subdues Idumea and * Samaria, and destroys Tem- ple at Gerizim 129 Blossius of Cnm£e (philoso- pher). Rise of tue Essenes. 125 Fulvius Flaccus and L. Dnisus, popular leaders 125 Death of C. Gracchus -.121 Roman Province In Tran"Sal- piNE Gaul. ' ' Colony sent to Carthage, ^23 Q. Metellus. leader of Senate. Antoniug (orator) 143-70 Parthians subdue Bactrim 120 Sumptuary Laws. Crassus (orator) 140-91 Ptolemy Lathyrus and Alexander, 1. 7-81 FiBST Northern Higeations. Jugurtha captured „io6 2nd Servile War. 103-101 Pharisees and Sadducees politi- cal factions, civil contests in Judsea. Marius conquers Teutons, Aquie Sestias 102 P. Rutilios Rufas (historian), fl, 100 MITHRIDATES (Pontus)... 120-63 Marios conquers Cimbri,VercelltB-.ioi C. MAKItrS (157-86), 6th Consulship, 100 Q. Claudius Quadrigarins (hist.), fl _ 100 " conquests on Black Sea 112-110 *' takes Galatia 102 Archifls (poet) fl- loa Hierocles (fabulist) fl. 102 100 L. App. Saturntnus Tribune 100 Glaucia Prostor _ ico Laws of Drusus. Hisdeath 91 Artemidorus (Ephesas), fl.ioo C. Licinius Slacer (Mstomn) fl. 80 Ptolemy Apion leaves Ctrene to Rome 96 Antipater of Sidon (epigram- matist). Social or Maesio War 90-88 L. CORNELIUS SULLA (138-78) expels Marios 88 First Civil War 88 86 Valerius Antias (historian), fl. 80-70 SoUa on the Euphrates 92 Revolt and Siege of Egyptian Asclepiades fphysician). Library of Apelllcon to Rome. First Mithridatic War 88-84 L. Cornelius Sisenna (hist.) CraxAat Rome 87-84 Return of Marius, 87; his de:.th- .. .86 Sulla 83 118-67 Q,. Roscius (actor) d. 62 Sulla, ill coui'se of ist Mithri- datic War, takes Athens 86 Dionysius Thias (gramma- rian fl. 80 Second Civil War. Battle of Colline Gate 82 Second Mithridatic War 83-81 SuHa Dictator. Proscriptions. ..81-79 Corneman Laws. War with Sertorius 78-72 ir.TEKENTrLrcrsVARBO.Iie 28 HortensiuB (orator) 1 1 1-50 LUCRETIUS 99-55 TiGRAKES (Armenia)-- 95-60 " afWar with Rome, 85-66 Pompey in Africa __ 81 Diotimns the Stoic fl. 80 < 1 V «> •■ 82 -"• s -v -J^ 660 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. >>. TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table V. B. C. 156 to B. C. 0. From Destruction of Carthage to Christian Era. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. Latin Literature. Other Nations. Other Literature and Art. POMPEY ._.. (106-48) War with Spartacus.. - 73-71 Third MJthridatic War 74-63 i.st Consulehip of Pompey and Crassus -—70 Pompey defeats the Pirates --.67 Catiline's Conspiracies 65-63 Cicero Consul , 63 M. PoRCius Cato (95-46) Pompey ■'s Great Triumph 61 Cicsar m Spain 60 Coalition of Pompey, Ctesar, Cras- sus (First Triumvirate) 60 Tst Consulship of Cassar ^c, Ciusar in Gaul _ 58-51 " in Britain 55-54 2d Consulship of Pompey and Crassus 55 C.JULIUS C^SAR (100-44) MARCUS ANTONIUS (83-30 Civil War 49-4S Battle of Pharsalia __4S " Thapsus 46 " Munda ..45 Assassination of Csesar 44 Second Triumvirate — Lepidus, Antony, Octavianus _ 43 War with Brutus and Cassius. Battle of Philippi 42 War of Perusia ....41-40 Lepidus expelled from Triumvirate.36 War of Octavianus and Antony. 33-31 Battle of AcTiuM --3T Gateway of Janus closed 29-25 OCTAVIANUS (AUGUSTUS), (63-A. D. 14) " Emperor. ..27-A. d. 14 Cantabrian Wars. 25, 19, 13 Augustus invested with Tribunicia potestas _ 23 Death of Marcellus 23 Embassy from India 20 Parthians restore standards 20 German War. Roman defeat under LoUius t6 Tiberius and Dnisus defeat the Rhicti and Vindelici 15 Deaths of Agrippa and Lepidus 12 Augustus Poutifex Mashnus 12 Drnsus in (Jcrraany... 12-9 Death of Drueus _..g Tiberius defeats Germans 8-6 Atticus 109-32 Laberius (mimes) 107-43 CICERO 106-43 ' ' against Verres 70 LucuLLUS founds- Library at Rome _ 6^ Metellus (orator), Consul 60 CATULLUS 87 (or S4)-54 P. Ter. Varro (poet) b. 82 Calvus (poet) S2-47 CAESAR 100-44 Sallust S6-34 Vitruvius (architect) So-ii C. Asinius Pollio (orator and poet) 76-4 Gal3us(poet) 66-26 Pirst Year of Julian Calendar, 45 VIRGIL 70-19 Cornelius Nepos d. 14 Criticism of the best Attic Literature at Rome 30 JLecenas (b. 74-64) d. 8 HORACE 65-S MeSSALA ...64-A.D. 9 TiEULLUS 54-18 Propertius 5i-l'i M. A. Seneca (rhetorician). 60-A. D. 30 Labeo (jurist) fl. iS LHT 59-A. D. 17 OVID 43-A. D. 17 Nicomedes III; leaves Bithynia to Rome ..75 Victories of Lucullus in Asia, 74-^6 Scythians expelled from India. Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus at War. Rome interferes in Palestine (Antipater) .69 Antiochus Asiaticus dethroned by Pompey. Syria a Roman Province 65 Pompey subdues PucENiciAand takes Jerusalem ___ 63 JudjEA tributary to Rome 63 Cyprus a Roman Province 57 End of tlie Seleucida^... 57 Conquest of Gaul— Helvetii and Ariovistus de- feated _. 58 TheBelgse and Nervli defeated . 57 Treviri defeated __ 54 Cresar crosses the Rhine... 55-53 Vercingetorix and Alesia talien. ._ _ 52 Gaul a Roman Province,.!. .50 PosEiDONius (phiJ.) 86-62 ^Enesidemus (phll.) fl. 80-50 Themison (physician) ..123-43 Dioscorides (Mosaics). Indian Drama flourishes. Timagencs the Syrian (hist.) Battle of Carrhffi, hi Parthia; Crassus killed 53 Ctesar in Pontus conquers Pharnaces 47 CiEsar in Africa _ 47 Cleopatra (69-30) End of the Lagidte 43 Antony and Cleopatra on Cydnus, 42. Herod the Great in Judcea. - 37-4 Agrippa crosses the Rhine 37 Antony fails in Parthia 36 " invades Armenia .34 Egypt a Roman Province 30 Tiridates seeks Roman Court ..25 Romans fail in Arabia 24 Spain finally subdued. Agrippa in Asia 17 Cappadocia Roman 17 British Commerce with Italy and Gaiil, iVA TIVITT— Jesus 4 Quintus Sextius (stoic). Cratippus (phil.) Library of Pergamus to Alexandria 40 Pantheon dedicated by Agrippa 27 DioNYSius of Halicarnassus, d. iS Babrius (poet). DiODORUs SicuLUS (hist. fl. ) B.C. 8 •S.JGL- TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 66 1 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND Li TERATURE.— Continued. Table VI. A. D. I to A. D. 200. By Periods of Twenty Years. Tiberius commands on the Rhin Destruction of Arm}' under Varus liy the»Gc'rmans,.-9 Death of Aujijiistua 14 Tiberius Cjssar 14-37 Germanicus in Germany 14-16 " in the East 17 " Death 19 K^^Elius Sejanus dominant _ 20-31 Praetorian Camp at Rome.- 23 Tiberius retires to Capreai 26-37 Fall of Sejanas , 31 Macro Prefect of Prictorians 31-37 Agrippina I. banished, 30; died 33 Caligula 37-41 '* Expedition to Gaul 39 " Assassinated 41 Claudius, Emperor 41-54 Conquest of Mauretanla _ 42 Claudius invades Britain, 43, War ..43-51 Execution of Messalina 48 Claudius marries Agrippina II. and adopts Nero 50 " poisoned by " 54 Nero, Emperor _ 54-6S BritJinnicus poisoned. Parthian and Armenian Wars. Agripp.na murdered ._ 59 Insurrection, in. Britain subdued 61 Ro.ME Burnt. Christians persecuted 64 Conspiracy of Piso. Deaths of Lucau and Seneca. .65 Nero at Olympic Games, 67; Death ._ 68 Galba, 68; murdered in the Forum _ 69 Otiij. Vitellius - 69 Civil War. Otlio kills himself. Vitellius killed. Vespasian __ _ _ 70-78 Batavian, 69-70; British, 61-84; Jewish Wars 65-70 Gates of Janus closed; Philosophes expelled 71 Reform of Treasury. Titus. Emperor, _ 79-81 Herculaneuniand Pompeii destroyed -. 79 OxHEn Nations. Judaea a Roman Province under Syria. Paunonia, Dalmatia. Rhastia and Noricum Roman. Cherusci under Auminius defeat Romans 9 Artabanus (Parthia).. 14-44 Germanicus in Parthia 17 War between Arminius and Marbod ig Pontius Pilate in Juda3a._.-- 25 OnUCIFIXlON, according to Eusebius Lactantius . 30 Lycia a Roman Province _ 43 Judcea and Samaria directly Roman 44 Thrace " " 47 London founded by the Romans 47 Frisians subdued 47 Colonia Agrippina. .50 Caractacus Prisoner. __ 50 South Britain a Roman Province 51 Corbulo in Parthia 56-64 St. Paul at Malta 60? Boadicea in Britain 61 Revolt of the Jews 65 Josephus governor of Galilee 66 Titus destroys Jerusalem 70 Civilis leads Batavian revolt 70 Agricola subdues Britain 78-85 Literature and Art. Ovid banished 9 PHiEDRUS fl. 14 Celsus (physician) 17 Velleius PatercuUis (historiau), B.C. 19-31 Strabo (geographer) b.c, 66-22 Ciesius Bassus (poet) d. 79 PHILO JUDyEUS 0. B.C. 20 - ? Valerius Maximus (hist.) ? Petronius Arbiter d. 66 ApoUonius of Tyana b. b.c. 4- JosEPnus 37-97 Philo, Senior Ambassador to Rome _..4o SENECA 3-65 Lucan - ._ 39-65 Pliny Ma j or 23-79 Annceus Cornutus A- 55 A. Persius Flaccus 34-62 > Columella Oiusbandry ) _ . " 50 Pamphila (female historian).." 55 Silius Italicus (poet) 25-100 Colosseum built 70-80 Papinius Statins (poet) 61-96 Saleius Bassus (poet) fl. 75 Stoics banished by Vespasian. The Laocoon. Domitian 81-96 War against the Chatti.. —82 Agricola recalled to Rome ---85 Unsuccessful Wars with Getas, Quadi and Marcomanni. Insurrection of Antonius repressed , 91 Persecution of Jews and Christians 95 Domitian killed 96 Nerva, Emperor 96-98 Relief of Taxes. Distribution of Lands. Galgacus at Mons Grampius 84 Dercebal, King o£ Getae, defeats Romana. .86-90 Amphitheatre of Verona. Demonax the Cynic __ ,.fl. 80 Paris (Pantomime), killed.. 83 Valerius Flaccus (poet) fl. 88 JUVENAL 47-130? Martial _. 43-104 q,uintilian 42-118 TACITUS - ? 55-117 Plint Minor O1-105 o 'V \ ra Gi ^ 6\ 662 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. > TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued, Table VI. A. D. 1 to A. D. 200. By Periods of Twenty Years. A.D. 100 Rome. Other Nations. Literature and Art. TRAJAN, Emperor 98-116 Free Constitution. Judicia Majestatie abolished. Elective Power to Comitia. Free Speech in Senate. Forum Ulpianum; Column of Trajan 103 Dion Chrysostom (rhetorician), 50-117 Plutarch, fl. 98 40-120 Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna-96-166 Suetonius ...CS- Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Roman Provinces 114 Greatest Extent of Roman Empire. Trajan takes Ctesiphon and sails down Tigris 116 3d Persecution of Christians. Hadrian 117-138 Picts invade Britain 117 4th Persecution of Christians 118 Euphrates eastern boundary of the Empire-117 120 140 Hadrian's Walls — Newcastle to Carlisle 121 " " Rhine to Danube 121 Hadrian rebuilds Jerusalem - 130 Revolt of the Jews under Barcochab 132 Dispersion of the Jews ---13S Prosperity in Britain under Hadrian. Wall of Antoninus .. 138 Statues of Antinous (Hadrian's Page). Epictetus fl. II7-I38 Moles Hadriani (St. ABgelo). Edictum Perpetuum of Hadrian, 132 ^lian (the rhetorician). Aulus Gellius ('-Attic Nights"), fl. 143 Extension of Commerce throughout the Empire. Quadratus and Aristidcs at Athens present ist Apology for the Christians 125 ANTONIUS PIUS, Emperor 138 160 Vallum Anionini in Britain 140 Rome applied to as an Arbiter by various nations, Justin Martyr 103-166 Herodes Atticus (antiquarian, etc.) 104-180 Fronto (antiquarian). .fl. 153, d. 166 Appian (hist.) fl. 147 Galen 130-200 Gaius (jurist) _ fl. 160 Appuleius 130-174 j Faustina I _ _ fl, 138-141 Development of the Civil Law. Establishment of Schools in Provinces. Insurrections in Provinces quelled. Christianity tolerated. 160 MARCUS AURELIUS sole Emperor i6g-i8o L. Vcrus associated in the Government 161-169 Faustina 11 fl. 145-175 Pestilence and Famines at Rome 161-166 Wars with Parthians 162-166 War with Marcomanni, Quadi, etc 167-174, 17S-180 Greek Philosophers patronized. Rebellion in Syria quelled 175 Christians in Gaul persecuted ijy Verus in Armenia and Syria™ 161-165 Seleucia demolished 165 Death of Verus 169 Advance of the Goths. Attacks on Dacia. Celsus (philosopher) fl. 160 LUCIAN I20-2C0 Irenseus (Bishop of Lyons). 120-200 Pausanias (geographer) fl. 174 Polycarp suffers martyrdom i6-5 P. ^lius Aristides (rhetorician). fl. 170 Hermogenes (rhetorician) fl. 170 200 CoMMODUs, Emperor _. ,so m? Successes of Marcellus in Britain 1S3 Byzantium taken by Severus 196 Statue of Aurelius._ 180 \ Dion Cassius (hist.) 155- Clement of Alexandria d. 213 Origen 185-253 Julius Paulus (jurist)? ; Diogenes Laertius (biographer). Temple of SunatBaalbec 197 Athen.-eus fl. 200 HlPPOLYTUS d. 230 Tertullian 190-240 Sextus Erapiricus (phil) fl, 225 Commodua takes the name of Britannicus 184 Perennis Prefect of Proetorians 180-1S6 Clcnuder " " 186-183 Commodus as Gladiator. Killed. 102 Pertinax killed ,^3 DiDiAs JULIANUS bays Empire. Killed ,03 Septimus Seveuus jg. ^'lo Defeat and Death of Nijrer ,„, End of Arsacidse - * 1 Severus invades Britain, 208-209; dies at York 211 V 226 Beginning of.Sassanidffi (Persians).. b V "^ ^ « \^ ^ TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 663 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. Table VII. From A. D. 200 to the Norman Conquest. By Centuries. A.D. History op Home and Other Countries. English and Scotch History. English Literature. Literature on the Continent. 200 Caracalla, limn 211-217 Roman Citizenship extended to tlie whole Empire 2n Gollienus nnd the Tyrants, Bom., 2^9-263 Aurelian, Smi 270-275 Diocletian, Som 284-305 OONSTANTINB, Som., {274-337) 306-337 Wall of Severus , 210 Papinian at York. Roman authors read. Ossianf f Dalriadaf Carausius revolts z86 Sextus Empiricus (phil.) fl. 225 Ulpian died (lawyer) 22S Plotinus (phil.) 204-274 Origen (theo.) d. 253 Zenobia at Palmyra (queen) 270 300 Proclaims Christianity 311 JULIAN, Som.... 361-363 Paganism restored 361 Great popular migrations begin 375 Theodosius I. Paganism pro- scribed. Som 391 The Empire divided 394 ALARIC (Visigoth). Pelagius. Early Christian Martyrs. Incursions of Picts nnd Scots. ITlphilas. Moeso-Gothic Gospels, .337 Gregory Nazianzen (theo.) 379 Ambrose of Milan (theo.) 391 St. Jerome (theo.) 340-420 St. Augustine (theo.) 354-430 400 At Rome. 405-410 Attila at Chalons, Fr 451 Genscric at Rome 45s Succession of Western Emperors ends --.476 CLOVIS CMerovingian), JFY... 481 Becomes Cliristian 496 Theodoric (Ostrogoth), at Ravenna. 493 Romons leave Britain 409 Hengist and HorEa.44g Kent. Ella, SasLons 477 Sussex. Cerdic, '■ 495 Wessex. St. Patrick. The Traveler's Song. St. David. Beowulf. The Culdees? Orosius. St. Martin of Tours. Proclus (phil.) 412-485 Boethius 470-526 500 ON C^ I to' K m W JUSTINIAN, Som 527-565 Belisarius 535-560 Chilperic. Brunehault, Fr 580 Lombards iu Italy 570-770 MAHOMET (570-632) Saxons 530 Essex. King Arthur? I Anglia. Angles 550K Deira. ( Mercia. Fergus More n.? Scot. Ethelbert (Kent) Cliristian.598 Aneurin. Merlin? Taliesin. Four Masters? (pub. 1634). History of Gildas 564? St. Columba 521-615 St. Austin in England.. 597-610 St. Benedict 480-543 Tribonian 534 Institutes and Pandects of 'Justinian 534 Dares Phrygius. Gregory of Tours 544-590 Cassiodorns. Gregory!, Pope --590 600 The Hegira 622 No Romans after Heraclius, Som., 610-641 Pepin of Heristal in Gaul 687 MOORS in Spain -1492 Edwin (Northumbria), Rex Anglormn 627 Devon subdued 647 Ina of Wessex. .. 689 726 Fragment of Judith. Cedmon? Adamnan ..._.... .624-704 Laws of Ina. Aldhelm 650-710 Laws of Rotharis. The Koran published 634 Omar at Alexandria 640 664 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. fM^ TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table VII. From A. D 200 to the Norman Conquest. By Centuries. IIiSTOJtY OF Rome and Otheb Countries. o J? > Q SO Death of Roderick. Sp. 711 Charles Martel at Tours, Fr. 732 Pepin the Short, J^?'. 752-768 Death of St. Boniface 755 Roland at Eoncesvalles 77S Irene (Constantinople) 780-803 Haroun-al-Raschid __ 7S0-80S OH AELBMAGNE,(742-8i4) 771-814 English AND Scotch History Cornwall subdued, ist Landing of Danes 786 Offa of IVIercia 790 Saracens in Sicily. Treaty of Verdun (division of Empire) -844 Rolf Ganger in Neustria, ^'caft-841-876 NORMANS in France. Magyar invasions. Henry I. (The Fowler), Ger 913 Otho the Great, Ger 936 Hugh Capet, F7' 987 DANES in England. The Cid (Ruy Diaz) in Spain, (1040-1099) Egbert (Wesses) S27-836 Kenneth II., Scot. Picts and Scots united. 2d Danes. Ragnar Lodbrog. 866 ALFRED 871-501 Athelstane 925 Battle of Brunanburg 937 Edt\^y (contest ^vith Church), 955 Malcolm I., Scot. Strath- clyde 944-952 3d Danes. Sweyn. CANUTE, Scan 1014 English Literature. Bede..- 672-735 Cyuwulf .. -715-780 Alcuin . _ History of Nennius? Joannes Scotus Erigena..87s Brehon Law in Ireland. Alfred's Translations Literature on the Continent. Schools at Fulda and St. Gall, Ireland. Benedict d'Aniana ..,750-821 Asserts Life of Alfred . Malcolm II., aS'ot;-..ioo3-io33 Edward the Confessor. 1042 Macbeth defeated and slain, Scot 105S Malcolm III. Canmore, Scot 1058 HAROLD ....1065 " defeats Norwegians, 1066 War Poems; Brunanburgh, Maldon. St. Dunstan. yElfric's Homilies 995 The Grave? Annals of Innisf alien: Annals of Tighernach? Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 875-1154 Eginhard 840 Otfried's Ivrist c. 870 Heliand. ._.. 870 Archbishop Hincmar.. 8S2 Old High German Alliterative Poetry. Gereert. Silvester II., Pope, 999-1003 Hroswitha c. 9S0 Schools of Cordova and Seville, Spain. AVICENNA 980-1037 Translation of Psalms at St. Gall. Icelandic Sagas. Lambert of Herzfeld 1060 ~fv •»-y 51 ^ ' >'•, 1 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 665 p > TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table VIII. From Conquest to Middle of Fourteenth Century. By Periods of Fifty Years. A.D. Continental IIistoky. English and Scotch History. English Literature. Literature and Art on the Continent. 1050 i niLDEBRAND, or Gregory VII., Pp - 1073 Norman Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 1071 Comneni nt Constantinople, Horn. Henry IV 1066-1106 Urban 11., Fp 1088 Firs/. Ci'vsade 1095-1099 THE CRUSADES 1095-1270 WILLIAM I., The Conqueror, IC66-1087 Battle of Hastin^'S io(')6 Lanfranc fl. 1070-10S9 Anselm fl. 1089-1109 Chanson dc Roland. Bruno founds Carthusians 1084 Scholasticism. Robcelin. Peter Lombard. Peter the Hermit. Verse Edda compiled. Edgar Atheling to Scotland- . . 1068 llereward in the Isle of Ely---io7i Conquest of England completed, 1073 Domesday Book ._ 1086 William II.. Rufus 1087-1100 Henry I 1 100-1135 I 100 Orders of Knights— Of St. John, or Rhodes 1048 The Templars--- mS Teutonic Order 1190 Persecution of Jews. lloh'-nstaufcn DjTiasty, Ger,, 1138-1254 Guelfs and Ghibellines, It 1140 Second Criisade 1147-1149 S 'VLADIN - (ii^r-iiQi) Conquest of Normandy--iioi-ito7 Alexander I., Scot 1107-1124 Shipwreck of Prince William. 1120 David I.. Scot 1124-1153 Stephen (Blois) and Matilda, 1^35-1154 Battle of the Standard 1138 Henry II. (Plantagenet)-ii54-ii89 Ordericus Vitalis 1075-1142 William of Malmesbury. 1095-1142 Euclid translated . .1116 Williftni of Guienne. ist Trou- l.)adour. Universities. University of Bologna mO Study of Civil Law. Play of St. Catherine at Dunstable 1119 HiJarius 1110-1160 Geoffrey G r '^ V*" dL. 666 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table VIII. From Conquest to Middle of Fourteenth Century. By Periods of Fifty Years. A.D. Continental History. English and Scotch History. English Literature. Literature and Art on the Continent. I200 Foii7'lh Crusade 1200-1204 Attack on Constantinople 1204 Stephen Langton and Barons„ Robert Grostete 1175-1253 University of Salamanca 1200 Gottfried of Strasburg's Tristran. Latin Empire 1204-1261 Interdict removed 1213 Story of Genesis and Exodus. Raymond in Languedoc, Albert of Stade's Troiltis. « The Inquisition begun 1229 vA Battle of Bovines, Fr 1214 The ORMtTLUM? S " confirmed and renewed St Francis of Assisi 1182-1230 ^ FREDERICK II., Ger. (1194-1250) thirty times.. 1216-1608 "Owl and Nightingale." Mendicant Orders. Fifth Crusade 1216-1220 Alexander 11., Scot 1214-1249 University of Cambridge.. 1231 Sordello fl. 1260 ai Frederick King of Jerusalem . , 1229 Chretien de Troyes 114(^1227 O Alphonso THE Wise in Spain, Henry III .1216-1272 "Ancren Riwle." Snorro Sturlasson 1178-1241 1226-64 Albertus Magnus —1193-1280 Gregory IS., Pp 1227 Retreat of Moors to Granada .1240 Fall of Hubert de Burgh 12.^2 Unsuccessful Wars in France. Matthew Paris 1222-1275 Trojumanna Saga. Prose Edda.- 1241 Sixth Crusade 1249-1250 Romances . William of Lorris. 1250 LOUIS IX., Fr 1236-1270 Thomas of Erceldoune, the Rhymer. Roman de la Hose. Richard of Cornwall, Eng., Alexander III., ^co^-.. 1249-1286 Emperor of Germany. ;i256-i27i End of Caliphate at Bagdad.. .1258 Battle of Largs.- ...1263 Barons' War i262-i2'56 Michael Seot d. 1293 ROGER BACON. ---1215-1292 Earliest Plays in Spain and National Lyrics. Seventh Crusade - 1270 Benoit de St. More. 5r De Montfort's Parliament 1264 Telescope, Gunpowder,"Opus T Rudolf of Hapsburg. G^er. 1273-1292 Battle of Lewes I1264 Majus." Thomas Aquinas. 1227-1274 , Genoa powerful under Doria, 1270-1283 Battle of Evesham 1265 Henry Bracton c. 1260 CiMABUE, Pt 1240-1308 K Fra Dolcino 1275-1304 EDWAED 1 1272-1307 Surtees' Psalter. Tableau of Marie of France. M Sicilian Vespers 1282 Statute of Mortmain 1279 Peter Langtoft. Robert of Gloucester. --C. 12S0 Raymond Lully 1235-1315 Marco Polo 1255-1325 < War between Genoa and Pisa. 1284 Wales subdued ..1283 Ugolino 128S Margaret and Baliol, Scot.. Duns Scotus 1265-1308 Gesta Eomanordm. Berchorius. Colonnas and Orsinis at Rome. William Wallace ..fl. 1296-1298 BONIFACE Vin.,P/;.- 1294-1303 Expulsion of Jews. " Land of Cockayne." Guido de Columna 1287 Swiss League _ 1295 Battle of Falkirk 129S Robert (Manning) of Brunne. 1300 Charles of Valois in Italy 1301 Edward II . .. 1307 1327 R. Higden, "Polychronicon," 132S Giotto, Pt 1276-1337 Philip IV., THe Fak, Fr., 1285-1314 Clement V. at Avignon, P^j...i305 The Lords Ordainers 1310 " Cnr.^nr Arnndi ".. . t^?^ DANTE 1265-1321 Pall of the Templars 1305-1310 ROBERT I. (BRUCE), Scot., 1306-1329 Humpole's " Prick of Con- science." Meister Eckhard d. 1329 Henry VII. Luxemburg, Ger,, Battle of Bannockburn, Scot.-i^ri, Jean de Meun. 1308-1313 WILLI.AM OCCAM....,..d. 1347 J. Tauler - 129(^1361 Rutli (William Tell?) 1307 EDWARD III 1327 1377 Morgarten 1315 David IL, Scot 1329-1371 Chester Plays. Theologia Germanica. Election to Empire declared in- dependent of Papacy 1 338 Battle of Halidon Hill 1333 Fordun's "Scotichronicon," '35° Orcagna, Pt J320-1389 PETRARCH i3°4-i374 Louis the Bavarian, ffi5r. 1314-1347 Battle of Cresst 1346 Laurence Minot 1300-1352 University of Prague- 134S Philip VI. Valois, if>-..i328-i35o Battle of Neville's Cross 1346 Sir John MandeviUe. 1300-1370 C4onsalez de Bercio. 1350 Calais taken 1347 SV^ ^ O a. .. .. « ^ TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 667 P > TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table IX. From Middle of Fourteentii to End of Fifteenth Century. By Periods of Twenty-Five years. A.D. Continental Historv. English and Scotch History. English Litekatube. Literature and Art on the Continent. 1350 RiENZI 1343-1354 Marino Faliero atVenice 1352 John II., IY 1350-1364 War with Spain, Scotland and Prance. The Black Death ..1349, 1361, 1369 Langland's "Piers Plow- man" 1369 Chaucer's " Romaunt of BOCCACCIO 1313-1375 Aurea Bulla _. -1356 The Jacquerie In France 1358 Battle of Poitiers 1356 Rose." Gerhard Groot 1340-1380 Hanseatic League 1 140-1723 The Free Companies. Peace of Bretigny 1360 Wtolipfb I324-1384 Brethren of Common Lot, at Deventer. { Vieconti, Milan Tyrants in Italy... -. Scala, Verona { Este. Ferrara Charles V.. Fr 1364-1380 Law Pleadings in English 1362 Barbour 13 16-1396 Gower 1325-1408 Pedro Lopez Ajala.. 1332-1407 Gregory XI, at Rome, Pp 1370 Thh Schism 1378-1439 Robert II. (Stuart), Scot., 1371-1390 CHAUCER d. 1400 Froissart i337-r40i •375 Charles VI., I^r 1380-1422 Joan of Naples executed 1382 Death of the Black Prince.... 1376 HichardII i377->399 " Legend of Good Women, " after 1382 Trevisa _ fl. 1387 Decline of Genoa. Philip Van Artevelde, Vtch 1382 "Wat Tyler's Insurrection -1381 Jolm of Gaunt in Spain -.1386 Andrew Wyntoun... 1350-1420 Poggia and Laurentius Valla. AJtfERLANE, 13 Austro-Swiss War 138.S-1470 Winkelriedat Sempach 1386 Raid of Otterbume 13II8 "The Cantehbuby Tales," 1390-1398 Fra Anqelico, i^- -.1387-1448 Margaret of Norway _ 1389 Robert 111., Scot 1390-1406 AmadisdsGaul 1390 E- Union of Calmar _ 1397 Priemunire Statute 1393 Wakefield and Towneley Mysteries. Ghieerti. a. and S, 1400 Florence powerful. Henry TV. (Bolingbroke), 1399-1413 1381-1455 Percy Rebellion, Shrewsbury, 1403 Jeun Gerson 1363-1425 • SiGisMUND, Emperor, Oer 1410 Council of Constance 1414-1418 Prince James of Scotland cap- tured 1405 jUbany, Regent, Scot 1406-1423 University of St. Andrews. 14 1 1 Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez to Tamerlane. Pope John XXIII. deposed, Pp-.i^^s Esecutiohs of Huss and Jerome ..141 5 Battle of Harlaw 141 1 HENRY V 1388-1422 Persecution of the Lollards. James I., " King's Quair." H. Van Eyck, Pt.... 1366-1426 J. Van Eyck, Pt 1390-1441 Frederick of HohenzoUern, Mar- grave of Brandenburg, Pnis 1417 Battle of Aqincourt 1415 Cobham burnt -.1417 Masaccio, Pt 1402-1428 Hussite War, Ziska 142^-1436 Charles VII., Fr 1422-1462 Treaty of Troyes 1420 Henky VI 1422-1461 JAMES I. reigns, 5a)<...i423-i437 Occleve 1370-1454 Thomas a Kempis...i38o-i47i Donatello, ^. a»d 5.. 1383-146* i 1 to ' ^ 83 ^ c N-* M U. 668 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. Table IX. From Middle of Fourteenth to End of Fifteenth Century. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. Continental History. >475 Joan of Arc, ^r 1429-1431 French recover Paris 1436 Coancil of Basle ._i433-i44g " Florence .._„_., -1439 Alphonao V. at Arngon, *9/? 1449 The Sforzas at Milan 1449 Hapsbnrg Emperors, GeV-.i^jS et seq. The Medici at Florence, 1430 et seq. Nicholas V. Single Pope 1447-1454 Mahomet 11. English and Scotch History. Constantinople taken 1 453 Belgrade resists the Turks. Hungary powerful. The Foscari at Venice. Pius II. (iE3nea8 Sylvius), Pp 1458 LOUIS XI., Fr ...1461-1483 Wars with Charles the Bold. Poland powerful. Battle of Murten 1476 Duchy of Burgundy merged in France. Death of Charles the Bold 1477 Maximilian's Marriage with Mary-1477 FERDINANIt AND ISABELLA, Sp., 1470-151Z Prince Henry of Portugal. Chakles VIII., Fr 1483-149S Provence joined to Prance ...1487 Charles marries Anne of Brittany. 1491 " invades Italy z^^^ B. Diaz rounds C. of Good Hope.. 1485 Tlie Moors driven from Spain 1491 COLUMBUS (1436-1505) ,4,2. Alexander VI., Pp ,451; Maxuhlian I., Ckr 1493 SwiBS Confederacy Independent.. 1499, Lonis XII., Fr i493-i5t5: Vasco da Gama, Port 1497- War between Scotland and England 1436 Ja.iIEs 11., Scot . 1437-1460 Duke of Gloucester murdered. 1447 Jack Cade's Insurrection 1450 Civil Wars of tlie EosEs, 1452-1485 Englieli expelled from France. 1453 Battle of St. Albans 1455 James in., &o« 1460-1488 Edward IV 1461-1483 Warwick, King-maker 1471 Battle of Tewkesbury 1471 English Literature. Humphrey, Duke of Glou- cester 1430 Lydgate.. 1375-1461? Chevy Chase, and Early English Ballads. Thomas of Wal8ingham..i44o Mysteries and Moralities. University of Glasgow 1451 Peacock's "Repressor,". .1449 Queen Margaret at the Court of R6n6 of Provence 1475 Duke of Clarence murdered... 1478 Edward V 1483 RICHARD III 1483-14S5 Battle of Bosworth Field 1485 HENRY VII. (Tudor). ..1485-1509 James IV., Scot 1488-1513 Poynings' Act in Ireland 1495 Sebastian Cabot 1497 Littleton 1481 Sir John Fortescne - - 1475-1480 Sir Thomaa Malory.. 1433-1475 The Mobte d'Akthcr. The Coventry Mysteries . . 1468 Caxton's Press in England. 1474 Literature and Art on the Continent. University of Florence 1438 Fra Pilippo Lippi, Pt., 1412-1469 Culture in Aragon and the Sicilies. Della Eoebia, a. and S., 1400-1482 INVENTION OF PRINTING, >44S Cozzoli, Pi 1408-1478 John of Goch 1451 Memling, Pt 1425-1495 Giovanni Bellini, Pt., 1426-1516 John Wessel 1420-1459 The Paston Letters.. 1425-1506 Blind Harry's Wallace. Revival of Letters, Classical Studies and Theology. Grocyr, Colet, Warham, More, etc. Erasmus in England 1497 H. Boyce 1470-1536 DUNBAR 1450-1530 Douglas 1474-1522 Henryson fl. 1490-1500 TheMazarin Bible 1453 Francois Villon 1431- DeImitatione I471 Boiardo 1434-1494 Philip de Comines 1445-1509 University of Upsala 1476 Pico della Mirandola.1463-1494 Mabuse, Pi 1499-1562 Francia, Pt 1450-1518 Ghirlandajo, Pt 1449-1498 LORENZO DE MEDICI. 11. 1470-1492 Sodoma, Pi i479,-is54 Pulci fl. 1480 Ficinus, Politian. Perugino, Pt 1446-1521 -Iraeian Nights. Leonardo da Vinci, Pt...R. 1490 Sebastian Brandt, "Nar- renschiff " 1494 Savonarola fl. 1494-1508 GlORGIONE, Pt. I477-1511 ALBRECHTDlIREBjPi. 1471-1528 RAPHAEL, Pi 1482-1520 MICH.AEL ANGELO, A. and S... 1473-1456 ^1 l^ TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 669 Table X. The Sixteenth Century. In Decades. A.D. Continental History English and Scotch History. English Literature. Literature and Art on the Continent. 1500 .irLIUS II., Pj, ,503 League of Ciimbray. Pope, Prance, and Empire against Venice. Portugal powerful in East. Spain conquers Cuba. Don Mamiel of Portugal, (1469-1521) LEO X.,Pp J513 Perkin Warbeck executed 1499 James TV. of Scotland marries Margaret, daughter of Henry VII ,502 Stephen Hawes 1483-1512 "Pastime of Pleasure".. 1506 "Nut Browne Maid." Skelton 1460-1528 Scholarship. Linacre, Smith, and Chekc. Ballads and Moralities. ERASMUS 1467-1536 Berni 1490-1536 Bembo 1470-1547 .\rtliur. Prince of Wales, mar- ries Catherine of Aragon 1501 Henry VIII 1309-1547 Reuchlin 1455-1522 ARIOSTO 14-4-1533 Andrea del Sarto, Pt. 1488-1530 Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, 1507 TITLAN, 'Pt 1477-1576 1510 Vasco Nunez at Darieu, /to;-/. .1513 Bayard 1524 Francis, I., Fr 15,5 Magellan (navigator) 1470-1521 Adrian VI. ,Pp 1522 ( 1516 Spain. CHARLES V. J ,3,, Empire. Battle of Plodden . 1513 More's "Richard HI.' First English Prose History. " Utopia 1516 First Original Romance. Barclay (Ship of Fools, Satire and Eclogues) 1490-1535 Machiavelli- 1469-1527 War with France 1513 Battle nf Spurs 1513 Margaret. Regent of Scotland. WOLSEY (1471 i5io) CORREGGIO.Pi 1493-1534 > Paracelsus 1493-1541 "EpistolsE Obscuronim Viro- C. Agrippa and Cardan. Cardinal 1515 Field of Cloth of Gold 1520 Uh-ichvon Hutten 1488-1523 G. Agricola 1494-1565 LUTHER - i483-ii46 1530 !5 S43 Palissy, A. and S.. 1499-1589 Boscan (Spain) j - -fl. 1530 Hans Sachs (Germany) - 1530 Pizarro in Peru, Sp 1531 Brittany annexed to France. . . 1532 Ivan I., Russian Czar 1533 Anabaptist at Munster 1534 Calvin at Geneva 1532-1535 Foundation of JESUIT Order, 1534 Archbishop Cranmer pro- nounces divorce 1533 REFORMATION in England. .\ct of Supremacy 1534 Cromwell, Vicar General 1535 Suppression of Monasteries, 1535-1536 Execution of More 1535 Pilgrimage of Grace ___i537 The Six Articles, 1539 Execution of Cromwell 1540 Sir David LTTtDSAY.1490-1556 Elliot's "Governor" 1531 Coverdale's Bible 1535 Jardin des Plantes. Vittoria Colonna 1490-1547 Margueret of Navarre ...1492-1558 CALVIN ...1509-1564 J. Everts (Joannes Secundus), Leland — 1552 Cranmer. Anglican Liturgy. 1511-153S VesaliuB, first Scientific Anato- mist. Ignatius Loyola 1491-1556 Francis Xavier 1506-1552 St. C. Borromeo 1538-1576 1540 Council of Trent... 1545-1563 SmalcaldicWar 1547 Henry ll.,Fr 1547 Solway Moss - 1^42 Hall's Chronicles 1548 Heywood'fi Interludes. ASCHAM, "ToXOphilus"..I545 -Schoolmaster" ... 1563 R. Crowley d. 1588 Gascoigne 1540-1577 Mendoza (Hist, of Moors), 1503-1575 Benvenuto f ellini, A. and S. 1500-1572 Vasari, Ft 1512-1571 Palladio, A. and S.. 1518-1580 Telesius 1509-1588 Sleidan 1506-1556 TINTORETTO, PI 1512-1594 Mary nominally succeeds 1542 Death of Beaton, Scot. -1546 Edward W 1547-1553 Somerset, Protector 1547-1549 Economic distress. Battle of Pinkey.... 1547 670 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.—Continued. Table X. The Sixteenth Century. In Decades. Continental History. English and Scotch Histohy. English Literature. Literature and Art on the Continent. Metz taken by France 1552 Servetiis burnt by Calvin 1553 Religious Peace of Augsburg.. 1555 Philip II., ,Sp 1556 Catherine de Medici, and the Guises. Francis 11. , i?V' 1 559 Charlee IS., M' 1560 Mary Tudor 1353-1558 Lady Jane Grey beheaded 1553 Mart of Guise in Scotland. .1554 Reconciliation with Pome 1554 Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer burnt. - 1555-1556 Gardiner and Pole in power. Calais lost 1558 ELIZABETH 1558-1603 tJdal . Earliest Comedy - . . 1 550 Wilson's Art of Rhetoric. 1551 Mirror for Magistrates. Balers King Jolm. Sackville (1527-1608) Ear- liest Tragedy Pox's "Martyrs" 1553 Tottel's Miscellany 1357 John Knox 1505-1572 Sannazaro and Montmajor (Diana). Sociims 1 539-1604 Stephens and the Scaligers. 1484-1609 Gesner's Mithridates 1555 Peter Ramus — 1572 Palestrina, J{. 1524-1594 P. VERONESE, Pt 1528-1588 CAMOENS 1527-1579 1560 Civil Wars in France 1562-1595 Solimau II. in Hungary 1566 Pius v., Pjw - 1566 Alva in the Netherlands 1567 Cosmo de Medici, Duke of Tuscany. Don John of Austria 1569 Hungary ^annexed to Austria.. 1570 William Cecil, Secretary 1559 REFORMATION in Scotland. MARY STUART, Scot., reigns 1562-1568 Murder of Rizzio 1566 Murder of Darnley 1567 Northern Rebellion --1569 Murray, Regent, Scot 1570 Buchanan _-.i5o6-i582 The Geneva Bible 1560 The Book of Common Prayer. 1560 Tusser's Bucolics Bishops' Bible 1568 XXXIX. Ai'ticles-.- 1571 St. Teresa 1 515-1582 Beza 1519-1605 RoNSARD 1524-1586 Silvester's Du Bartas. Kochanowski _ 1530-1584 MONTAIGNE 1533-1592 Battle of Lepanto, Sp 1571 Poland an Elective Monarchy, 1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572 Revolt of Netherlands 1572 Henry III. -f^r 1574 The League 1576-1593 Union of Utrecht — 1579 WILLIAM XHE SILENT (Or- ange), Dutch. Morton, Regent, Scot 1572 Burghley, Lord Treasurer 1572 Walsingham, Secretary --1573 Elizabeth declines the Nether- lauds 1575 Drake sails round the World.. 1577 James VI. , Scot 1578-1625 Puttenham and Cose. Sir Philip Sidney.. 1554-1586 .Sonthwell , .1560-1590 Chronicles of Hollinshed and Stowe. Knolles 1545-1610 Isaac Casaubon 1 559-1 6 1 4 University of Leyden ...1575 Bodin _ '530-1596 Cynthio and Bandello's Tales. Mariana 1536-1623 TASSO 1544-1595 1580 Independence of Netherlands Declared 1581 William of Orange assassi- nated 1584 Sextus V.,P^ 1585 The Duke of-^ Guise assassi- nated _ 1588 Alexander of Parma 1571-1592 HENRY IV., Fr 1589-1610 Battle of Arques 1589 Battle of Ivry, J^r _ 1590 R isings in Ireland _ 1 580 Raleigh in Virginia 1584 Leicester in the Netherlands; 1584 Battle of Zutphen 1586 Babington's Plot 1586 Execution of Mary 158 7 Drake at Cadiz 1587 THE ARMADA 1588 University of Edinburgh. ,1581 Hooker 1 553-1600 Raleigh 1553-1618 SPENSER --- i553-"599 Warner 1558-1609 Peele ? — 1598 Nash 155S-1601 Greene ? — 1592 Francis de Sales 1567-1622 Albericus Gentilis at Oxford.. 1582 Gregorian Calendar 1583 Guarini's Pastor Fido 1585 Ttcho Brahe 1546-1601 The Caracci. Ft-. ' 1560-1609 Paolo Sarpi 1552-1623 Giordano Bruno — 1600 Henry IV., Catholic 15 Sigismund of Poland in Sweden. 1592-1600 The Edict of Nantes 1598 War with Spain and Portugal. 1589-1600 Tyrone's Rebellion in Ireland. 1595-1601 Capture of Cadiz by Essex 159') Gowrie Conspiracy 1600 Marlowe 1564-1593 Lodge --d, 1625 Hakluyt 1513-1616 Coke -__-i55o-i634 Camden 1557-^623 Lyly (Euphues) and Come- lies - 1554-1603 Shakspeare's Poems. Bacon's Essays 1597 Globe opened.. after 1594 Bodleian founded 1598 Gilbert (MagnetismV 1540-1603 Charron and Vanini. Fludd and Bohem. CERVANTES 1547-^616 University of Barcelona 1 596 Lope de Vega 1562-1635 P. Hooft ...1583-1652 KEPLER ..,.1571-1630 ^v" ^\ o *. _^ ;> >> 51 1 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 671 Table XI. The Seventeenth Century. In Decades. > A.D. Continental History. British History. English Literature. Literature and Art on the Continent. 1600 1610 BAHNEVELD, ilu(cA... 1590-1618 Philip III., Sji 1598-1621 Biron'8 Conspiracy 1602 Dutcli powerful in the Indies. 1607 Maurice, Duic/i, 1584-1625 Spinola 1604-1625 Truer between Spain and Netherlands 1609 Moors expelled from Spain... 1609 Henry IV. nssaasinated _.-i6io Patent to East India Comi)any 1600 Execution of Essex 1601 James 1 1603-1625 Gunpowder Plot 1605 Hampton Court Conference 1604 Emigrations to Virginia 160S Ulster Settlements, Ire 160S Hawkins at Mogul Court 1609 SHASSPEARE, 1564-1616 Hall aud JIarstou's Satires. BURBAGE, Ac,t ? -1619 Dekkar y -1639 Chapman 1557-1634 Daniel 1562-1619 Drayton 1563-1631 Davies 1570-1626 Donne _ 1573-1631 Wotton 1568-1639 BACON ..1561-1626 GALILEO 1564-1640 "Don Quixote," 1605 Malherbc 1555-1628 GUIDO EenI, Pt 1575-1642 Quevedo _ 1580-1645 Rubens, Pt. 1577-1626 Douay Bible 1609 Honore d'Urfe (Astra;a), 1567-1625 LOUIS 'SJlI.,I'r 161C-1643 Mary de Medici. Regent. Romanoffs in Russia 1613 Execution of Barneveld -.i6ig Frederick, King of Bohemia.. 1619 PERDrNANB II., Sp. 1619-1637 Battle of Prague 1620 THIRTY YEAHS' WAR, 1618-1648 Carr (afterwards Somerset), favorite, 1611 Death of Prince Henry... 1612 Marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Frederic, Elector Palatine 1613 Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, favorite 1615 Execution q{ Raleigh. 1618 English Bible 1611 Napier's Logarithms 1614 Harvey. Circulation of Blood, 1616 Beaumont 1586-1616 Fletcher 1576-1625 Ford 1586-1639 Webster 1582-1652 Massinger 1584-1640 iNiGO Jones, C 1572-1652 T. Heywood 1570-1650 BEN JONSON .574-1637 G. and Ph. Fletcher.. 1585-1650 Opitz 1595-1637 Andreini 1 1578-1632 and > (Sacred Plays) .Marini, ) 1569-1625 Van Helmont 1577-1644 Teniers, Pt 1582-164^ Kepler's Laws 1618 Vanini burnt i6ig The Pilgrim Fathers 1620 1630 1630 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, 1611-1633 Wallenstein, G^r 1583-1634) NeNV York founded by the Dutch, 1624 Huguenot Rising - 1625 Boston founded 1627 Rochelle taken 1628 Philip IV., Sp 1621-1665 Edict of Restitution 1629 BICHELIEU,ifr..-(i585-i642) " supreme. .1624-1642 Bacon's overthroNV, Virginia.. 1621 Seldon and Pym imprisoned 1622 Spanish Marriage broken 1623 War Nvith Spain declared .- 1624 Charles 1 1625-1645 Eliot sent to the Tower 1628 Massachusetts Bay settled 1628 Buckingham assassinated 1628 PETITION OP RIGHT -.1628 First Edition of Shakspeare, 1623 Burton 1576-1640 ChillingNvorth 1602-1644 Herbert 1593-1633 Herrick 1591-1674 Quarles -1592-1644 CrawshaNV 1615-1650 Alexander, E., of Sterling, 1580-1640 J. Florio 1545-1625 Middleton 1570-1626 Usher 1581-1656 Campanella 1568-1639 Hugo Grotius 1583-1645 Gassendi 1592-1655 Davila 157S-1631 Vandyck, Pt 1599-1641 Velasquez, Pt 1599-1660 Guercino, Pt 1590-1666 The Elzevirs 1582-1652 Vaugelas-- 1586-1650 J. Balzac 1594-1654 Fall of Magdeburg 1631 Battle of Lutzeu, Scan 1632 Christina, Scan,, 1632-1654 Oxenstiern (1583-1624) Death of Wallenstein 1634 Peace of Prague —"635 France and Spain at War.1635-1659 Independence of Portugal 1640 Cinq Mars and De Thou 1642 War between Portugal and Holland. Arrest of Five Members 1629 Ship Money levied 1634 Laud and Wentworth in power. Trial of Hampden ,1637-1638 Prynne fined by Star Chamber 1637 Nathaniel Ward, American .Author 1570-1653 Covenant in Scotland 1638 First Printing Press in America. .1639 LONG PARLIAMENT 1640-1653 John Cotton, Am 1638-1652 Shirley (End of Old Drama), 1594-1666 The Cavalier Poets— Drummond 1585-1649 Carew 1589-1639 Randolph 1605-1634 Voiture and Hotel Ram- houillet. French Academy 1635 Corneille's "Cid" .-- 1636 DESCARTES.--- 1596-1650 Andreas Gryphius ..-1616-1664 Harvard College 1637 University of Utrecht 1636 Claius' Play of Creation. Vondel 1587-1679 CORNEILLE 1606-1684 Jesuits and Jansenists at War. Davenant 1605-1668 Cartwright 1611-1643 Lovelace 1618-1658 Denham 1615-1668 Cleveland 1613-1659 Montrose 1612-1650 1640 Louis XIV. accedes 1643 Anne of Anstria, Regent 1643 Turenne on the Rhine 1643 Condeat Eocroy 1643 Masaniello 1647 Peace op Westphalia .1648 Frederick William the Great, Elector, Pr 1640-1688 MAZAEIN, Minister, ii'r.i643-i66i First American Book 1640 Pym, Leader of the House. Cowley'-.- 1618-1667 Waller 1605-1687 Hobbs' "Leviathan" 1642 Leighton 1611-1684 Wither 1588-1667 Marvell 1620-1678 Eoyal Society founded 1645 G. Fox. Quakerism 1647 Confession of Faith 1649 Icon Basilike. 1649 MILTON 1608-1674 BoUanduB 1596-1665 "Acta Sanctorum" 1643 Salmasius A. 1643 Torricelll's Barometer 1643 Claude Lorraine, Pt., 1600-1682 Rembrandt, Pt 1600-1689 The Poussins and Salvator Eosa, Pt 1600-1670 MURILLO, Pt 1618-1682 Zaluzianski c. 1650 St. Simon and Mme. de Sevigne. < Massacre of English in Ireland 1641 CIVIL WAR, 1642-51; Edgehlll..i642 Self-denying Ordinance 1644 Marston Moor, 1644. Naseby 1645 Execution of Laud 1645 Pride's Purge.... 1648 Execution of the King 1649 Execution of Montrose, Scot 1650 Dunbar, Scot., and Worcester, 1650 and 1651 i r? a » ' ^ ■»- ■ a \ 672 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table XI. The Seventeenth Century. In Decades. 1650 1670 i6go Continental History Cardinal de Retz (1614-1679) War of the Fronde 1648-1653 East Prussia free from Poland, 1656 LOUIS XIV. reisu8.Fr 1655 Peace of the Pyrenees 1659 Colbert, Minister 1061-1683 Versailles built 1661 French India Companies 1664 Chaules II. of Spain 1665-1700 Spanish Netherlands invaded 1666 Peace of Breda 1667 The Triple Alliance- England, Holland and Sweden 166S Peace of Lisbon 1668 TuRENNE and Conde invade Holland .- 1672 The De Witts assassinated 1672 William Stadholder, Dtch., 1672-1702 Battle of Fehrbellin, Pr 1675 First Russo-Turkish War 1678 Peace of Nimeguen 1678 "Reunions" in Elsass .1680-1681 Strasburg seized In time of peace, 1681 Sobieski repels the Tiu-ks at Vienna _ 1683 Revocation of Edict of Nantes, French in the Palatinate 16S8 PETER THE GREAT, i?;/.s.- 1689-1725 France and England at War, 1689-1697 Battle of Steinkirk 1 692 Battle of Landen 1692 Namur taken 1695 Treaty of Ryswick 1697 The Czar in England 1697 Treaty of Carlowitz 1699 End of House of Austria in Spain ...., 1700 British History. Navigation Act .-_ 1651 Barebones Parliament.. 1651 Van Tromp in the Thames , 1652 CROMWELL, Protector ..-.1653-1658 John Eliot, Am 1604-1690 Dutch defeated by Blake and Monk. Jamaica conquered 1656 Death of Blake. _ 1657 Richard Cromwell 1658-1659 CHARLES II.. RESTORATION, 1C60-1685 Roger Williams, A771 1606-1683 Corporation Act 1661 First Standing Army. Act of Uniformity... 1662 Secession of Puritans. 2d Dutch War, Van Ruyter in the Thames 1666 Great Plague of London 1665 Great Fire of London 1666 The Cabal 1668 South Carolina settled 1669 Lauderdale in Scotland 1671 The Test Act 1673 Charles pensioned by Louis 1674 Gates Plot. Murder of Godfrey.. 1678 Habeas Corpus Act 1679 Sharpe murdered. Drumclog and Bothwell. Scot 1679 Exclusion Bill. Origin of Whig and Tory 16S0 Stafford executed, 1680; Shaftes- bury acquitted 1681 Pennsylvania settled 1682 Rye-House Plot. Russell and Sid- ney executed 1683 JAMES 11 1685-1689 Argyle executed, Scot 1685 Monmouth Rebellion. Sedgemoor. Monmouth executed 1685 Trial of Seven Bishops .168S BILL OF RIGHTS 16S9 Cotton Mat lier 1663- 1 728 WILLIAM III 1689-1702 Toleration Act 1 689 Siege of Londonderry 1^90 Killiecrankie, Scot., and the Boyne, If'e i6go National Debt begun 1693 Glencoe Massacre, Scot , 1692 Death of Queen Mary 1694 Abolition of Censorship of Press.. 1695 Darien Expedition 1698-1700 Second East India Company 169S Partition Treaties 1698-1700 English Literature. Fuller 1608-1661 HOBBES 1588-1679 Selden 1584-1654 Harrington's "Oceana "..1656 J.Taylor 1613-1667 I. Walton 1593-1683 Sir T. Browne 1605-1682 Sir M. Hale 1609-1676 Boyle 1627-1691 Wallis 1616-1703 S. Butler 1612-1680 Restoration Drama, ■ 1^63-1700 Clarendon 1608-1674 "London Gazette" 1665 Baxter 1615-1691 BUNYAN 1628-1688 Barrow 1630-1677 Paradise Lost 167/ TillotsoQ 1630-1694 South 1633-1715 Algernon Sidney 1617-1683 Literature and Art on the Continent. Calderon 1600-1683 Pascal 1623-1662 Scarron 1610-1660 Amauld and Port Royal. Delphin Editions. M. de Scudery 1607-1701 Rochefoucauld.. 1613-1680 MOLIERE 1622-1673 Cudworth 1617-1688 H. More .-1614-1.687 Sydenham 1624-16S9 Ray 1628-1705 Evelyn 1620-1706 Pepys 1632-1703 Pilgrim's Progress ...167S Otway 1651-1685 Stair 1619-1695 DRYDEN 1631-1700 Aphra Behn 1642-1689 Bucking'ham 1O28-1684 Sir Peter Lely, Ft 1617-1680 Bossuet 162 7-1704 Bourdaloue 1632-1704 " Journal desSavans" 1665 La Fontaine 1621-1695 Boileau 1636-1711 Puffendorf 1632-1694 SPINOZA. 1632-1677 William Penn .-.1644-1718 Rochester 1647-1680 Etheridge.. 1670 Dorset..- .1637-1706 Sedley 1639-1 701 Roscommon ..1634-1684 LOCKE -.1632-1704 Purcell, M. 1658-1695 Sir W. Temple 1628-169S Jeremy Collier 1650-1726 NEWTON 1642-1727 Sir C. Wren, A 1632-1723 Wycherley 1640-1715 Burnet 1643-1715 CONGKEVE.., 1669-1728 BeNTLEI' 1661-1742 Halley 1656-1742 Vanbrugh i66b- 1 726 Farquhar -1678-1707 La Bruyere 1644-1696 RACINE 1639-1699 Paris Academy of Music.. 1672 Filicaya... 1642-1707 Spener 1635-1705 C. Maratta, Ft 1625-1713 Malebranche 1638-1715 Abbe Fleury 1640-1723 Mme, Dacier 1654-1720 Fenelon 1651-1715 Madame Guyon and the QuiETisTs persecuted. ..1687 LEIBNITZ 1646-1716 Bossuefs "Variations". ..1688 Massillon — - __-i663-i742 J. F. Regnard 1665-17C9 Sir Godfrey Kneller, Pt.. 1648-1723 University of Halle 1694 Dictionary of French Academy, 1694 Bayle's Dictionary 1695 Fontenelle 1656-1756 Fenelon's "Telemaque'".,.i699 Rollin 1661-1741 Rapin 1661-1725 -7% V- TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 673 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table XII. The Eighteenth Century, to the American Revolution. In Decades. A.D. FonEiGN History. British History. English Literature. Literature and Art ON THE Continent. 1700 CHARLES XII., Scan. ..i6gy-i7iB Halifax and Somers impeaclied. Defoe ..1661-1731 J. B. Rousseau, Fr ..1670-1741 Battle of Narva . 1700 Act of Settlement 1701 Death of James 1 1701 -1670-1733 Gram- Jesuits in Cliina 1700 Hamilton's "De Berlin Academy ... 1702 War of SpaQisii Succession, 1701-1713 ANNE J702-1714 mont" Prior 1704 . .1664-1721 University of Moscow.. 17CS The Grand Alliance 1701 Irish Parliament petitions for Frederick I., of Prussia 1701 Union -.-1703 Shaftesbury . .1671-1713 Discovery of Herculaneum, It. -1708 MARLBOROUGH 1702-1712 SWIFT St. Petersburg founded 1703. Addison -.1672-1719 Bnddseus ..1667-1729 Defeatof Allies at Almanza, Fr., Sir G. Rooke takes Gibraltar.. 1704 1707 Steele . .1671-1729 Vico --. Death of Aurunzebe 1707 Battle of Pultowa, i?K« 1709 Battle of Ramilies 1706 THE UNION with Scotland.. 1707 "The Tatler" Maflfei Arbuthnot . .1675-1735 ..1675-1755 171O Archduke Charles, Emperor, Battle of Malplaquet 1709 The Spectator 1711 Stahl ..166C-1734 Oer ...1711 Harley and Bolingbroke, Tory Ministers 1710 Cibber Gay . .1671-1757 . .1688-1732 Boerhaave ..1668-1738 Peace of Utrecht 1713 Parnell . .1679-1718 Le Sage's " Gil Bias " . 1715 Frederick William of Prussia 1713 GEORGE X 1714-1727 Oxford, Ormond, and Boling- POPE Pope's Homer ..1688-1744 1714 Watteau, Pt ..1684-1721 Louis XV. succeeds, Fr i7i,'; broke impeached 1715 Bolingbroke .. 1678-1751 The Bemouillis. Duke of Orleans, Regent, Fr..iyis Rebellion of ist pretender, Toland, Collins, Etc 1718 Cardinal Dubois, Minister, 1715-1716 Sheriffmiiir 1715 Lady M. W. Montague, 16Q0-1762 Holberg . 1684-1754 Quadruple Alliance against Allan Ramsay... ..1686-1757 J. C.Wolf ..1679-1754 Spain 1718 Walpole 1721-1742 "Kobinson Crusoe " 1719 Muratori .— . 1672-1750 1720 Peter, Emperor of all the Hus- South Sea Bubble 1720-1721 Tindal -- 1657-1733 Tiraboschi and Denina. sias 1722 Atterbury banished 1723 Clarke -.1675-1729 Academy of Science, St. burg Peters- L0D19 XV. reigns, Fr 1723-1774 Young _ ..1686-1765 1725 Wood's Halfpence 1723 1726 Cardinal Fleury, Minister 1726 Period of Peace and Prosperity, Berkeley . .1684-1753 ..1715-1773 Catharine I., Czarina, i?««.. 1725-1727 Modern History at Oxford.1724 Bach, M..—. ..1685-1750 Guy's Hospital founded 1724 Hutcheson — 1694-1747 Handel, M ---- .-1685-1759 Wm. Cullen Victor Amadeus of Savoy re- signs to hie eon, King of Sar- dinia. War with Spain 1726 "Dunciad" 1729 GEORGE II 1727-1760 Maclaurin ..1698-1746 Montesquieu ..1689-1755 17^0 Queen Caroline 1727-1741 "Essay on Man",.. 1733 LINN.EUS -...fl. 1735 War of Polish Succession, ^ I 733-1 735 Georgia colonized, Am 1732 Jonathan Edwards Am.. 1703-1758 - 1698-1743 "«■ Savage "Lettres PhUosophiques' 'burnt Peace of Versailles 1735 PorteouB Mob 1736 C. Middleton ,.1683-1750 by the hangman. a "Jenkins' Ear" 1738 Blair -1699-1746 Quesnay ..1694-1774 < Peace of Vienna 1738 Publication of debates pro- hibited 1739 Hartley -1705-1757 Gottsched -1700-1766 oo Bradley . 1 692-1 762 m Peace of Belgrade 1739 Whitefield iniA. 1770^ Bishop Butler -.1694-1752 Bodmer (Zurich) -1698-1783 »-< ^ Weslet (1703-1791) Warburton -.1698-1779 Metastaslo -1698-1782 z FREDERICK U., Prus., Thomson.- ..1700-1748 1712-1740-1786 Methodism begins 1739 D. Mallet — 1700-1765 VOLTAIEE -1694-1778 ^ 674 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITEJRATURE. ^^ TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table XII. The Eighteenth Century to the American Revolution. In Decades. Foreign History. Maria Theresaj Queen of Hun- gary, G^ - 1740-1780 Charles of Bavaria, Ger 1742 War of Austrian Buccession. 1741-1748 Francis I.. Oer --174S Peace of Ais-la-Chapelle. Louie XV. invades Holland. ..1744 Dupleis at Pondicherry 1748 Paoli'6 Corsican Revolt 1754 Earthquake at Lisbon 1755 Se^t;n Years War 1 756-1 763 England allied with. Prussia. Damiens executed 1757 Battles of Rosbach and Leuth- en,7VuA' 1757 Battle of Zorndorf . Pnis 1758 French defeated at Minden 1759 '7^ Catharine IL, Czarina, Rus., 1762-1796 The Philippines to England.. .1763 Treaty of Hubertsburg 1763 Treaty of Paris .,_ 1763 Corsica to France, Fr 1769 Napoleon and Wellington born, 1769 Parliament of Paris abolished- 1 771 First Partition of Poland -1772 Hyder-Ali in India 1767-1780 LOUIS XVI., J^r 1774-1793 British History. Walpole resigns 1742 Pelham 1743 Battle of Dettingen... 1743 Anson's Voyage i74C3-i744 Battle of Fontenoy. Ire,. 1745 Rebellion of Charles Edward, Scot - .- — 1745-1746 Prestonpans, 1745. Culloden..i746 Clive in India 1 750-1 760 \New Style of Dates in Gh'eat Britain.'] Duke of Newcastle's Ministry. 1754 Braddock's defeat, Am 1755 PITT (Chatham) 1756-1761 Admiral Byng shot 1756 Battle of Plassey 1757 English Naval Victories. .1758-1759 Wolfe's Victory and Deatb at Quebec, vim 1759 Conquest of Canada complet- ed, Am - 1760 GEORGE m 1760-1720 LordBute-1762. G. Grenville.1763 Wilkes' Agitations 1762-1772 Rockingham and Grafton . 1 765-1766 American Stamp Act 1765 Riots at Boston, Am 1768-1773 Letters of Junius 1769-1772 Arkwright's Jenny. Watt Engine 1769 Lord North's Ministry. . . 1770-1782 Bruce's Travels __.i768 English Debates reported 177T Warren Hastings in India, 1772-1785 Suicide of Lord Clive 1774 Cook's Voyages 1770-1779 WAR OF AJVIERICAN INDE- PENDENCE. English Literatitre. Richardson 1689-1761 Fielding 1707-1754 Sterne 1713-1768 Arne 1710-1779 HOGAHTH, Pt 1697-1764 Garrick, Ad 1716-1779 Lord Monboddo 1714-1799 Shenstone 1714-1762 Akenside 1721-1770 Chesterfield 1694-1773 HUME 1711-1776 Churchill 1731-1764 Gainsborough, i^,.. .1727-1788 Reynolds, Pt 1723-1792 Woolman, Aiyi 1720-1772 Simson 1700-1761 Smollet 1 721-17 71 JOHNSON 1709-1784 Foote, Act 1721-1777 H. Walpole 1717-1787 J. Macpherson 1738-1796 ADAM SMITH 1723-1790 Reid 1710-1796 Robertson 1721-1793 Hutton 1726-1797 Wm. Hunter 1718-1785 J. Watt 1730-1819 GIBBON 1737-1794 Percy's Reliques 1765 Collins _ 1721-1756 Gray 1716-1771 Beattie 1 735-1802 Black 1728-1799 Academy of Arts 1768 Cavendish 1731-1810 Goldsmith 1728-1774 Blackstone 1723-1780 Chatterton 1 752-1 770 COWPER I731-1800 T. Warton 1729-1790 Literature and Art on the Continent. SWEDENBORG fl. 1740 Gellert 1715-1769 Condillac 1715-1780 HelvGtius 1715-1771 Vauvcnargue _ 1715-1747 EJopstock's Messiah 1747 Malesherbes 1721-1791 Lomonoseoff 1711-1765 ROUSSEAU 1712,1779 Buffon- _ 1707-1788 Discovery of Pompeii 1750 Marmontel and Laharpe. B. de St. Pierre 1737-1814 Goldoni 1 707-1793 Diderot j .^ , , ,. V, Encyclopedie. D'Alembert ( 1751 M. Mendelssohn 1729-1786 LESSING 1729-17S1 EULER 1707-1 783 Lavoisier 1743-1794 Affair of Calas .-. 6712 CONDORCET .-- I743-1794 Winckelmann It. 1764 Scheele 1743-1786 Beaumarchais fl. 1764 Lavater 1740-1800 Lichtenberg 1741-1799 E wald (Dane) 1743-1 781 AXFIERI . 1749-1S03 TURGOT 1727-1781 Gluck, M 1714-1787 Beccaria 1735-1794 y\-. -=)\ ^k- TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 675 Table XUI. From the War of the Revolution to 1880. In Periods of Five Years. Colonial and United States History. Cargoes of Tea Ships, Boston, thrown, into the harbor by masked men, 1773 Boston Port Bill. - 1774 First Continental Congress 1774 Declaration of Rights 1774 Union of Colonies formed 1775 Washington, -Commander-in-chief, 1775 Continental Fast . 1775 Falmouth burnt 1775 Norfolk destroyed 1776 British evacuate Boston 1776 Declaration OP lNDEPENDENCE-1776 French Commissioners sent 1776 Conj^ess adjourns to Baltimore.. 1776 Philadelphia in hands of British.. 1777 Alliance with France --1778 Treaty with France Feb. 6, 1778 Philadelphia evacuated..- 1778 Savannah taken by British 1778 New Haven plundered 1778 Other Countries. Royal Marriage Act, ^ng' 1777 Death of Chatham, Eng 1778 Neckar, Fr.^ Minister .. .1776-1781 "No Popery " Riots 1782 Rodney's Victories 1779-1782 Elliot at Gibraltar -.1779-1782 Tippoo Saib in India 1 779 English and American Literature. B. Franklin 1706-1790 J. Adams 1735-1826 "Wealth of Nations." De- cline and Fall 1776 B. West,P^ 1738-1820 Priestley 1734-1804 Sir J. Banks 1743-1820 Ph. Freneam 1752-1832 J. Trumbull 1757-1804 Burns 1759-1796 Sir A. Ferguson 1723-1816 H.Mackenzie 1745-1834 "The Crisis" and "Com- mon Sense." Literature and Akt of other Countries. Herder. Ger 1 744-1 80:^ Linnffiuus -- 1707-1778 Heyne 1729-1812 Mozart, Mus.^ 6^er.- 1756-1792 Kant, Ger 1724-1804 Lessing, Ger 1726-1781 Gall, Ger 1758-1828 Dr. Hahnemann, ffer. 1755-1843 Alfieri, It 1749-1803 Pestalozzi 1749-1827 Metastasio, It 1698-1782 1780 Charleston taken by British 1780 New London biunt by Arnold 1781 Lord Cornwallis surrenders 1781 Independence acknowledged by Holland 1782 Independence acknowledged by Sweden, Denmark, Spain and Prussia 1783 Independence recognized 1 783 Peace with Great Britain 1783 Treaty of Peace ratified by Congress, 1784 Lord George Gordon Riots 1780 Settlement of Upper Canada. .1784 Lord Rockingham's ad Minis- try, Eng - .._--.i782 Lord Shelburne 1782 Grattan's Irish Constitution.. 1782 Coalition Ministry 1783 Wm. Pitt (1759-1806) C. J. Fox (1749-1806) E. Burke -- (1730-^797) Wilberforce, Anti-Slavery, (1759-1833) Russia takes Crimea 1783 England wars with Tippoo Saib, 1783-1799 Erskine, Emj (1750-1823) Ritson 1752-1803 H. Blair 1718-1800 SirWm. Jones 1740-1794 E. Darwin 1732-1801 Sheridan 1751-1817 Dibdin 1745-1814 Paley 1743-1805 Dugald Stewart 1753-1828 Hayley 1745-1820 Chateaubriand 1768-1848 Lavater 1741-1801 Oerster 1777-1851 Schiller, Ger 1759-1805 Niemcewicz c. 1780 Mallet 1730-1807 Haydn, Mus 1732-1809 Wieland 17^3-1813 Burger 1748-1794 Jacob! 1740-1813 1785 John Adams, First Ambassador to England 17S5 Cotton introduced into Georgia.. 1786 Constitution of the United States adopred _ 1787 Constitution ratified by all the States, except Rhode Island and North Carolina 1788 Emancipation of Slaves by the Quakers of Philadelphia 178S Government organized under the Constitution _ 1689 Ten Amendments added to the Constitution 1789 George Washington, President. 1789 Attempted assassination of the King. Eng -_- 1786 Russo-Turkish Wars 1787-1790 Assembly of Notables, Ft 1787 Trial of Warren Hastings. 1788-1 795 Assembly of States General, Fr., 1789 Parny . .1753-1815 National Assembly, i^r 1789 Bastiie stormed _ 1789 ♦The memorable battles, military and naval, are omitted from this table, and will be found in Tables of Military and Naval History of the U. S. Departments of State, War and Treasury created 1789 John Carroll, First Catholic Bishop in U. S.- 1789 Joel Barlow 1755-1812 S. Hopkins 1721-1803 J. Bellamy 1719-1790 R. T. Paine 1773-1811 HORNE TOOKE 1736-1812 HannahMore 1745-1833 J. Jefferson 1743-1826 J. Madison 1751-1836 A. Hamilton 1757-1804 Beckford 1760-1844 John Jay 1745-1829 T. Dwight 1752-1817 S. Peters 1735-1826 B.Rush 1745-1813 London "Times" founded, Goethe, Ger 1749-1832 Berthollet. 1748-1822 Laplace 1749-1827 David, Pt 1748-1825 Legendre 1752-1833 84 a \ i^ 6^6 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table Xlll. From the War of the Revolution to 1800. In Periods of Five Years. .^790 Colonial and United States HiSTOIlY.* Tirginia and Maryland cede Dis-- trict of Columbia lygo Benjamin Franklin d. i/gd First Census U. S. taken 1790 First Patent for Threshing Machines. 1790 Bank of the U. S. established 1791 Vermont admitted into the Union . 1 791 Washington City chosen as the Capital of the Republic 1792 Kentucky admitted 1792 United States Mint established 1792 Coal Mines discovered in Pa 1793 Steam first applied to Saw Mills in Pa., 1793 Invention of the Cotton Gin, Whitney, 1793 George Washington's 2d election.. 1793 Mad Anthony Wayne defeats Indi- ans in Ohio 1794 First Sewing Thread ever made of Cotton produced 1794 Other Countries. Jay's Treaty with Great Britain ratified ._ 1795 First Glass Factory built, at Pitts- burgh 1795 Teot^essee admitted 1796 Washington's Farewell Address ..1796 First Cutlery Works established in ^- S »797 N. Y. Commercial Advertiser estab- lished _. 1797 John Adams, President 1797 Difllculties arise with France. Con- gress convened preparatory to war ,797 Geo. Washington appointed Com- mander-in-chief of the American Armies, with the rank of Lieut.- General i7g8 Alien and Sedition Laws passed Congress lygS Death of Washington -1799 U. S. Frigate Constitution cap- tures the French Frigate Tlnsur- gente jygg Three Commissioners sent to France, 1799 Suwarrow takes Ismail 1790 Death of Mirabeau. 1791 Canada is given a Constitution .1791 Legislative Assembly, Fv-.i^gi-gz The Revolution, Paris 1791-92 Escape and arrest of the King. 1791 Birmingham {Eng.) Riots 1791 Paine and "People's Friend," 1791-1792 Conference at Pilnitz ---1792 Battle of Jemappes 1792 The French Convention — 1792 First Coalition -1792-1797 Execution of Louis XIV. and Marie Antoinette 1793 Fall of Gironde. La Vendee. .1793 Reign of Terror, Paris 1793 Death of Marat 1793 England begins War with France, 1793 Dumauriez joins the Allies 1793 2d Partition of Poland 1793 Toulon taken by the French. .1793 Toronto made the Capital of Upper Canada 1794 Suspension Habeas Corpus Act, Efi9 - 1794 Defeat of the Poles under Kos- ciusko 1794 Corsica conquered 1794 English Expedition to Dunkirk, 1794 Execution of Danton. Fall of Robespierre 1794 English and American Literature. 3d Partition of Poland 1795 The Dikectort, Ft 1795 Cape of Good Hope doubled.. 1795 Disaster of Quiberon -1795 Carnot.- (1753-1S23) Morcau (1763-1813) Bonaparte in Italy 1796 Battle of Lodi, Arcolo--- 1796 Spice Islands taken by Engli8h-i796 Jenner's Vaccination 1796 Cash Payments suspended, Eng., Tygy Hoclie fails in Ireland 1797 Battle of St. Vincent 1797 Sea Fight of Camperdown 1797 Peace of Campo Fermio 1797 End of Republic of Venice 1797 Bonaparte in Egypt. Aboukir.1798 Battle of the Nile 1798 Great Irish Rebellion 1798 Habeas Corpus Act again sus- pended 1798 Pope Pius VI. deposed by Na- poleon lygS Parthenopcau Republic 1799 Second Coal ition _ .1799-1802 NAPOLEON (1768-1821) The Consulate 1799-1804 Sidney Smith at Acre 1799 Nelson U758-1805) Boswell's Johnson 1790 Bentham __i748-i832 Werner .1750-1817 Porson 1758-1808 Parr 1747-1825 GLfford 1756-1826 Bloomfield ...1766-1823 Flaxman,^. and ^§'-.1755-1826 J. P. Kemble, .4c^.-. 1757-1823 Mrs. Siddons, J.ci. .1755-1831 Mme. d'Arblay 1752-1840 Godwin _ 1756-1836 Mrs. Inchbald 1753-1821 Crabbe 1754-1832 Litekatuke and Art op other Countries. Blake, Pt 1779-1827 Tannahill 1 774-1816 R. Hall 1764-1831 The " Anti- Jacobin ' 1797 Dr. T. Brown.. 1778-1S20 Platfair., .1749-1819 Sir H. Datt 1778-1829 Dalton 1767-1844 Lawrence,/^ 1769-1830 Bowles 1762-1852 Sir Walter Scott.. 1771-1832 Galvanism discovered 1791 F. A. Wolf 1759-1824 GOETHE i749~i833 Canova, J., and S... 1757-1822 SirWm. Herschel.. 1738-1822 Schiller.. 1759-1803 Kotzebne _ 1761-1819 Talma, Act ,.1763-1826 W. Humboldt 1767-1835 A. Humboldt 1769-1859 Beethoven, Mus 1770-1827 Weber, i/w5 1.786-1826 J.Paul Richter 1763-1825 Haiiy 1743-1823 Voss 1751-1836 Derzhavin 1743-1816 Karamzin _., 1765-1826 Schleirmacher 1768-1834 Werner 1768-1823 Baggesen 1764-1826 Novalis 1772-1801 MalteBrun 1775-1826 Hoffman 1776-1822 A. W. Schlegel 1767-1845 F. Schlegel 1772-1819 Lamarck 1744-1829 Jussien 1748-1836 CUVIBB 1769-1839 A. M. Ampere 1775-1836 *The memorable bjfttles, military and naval, are omitted from this table, and will be found in Tables of Military and Naval History of the U. S. ^i ■rr ^ £) TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 677 Table XIV. From A. D. 1800 to A. D. 1825. In Periods of Five Years. 1805 United .States History. "^.Y. Post establieUed 1800 Important Treaty concluded with France 1800 A General Bankruptcy Law Removal of Government to Waahington _..i8oo Thos. Jeffekson, 3d President. 1743-1826 luternul Kovcnue Law repealed, Tlio "Whisky Rebellion" in Pa._. 1801 Tripoli declares War against U. S 1801 First Patent for making Potato and Cornstarch 1802 Ohio admitted .._ 1802 West Point Military Academy founded 1802 Louisiana purchased of France, 1803 Cora. Preble sent to Algiers and Tripoli --. 1803 Alexander Hamilton killed in u Duel by Aaron Burr 1804 Amendment to the Constitu- tion adopted 1804 The Lewis and Clark exploring Expedition _ 1804 Peace declared between Tripoli and U. S 1805 Burr charged with Treason, ac- quitted 1806 England persists in the right of searching American Vessels. 1806 Rob't TTulton, ist Steamboat on the Hudson 1807 Congress declares an Embargo on all Vessels in American Ports 1807 First Wooden Clocks made by Machinery 1S07 Trouble with England respect- ing the rights of Neutrals. ..1807 First Printing Office west of the Mississippi River, at St. Louis _ _ rSoS Abolition of the Slave Trade.. 1808 Repeal of Embargo Act iScg James Madison, 4th President, 1751-1836 Other Countries. Hatfield attempts to assassinate the King, Eng 1800 Battle op Marengo 1800 Battle of Hohenlinden __ 1800 Malta taken 1800 Armed neutrality of Northern Po\\'- .1800 Union of Great Britain and Ireland 1801 Nelson's Victory at Copenhagen .. 1801 Peace of Lanevillc 1801 Ale.yanderI., ^uma 1801 The Italian Republic 1802 St. Domingo conquered 1S02 Peace of Amiens 1802 Mahratta War. Battleof Assay. ..1803 Ewmett's insurrection, Ife 1803 Camp at Bouldgne. Volunteers.. .1803 Italian and Neapolitan Kingdoms, Third Coalition 1805 Battle of Trafalgar _ 1805 Russia Extends East and South.. .1805 Capitulation of Ulm 1805 WELLINGTON 1768-1852 Coalition Ministry. Battle of Austerlitz 1805 Deaths of Pitt and Fox .1806 Dutch and Westphalian Kingdoms, i8c6-7 Fourth Coalition 1806 Battle of Jena.- 1806 German Empire Dissolved 1806 Confederation of Rhine 1806-1813 Frakcis I., AvMria. Eylan Friedland 1807 Peace of Tilsit 1807 Danish Fleet captured 1807 Abolition of Slave Trade, Eng 1807 Madeira taken 1807 Joseph, King of Spain .1808 Now Nobility of France created_.,i8o8 Corunaand Walcherin. __ 1809 Ionian Islands. Collingwood iSog Wellesley passes the Duro ..1809 Battle of Talavera i8og Finland taken fromSweden i8og Battle of Wagram 1809 Pius Vn. imprisoned 1809 English and American Literature. " Edinburg Review " estab- lisheu 1802 MAiTHUSon Population.. 1803 Alison 1757-1839 Coleridge 1772-1834 Wordsworth 1770-1850 SOtJTUET 1774-1843 Landor 1775-1864 S. Rogers 1762-1856 Isaac Disraeli 1766-1848 C. Lamb. 1775-1835 J. R. Drake, Am 1795-1820 Slavery abolished in Canada, 1803 W Allston, Am... .1779-1843 Cobbett 1762-1835 Hazlitt 1778-1830 Miss Austen 1775-1818 Miss Edgeworth 1767-1849 W M. Witford i744r-i327 T. Campbell 1777-1844 "Quarterly Review" 1809 Sir J. Mackintosh ...1765-1835 James Mm .-1773-1836 BYRON 1788 -1824 Washington Irving, Am., 1783-1859 J. Fenimore Cooper, Am., 1789-1851 T. S. Key, Am 1779-1843 Literature of the Continent. Voltaic Battery.. iSoi J. B. Say 1767-1820 Madame De Stael.. .1767-1817 MlCKIEWICK -1798-1843 Oehlenechlager 1777-1850 FiCHTE 1762-1814 Pestalozzi 1746-1827 Kxiroff 1768-1844 Chateaubriand 1769-1848 The Code Napoleon 1804 Tieck _ 1773-1858 Do Maistre— 1754-1821 Fouqu6 "777-1843 Chamisso 1781-18 Raftk 1787^814 Amdt 1769-1I Korner _ 1790-1813 j^^nim _——-._. 1781-1831 Sismondi 1773-.1841 Battina Br^tano 1777-1842 Varhagen Von Euse. .1785-1858 Hegel ...—.. 1770-1831 Neander 1789-1850 & \ 678 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. Table XIV. From A. D. 1800 to A. 0. 1825. In Periods of Five Years. Unitbd States Histokv. Am. Board Foreign Miasiona ori^anized 1810 Manufacture of Steel Pens com- menced 1810 FifHt Agricultural Fair in U- S., at Georgetown, D, C... 1810 Battle of Tippecanoe. Befeat of Indians by Gen.HarnHon.i8ii Reparation made by England for the attack on the Chesapeake, 181 1 Additional force of 35,000 men authorized _ 1812 Detachmentof Militia not exceed- ing 100.000 men authorized. . 1812 Gen. Henry Dearborn appoint- ed Commander-in-Chief. War declared against Great Britain 1812 Louisiana admitted 18 12 Gen. Hull invades Canada 1812 " surrendersto Gen. Brock. 1S12 James Madison's 2d Presiden- tial Term 1813-1817 Massacre of Americans by the Indians at Rever Raisin 1813 The Power Loom introduced into U. S 1813 Oswego taken by British 1814 Treatyof PeacesijmedatGhent,i8i4 Washington City Burned by the British 1814 Hartford Convention 1814 JethroWoodpatent8lronPlow,i8i4 1825 Treaty of Ghent ratified by Congress 1815 Congress declares War against Algiers 1815 U. S. Bank re-chartered for 20 years 1S16 Indiana admitted 1816 The Erie Canal 1817-1825 James Monroe, 5th President, 1 758-1831 "Mississippi admitted 1817 Illinois admitted ...1818 Gen. Jackson defeats the Sem- inoles in Florida 1818 U. S. Flag adopted by Law ...1818 Foundation of New Capital laid 1818 Alabama admitted 1819 Lithography introduced into the U. S. -.iSig The Savannah, first Steam Packet crosses the Atlantic. .i8ig OTHEU COX^NTKIES. Insanity of the King, £!/i^ 1810 Tyrol subdued. Hof er 1810 Annexation of Holland 1810 WHlington at Tores Vedras-, 1810 The Regency, Snff 1811 Soult and Massena in Spain i8xi Stein -. 1757-1831 Invasion of Russia. Moscow^ burnt, 1812 Salamanca 1812 English Storm Cindad, Rodrigo, and Badajos , 1812 Perceval shot by Bellingham 1S12 Lord Liverpool, Premier ..1812 Battle of Leipsic _ 1813 Lord Eldon, Chancellor, .E'ft5'-i8o7-i827 Battle of Vittoria 1S13 First Peace of Paris ..1814 Abdication at Fontainebleau 1814 Louis XVTIL, Fr 1814 Talleyrand, Fr (1754-1838) Congress of Vienna 1S14 Sir S. Romilly (1757- 1818) English and American Literature. James Monroe's 2d Presiden- tial Election..^ iSao Passage of the Missouri Com- promise 1820 Florida Ceded to United States by Spain 1820 Percussion Caps for Gang first used 1820 Maine admitted 1820 Stephen Decatur killed in a duel by Com. Barron.. 1820 Missouri admitted 1821 Gas first used for illuminating purposes 1822 Boaton incorporated as a City. 1822 Independence of South Ameri- can Republics acknowledged by theU. S 1822 CoTu Porter siii)i)resses piracies in tlir \\\st Indies 1823 The Monroi; .Doctrine 1823 Gen. Lu Fayette re-visits the IT. S 1823 Pins first made by Machinery, 1824 Napoleon returns from Elba and ICO days 1815 Battle of Waterloo j 1815 Norway united with Sweden 1815 Holy Alliance -1815 Second Peace of Paris 1815 United Netherlands 181 5 Metternich (1773-1830) Sir George Sherbroke, Governor Lower Canada 1816 Agricultural and Weaver Riots, Fnff 1816-1817 The Family of Napoleon forever excluded from France 1816 Howe's Trial and acquittal 1817 Death of Princess Charlotte 1817 Specie payments resumed. _:.i8i7 Republics in South America. . 18 1 7-1830 Francia in Paraguay 1816-1840 Bolivar in Bolivia 18 17-1830 Duke of Richmond, Governor of Lower Canada 1818 Peel's Currency Act i8ig Parry's Voyages 1819 George IV.; Bug 1762-1830 Victoria born 1819 Inquisition abolished in Spain 1S20 Cato Street Conspiracy, Enff 1820 Trial of Queen Caroline 1820 Death of Napoleon 1821 Austria maintains Despotisms in Italy. Antagonism between the French and English Inhabitants Lower Canada 1822 Castlereagh's Suicide 1822 '* replaced by Canning. 1823 First Mechanics' Institute, F/iff-.iSz^ Agitation about Test and Corpora- tion Acts, B/iff 1823 English-Burmese War 1S24 CHA.RLES X 1824 Welland Canal. Canada Charter. . 1824 Brazil Independent 1825 Greek War of Independence. .1822-1829 Nicholas I., Utissia 1825-1855 SHELLEY 1 792-1822 William Roscoe 1753-1831 Keat-s ■. 1795-1821 MooRB 1779-1852 Jeffrey 1773-1850 Sir C. Bell. 1774-1842 J. Montgomery 1771-1854 R. Heber... 1783-1826 Sidney Smith 1772-1845 Leigh Hunt 1784-1859 T. Hook 1788-1841 A. Wilson, ^4m 1766-1813 Waverley Published 1816 Edmund Kean, ,lc'i!. 1790-1833 Hogg ....1772-1835 Professor Wilson 1785-1854 WlLKIE.P^ 1785-1B41 Haydon, Pt-.- 1786-1S46 Joanna Baillie 1762-1851 Motherwell 1798. 1835 E. Elliott ...1781-1S49 D. Ricardo 1772-1823 J. C. Calhotin. .1«?,- 1782-1850 Daniel Webster, Am., 1782-1852 Literature of other Countries. Lockhart 1794-1854 Gait 1779-1839 Wm. ETTY,i^ 1787-1798 Mrs. Hemans 1793-1835 Pollok 1799-1827 Barham (Ingoldsby). 1788-1845 George Stephenson ..1781-1848 Linuard 1771-1851 Thomas Hood 1799-1845 Cuautrev, ,l.a«rf5'-i7Si-i84i Davidson Sisters,^;??.. 1808-1838 W. Wirt, Am 1772-1834 Audubon," 1780-1851 J.Kent, " 1763-1847 LTuiversity of Berlin 1810 C Ritter 1779-1859 Berzelius 1779-1848 Gay Lussag 1778-1856 Thorwaldsen, ^1. and S., 1770-1844 SCHELLING 1 775-1854 Ugo Foscolo 1778-1827 Savigny 1779-1861 NIEBUHR 1776-1831 Schopenhauer 1 788-1860 Heeren 1760-1842 Pousckin, Jius. 1799-1837 Lacordaire 1802-1861 Lammenais 1782-1854 Tegner 1782-1846 A. De Tocqueville . . 1805-1859 Platen 1796-1835 Uhland 1787^1862 Paganini (Mus.) 1784-1840 Beranger _. 1780-1857 Neander ,. 1789-1850 HEINE 1800-1856 Borne (Immermann) .1796-1840 Jouffray 1796-1842 Cousin 1792-1867 GUIZOT 1787-1S74 Manzoni 1784. 1873 LermontofE 1814-1840 Boyle, H. (Stendhal).. 1783-1842 TurgeniefE 17S4-1845 Silvio Pellico 1789-1854 Rossini, Jiht^ 1792-1868 Malibran (Garcia) Act, 1808-1836 ^ a t. a ^ i TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 679 a • Table XV. From A. D. 1825 to A. D. 1845. In Periods of Five Years. English and American Literature and Art of 1825 Literature. other Countries. 1 .1. Q. Adams, 6tU President. .17117-1848 * First Railway in England 1825 Sir William Hamilton, Donizetti, Mus .1798-1848 Corner Stone Banker Hill Monu- 1788-1856 ment laid by Lafayette ..1825 Thames Tunnel 1825 Dr Chalmers . 1785-1847 Babcock makes llrst Piano 1825 .1797-1828 Convention with Great Britain con- Canning. Minister, Eng 1827 L. E. Landon... 1802-1838 cerning Indemnities 1826 Bellini, Miis .1806-1835 Jolln Adams died ..1826 Battle of Navarino 1827 Miss Mitford..- — .1787-1855 Edward Irving i79'-'834 Mendelssohn, Mus . 1809-1847 Duel between Henry Clay and John Palmerston, Foreign Secretary, Randolph 1826 JEng 1827 Sheridan Kuowles... 1784-1862 Meyerbeer, Mus... .1794-1864 Intense Anti-Masonic excitement.. 1826 First Railroad in the U. 8., from O'Connell's Agitations in Ireland, 1828 Procter (Barry Cornwall), 1798-1862 A. Scheffer, P/ .1795-1858 Sand and Emery Paper first made. 1828 Wellington, '^rime Minister... 1828 De Quincky ... i785-i8''io Passage of Tariff Bill. Woolen Peace of Adrianople 1829 Macaulay 1800-1859 Delaroohe, P/ .1797-1852 Manufacturers protected 1828 TarifE Bill a law. Opposed by Cot- Contest between Dom Pedro n. Hallam 1778-1859 ■Augustin Thierry.. .1795-1836 ton States 1828 and Prince Miguel in Portu- Andrkw Jackson, 7th President, gal i826-:834 CARLYLE 1795-1881 1767-1845 Balzac .1799-1850 " opposes the project to re- charter Bank of U. S..1829 Catholic Emancipation, Enff..iS2g Story, Am. law. i779->845 Daniel Webster's great speech First agitation for responsible Marshall, " 1755-1835 Comte .1798-. 857 against nullification .1829 government in Upper Canada,- Samuel Colt made his first Revolver, 1829 1829 Emmons. Am. i/i^L. 1745-1840 Lenan .1802-1850 1830 Treaty with Turkey 1830 July Revolution in France . i 830 The Mormon Cliurch founded by Jos. Smith 1830 Lord .\ylmcr,Governor of Lower Canada 1830 Whately 1787-1863 Arago Death of ex-President Monroe 1831 Establishment of the Zibe7-ator... iS^i Charles X. abdicates in favor of Duke of Bordeau.\ 1830 P F.Tytler Thiers -1797 First Mowing Machine patented. .1831 Cliloroform discovered by Gustino- 1831 Insurrection in Poland. 1830-1831 Dr. Arnold 1795-1842 Lamartine .1790-1869 Steam Knitting Machinery first Louis Philippe, J& 1830-1848 used __ 1831 Pres. Jackson vetoes the Bank William TV.,Mng 1830-1837 Macready, Act.. 1793-1873 Michelet .1798-1874 Bill 1832 Earl Grey's Ministry, Eng 1831 New Tariff Measures passed 1833 Rubber Shoes first made 1832 Leopold, King of Belgians — 1831 The Reform Bill, J7«5»... 1830-1832 Sir F. Palgrave. 1788-1861 Victor Hugo .1802 South Carolina Nullification Move- Dutch thrown back on Holland, 1832 Imperial Duties surrendered to the Canadian Asfembly 1832 ment 1832 Brougham 1778-1868 Leopardi .1798-1837 First appearance of Asiatic Cholera, 1832 The Black Hawk War 1832 Russia takes remains of Poland, 1832 Otho of Bavaria, King of Greele, Charles Napier. 1786-1861 .18:9-1850 Stiite's Rights Doctrine dates from 1832 President Jackson's NulliJlcation 1832 William Napier. 1785-1861 Becker .1816-1845 Proclamation 1832 Negro Slavery abolished in Prof. Jlorse invents the Magnetic British Colonies 1833 Telegraph 1S32 The ZoLLVEREiN, Ger 1834 Turner, PI 1775-1851 Removal of the Public Deposits Trades-LTnion and Repeal Riots, from the Bank of the U. S 1833 Eng - 1834 David Cox,"P^. 1793-1859 Oersted .1777-1851 Andrew Jackson's 2d Presidential Lord Melbourne's Ministry, Eng., Term... 1833 1834 Tariff Controversy settled 1833 Don Carlos In Spain 18.33-1840 Halleck, Am 1795-1867 H. C. Andersen .1805-1875 The N. Y. Sun, first penny paper Quadruple Alliance 1834 established 1833 Lord John Russell, Whig R. H. Dana, .im 1787-1879 Lipsius .1818-1853 First Double-Cylinder Press made. 1 833 Caloric engine invented 1833 Maria Christina, Sp., Regent, Gen. Thompson killed in Semmole 1833-1840 J. Pierpont .1785-1866 Ewald .1803-1875 War... 1834 Lord Brougham, Whig Orator, ' ' Lucifer Matches first made in U. S.1834 1834 < Cyrus Mccormick's Reaper patented. Tractarian Movement, Eng., Percival, 1795-1856 J. B. Dumas, Er... .-1800 1834 1833-1841 ^ a ■(• IS ^ -» ^i -k^ 680 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. Table XV. From A. D. 1825 to A. D. 1845. In Periods of Five Years. -Continued. United States History. 1835 Great Fire in New Yorli; 674 build- ings burned r835 Seminole Indian War, under Osceola, . . J835 Creek Indians in Georgia removed beyond the Mississippi 1835 N. Y. fferald founded by James G Bennett 1835 The National Debt paid 1835 Post and Patent Offices, Washing- ton, burned 1836 Alpaca first made 1836 Akkansas admitted 1836 Electric Telegraph-. 1837 Maktin Van Buren, 8th President, 1782-1862 Independence of Texas acknowledged, 1837 Great Financial Crisis 1837 Extra session of Congress called to devise relief, _. _ 1837 Riot at Alton, III. Eev. E. P. Love- joy killed 1837 The Mormons driven from Missouri, 18: The Banks suspend specie payments, 1839 Goodyear invents Vulcanized Rubber, 1839 Other Countries. The Jupineau party advocate Canadian separation from Great Britain 1835 . 1832-1848 1840 Log Cabin and Hard Cider Campaign, 1840 >845; Jerome manufactures Brass Clocks, 1840 William Henry Harrison, 9th President _ 1773-184 President Harrison died in office. .184 N. Y. THlnine founded by Horace Greeley 184 U. S. Bank failed, followed by banks generally 184 Webster's Dictionary appeared... 184 Troubles with Canada 184 All the members of Cabinet resign but Mr. Webster 184 John Tyler. Vice-President, be- comes President _ 184 The Webster- Ashburton Treaty... 1842 Seminole War terminated 1842 The "Dorr Rebellion," Rhode Island _ 18^2 Settlement of the N. B. Boundary question ,3^3 U. P. Upsher, Sec. of State, and T. VV . Gilmer killed by bursting of a gun on steamer Princeton. .1843 Fremont Explores the Rocky Mountains ..1843 First Patent for Fireproof Safe.. .1843 First Telegraph — Washington to -7^^ Baltimore .1844 Mehemet Aii Ibrahim Pasha Ecclesiastical Commissioii, Eng., 1836 Louis Napoleon at Strasburg.i836 VICTOKIA 1S37 Ernest Augustus of Hanover. .1837 Coersive measures of the British Parliament 1S37 House of Assembly, Lower Canada, refuses to transact business --1837 Insurrection in Canada, .1837-1838 Anti-Corn-Law League, Mng. .1838 Lord Durham in Canada 1838 Union of Upper and Lower Canada. Lord Sydenham, Governor 1839 English and American Literature. Clergy Reserve's question set- tled, Canada 1840 Death of Lord Sydenham 1840 Queen Victoria's Marriage 1840 Penny Postage, ^fip'., established, 1840 Sir William Peel in power, 1841-1846 Opium War in China 1839-1842 Afghan War in Cabul.... 1S38-1842 Louis Napoleon at Boulogne.. 1840 Espartero in Spain 1840-1843 Abd-el-Kader 1835-1847 Frederick William TV 1840 War in Scinde 1843 Free-Church Secession 1843 Isabella IL of Spain.. .1843-1868 Canadian Government removed to Montreal 1844 Charles Albert, Sardinia. 1831-1849 Trial of O'Connell, Jre 1844 H. Taylor 1800 -J. H. Newman. 1801 E. B. Pusey 1800 Keble 1792-1866 A. W. Pugin, A. and S., 1811-1852 Isaac Taylor 1787-1865 D. Jerrold _ 1803-1857 Milrhan 1791-1868 Thirhvall 1797-1875 Grote - 1794-1871 J. S. Mill 1806-1873 J. F. Cooper, Am. iiovelist, 1789-1851 Mrs. Sedgwick, " 1789-1867 Paulding, " 1778-1860 T. M. Kemble 1807-1857 Moxon tried for "Queen Mab" 1841 Stanfield, Pt 1798-1867 Channing 1780-1842 Miss Martineau 1801-1876 Sir A. Alison 1790-1867 J, W. Donaldson 1811-1861 Sir E. L. Bulwer 1805-1873 E. B. Browning 1805-1861 B. Disraeli.. 1805-18S1 W. E. Gladstone 1809 Sir D, Brewster, Sci. -1781-1868 Faraday, " ..1791-1867 Noah Webster, Am .1758-1843 Literature and Art op OTHER Countries. Montalembert 1810-1870 A. Dumas (Pere) 1803 871 Zschokke 1771-1848 Mme. Dudevant (George Sand), 1804-1876 Eugene Sue 1804-1857 Lenancourt (Obermann)? Azeglio 1800-1866 Quinet 1803-1875 Chopin, Mus 1810-1849 J. L. Grimm. 1785-1863 W. K. Grimm 1786-1859 N. P. Willis, G. P. Morris, Burton, Act., Woodworth, D. P. Thompson, Mrs. Sigourney, .1806-1867 .1802-1864 -1804-1860 .1812-1859 .1795-1868 .1791-1865 Dahlmann 1785 Gervinus 1805-1871 Verdi, Mus 1814 Mdle. Grisi, Act 1812 Rachel, Act 1821-1858 Jenny ^Ati'D, Singer. 18-21 Strauss, J/ws .1808-1874 J. Bunsen 1791-1860 Lappenberg 1795-1865 F. C. Schlosser -1861 Ranke 1795 DoUinger 1799 M. d'Aubigne 1794 _l V9 ^^ ^ TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 68i Table XVI. From A.D. 1845 to A. D. 1865. In Periods of Five Years. 184s 1850 United States Histort. James K. Polk, nth President, 1 795-1839 Mexico declares war against the U. S 1845 Texas admitted 1845 Thornton and party captured by- Mexicans... _. 1846 Congress declares *' War existed by the act of Mexico" 1846 Gun Cotton invented 1846 Ether first used as an ana3sthetic..i846 Iowa admitted 1846 Elias Howe Sewing Machine patented, 1846 Oregon Dispute 1845-1846 Smithsonian Institute founded 1847 American Array enters City of Mexico , ._.i847 Treaty of Peace with Mexico 1848 ■Wisconsin admitted 1848 Gold first discovered in Calif omia. 1848 Zachart Taylor, 12th President. 1784-1850 President Taj^lor forbids the fitting out of filibnsting expeditions against Cuba 1849 U.S. Gold Don:ir5 first coined 1849 The French Ambassador dismissed from Washington 1849 Death of President Taylor 1850 N. Y. Times established 1850 Vice-President Fillmore be- comes President 1800-1874 California admitted _ 1850 Fugitive Slave Act passed _ ..1850 Treaty with England for a transit- way across Panama 1850 Kossuth, a Hun8ss Sioux Indians defeated by Gen. Howe, 1855 Suspension Bridge over Niagara completed 1855 President Pierce recognizes the Fili- buster Gen. Walker as President of Nicaraugna 1S56 Mr. Crampton, British Minister at Washington, dismissed 1856 Severe Fighting in Kansas -1856 Jawes Buchanan, 15th President, 1791-1868 The Bred-Scott decision rendered by Chief Justice Taney...' 1857 Troubles with the Mormons 1857 Great Financial Panic 1857 Great religious revivals 1857 Dispute with England respecting the right of completion of the Atlantic Telegraph, 1B58; Search, 1858 Minnesota admitted 1858 Mount Vernon purchased by the ladies 1858 Oregon admitted 1859 Oil first discovered at Titusville, Pa., 1859 Alexander A, Stephens advocates a Southern Confederacy 1859 Prince of Wales visits the IT. S 1859 Other Countries. 186s Abraham Lincoln, i6th President, 1809-1865 South Carolina passes Ordinance of Secession _.i86o Cabinet Officers, XJ. S. Senators, and Members of Congress from Southern States resign i860 New York Bunks suspend Specie Payment _. 1861 Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, Louisiana, and Texas secede _i86i Provisional Government of Con- federate States adopted at Mont- gomery 1861 Jefferson Davis, President 1861 Bombardment of Fort Sumter i86i Virginia divided into two States.. 186 1 Call for 75,000 Volunteers 1861 Non-intercourse Proclamation i86i General Scott rcfsigns Command of Army _ 1861 Gen. George B. McClellan appoint- ed Commander-in-Chief 1861 The Trent affair 1861 President Lincoln calls for 300,000 more men , 1862 Confederate Congressmeets in Rich- mond 1862 Kansas admitted 1862 Proclamation of Emancipation 1862 West Virginia admitted .1862 ist U. S. Colored Regiment enrolled, . . 1863 Anti-draft Riots in New York City. 1863 Proclamation of Amnesty 1863 Draftof 500,000 men ordered 1864 Nevada admitted ___ 1864 Gen. U. S. Grant appointed Com- mander-in-Chief 1864 President Lincoln calls for 200,000 men.. ,8fi. Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 repealed, 18 Chambersburg, Pa., burned 18 Death of Nicholas 1855 Alexander II., Emperor of Russia, "855 Russia grants Amnesty to Poles. 1856 Annexation of Oude 1856 Panama R. R. to Aspinwall opened 1856 Persian War 1856-1857 Indian Mutinv, Hast Indies, 1857-1858 Government of India transfer- red to Crown 1858 Second Chinese War. The Con- cha Arrow 1856-1860 Conspiracy Bill. Volunteers, Eng., 1858 Cavour in Italy.. (1810-1861) Franco-Austrian War 1859 SoLFERiNO, Savoy and Nice to France 1859 Lord Palmerston resigns and returns , 1859 Stanley, Secretaryfor India. 1S59 English and American Literature. Commercial Treaty England and Prance i860 Garib.lkli in Sicily i860 William I., King of Prussia. .1861 Victor Emanuel, Kingof Italy. 1861 Otlio expelled from Greece 1861 Queen Victoria proclaims neu- trality 1861 Napoleon III. proclaims neu- trality 18 ji C'onfedrate Alabama sails from England 1862 Cotton p'amine in England, 1862-1863 Georoe, King of Greece 1S63 Insurrection in Poland 1863 French in Mexico 18S4 Schleswig-Holstein War 1864 Bismarck 1814 Ionian Islands surrender 1864 W, E. Aytoun 1813-1865 H. McCulloch, i=« 1806-1867 E. -M. Ward, Pi iSi5 Philip Bailey ...1816 Sydney Dobell 1824-1874 Alexander Smith 1830-1867 Ruskin 1819 A. H. Clough 1819-1861 Norman Macleod 1811-1873 Sir G. C. Lewis 1806-1863 I. D. Maurice 1805-1871 J. Hill Burton 1809 Dr. J. Brown 1810 Robert Browning 1812 J. Sparks. Am 1794-1866 Palfrey, " 1796 Goodrich, " 1790-1862 E. K. Kane, " 1820-1857 Literature and Art of OTHER Countries. Sir A. Helps 1817-1875 Froude 1818 Kingsley 1819-1875 Layard 1817 Kinglake 1811 G. H. Lewes .1817-1878 J. W. Colenso 1814 B. Jowett 1817 .\. P. Stanley 1815 M. Arnold 1822 II. Buckle 1822-1862 M. Fuller, Am 1810-1850 H. Reed, " 1808-1854 P. Benjamin, " 1809-1864 .7. Q. Adams, " 1767-1848 T.H.Benton," 1782-1858 Wheaton, " 1785-1848 Silliman, " 1779-1864 E. Hitchcock," 1793-1864 Sainte-Beuve __-i8o4-i869 De Musset 1810-1857 J. .T. Ampere .,1800-1864 Littr^ 1801 P. Mer-m^e 1803-1870 Wagner, Mvs.. 1813, R. Schumann, jl/7/.s.. .1810-1856 RlSTOEI, Act ...1821 Rosa Bonheur, Pt ..1822 Millet, Pi; 1815-1675 Spectrum Analysis . .1861 Geibel 181, Freiligrath 1810-1876 Gutzkow 18 1 1-1878 Freytag, Oer ...1788-18 Renan. i?V 1823 -^v ^2 ^^ TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.—Continued. 683 Table XVII. From A. D. 1865 to A. D. 1880. In Periods of Five Years. 1865 1870 United States Histort. Gen. Lee earrenders 1865 President Lincoln aseassinated by Wilkes Booth 1865 Vice-Pre8. Andrew Johnson becomes President 1808-1875 Booth, the assassin, mortally wounded and captured 1865 15th Amendment submitted .. .1S65 Atlantic Cable successfully laid. 1866 The Freedmen's Bureau Bill, and Civil Rights Bill passed over President Johnson's veto 1866 Nebraska admitted 1867 Horace Greeley and others sign JeflEerson Davis' bail bond.. 1867 Alaska purchased from Russia. i8f^7 President Johnson impeached by the House and acquitted.. 1868 Ulysses S. Grant, i8th Presi- dent 1869 Death of Geo. Peabody (Phil- anthropist) 1869 Death of Gen. Robert E. Lee.. 1870 Congress repeals the Income Tax. 1871 Great Riot (Chinamen's) in San Francisco - 1871 Orange Riot (attacked by Catho- lics) in New York ...1871 The Great Chicago Fire... 1871 Great Forest Fires in Wiscon- sin and Michigan 1871 W. M. Tweed and others ar- rested for fraud in New York City 1871 Great earthquake and loss of life in California 1872 The World's Peace Jubilee, Boston _ ...1872 The Great Boston Fire 1872 Barnum's Museum destroyed by fire in New York 1872 Settlement of the Alabama Claims 1872 U. S. Troops defeated by ]S[o- doc Indians 1873 Gen. Canby and Rev. Dr. Thomas murdered by Modoc Indians -1873 Failure of Jay Cooke & Co. and others 1873 Capt. Jack and other Modoc Indians executed 1873 Payment of the Geneva Award. 1873 Death of Charles Sumner 1874 Mill River (Mass.) Reservoir disaster 1874 Kalakaua, King of Hawaiian Islands, visits the U. S 1874 Other Countries. Gladstone in power., 1865-1874 Seven-Weeks War 1866 Battle of Sadowa t866 North German Confederation, 1866 Venice falls to Italy 1866 Lord Russell's Reform Bill, Enr;.. iS66 Fenianjsm in Ireland and United States 1867 Mr. Disraeli's Reform Bill 1867 Maximilian shot in Mexico 1867 The Dominion of Canada formed. -1867 Francis Joseph crowned at Pesth, 1867 Gladstone Ministry, Eng 1868 Abyssinian Expedition 1868 Isabella II, of Spain deposed 1868 Dis-establishment of Iristi Church. i86g ^tanitoba joins the Dominion of Canada 1870 Land Bill of Ireland 1870 Franco-Prussian War 187&-1871 British Columbia joins Dominion of Canada 1871 Napoleon surrenders Sedan.. 1870 English Educational Bill 1870 Paris, Metz, and Strasburg surren- der _- 1871 Meeting of the Alabama Claims Commission at Geneva 1871 William I.. Emperor of Germany ..1871 Rome the Capital of Italy 1871 3d French Republic 1871 University Tests abolished, Enff.. i8yi Army Purchase abolished, Eng.. .iSyi War in Cuba 1871 The B&Wot passed, Eng 1871 Lord Dufferin Governor General of Canada 1872 Prince Edward Island joins Canada, 1872 The Jesuits expelled from Germany, 1872 Russia quarrels with Khiva 1872 Scotch Educational Bill 1872 Marshal McMahon, President of France 1872 France pays the War Indemnity to Germany _ 1873 The German Stamp Tax 1873 Irish Educational Bill fails .,.1874 Disraeli, Prime Minister 1874 Amadeus. Spanish Republic. Don Carlos, Alphonso, *S^.. ....1870-1875 AuERiCAN Literature. J. E. Worcester 1784-1865 J. P. Marsh i8oi Albert Barnes 1798-1870 H. W. Longfellow. 1807 J G. Whittier 1807 W. D. Whitney 1827 T. B. Read 1825-1872 J. G. Saxe i8i6 F. Waylaud 1796-1865 Journalists: — G. D. Prentice 1802-1870 Horace Greeley. 1811-1872 H. J. Raymond 1820-1869 Thurlow Weed 1797 J. W. Forney 1817 J. G. Bennett 1795-1872 J G. Holland 1819 C. Anthon 1797-1867 Haliburton (Sam. Slick), 1802-1865 Hildreth 1807-1865 Rev. Dr. McClintock. 1814-1870 Mrs. Parton (Fanny Fern), 181 1-1870 J. T. Field 1820 D. G. Mitchell (Ik Marvel), 1822 J. S. C.Abbott 1805-1877 J. G.Motley 1814-1877 C. F. Browne (Artemus Ward), 1834-1867 Cary Sisters died 1871 J. Parton 1822 S. A. Allibone 1816 O. W. Holmes i8og E. P.Whipple 1819 R. H. Stoddard 1825 W.Whitman 1819 T. W. Higginson 1823 J. T. Trowbridge 1827 G.W.Curtis 1824 W. C. Tyler 1835 R. G.White ...1822 J. R. Lowell 1819 R. H. Dana, Jr 1815 Bayard Taylor.. 1825-1878 W. L. Garrison 1805-1876 Rev. Dr. Bushnell 1802-1876 J. W. Draper.. 1811 Dr. Austin Flint i8»2 Son, 1836 G. S. Hillard 1808-1879 Rev. Dr. Hodge 1797-1878 English and other Foreign Literature. J. P. Joule, Scientist. 1818 J G. Stokes, •• .1820 W. Tyndall, " .1820 Sir Wm. Thompson, Scientist. 1824 T. H. Huxley, " .1825 M, Taine, J^' 1828 E. Angier, " -. 1820 T. Gautier," 1811-1872 G. Dor6, " Art 1832 O. Feuillet, " i8aa Dumas (fll), Fr 1824 A. Trollope, novelist, .1815 C. Reade " ..1814 W. Collins, " ..1824 Mrs. Cross (George Eliot), novelist 1822 Mrs. Oliphant, novelist, 1820-1857 Mrs. L. Linton, ;M>i;e^i5^- 1822 Herbert Spt:NCER-..i82o Geo. MacDonald 1820 Cousin, Er., Phil 1792-1867 Swinburne 1837 Holman Hunt, Pt.. --1827 D. G. Rossetti 1828 Millttis. Pt 1829 E. .\. Freeman 1823 J. Foster 1812-1876 Flaubert, Fr 1821 Laboulay^ 1811 Castelar. Sp 1832 H. Y. Sybel, Gev 1817 Hartmann, " 1821-1872 M. Thierry, Fr., //u.. 1797-1873 Tulloch, Ger., Theol .1823 M. GuizoT, Fr 1787-1874 Hans Christian Andersen, Bati. 1805-1875 "71 85 a \ ^2 Lk^ 684 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Concluded. Table XVII. From A. D. 1865 to A. D. 1880. In Periods of Five Years. 1875 UNITED States Histokt. Eaet River spanned by an Ice Bridge, 1875 100th Anniversary of the battles of Concord and Lexington 1875 Centennial Celebration of Bunker Hill 187s Death of Vice-President Henry Wilson - - 187s William B. Astor died 1875 A. T. Stewart died 1876 Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, visits U. S - 1876 Whisky Ring broken up 1875-1876 Opening of Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia _ 1876 Gen. Custer and 311 U. S. Troops slain by Sioux Indians, led by Sitting Bull 1876 Colorado admitted _ 1876 First Wire of East River Bridge--i876 Brooklyn Theater burned.- 1876 Ashtabula (Ohio) Railroad disaster, 1876 Death of Cornelius Vanderbilt 1877 The Electoral Commission Bill passed, 1877 Electoral Commission Count declare the election of R. B. Hayes 1877 Rothekfobd B. Hates, 19th Presi- dent - 1877 Great Railroad Strikes and Riots. .1877 Gen. Miles whips Nez Perces Indians, 1877 Extradition Treaty with Spain ...1877 Wm. M. Tweed died 187S Wm. Cullen Bryant died 1878 Yellow Fever rages at Vicksburg, Memphis, etc 1878 Gold at Par for the first time since 1862.-- 1S78 Specie Payment resumed 1879 Anti-Chinese Bill vetoed 1S79 Extra Session of Congress called,. 1879 Proclamation warning settlers from the Indian Territory 1879 Yellow Fever at Memphis 1879 Relief ordered byU. S. Government in aid of sufferers 1879 Steam Yacht Jeannette sent out by James Gordon Bennett to dis- cover the N. W. passage 1879 Arrival at San Francisco of Gen. Grant, homeward bound on his 2^ years' tour around the World. 1879 The French Transatlantic Cable lauded --1879 Other Codnteies. Re-opening of the Eastern Ques- tion - 1875 Prince of Wales visits India.. .1875 French Legislative Body re-or- ganized 1875 English Channel Tunnel Bill passed, Fr --1875 Japan Cedes Territory to Russia, 187s Russia Conquers Khiva 1876 Meeting of New French Cham- bers 1876 American Literature. England purchases the. Suez Canal- 1876 Victoria proclaimed Empress of India 1876 Disraeli elevated to the Peerage, 1876 New Marriage Law, Austna-.i^jS The German the Official Lan- guage in Prussian Poland-- -1876 Deposition of Catholic Bishops in Germany __ 1876 Russo-Turldsh War 1877-1878 England neutral in Russo-Turk- ish War 1877 Death of M. Thiers 1877 Marquis of Lome, Viceroy of Canada 1878 Treaty of San Stefano and Berlin, 1878 Great Commercial depression in England 1878 British- Afghanistan War 187S International Exposition at Paris, Marriage of King Alfonso, >y^.i878 Death of Victor Emanuel 1878 Death of Pope Pius IX 1878 Leo XIII. elected Pope 1878 Austria occupies Bosnia. 1878 The Zulu War 1879 M. Julius Grevy, President of France . 1789 English and other Foreign Literature. BretHarte 1837 Joaquin Miller 1841 W. D. HOWELLS 1837 Edward Eggleston 1837 Miss Dodge (Gail Hamilton), 1838 W. T. Adams (Oliver Optics), 1822 Judge Tourgee, "Fool's Er- rand" -- S. L. Clemens (Mark Twain), 1S35 D. R. Locke (Petroleum V. Nasbyj --1833 H. W. Shaw (Josh Billings), 1818 E. E. Hale 1822 Miss Phelps, " Gates Ajar," 1844 T. B. Aldrich 1836 W. Greene 181 1 H. W. Beecher 1813 Guyot _ --.1807 Clara Louise Kellogg, Singer, 1842 Charles [March 1823 Thos. Nast, Caricaturist . . 1840 E. C. Stedman 1833 C. D.Warner 1829 Henry James, Jr A. Winchell 1824 L. M. Alcott 1833 Virchow, Ger 1821 Messonier, i'V., Pt 1822 Zeller, Pr., His 1820 Auerbach, G^' -1812 Figuier, i^V. 1819 Oscar Wilde, Esthete 1857 Du Bois Raymond, Ger 1818 Ewald, Ger .1802-1875 Flaubert, JV 1821 Cassagnac, i^r 1806 Dudevant (George Sand), JiY., 1804-1876 DnChaillu, JPr 1835 Haeokel, Ger 1834 Holse, Dan 1811 Victor Hugo, Ji'r ..1802 Jacoby, Ger . .1805-1877 Janauschek, Act 1830 Pasteur, Fr., Chemist 1822 Patti, Singer, Spain 1843 Reclus, i^V 1830 Remusat, Fr 1797-1875 Lord Lyttcn (Owen Meredith), 1831 KEY to Serial Tables from B. C. I 500 to A. D. I 880. .4s several of the abbreviations used in the two series of tables indicated are the same, one key will apply to both. These abbreviations are as follows:— (?r., Greek; S. Gr., Spartan or Sicilian; Per., Persian; Mac., Macedonian; P. C, Phceuician and Carthaginian; Horn., Roman; Ger., German; Fr., French; Sp.. Spanish; Pits., Russian; Priis., Prussian; Scan., Scandinavian; Eng , English; Scot., Scotch; Ire., Iri.sh; Ptch., Dutch; Port., Portuguese; ft. Italian; ^m., American; P;;., Pope; Pt., Painter; il/M , Musician; yl. anrf >S^., Architect and Sculptor; ulc^,. Actor: T'W^., Theologian; P/it/., Philosopher; iZ'2*\, Historian. Where more than one date is given, the meaning- intended is. in the case of general facts, commencement and termination; in the case of rulers, date of beginning and ending or rule; in the case of eminent persons, birth and death. The Interrogation-point suggests doubt as to the date; f. stands for flourished, and one date appended to a nara,e has the same import. In the case of living men, one date indicates the birth. In the case of Hebrew prophets, the dates indicate the supposed period of prophesying. With these remarks it is believed that the tables will be intelligible. ^5 THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 685 Showing iheir Population, Area, Religion, Government, Capital, Debt, Standing Army, Navy, Miles of Railroad, and Trade with the United States. Country. Chinese Kmpire. . . British Ein[)ire. Russian Empire .... United States German Empire. . . . Austria-Hung-ary . . France Japan .-.;--, Great Britain & Ire- land Turkey Italy Spam Brazil Mexico Persia Morocco Siam Roumania Belgium EffVpt Portugal Norway & Sweden. Canada Holland or Nether- lands Abyssinia Columbia Madagascar Switzerland Peru Chili Denmark Norway Venezuela Bolivia i Argentine Republic Servia Greece Guatemala Ecuador Hayti Liberia ... San Salvador Uruguay Nicaragua Para^oiay Honduras Costa Rica San Domingo Hawaii Popula- tion. 433.000.000 237.39' >7SS «6,952.347 SO,iS-^.7«3 42,727,260 37,700.000 36,905,738 33,200,000 34, 160,000 31,669,147 37.769,475 io,:b:j5,5o6 9.930,47s 9,276,079 6,500,000 600,000 5,700,000 5,376,000 5.336,185 5,250,000 4.441,037 4.429.713 3,603,321 3.579.529 3,000,000 2,951,211 2,900,000 2,776.035 2,699.945 2,375.971 1,913,142 1,806,900 1.784,197 1,742,353 i,7i5.6§i 1,720,270 1,457,894 1. '90,754 1,100,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 600,000 455.000 300,000 231,000 351,700 1^5,000 150.000 60,000 ^ =?,! i 11 ^,^ w Area Square Is o'er 2 c < z ° 3,924,627 no 270,000 38 7,7SS,3+7 S,4o+.767 30 286,450 531 10 768,427 223 3,026,504 10 25,000 146 2oS,744 201 419,738 74 240,9 JO 158 292,166 43 204,096 1 82 502,697 492 I36,6o^ 214 78,512 17 121,230 26S 135.452 222 860,562 '7 459,3'3o r. 1 14,406 24^ 199,557 195,775 92 151,66s 138 3,2SS,iio 3 10,055 63 761,640 12 21,136 4 64.5,000 10 30,000 none 260,000 25 20,000 none 310,000 25 none none 49,262 105 lS,ooo 9 "•373 469 46,383 10 212,600 2(- 14,000 H 35,S.2 121 62,920 34 170,980 3.43,952 25 36,495 42 1 3,000 7 I2,6So 2S2 61,803 10'^ 153,000 432,400 6 2,600 none 223,570 10 15,991 iSi 106,102 none 502, 7eo 5 13,200 iS 130,977 16 3,500 12 H,S53 n' 35.703 33 122, 2S0 14 iS,ooo 33 3249.7i7 3,519,105 none 409,328 See note See note 3,577,824 63,360 See note 1 ,780, 140 See note See note See note See note 657,509 3,264,56.^ 4,661,957 See note 16,725,463 57,412,277 2,641,707 92,55^,736 2,676,924 363,013,646 4,719,302 8,658,233 27,910,942 25,522,401 0,761,284 none none none 28,522,401 Turkey, 4,927,161 2,147,252 32,048,314 16,461,262 5,771,454 none 1,305,363 1 ,256,023 3,194,57s & Sweden. 2,052,435 2,128,012 none 285,019 See note See note 3,262,642 130,929 See note 939,362 See note See note See note See note 803,315 2,509,898 NoTE-^Trade with the British Possessions, Great Britain and Ireland excluded, was — Imports, 20,128,494; Exports, 29,373,079. With South American Ports not given above — Exports, 92,747. With the Central American States — consisting of San Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, and Costa Rica— Imports, 2,497,134; Exports, 1,483,389. * The Empire forms a Customs League named " 2ollvereiD," t TSe greater part of this trade is with Cuba. % A Province of Turkey, yet practically independent. THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. The following iablo shows a comparison of the Commerce, Population, Annual Imports and Exports of the several geographical divisions of the world for 1876 — the latest published statistics. Europe America . . . . Asia Australasia . Africa Total . . . Popula- tion. 289,000,000 84,840,000 806,700,000 1,800,000 80,000,000 1 ,262,340,000 Commerce. ©9,970,000,000 2,140,000,000 1,131,000,000 462,000,000 291,000,000 $14,000,000,000 Imports. $5,650,400,000 972,800,000 489,000,000 237,800,000 134,400,000 $7,474,400,000 Exports. $4,336,200,000 1,167,200,000 641,600,000 224,400,000 156,600,000 The following shows the variations in the total imports and exports of all the countries of the world from 1S67 to 1876: 5,526,000,000 1S67-6S, 1S69-70. 1872-73. 1S74-75- 1876.... Annual Imports. $5,828,600,000 6,081,400,000 7,772,000,000 7,351,400,000 7,474,400,000 Annual Exports. $5,225,000,000 5, i;o3, 600,000 6,669,200,000 6,448,400,000 6,526.000.000 These figures carry with them their own importance. 5p Uppek House. Lower Hous E. Countries. HOW CHOSEN. LENGTH TERM. NO. HOW CHOSEN. LENGTH TERM. NO. Remarks. Argentine Republic State Legislatures Crown and hereditary. Citizens, property test, j Crown and indirect ( ( election ( Governor General Life Syrs. Life Life 9 Life or gyrs. Life or gyrs. Life Life 6 9 Life Life 6 3 6 Life Life Life 12 loor life 9 lO 6 28 104 68 77 58 20 27 !■ 66 i3 j.300 59 537 188 70s 270 54 39 39 45 10 2b 44 133 30 76 18 44 16 36 7 76 Popular suffrage. - Property-holding citizens Property-holding citizens Indirect election PopuJar suffrage Popular suffrage Popular suffrage Citizens 30 years old Popular suffrage Popular suffrage Popular suffrage Household suffrage — < syrs. 4 4 5 3 3 4 Until dissolu- tion .... 5 2 4 5 4 3 2 4 3 5 3 5 3 3 3 2 5° 253 .36 122 206 "66 102 30 538 397 U58 445 508 331 86 102 88 II 86 110 99 433 55 157 46 332 204 135 32 86 14 325 Compensation, $3,500 per annum. Elected at different times, as the crown may order. Only natives eligible. One Representative to 40,000 inhabitants. Senators must be 40 years old; Deputies Catholics; both natives. Slight property qualification required of voters. One Representative for 20,000 inhabitants. Colombia (U.S.).— Denmark Ecuador State Legislatures Hereditary andelect'v > Popular suffrage Lidirect election -j Appointed by States.. J Hereditary, crown t ( and church f Elected by the people.. Hereditary and church- Hereditary and crown. State Legislatures States, from rich Each State has 43 Senators. Representa- tives according to population. Members of either house must be at least 25 years old. Congress meets annually, September 15, Senators must be 40 years old; Deputies 25. Prussia has 17 members Upper House; 236 Great Britain of the Lower House. The election is by ballot. A member of the House must be 2 r years of age. No com- pensation is allowed. Only one body, called Boule. PopuJar vote The citizens of full age may vote, if they Popular vote pay taxes amounting to $4 a year. A voter must be 25 vears of age, and tax- Popular vote payer to the extent of $8 a year. Senators must be 30 years of age; Repre- Netherlands People, property test sentatives 25. Property test for voters exceptionally high. Clergymen disfranchised. No property test for voters, and the elec- New Zealand tion is by ballot. A moderate property test required of voters and legislators. No property test is required. Popular vote Popular vote. Slight property test for voters, who must be Indirect election People, property test 25 years of age. The ratio of representation is one member Hereditary Mostly Hereditary for 20,000 inhabitants. Besides a property test, there are several personal tests applied. Queensland Voters may vote where they have property and where they reside. The people elect the Electors and they Indirect election Popular election ) Hereditary, elective 1 j and crown ( Popular election choose the Legislators. Members of the Upper House must be 30 years of age; of the Lower, 21. The Senate has no fixed number of mem- bers, nor uniform method of designation. Senators receive no pay; Representatives. small salaries. Tasmania Elected, property test.. J Elected, smaller prop- I to either house. Besides elected Legislators, are es-officio Victoria members holding other important ofiBces, and resident subjects possessing de^ees Clergymen and felons are ineligible as legislators. Slight property test for voters. A legislator must hold real estate to the value of Ss.ooc. A Senator must be 30 years of age; a Rep- resentative 25. Each house sole judge of the election and qualification of its members. Elected State Legislatures Note. — In the preparation of the above tables, reliance has mainly been placed upon the States-maiv's Manual for 1881. No country which does not enjoy any of the rights of self-government, however important in other respects, has a place in this connection. Of the several States of the United States it may be added, that each has two legislative bodies, both elected by popular vote, and that, under the i4th amendment to the Constitution of the United States, no citizen can be deprived of the right of suffrage on account of race, color, or prtiviouB condition of servitude. No State allows female suffrage, nor does any require an intelligence test. CONGRESSIONAL APPORTIONMENT. The number of Representatives in the popular branch of the Congress of the United States to which each State will be entitled, from March 4. 1883, to March 4, 1893, based on the tenth census, is as follows: Alabama 8 Arkansas 5 .California 6 Colorado i Connecticut 4 Delaware i Florida 2 Georg[ia _ 10 Illinois 20 Indiana 13 Iowa.,,, II Kansas .. .._. 7 Kentucky n Louisiana 6 Maine 4 Maryland 6 Massachusetts _ 12 Michigan n Minnesota _ _ 5 Mississippi 7 Missouri 14 Nebraska ._ .__ 3 Nevada „..__„_„. i New Hampshire 2 New Jersey 7 New York 34 North Carolina g Ohio 21 Oregon _ i Pennsylvania 28 Rhode Island , 2 South Carolina 7 Tennessee 10 Texas 11 Vermont 2 Virginia 10 West Virginia 4 Wisconsin 9 Total --325 - 19 '^ INDUSTRIES AND MONEY OF ALL NATIONS. 687 INDUSTRIES OF NATIONS, IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS, IN 1870 AND 1880. Great Britain United States France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Belgium Holland Sweden and Norway. . . Denmark Portugal Turkey, etc Australia Canada South America South Africa Commerce. 1S70 iSSo 2661 S37 rzii 13 H 535 40+ 360 ■S" 311 34S >3i 73 ■19 404 277 161 414 39 3467 1464 T615 1S6S 929 6S1 467 "S5 SOI 53S '75 93 63 306 433 170 43S S3 Manufactures. 1S70 1880 3123 33'S 2136 ■659 997 Sgo SO" 375 355 iSo 175 6S 49 3S9 44 170 SS 378S 4320 2360 2077 1114 1002 559 42S 414 204 195 88 54 321 63 224 107 15 Mining. 1S70 iSSo 224 ■85 44 6S 39 24 10 24 29 3'6 350 58 102 54 34 10 34 39 39 '9 The 'World 9677 13472 14527 17333 745 1094 1262S 136S1; 2o<5o 2960 1183 1491 40820 5003S Agriculture. 1S70 1265 2019 2004 150S 1703 116S 632 462 ■65 199 229 122 112 258 170 24S 340 24 2554 1946 1654 1800 1280 7°5 53° 170 224 253 13' 122 180 253 292 3S9 34 Carrying^ Trade, etc. 1870 544 642 204 204 ■36 78 54 34 34 19 44 5 3 '5 5 24 15 7S3 SoS 302 336 214 118 73 58 39 24 73 10 5 29 '5 44 29 Banking. 1S70 389 '95 146 122 58 68 24 ro '5 63 '5 5 5 '5 24 1S80 525 253 ■65 '.36 73 83 29 '5 '5 J>S '5 5 5 '5 49 19 24 1S70 S206 7' 9*5 5745 4S75 3f68 2632 1581 1056 909 S06 604 273 21S 1081 564 613 910 S3 10047 9749 6446 6'73 4184 3'9S 1843 1250 1 178 '055 721 326 249 85' 842 749 1026 '5' Increase. 184 1 2553 701 1298 716 566 262 194 269 249 117 53 3' 278 ■.36 116 68 944S Note.— The average production of human industry per head is $100, an increase of 12 per cent, since 1S70. MONEY OF ALL NATIONS COMPARED WITH POPULATION AND TRADE. United States , Great Britain , France Germany. . ., Russia Austria Italy Spain and Portugal. . . Holland Belgium Norway and Sweden. Switzerland Greece, Turkey, etc. . , South America Australia Canada Japan S.EQ 1S70 686 '99 345 219 569 '95 253 39 54 44 39 5 24 '75 '5 18S0 642 219 43S 204 866 3" 3'6 73 73 63 44 20 ■c7 326 20 39 127 t2P 207 116 63 34 '9 '9 5 '5 S3 '5' 5 19 127 375 603 7'5 321 107 44 39 195 19 107 44 5S 5 '5 44 5 5 c a SO 151 93 4'4 209 ss 29 49 S3 58 63 10 34 5 4f 5 2Iq ii6S 9'5 'S67 734 1031 384 404 351 150 233 9S J12 117 3S5 69 49 '36 io.t:6 20.19 30.40 11.68 2.19 '•95 3-40 13.S6, 19.46 30.89 6.32 33.08 •49 2.19 17.27 2.19 The W0RLT5 2SS1 3SSS 1066 2701 1314 7903 S.76 8.51 17.27 30 to 100 29 to 100 59 to 100 16 to 100 6.32 11.93 4.62 10.95 7-79 10.95 3-65 1S.25 "•43 5.10 6.S1 4.S6 12.40 7.30 9.25 2.65 23-35 26.51 42.32 16.30 I3.'4 9-74 '4-35 '7^5' 37^7' 42.32 11.42 39.89 5-35 I4.i;9 24.57 11.44 2.65 'u o 36 to 100 21 " 71 " 28 " 18 " 124 '5 3+ + '3 SE n.0 44 to 100 7 " 93 45 70 33 14 13 15 40 74 4 24 Total. So to 100 28 " 99 " 30 ■' HI ■' 56 " 91 " 157 " 29 ■' 47 " 33 " 44 " 57 " 14 " •30 " 12 to 9 24 iz 24 30 15 '4 32 7 6 Note. — The estimates of gold and silver coin are mainly from the 'Washington Mint Report. India is not included; say about 5S4 million dollars of silver, 49 of gold and 58 of paper. IK^ M 688 THE ART OF WAR — CAPITAL AND EARNINGS OF NATIONS. -^ THE ART OF WAR. Increase or Decrease of Armaments since 1869, United States Great Britain , France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Holland Bclg'ium , Denmark Sweden and Norway Portug^al Turkey Greece Brazil The World Cost of Armv. Cost Navy. Total E \p'd't're Total Force in 1869. Total Force, 18S0. Rauo to goo's are sup's'd. ooo's su .S69 ipressed iSSo ooo's su ppressed Popula'n, 1S69 iSSo 1S69 18S0 1S69 1880 77.S40 38,920 '10,4.60 13,622 97,300 52,542 64,000 33,000 0.17 0.07 72,975 75,849 55,661 50,596 128,636 126,490 268,700 258,000 0.87 0.74 82,703 109,463 35,920 30,650 121,625 140,113 493,000 523,000 '•,30 1.41 58,380 85,13s 4,379 14,109 62,759 99,247 380,000 448,000 1.00 1 .01 S7,';7o 141,085 17,028 20,947 104,598 162,032 876,000 835,000 1. 19 1.04 46,111s 60,326 4,379 3.S92 50,597 64,318 283,000 298,000 0.81 0.7S 30. J 63 42,812 6,325 ■0,703 36,488 .5.3,5'5 199,000 216,000 0.76 0.77 20,433 23,839 5,838 5,352 26,271 29,191 174,000 120,000 i.oS 0.80 5,838 9,730 6,325 5,83s 12,163 ■5,568 82,000 86,000 2-, 34 2-15 6,811 9,244 6,811 9,224 73,000 46,000 1.46 0.81 1,946 2,433 973 1,460 2,919 3,893 44,000 40,000 2 50 2.0Z 3,406 6,8.1 1,460 1,946 4,866 8,757 60,000 62,000 1. 00 O.Q5 3,406 3,892 1,460 1,460 4,866 5,352 26,000 34,000 0.65 0.80 18,001 9,730 4,865 2,433 22,866 ■2,163 188,000 103,000 1.70 2.10 973 1,460 4S7 4S7 1,460 1,947 9,000 24,000 0.60 ■■.50 7,29s 7,29s 3,892 4,865 11,190 12,163 7,200 21,000 0.80 0.93 0.21 523.96.^ 628,075 171,452 168.360 695.415 796.435 3,291700 3147000 0.76 CAPITAL, OR WEALTH OF NATIONS. COUMTKIES. Great Britain France United States Germany Russia Austria Italy Holland Beltjium Spain Portugal Sweden and Norway Denmark . . . , Turkey, Greece, etc.. Australia Canada South Africa South America Million Doll- ars. 1870 40,428 34,649 30,747 26,028 16,006 ■3,768 8,514 5,254 4,379 6,033 1,241 3,37^ ■,6S4 3,64s 1,68; 2,549 345 4,379 Thf. World 204,676 226,313 21.637 ib^o 43,590 36,084 38,336 29,555 17,222 ■4,838 9,049 5,497 4,573 6,680 ',323 3,590 1,703 3,697 2,384 3,094 477 4,621 :S 3,l63 1,435 7,589 3,527* 1,216 i,o7ot .535 243 ■94 647 82 219 49 49 701 545 ■.32 242 Ratio per Inhabitant. 1S70 iSSo $1,284 910 79S 686 214 .3S4 321 ■,474 866 370 3i^ 560 924 ■5" 924 671 3S9 ■75 51,265 978 769 657 214 379 316 ■,377 8,7 399 316 550 866 ■51 837 720 350 iSo 545 $ 550 S 496 Ratio free of National Debt. 1S70 $1,158 S47 735 667 200 336 253 1,362 837 2S7 238 555 890 127 827 752 379 146 iSSo $■,■53 878 730 632 ■75 326 229 ■,275 759 24S 219 535 S42 92 6Si 6S1 3-6 40' ♦Including- $1,362,000,000 for Alsace and Lorraine, flncluding- $367,- 575,000 for Bosnia. EARNINGS OR INCOME OF NATIONS.* Countries. United States Great Britain. . . . France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Belgium Holland Sweden and Norway Denmark Portugal . : Turke)', Greece, etc. Australia Canada South Africa South America Million Dollars, 1870 1880 5,167 4.675 3,834 3,4 '5 2,754 1,96. 1,134 774 491 433 433 ■Ss ■56 457 307 457 63 S03 7,327 5,624 4,5^o 4,140 3,07s 2,233 1,226 90s 574 506 5^> 214 170 404 433 574 88 920 Ratio per Inhabitant, 2,160 949 676 725 321 277 92 ■3^ 83 73 78 29 ■4 126 ■■7 25 The World 27,49933.439 5.039 $ 70.01 S 7S.35 S 62.15 S 66.94 1870 6134.18 ■4S.55 100.86 90.04 38.34 54-44 42.85 46.99 97.79 123.67 72.16 107.08 39.00 20.68 16S.33 121.95 70.54 32.62 .880 $■35.82 163.05 112.14 91.10 38.43 57.32 43-2> 54.86 102.9S 126.77 78.59 102.52 39-0? 19.46 ■S^.30 ■.34.72 65.20 37-34 Ditto free of Taxes. 1870 I 1S80 $116.23 129.11 S5.66 81.85 32.5^ 45-49 30.67 36.S5 86. 72 107.74 66.95 97.34 3^.94 17.64 141.81 113.84 65.2S 25.38 5123.03 143.66 90,59 So. 19 32.23 47.44 29.51 43-5S S9.71 109.60 7^-3^ 99-29 30-36 16.87 ■23.58 124.46 52.06 29.94 *Computed on a uniform basis in relation with the tables, of all Nations.^' 'Industries Note.— During the decade from 1S70 to iSSo, the aggregate debt of nations was increased from $7,875,000,000, or $920,000,000 less than the cost of new railways during the same length of time. The net earnings of the world have increased, but the relative burden of ta.\ation has increased. The paper money ot the world, a form of debt, rose from $2,960,000,000 in 1S70 to §3,995,000,000 in iSSo, an increase of 34 p 160 7S94 Meat — Thousand Tons. 3,816 1,20; 1,00. 1,340 2,116 960 224 196 92 144 112 213 54 250 990 2S7 1,310 no o. 1 = 5 o 2,740 i.SoS 1,228 1,700 1,925 975 215 iSS 140 87 52 146 47 250 ■52 270 272 — 14,421 12,277 2144 1076 S38 '7 1038 28 3« ^■- 48 Production ol So 360 I no 192 S80 50 245 20 170 35 25 35 Sf so 3123 416 ♦There are, moreover, 200 million bushels of wheat ^rown in India of which one-tenth is exported; and besides the wine crop here sriven, the Cape produces 414 million gallons, and Maderia, Canaries, etc., 5 millions. FOOD OF ALL NATIONS. Countries. United States.. Great Britain . . France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Belgium Holland Denmark Swed. and Nor. Portugal Greece, Turkey, Australia Canada River Platte Algeria General average 20.23 20.19 0-04 Grain per inhabi- tant. 4S.10 11.90 19.94 21. 11; 20,22 '4-35 9-45 17.9S 17.25 12.50 36.S0 '1-75 7.14 7-50 21.10 40.30 2.02 6.60 4-95 i-e.^ 8.12 4.0S 2.56 2.25 ■s 5-97 0.S4 6.51 2.19 1.65 0.17 0.30 1.19 Meat per inhabitant. 171.00 7S.26 6S.06 66.63 59-34 55- 10 21.54 26.00 37,60 80.75 125.S0 72.S0 2S.S2 45.00 790.00 153.00 11S3.00 SS.oo BS 51.00 .29 40.S4 13.82 17.S8 0.93 670. ( 331 9^3- < 19.50 77.00 08,87 8.13 6.56 6.53 8.02 1. 06 Liquor per inhabi- tant. C 4-. C If 0.40 0.60 — 0.51 17.S0 1S.60 2.10 3.20 0.02 0.03 7-55 7-50 23-44 22.57 15-40 12.50 — - 0.72 — 0.76 — 0.25 — 0.25 20.42 i6.^o 2.00 i.So 0.75 1.30 — 0.11 0.33 6.20 3.10 2-95 6.56 6.53 1.52 0.90 o.SS 1-35 1.30 0.60 30 0.25 2. So 3.90 4.20 4.20 0.20 O.IO 1.36 0.30 0.25 *The total length of telegraphs in 1S70 was 323,65c; in 18S0, 604,010, an increase of about 90 per cent, in the decade. ~e> \. 690 AGRICULTURE, POPULATION, AND MANUFACTURES OF ALL NATIONS. It. AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD. United States Grea Britain France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Belgium Holland Denmark Sweden and Norway. Portugal Greece Australia..... Canada River Platte South Africa The World,. Grain Cultivation 102500 11260 40300 43200 158000 37300 19560 25000 2910 1730 2670 43S0 2570 610 3400 8500 330 600 464S20 10.25 1.63 545 4-75 9-9S 4.7s 3-43 7-5° 2.61; 2.16 6.70 3-37 2.84 2.90 6.10 9.90 0.60 2.40 6.44 23-30 36.40 1S.50 22.05 10.25 15.04 i3-So 12.20 32-72 2S.80 27.72 17.S0 11.64 15.20 17.10 zo.oo 19,00 9.90 17.02 Pastoral Farming. - *' 8 & Sheep. ooo*s are suppressed. of 1^ 33500 3S000 67 9912 32174 29 II3I5 23674 30 15800 25200 35 2S000 64000 35 '313? 2141S 33 3490 7150 12 1550 14000 9 1242 5S6 22 1466 941 37 I34S 1720 68 3205 3276 49 523 3417 12 ,58 2100 3 7S79 65914 2S7 2702 3,WI 63 18850 76000 630 1730 11700 '30 ■55703 393601 43 70 93 64 55 So 55 25 84 10 24 88 50 55 130 2402 77 25S0 890 109 Note — During the period from 1870 to 1S80 the agricultural wealth of the world increased 8. 58 per cent. INCREASE OF POPULATION SINCE 1870. United States Great Britain France Germany Russia (Europe) Austria Italy Spain Belgium Holland Sweden and Norway.. Denmark Portugal Turkey, etc Australia Canada South Africa South America The World,. ■ — o «i 3S5SS 3120s 36554 41066 73725 35904 26f'39 16551 5052 3574 6028 1785 3966 2364S 1829 3763 582 24700 375129 u a; -^ ^- > - W o£ 9402 4265 722 52as 6565 ii6S 2053 386 527 452 724 223 510 1645 450 307 128 516 3033' 965 no 9S7 130 360 305 60 202 44 72 1.205 E.2 5 *1I03 584 228 297 270 2» s 50152 34.505 37166 45367 S0160 39175 28332 16632 .5619 3960 6550 1964 4404 240S8 2863 4298 1007 25485 41172S 5- 11594 3300 612 4301 6435 3271 1693 81 567 386 522 179 43S 440 1034 535 425 36599 b; 30.13 10.57 1.67 10,46 s-73 9.11 6.36 0.50 1 1 - 23 10. Si 8.66 10.03 10.90 2.01 56.50 "4-23 73-28 3.1S 9 76 CONSUMPTION OF COTTON, WOOL, FLAX, JUTE, ETC. * Annexation of Bosnia. United States Great Britain France Germany. .. , Russia Austria Italy Spain Belgium Holland Scandinavia Switzerland, Greece, etc. . British Colonies, etc u 1S70 18S0 S.30 1101 210 208 93 103 55 60 36 II 20 78 70 911 1404 270 390 133 130 90 76 48 13 25 70 105 The World 2635 3665 1431 17S3 1870 2154 5930 7602 l666 1870 iSSo 41 o 1870 1880 1870 iSSo 2103 862 649 393 263 100 109 276 67 60 116 ■50 1192 2571 1022 960 S'S ,305 149 142 .^01 75 67 110 19c 160 311 125 42 49 33 25 8 7 40 Note. - During the period from 1870 to iSSo the increase in the manu- factures of the world was 18.60 per cent. MANUFACTURES OF ALL NATIONS IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS, IN 1870 AND 1880. Countries. United States Great Britain France Germany *. ... . Russia Austria Italy Spain Belgium Holland Norway and Sweden. Switzerl'd, Greece, etc British Colonies The World 1870 iSSo 559 1036 652 462 263 '75 122 107 146 29 34 24 ■65 3774 1S70 I8S0 1537 1870 18S0 2622 1576 1362 1119 720 6S6 394 268 '75 146 •99 3S4 97 974S 3230 1897 1508 1314 77S 754 414 292 204 219 345 146 11262 1S70 iSSo 33'S 3123 2136 '659 997 S91 501 375 355 iSo 257 423 311 14526 43'9 36S7 2359 2078 1114 1002 560 428 4>3 205 2S7 3S4 40S 17244 1001 564 223 419 "7 111 59 53 58 25 30 97 2751 -TH to 691 INCREASE OF COMMERCE AND BALANCE OF TRADE tiL Countries United States Great Britain France Germany Russia Austria Italy HoHand Belg:ium Spain and Portugal. . . Norway and Sweden . Turkey. Greece, etc. . . Australia Canada South Africa India West Indies South America 000 s are suppressed. 1S7C. The World 10,192,150 Gross Trade. $37,000 3,661,155 1,211,3^5 408,600 360,010 345»4io 3".3^ 204,300 4oS,6o3 277.305 100,450 38,920 413.525 92,440 413.525 000 s are suppressed. iSSo. Increase. ooo's are suppressed. 1,464,000 i,336.5So [,615,180 [,86S,i6o 929,215 6Si,ioo 467,040 564,33s 50.^.955 248,115 267,5^5 306,485 432.9S5 170,270 82,710 451,635 102,160 437.850 13,961,350 627,000 675,425 403.795 554.610 3^,065 272,500 107,030 318,925 "94,595 48,650 63,275 155,680 9,820 4'i.79o 68, no 9,720 24.325 3.S71.315 Average of Ten Years. Imports. 1S7C. 0,430,930,000 Bxports. iSSo. 589,000,000 1,352,470,000 671,370,00) 773.535.000 273,440,000 320,090,000 228,655,000 1 ■'^,735.000 194,600,000 107,030,000 121,630,000 1 11,895,000 189,735,000 72,975,000 24,325.000 277.305.000 48,650,000 223,790,000 Current of Bullion. Surplus Im- ported since 1S70. 122,476,375 662,613,000 51,569,000 321,746,700 209,195,00 > 18,487,000 9,121,875 335,052,550 2,091,650 5,769,230,000 1,632,353,150 962,SS-,7So Surplus Ex- ported since 1S70 . 241,304,000* 9^,759,500 6,811,000 2,529,S0J 225,970,250 5.^94,700 381,902,500 * Down to iSTSthe United States had exported $379,465,000, but in the years 1S79 and iSSo the net imporUition was about $138,166,000. On the other hand gjeat Britain no longer imports bullion, but exported $34,055,000 since 1S79. GOLD AND SILVER COINS OF THE UNITED STATES AND CHANGES IN COINAGE. Gold Coins Authorized by Law. Double-eagle March 3, 1S49 Eagle, April 2, 1792 Eagle, June 2S, 1S34 Eagle, January iS, 1S37 Half-eagle, April 2, 1792 Half-eagle, June 28, 1S34 Half-eagle, January 18, 1S37 Three-dollar piece, Feb. 21, 1S53. Quarter-eagle, April 1, 1792 Quarter-eagle, June 2S, 1S34 Quarter-eagle, January 18, 1837... Dollar, March 3, 1S49 Silver Coins. Dollar, April 2, 1792 , Dollar, January, 1S37 Fine- ■Weight ness. Grains . 9^0 5'6 9165^ 270 8995i 258 900 250 816% 135 S99'4: 129 900 129 900 77-4 c§ 67K 64« 900 (HVS 900 25.S S92.4 4,6 9)0 4i2'/2 Total ain't coined tojan. 30, 1S76. $765,656,740 00 56,651,120 00 69,344,980 00 ',295,568 00 26,789,970 00 i9,343,2>S 00 5,045,838 00 [Coinage Discontinued by act uf February 12, 1873.] Trade Dollar, February 12, 1S73. ., Half-dollar, April 2, 1792 Half-dollar, January iS, 1S37 Half-dollar, February 21, 1853 Half-dollar, February 12, 1S73 Quarter-dollar, April 2, 1792 Quarter-dollar, January ib, 1837... Quarter-dollar, February2i, 1853., Quarter-dollar, February 13, 1S73., Twenty-cent piece, March 3, 1875 Dime, April 2, 1792 , Dime, January iS, 1S37 Dime, February 21, 1S53 Dime, February 12, 1873 Half-dime, April 2, 1792 , Half-dime, January iS, 1S37 Half-dime, February 31, 1S53, 900 420 892.4. 20S 900 2061/ 900 192 900 192.9* S92.4 IC4 900 103H 900 96 900 96-45 §92.4 77.16 41.6 900 41 K 9C0 3S.4 3S..';S S92.4 20. s 900 205^ 900 19.2 15.418,450 00 109,123,190 50 .. 27,189,946 50 (6K grams) (5 ,grms,)269,4iS 00 .. 14,086,716 30 (2^ grams) . . 4,906,946 90 [Coinage discontinued by act of February 12, 1S73.] 1,281,850 28 Three-cent piece, March 3, 1S50. . Three-cent piece, March 3, 1853. . 900 1 1 . 52 * The half-dollar authorized by the law of February 12, 1S73, weighs i2Vi g^ams, and equals half the value of the five-franc pieces of France, Belgium and Switzerland, the five-lire of Italy, five-peseta of Spain, five-drachma of Greece, and equals the florin of Austria. COIN MINTED SINCE 1870. Countries. United States Great Britain Australia Germany* Austria France Russia Belgium Holland Italy Norway and Sweden . Mexico, Peru, etc Japan India 391,146,000 197,519.000 133,301,000 424,328,000 24.325,000 156,409,750 121,630,000 80,272,500 58,380,000 ■ 7.5^,400 10,703,000 10,216,000 5,351,500 486,500 The WoKLD — 1,621,557,650 921,231,050 2,542,788,700 Silver. 152,858,300 31,623,500 102,651,500 72,975,000 93.S94.500 48,650,000 46,217,500 973,000 39,596-250 10,216,000 1 14,327,500 22,379,000 184,870,000 54=1.004,300 229,141,500 133,301,000 526,879,500 97,300,000 250,304,250 170,280,000 126,490,000 .59.353,000 47,1^5,650 2o,9r9,ooo 12^,543,500 27,730,500 185,356,500 PRECIOUS METALS, PRODUCTION SINCE 1870, COUNTKIKS. Gold. Silver. Total. United States 383.362,000 337,631,000 24,321;, 000 23-!,520,ooo 328,874,000 712,236,000 337,631,000 398,930,000 306,495,000 374,605,000 72,975,000 Russia, etc 978,838,000 776,+S4.oc» 1,755,292,000 Production of Iron and Steel Works in United States. Iron and Steel Products. Census year iSSo. Census year 1S70. Pi^ iron and castings from furnace Net Tons. 3,781,021 S§3,896 93.143 70,319 4.956 72.S57 Net Tons. 2,052,821 ',141 ,823 19.403 28,069 110^808 Open-hearth steel'finished products Crucible steel (inished products Blister and other steel Products of forges and blomaries Total 7,265,140 3.655.215 ;i^' ^\ (? »- _« S ^ G\ 1 ^92 THE FINANCIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. THE FINANCIAL HISTOR From Washington to Hayes, Showing the Public D Y OF THE UNITED STATES. ebi, Gross Revenues, Expenditures, Imports and Exports. V'r President. PfBLlC DliBT. Revenu's EXPEXD- ITL-RES. Exports. Imports. Y'r FnESIDENT. Public Debt. Reveni-tes. expenxii- tures. E,xports. Imports. 17S9 1790 .791 Washingt'n Washington Washingt'n ■S37 1S38 1S39 VanBuren... 1,878,223 4,857,660 27,883,853 37,365,037 117,4,9,376 140,989,217 113,717,404 20,205,156 19,012,04 1 23,000,000 VanBuren . . . 39,019,382 39,455,437 108,486,616 73.463.476 10,210,025 7.207,539 29,200,000 VanBuren... '1.9S3.737 33,881,243 37,614,936 121,088,416 162,092,132 1792 Washingt'n 77.227,924 8,740,766 9,141,569 20,753.098 31,500,000 1S40 VanBuren.. 5,125.077 35,032,193 38,226,533 ■32,085,936 107,641,519 ■793 Washin^'n So,3i;2,634 5.720.624 7.529.575 25,109,572 31,000,000 1841 W. Harrison 6,737,39s 30,5'9,477 3 '.797.530 121,851,803 ■27.946.177 '794 Washingt'n 78,427,404 10,041,101 9,302,124 33.026,233 34,000,000 1842 J.Tyler 15,028,486 34,773,744 32,936,876 104,691,531 100,152,087 "795 Washingt'n 80,747.557 9,419,802 ■0.435.069 47.9S9.472 69,756,268 ■S43 J- Tyler 27,203,450 30,782,410 12,118,105 84,346,480 64.753.799 1796 ".Vashingt'n 83,762,172 8,740..329 8,367.776 67.064,097 81,436,164 184-1 J- Tyler 24,748,188 3', ■98,555 33,642,010 111,200,046 ■08,435,035 '797 Tohn Adams 82,064,479 8,758,916 8,626,012 56,850,206 75,379,406 ■845 J.K.Polk... ■7.093.794 29,94^,SS3 30,490,408 114,646,606 117.254.564 179S John Adams 79,228,520 ' 8,209,070 8,613,517 61,527.097 68,551,700 1846 J. K. Polk. . . 16,750,926 29,699,967 37,633,383 113,488,516 121.691.797 ■799 Tohn Adams 7S,408,6C9 12,621,459 11,077,043 78.665,522 79,089,148 1847 J. K. Polk. . . 38,956,623 55.33S.'68 60,520,851 1 58,648,622 ■46,543.638 iSoo lohn Adams 82,976,294 12,451,184 ■■.989.739 70,970,780 91,252,768 1S48 J.K.Polk... 48,526,379 56,992,479 60,655,143 ■54.032,13' 154,998,928 iSoi T.Jefferson. 83.038,050 ■2.945,455 ■2,273,376 94.1^5.925 ■",363,S^3 1849 Z.Taylor.... 64.704,693 59,796,892 56,386,433 '45.755,820 147,857,439 1S02 T.Jefferson. 80,712,632 15,001,391 13,276,084 72,483,160 76,333.366 1S50 M. Fillmore. 64,328,238 47.649.3SS 44,604,718 151,898,790 178,138,318 1S03 T.JcBerson. 77.0S4,6'^6 11,064,097 11,258,983 55,800,083 64,666,613 1851 M. Fillmore. 62,560,39s 52,762,704 48,476,104 218,388,011 216,224,932 1804 T.Jefferson. 86,427,120 11,835,840 12,624,646 77,699,074 185,000,000 .S52 M. Fillmore. 65,131,692 49,893,115 46,713,608 209,658,366 312,945,442 iSos T.Jefferson. 83,312,150 13,689,508 ■3.727.124 95,566,021 120,600,000 ■S53 F.Pierce 67,340,628 61,500,102 54.577.061 230,976,157 ^67,978,647 1S06 T. Jefferson. 7S.723.270 15,608,828 15.070.093 ■01,536,963 129,410,000 ■854 F.Pierce. . . . 47,242,206 73,802,291 75.473,1 '9 278,241,064 304,562,381 1S07 T.Jefferson. 69,218,398 16,398,019 11,292,292 ■08,34.3,151 138,500,000 'SSS F. Pierce... 39,969,731 6S,3S',374 66,164,775 27S.'S6,846 261,468,520 1S08 T.Jefferson. 65.196.317 17,062,544 ■6,764,584 22,430,960 56,990,000 1856 *F. Pierce... 3^,972,537 74,056,899 73. '85.644 326,964,90s 3 '4,639.942 1S09 J. Madison. 57.023. 19-' 7.773.473 13,867,226 52,203,333 59,400,00c ■S57 J. Buchanan. 28,699,83, 68,969,3,2 7'.o7'.7^3 362,960,608 360,890,141 iSio J. Madison. 53.'73,2i7 12,144,206 ■3,3^9.9S6 66,657,970 85,406,000 .SSS J. Buchanan. 44,911,881 70,372,665 81,690,521 324,644,421 382,613,150 iSii J. Madison. 48,005,587 14.431.83S 13,601,808 61,316,883 53,400,000 1859 J . Buchanan . 58,496,837 8',7SS,SS7 83,756,020 356,789,461 338.768,130 1812 J. Madison. 45.209,737 22,639,032 22,279,121 38.527.236 77,030,000 i860' J. Buchanan . 64,843,287 76,841,407 76,984,848 400,122,297 362,166,254 '8.3 J. Madison. 55,962,827 40,524,844 39,190,520 27,855.927 32,005,000 1861 A. Lincoln.. 90,580,873 S3,37^.640 85,283,744 243,971,277 335.630,153 1S1+ J. Madison. 81,487,846 34.559.536 38,028,230 6,927,441 12,965,007 1862 A. Lincoln. . 524,176,412 581,679,915 570,859,14' 310,688,67s 2o5,77',729 iSiS J. Madison. 99.833.660 50,961,237 39,582,493 52.557.753 113,041,200 1863 A. Lincoln.. 1,119,773,138 889,379,632 895,822,360 24',997,474 252.9'9,920 iSi(5 J. Madison. ■27.334.933 57.^7'.42^ 48,244,49s 81,920,452 ■47. ^03.040 1864 A. Lincoln.. ■,8^S,784.37o 1,392,300,716 '.295.894.656 243,977,389 329,562,895 .8,7 J. Monroe.. 123,491,965 33.S33.592 40,877,646 87.671,560 99,250,000 1S65 A. Lincoln. . 2,680,647,860 1,805,939,345 ■.907. ■71.366 201,358,372 248,555,652 jSiS J. Monroe 103,466,633 2^,593.936 35,104,87s 93.281,133 121,750,000 1866 A. Johnson . . 2,733,236,^73 1,270,884,173 ■,'4',o72,776 420,161,476 445,512,158 1S19 J. Monroe.. 9S.529.64S 24,605,665 24,004,199 70,141,501 87,125,000 1S67 A. Johnson.. 2,678, 126, 103 1,131,060,920 1,093,070,655 43S,577,3^2 417,833,575 1S20 J. Monroe . . 91,015,566 20,881,493 2 ■,763.021 69,661,669 74,450,000 1S6S A. Johnson.. 2,611,687,851 ■.03O.749.S'6 1,270,884,173 4S4.30'.7'3 37',624,SoS 1S2. J. Monroe.. 89.987.427 ■9.573.703 19,090,572 64.974,382 62,585,724 1869 U. S. Grant.. 2,588,452,3,3 609,621,828 384,777,996 413,961,115 437,314,255 1S22 J. Monroe.. 93.546.676 20.232,427 ■7.676,592 72,160,281 83.241.541 1870 U. S. Grant.. 2,480,672,427 696,729,973 702,907,842 499,092,143 462,377,587. 1S23 J. Monroe.. 90.S7S.S77 20,540,666 I5,3i4,i7^ 74,699,030 77.579.267 1S71 U. S. Grant.. 2,3.53.211,332 652,092,468 691,680,858 562,518,651 541.493.708 1S24 J. Monroe.. 90,269,777 24,381,212 3 '.898,538 75.956,657 S9.549.007 1872 U. S. Grant.. 2.233.2S^.32S 679.153.921 683,535,270 549,319,718 640.338,766 1S25 7. Q^ Adams 83,788,432 26,840,858 23.5S5.S04 99,.S3S,3SS 96,340,075 ■873 U. S. Grant.. 2,234,482,933 543,669,221 524,044,597 607,088,496 663,617,147 1S26 J. Cl^ Adams 81,054,059 25.260,434 24. 103.395 77,593.322 84.974,477 1874 U. S. Grant.. 2,251,690,468 728,751,291 709,198,933 654.913.445 595,861,248 ,827 I. Q^ Adams 73.9S7.357 22,966,363 22,656,764 82,324,727 79,484,068 ■575 U. S. Grant.. 2,232,284,531 675,971,607 682,000,885 603,574,853 553,906,153 1S2S J.Q.Adam. 67.475.043 24.763.629 25.459,479 72,264,686 88,509,824 1876 U. S. Grant.. 2,180,395,066 69:.5S1.673 714.446.357 596,890,973 476,677.871 1S29 A.Jackson. 58,421,413 24.827,627 25,044,355 72.358,671 74.492.527 1S77 R. B. Hayes. 2,205,301,392 630,278,167 565,299,898 655,637,457 492.097,540 "830 A.Jackson. 48,565,406 24,844,116 24.5S5.2S1 73.S49.505 70,876,920 1S7S R. B. Hayes. 2,256,205,892 662,345,080 590,641,271 728,605,891 466,872,846 1831 A.JaclvSon. 39.>23.'9' 28,526,820 30,038,446 81.310,583 ■03,i9^,i24 ■S79 R. B.Hayes. 2,243,495.072 1,066,634,827 966,393.692 73S.436.S82 466,073,775 .S32 A.Jackson. 24.322.235 31,865,561 34.356.69S 87.176.943 101,029,266 18S0 R. B. Hayes. 2,143,260,917 545.340,713 700,233,238 852,78', 577 760,989,056 1S33 A.Jackson. 7,001,032 33.948.426 24.257.295 90.140.443 108,118,311 18S1 J.A.Garfield 2,i20,4i5,,37o 486,949.423 438,281,819 921,784,193 753,240,125 'S34 A.Jackson. 4,760,081 2i,79^.93^ 24,601,982 ■04.336.973 ■26,531,332 1882 C. A. Arthur '83; A.Jackson. 351.289 33.430.0S7 '7.573. ^4^ ■21.693.577 ■49.895,742 1SS3 1S36 A.Jackson. 291.080 50,826,796 30,868,164 128,663,040 189,980,085 1 ® * The figures piven from 1850 to 1S79, inclusive, are from the report 1880, and can be relied upon as correct. The amounts ffiven under he has not been deducted from amount. "John Sherman, Se Id of Public Debt, cretarv of th represent all e Treasury, outstanding to the Senate of the U. S., June 10' principai. The cash in TVeasury 1 V to "^ ■• tl ^ ^2 t^ A POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 693 Showing the Number of Voles Cast, both Popular and Electoral, for each of the Candidates for President and Vice President, from the Foundation of the Government to the Present Time ; Together with an account of the N umber of States Voting at Each Election. 17S9 179= 179S iSoo 1S04 iSoS 1S16 1820 1S24 24 73 Candidates for President. ■3S ■3S ■3S 176 .76 23s F. F. F. F. F. A. F. A. F. F. A. F. A. F. F. A. F. F. F. U. R. R. F. R. F. R. R. A. F. R. F. F. F. F. F. F. R. R. F. F. F. R. F. R. F. R. R. F. R. F. R. O. R. C. R. R. Geo. Washington , John Adams John Jay R. H. Harrison.. . John liutlege John Hancock Geo. Clinton S. Hiintint^don. . . John Milton J. Armstrong JBenj. Lincoln Kdw'd Telfair. . . , Vacancies* Geo.Washington John Adams Geo. Clinton Thos. Jefferson.. . Aaron Burr Vacancies* ... John Adams Thos. Jefferson. . Thos. Pinckney. Aaron Burr Saml. Adams Oliver Ellsworth. Geo. Clinton John Jay James Iredell Geo. Washington John Henry S.Johnson C. C. Pinckney . . . Thos. Jefferson^ . , Aaron Burr John Adams C. C. Pinckney' . . Johnja}' Thos. Jefferson . . C". C. Pinckney. . James Madison. . C. C. Pinckney. . Geo. Clinton Vacancy^ James Madison. Dcwitt Clinton . . Vacancy' James Monroe. . . Rufus King. .. . Vacancies^. . . James Monroe.. J. Q^ Adams Vacancies^. And'w Jackson*", J. Q. Adams W. H. Crawford . Henry Clay Vacancy**.. 50-g Q 3 3S" U r; O d "^ d i2 0) •55" ■S"1S w t« = .z: j;^5 E ^ '^ « u i. (A V U « 3 d 0=" ■'£ > -J 2 & d... -M .;^ E " o C o— o 5 = 5-3 ej o > 3 I "£ » '■ u a V !-•- 'P- ,°dSa <^ " 3 O — C^-^ ISS.S72 103,331 44,282 46. p ■•-■ ». = it rt y " I^ 73 o g £ u c -£; flj o o •••■ S:Sp-2--- C ri « ... . ... ^^^ . .. Geo. Clinton-*. . . Rufus King Geo. Clinton... Rufus King John Langaon. - James Madison. James Monroe. . E.Gerry» . J. Ingersol. D. D. Tompkins. J. E. Howiird. . . , James Ross J. Marshall Robt. G. Harper. D. D. Tompkms. Rich. Stockton. . Dan'l Rodney ... Robt. G. Harper. Richard Rush... J. C. Calhoun..., Nathan Sanford. Nat'l Macon. . . . Andrew Jackson . M. Van Buren.. , Henry Clay 1S2S ■83; 1S36 1S40 1S44 1S4S 1852 1S56 1S60 1S64 1S6S 1S72 1876 iSSo 2+ 26 38 294 275 296 Z96 203 317 3« 3<59 38 369 Candidates for President. D. R. D. R. A.M. D. W, W. D. L. D. W. L. W. D. F. S. D. W. F. D. D. R. A. R. D. C. U. I. D. R. D. R. D. R. D.&L. D. T. R. D. G. P. R D G P Vacancies** M. Van Burcn. 13 . W. 11, Harrison \ Hugh L. White ") Dan'l Webster.. ' W. P. Mangum W. H. Harrison*! M. Van Buren Jas. G. Bimey Andrew Jackson.. J. Q. Adams... Andre\v Jackson.- I lenry Clay (John Floyd ■) Wm. Wirt Jas. K.Polk Henry Clay Jas. G, Birney. ... Zach. Tqylor*^. . . Lewis Cass M. Van Buren.... Franklin Pierce.. Winfield Scott.... John P. Hale Jas. Buchanan J. C. Fremont M. Fillmore A. Lincoln J.C. Breckenridge John Bell S. A. Douglas A, Lincoln*' G. B. McClellan.. Vacancies* 8., .. U. S. Grant Horatio Seymour Vacancies*^ U. S. Grant Horace Greelev,% . Chas, O'Connor.. James Black.- T. A. Hendricks. B. Gratz Brown.. C.J.Jenkins David Davis Vacancies** R.B.Hayes".... S.J.Tilden Peter Cooper G. C.Smith Scattering Jas. A. Garfield*3 W. S. Hancock.. James B. Weaver. I^eal Dow Scattering I Candidates for Vice President. 647. 5o9j 6S7, 33i 761, y 736,' i»37<,oi7 1,125,702 7.0S9 I. .337.2-13 1,299,06s 62,300 1,360,101 1,220,544 291,263 i,6o],47) 1,336,578 156,149 1,838,169 1,341,364 i=>74.534 i,S66,3t;2 845,763 5S9.5S1 1,375.157 2,216,067 1,808,725 3.015,^171 2,709,<5'3 3.597.071 2,834,079 29,408 S,6oS 4,033,295 4,284,265 81,740 9,522 2,636 4,450,921 4,+47,SSS 307,740 10,305 1,696 R. M. Johnson" Fr. Grander .... John Tyler Wm. Smith John Tvler R. M. Johnson L. W.Tazewell. Jas. K.Polk Geo. M. Dallas . T. Freling-huysen J.C. Calhoun.. Richard Rush , Wm. Smith M. Van Buren. . John SargKnt. Henry Lee Amos Ellmaker. W'm. Wilkins... M. Fillimore Wm. O. Butler... Chas. F. Adams. Wm. R. King".. Wm. A. Graham. Geo. W.Julian. .. J. C. Breckinridg"e Wm. L. Dayton.. : A. J. Donelson. . . H. Hamlin Josepli Lane Kdw. Everett . . . . H. V.Johnson . . . Andrew Johnson . G. H. Pendleton. Schuyler Colfax . . F.P.Blair, Jr.... Henry Wilson^o, B. Gralz Brown.. Geo. W.Julian.. . A. H. Colquitt.., Jno. M. Palmer.. , T. E. Bramlette. W. S. Grocsbeck, W. B. Mackin..., N. P. Banks W.A.Wheeler., T. A. Hendricks Chester A . Arthui Wm. H; Eng-lish. B.J, Chambers. . . H. A. Thompson. :5s Note. — In the column showing" to which party the various candidates be- longed, we have only used the initial letter: K, stands for Federalist; A. F,, Anti- Federalist; R., Xlepublican; O., Opposition; C, Coalition; A.M., Anti- Mason; D., Democratic; W., Whig; L., Liberty; F.S., Free Soil; A., Ameri- can; C. U., Constitutional Union; I. D., Independent Democrat; D.&L., Democratic and Liberal ; T., 1 emperance ; G. , Greenback, and P., Prohibition, 1 Electoral votes not cast: Va., 2 ; Md., 3. a Electoral votes not cast: Md., 2; Vt., 1. 3 The vote for Thos. Jefferson and Aaron Burr being a tie, the election devolved upon the House of Representatives, resulting, on the 36th ballot, in the choice of Jefferson as President. Burr, re- ceiving the next highest number of votes, was declared Vice President. * George Clinton, Vice President; died April 20, 1S12. 6 Electoral vote not cast: Ky., i. Elbridge Gerry, Vice President: died Nov. 23, 1S13. ■^ Electoral vote not cast: Ohio, i. 8 Electoral votes not cast: Md.,3; Del., r. 9 Elect*l votes not cast:Miss,, i;Pa., 1; Tenn.,i. 1" There being no choice for President, the elec- tion devolved upon the House of Representatives, a choice being made at the first ballot, Adams receiving the vote of 13 States, Jackson 7 States, and Crawford 4 States. 11 Elect'l vote not cast for Vice Pres. : R. I., i. 12 Electoral vote not cast: Md., 2. 13 No candidate having received a majority <^f the electoral votes for Vice President, the Senate elected R. M.Johnson, by a vote of 33 to 16 for Francis Granger. '■* President Harrison died April 4, 1S41. Vice President John Tyler became President. 1^ President Taylor died July 9, 1850. Vice President Fillmore became President. 18 W. R. King, Vice Pres't; died April iS, 1853. 1'' President Lincoln assassinated by J. Wilkes Booth, April 15, 1S65. Vice President Johnson became President. 18 Electoral votes not cast: Nevada, 1; States in reb-^llion So, viz.: Ala. 8, Ark. 5, Fla. 3, Ga.9, La. 7, Miss. 7, N. C. g, S. C. 6,Tenn, 10, Texas 6, Va. 10. 19 Electoral votes not cast: Miss., 7; Texas, 6; Va., 10. 20 Henry Wilson, Vice President; died Nov. 22, 187^. 21 Electoral votes thrown out: 3' of Ga. for Greeley, then deceased; Ark. 6, La. 8, because of double returns from both States. 22 Decided by an Electoral Commission ap- pointed by Congress. r 23 AssaEiinaUid July 2, 1881; died Sept. •^ ^2 694 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, Showing all the Battles of the War of the Revolution, War of 181 2, Mexican War, and Civil War 1861 -'65. '-^ TH E PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE REVOLUTION. April 19, 1775, May ro, " June 17, " Dec 6-31, " Dec. 9, *' M'ch 17, 1776. June 28, " Aug. 26, " Sept. 16, *' Oct. 28, " Nov. 16, " Dec. 26, " Jan. 3, 1777. July 7. Aug-. 6, " Aug. 15,16" Sept. II, " Sept. 19, " Oct. 4, *' Oct. 4-6, " Oct. 7, *' Oct. 22, " Oct. 22, " Nov. 16, " June 2S, 177S. July 2, " July 3, Aug. 29, " Dec. 29, " Jan 9, 1779. March 3, " June 20, ** July 16, " Aug. 13, " Aug. 29, " Oct. 9, May 12, 17S0. May 29, ** June 23, " July 30, " Aug. 7, " Aug. 15, " Aug. iS, " Oct. 7, " Nov. 12, *' Nov. 20, " Jan. 17, 17S1. Feb. 25, " March 15, " April 25, " May -June," June 1-4, " Sept. 6, " Sept. S, " Oct. 16-19, " Names and Places of Battles. COMMANDERS. Lexington, Concord. Ticonderoga Bunker Hill , Quebec Norfolk, Va Boston Charleston (Ft. Moultrie.) Brooklyn, L. I Harlem Plains, N.Y.... White Plains, N.Y,. . . Fort Washington, N. Y. Trenton, N.J Princeton, N.J Hubbardton, Vt Fort Schuyler, N.Y Bennington, Vt Brandywine, Pa Bemis' Heights, N.Y... Germantown, Pa ( Forts Clinton and I ■j Montgomery ..... ) Stillwater (Saratoga) Fort Mercer, N.J Red Bank. N.J Fort Mifflm, Pa Monmouth, N. J Schoharie, N.Y Wyoming, Pa Quaker Hill, R-. I Savannah, Ga Sunbury, Ga Brier Creek, Ga Stony Ferry, S. C Stony Point. N. Y Penobscot, Me Chemung, N.Y Savannah, Ga Charleston, S. C . . Waxhaw, S. C, Springfield, N.J Rocky Mount Hanging Rock, S. C. . . . I Camden, S. C. (San- I ( der's Creek) f Fishing Creek King's Mountain, S. C, Fishdam Ford. S.C Blockstock's, S. C COWPENS, S. C Battle of the Haw Guilford C. H., N. C. ... Hobkerk's Hill, Va Fort 96, N. C. Augusta, Ga Ne'w London, I ^ Fort Griswold. f^o^n... EuTAW Springs, S. C — YORKTOWN, Va ( Col. Barret and Major ( / Buttrick j" j Col. Ethan Allen and / ■j Col. Eaton* J Gens. Warren, Pres- 1 cott, and Putnam. . . i Schuyler, Montgomery, and Arnold. ol, Woodford.... The British Evacuate the j Moultrie, Lee, and Arm- I j strong* J Gens. Greene and SuWivan. Washington Washington Col. Magaw Washington* Washington* , Warner, Francis and Hale. j Gen. Herkimer and Col. ( j Giinsevoort* I (Jens. Stark and Warner*. . Washington Gates* Washington James Clinton Gates* Col. Greene* Col . Greene* Major Thayer Washington* Col. Brown* Col. Z. BuUer Sullivan* Robert Howe Lane Gen . Ashe Gen. Lincoln Gen, Washington* Lovell Sullivan* Lincoln Lincoln Col. Abr. Buford Gen. Greene* Sumter Sumter* ( Col. Smith and Lord 1 Percy* Capt. Delaplace En Gen. Gates Sumter Campbell* Sumter* Sumter* Gen. Morgan-^ . . . Col. I^e*. Gen. Greene Gen. Greene Gen. Greene Maj. Eggleston*. Col. Ledyard Gen. Greene Washington* .... Gens. Howe and Pigot*. M' Lean and Carleton*.. Lord Dunmore City and Harbor. Gen. Clinton \ Gens. Howe, Clinton and I I Corn wallis* \ Howe* Gen. Howe* J Lord Cornwallis & Col. | ) Rahl C Col. Mawhood Gen. Frazer* Gen. St. Leger Cols. Baum and Beyman. Howe* Burgoyne Howe* SirH. Clinton* Burgoyne Donop Sir William Howe. Gen. Ho'we* Sir Henry Clinton. . Indians John Butler* Pigot Campbell* Prevost* Prevost* Col. Maitland* Clinton McLean* Brant Prevost* Clinton* Tarleton* 1 . Gen. Knyphausen. . TurnbuU* Col. Brown Cornwallis* Tarleton* Ferguson Wemyss Tarleton....* Cornwallis and Tarleton. . . Col. Peyle Cornwallis* Rawdon* Col. Cruger* Col. Brown i Benedict Arnold & Col. 1 E>Te* Lord Rawdon Cornwallis S3 3,000 900 1,600 3,000 2,400 3,000 700 2,000 11,000 2,500 11,000 600 S,ooo 450 400 12,000 400 SjOOO 900 200 1,200 Soo 1,200 900 4,000 4.500 3>7oo 400 3,000 600 600 3,000 900 500 500 900 4,400 1,200 1,000 150 3,000 16,000 Loss. 50 k. 34 w 5P. 450 k. & w. 160 k. & w. 10 k. 22 w 2,000 k. w. & p. 300 k. & w. 100 k. & w. 2 k. 2froz. 100 k. 300 p. 324 k. & w, . , . 150 k, & w. 200 k. & w. 300k.600w.400p. 152k.s21w.400p. 5k.2Si . . . . 67 k. 160 w. . 14 k. 10 w. Massacre. 30 k. 132 w. 440 m. .... look. 4S3p. 150 k. 162 p. [46k.&w. 155 m. 15 k. S3 w 1 13 k. 150W. S3 p. 13 k. sS w. 12 k. 41 w. .20 k. 70 k. & w. none. .. .1,300 k. & w. . .266 k. w. & m, . . 150 k. w. & m, 23 k. 28 w, 16 k. low. 12m. i52M55w.4om. 300 k. &■ w. British. En 1,700 4S 4>5oo 1,200 4,000 2,000 S,ooo I, Soo 1,200 1,200 iS,ooo 3,000 15,000 3,000 6,000 2,000 ix'd 11,000 1,000 5,000 2,000 2,000 I, Soo 2,000 600 3,000 1,500 2,900 9,000 5,000 500 500 3.500 1,100 450 400 1,100 2,400 900 550 Soo 2, Soo 7.500 Loss. 65 k. iSow. 2Sp. 4Sp. ^050. ...20 k. & w. . . .62 k. & w. ... 225 k. & w. 400 k. iS k. 90 w. . . . 300 k. & w. . .1,000 k. & w. - . .36 k. 1,000 p. . IS3 k. & AV. . . . unknown. 200k.34w.900p, 500 k. . . . 100 k. 400 w. 5.791 p. 500 k. . 400 k. & w. 300k.300w.100p. 222 k. & w. . . 20 k. & w. . 100 k. & w. •63 k. S43 P- ■ISO p. ■ •5 k. 15 w. .35 k. sop. . 150 k. .Soo k. w. & p. , .600 k. & w. ..25S k. & w. ■ ■ -5-2 k. 334 w. ... .52 k,:2o w. ...1S7 k. & w, 693 k.w. & m. 7,Sook.w.m..S:p. The British sent 134,000 soldiers and sailors to this war. The Colonists met them with 230,000 Continentals and 50,000 militia. The British let loose Indians and Hessians. The colonies had for their allies the brave Frenchmen. The leading battles ot the war particularly worthy of celebration are printed in small capital letters. Tlie * denotes the successful army; k., killed; w., wounded ; p., prisoners; m., missing; s., surrendered. CHIEF COMMANDERS OF THE ARMY. The following is a complete list of the various officers who have com- manded the army of the United States since the foundationof our service to the present time, giving the rank held bv each, with the period of command: General and Commander-in-Chief, George Washington, June 15, 1775, to the close of the Revolution. From that date to Sep- tember, 17S9, the army consisted of eight companies of infantry ana a battalion of artillery (act of September, 17S5), Avhen Brevet Brigadier- General JosiahHarmcr, Lieutenant- Colonel commandant of the infantry, was assigned, and held until March, 1791. Major-General Arthur St. Clair, March, 1791, to March, 1793, Avhen he resigned. Major-General Anthony Wayne, March, 1792, to December 15, 1796, when he died at a hut on the bank of Lake Erie, in Pennsylvania, while en route from Maumcc to the East. Brigadier-General James Wilkinson, December 16, 1796, to July 2, 179S. Lieutenant-General George Washington, July S, 179S, till his death, December 4, 1799. Brigadier- General James Wil- kinson (again), June, iSoo, to January, iSi2, when he was promoted to Major- General. Major-General Henry Dearborn, January', 1S13, to June, 1S15, when he was mustered out. Major-General Jacob Brown, June, 1S15, till his deatli, February 24, 1S2S. Major-General Alexander Macomb, May, 1S2S, until his death, in June, 1S41. Major-General Winfield Scott, June 25, 1S41, to November i, 1S61, being also Brevet Lieutenant-General from May, 1S61. Major-General Geo. B. McCIellan, November 1, iS6i, to March 11, 1S63. Major -Gener.al Henry W. Halleck, July 33, 1S62, to March 12, 1S64. Lieutenant-General XT. S. Grant (appointed General July 25, 1S66), March 12, 1S64, to March 4, 1S69. General William T. Sherman, March S, 1S69, to present date. '^'i PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812. 695 Dates. Names and Places of Battles. COMMANDERS. American. British. En- American, En- 'S13. Aug-. 5, 1S12. AupT. 9, " Aug-. 15, " Oct 13, " Oct. 21, Jan. 22, April 27, May 5, " May 27, " May 27, " May 29, " June S, Au^. 2, '* Oct. t;, Nov. II, " Mar. 30, 1814. April 25, " luly 5, July 35. " Aug'. i5i *' Aug-. 24, " Sept. II, *' Sept. 12. " Sept. 13, " Sept. 15, " Sept 17, '* Dec. 19, " Dec. 23, " Jan. 8, 1S15, Brownstown, Canada.... Maguauga Detroit Queenstown Ogdcnsburg- Frenchlown York (Toronto) Fort Meigs Fort George, Canada Fort Mimins Sackett's Harbor Stone V Creek Fort Stephenson Thames, Canada Chrysler's Field LaCoell Mill Washington Chippewa L.unay's Lane Fort Erie (assault) Bladensburg Plattsburg North Point Ft. McHenry, Baltimore. Ft. Bo\vyer Fort Erie (sortie) Fort Niagara 9 miles from N. O New Orleans Van Horn Miller* Hull Van Rensselaer Forsyth Winchester Pike* , Clay* Dearborn* Bcaseley Brown* Winder Croghan* Harrison* Boyd* Wilkinson Brown* Brown* Gaines* Winder Macomb* , Strieker Armistead* .... Lawrence* Brown* Leonard Jackson Jackson* Tecumseh* Tecumseh , Brock*. Brock* # . . . . Proctor* Sheaffe Proctor Vincent Tecumseh.* Prevost Vincent* Proctor Proctor Morrison Hancock* Ross* Riall Drummond Drummond. . . . Ross* Prevost Brooke* Cochrane Nicholls Drummond Br. and Indians*, Keane. Pakenham 200 600 2,500 1,200 1,200 Soo 1,700 1,200 1,000 100 2,500 1,500 4,000 Capit 1,900 3.500 2,500 .1.500 3,000 2,000 3,000 120 2,500 350 3,000 6,000 . . . . Surrender. . . .99 k. 900 w. . . . 20 k. & w. . . . . 260 k. & s. .300 k. w. & m. .Soo k, w. & p. 72 k. & w. 300 k. . .. 100 k. & w. . 100 k. w. & p. 600 900 1,300 2,500 600 1,500 1,500 2,000 1,000 . I k. & 7 1 , 50 k. & y 200 k. & w, 150 k. & w, al and buildings 6Sk. .67W. &p, 84 k .Surrendered 8 k. & w. 300 k. & w. 2,^0 k. & p, ..240 k. w. & p. . . .71 k. w. & p. 1,300 2,000 2,000 2,000 burnt, 2,100 5,000 5,000 5,000 12,000 5.000 Snips, Mix'd 3.500 1, 200 2,500 12,000 .60 k. & w. 60 k. . 100 k. w. & p. . Slight. PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE MEXICAN WAR. The Americans were victorious in every battle. Dates. Names and Places of Battles. COMMANDERS. American. Mexican. American. En- Loss. Mexican. En- Loss. 1S47. May S, 1S46. May 9, " Sept. 24, " Dec. 25, Feb. 2'?, Feb. 2S, Mar. 27, April 18, Aug. 20, Sept, 8, Sept. 13,^ Sept. 14, Oct. 9, Palo Alto Resaca de la Palma Monterey Bracite Buena Vista Sacramento Vera Cruz Cerro Gordo ( Contreras ) Churubusco Molina del Rey. Chapultepec Mexico Huamantha Taylor . . . Taylor . . . Taylor . . . Doniphan Taylor... Doniphan Scott Scott Scott Scott Worth... Scott Scott Lane Arista. Arista Ampudia Ponce de Leon Santa Anna. . . Trias Morales Santa Anna, . . Valencia Santa Anna. . . Alvarez Bravo Santa Anna. . . Santa Anna. . . 2,300 3,000 6,600 500 4,700 900 12,000 8,500 4,000 8,000 3.500 7,200 6,000 SOO 4 k. & 40 w. . . . .120 k. & w. . 120 k. & 368 w. . 723 k. & ^ . . 19 k. & w. . 500 k. & w, Slight, . 700 k. & w, . 7S7 k. & w, Slight, 6,000 S.ooo 10,000 1,200 17,000 4,000 6,000 12,000 7,000 25,000 14,000 25,000 .500 k. & w. .2,000 k. & w. . 24 k. & w, 1,000 .2,000 k. & w. . . .500 k. Si w. .2,500 k. & w- . . .700 k. & w. . . .230 k, & w. Heavy. . . . Surrender. . . . Unkno\vn. The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexico was the bombardment of Vera Cruz, Commodore Connor, which lasted four nays, and the city compelled to surrender, and the bombardment of Monterey, by Commodore Sloat. LENGTH AND COST OF AMERICAN WARS. War of the revolution Indian War in OhioTer War with the Barbary States. Tecumseh Indian War War with Great Britain Algerine War First Seminole War. Black Hawk War Second Seminole War Mexican War Mormon War Civil War years — 1771; — 1782 1S03— 1S04 iSu , years— 1S12—1S15 1S15 1817 1S32 1S45 ! years— 1S46 — 1S4S 1S56 . years — 1861 — i Cost. $135,193,703 107,159,003 66,000,000 6,500.000,000! FEDERAL PRISONERS RECEIVED AT ANDERSONVILLE, GA. First detachment of prisoners received Feb. 15, 1S64. Total number of prison- ers received, 49,485. Largest number imprisoned at one date (Aug. 9, 1864), [33,006. Total No Deatlisi ^" hospital 8,735 iotal JNo. Deauis-j j^ stockade 3,727—12,463 Average number of deaths per month, for the thirteen months 958 Largest number of deaths in one day (Aug. 23, 1864) 97 Number of escapes 328 principal diseases resulting in death. Pneumonia 221 Debility 198 Intermit't& remit't fs.-i?? Gunshot wounds 149 Pleurisy 109 Bronchitis 93 Diarrhoea 3.95^ Scurvy 3,57, Dysentery i ,64^ Unknown i ,268 Anasarca 377 Typhoid fever 229 Rheumatism S3 Varioloid .".63 Gangrene 6^ Catarrh 55 Ulcers. 51 Phthisis 36 INDIAN WARS. 1676. King Philip's War. 1704. Deerfield, Massachusetts, burned. 1705, Haverhill, Massachusetts, burned. Capture and escape of Mrs. Hannah Dustan. 1713. The Tuscaroras expelled from North Carolina. 1755. Braddock defeated by the French and Indians. 1763. Conspiracy of Pontiac. 177S. Massacre of Wyoming. 1794. Treaty with the" Six Nations. 1^04. Treaty with the Delawares. 1813-14. War with the Creeks in Florida. 1S17. War with the Seminoles. 1832. War with Black Hawk. Stillman's defeat on Rock River, iS35-*'42. War with the Seminoles. 1S37. Capture of Osceola. 1555. Defeat of the Rogue River Indians. 1556. War with the Indians in Oregon and Washington Territories. 1862. Indian war and massacres in Minnesota. 1S64. (Nov. 29.) " Chivington's massacre " near Fort Lyon; over 500 Indians, men, women and children put to the sword. 1S73. (April 2.) Gen. Canby and Rev. E. Thomas, peace commission- ers treacherously slain by the Modocs. 1S73. (Oct. 13.) Execution of the Modoc murderers of Messrs. Canby and Thomas — Captain Jack, Schonkin, Boston Charley and Black Jim. 1876. (June 35.) The command of Gen. Custer defeated by the Indians on Big Horn River, and Gen. Custer and the greater portion of his force slain. l\* 'JLL. 696 PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE LATE CIVIL WAR. Apr,i2,iS6i. 19 June 20 July 5 '* ,-1 Aug:. Sept. Nov. 7 7 S Dec. iS Jan. 19, 1S62. Feb. S S 16 Mar. S 14 Apr. 6-7 Names and Places of Battles. Bombardm'l: Ft.Sumpter Riot Baltimore. Bi^ Bethel, Va Carthat^e, Mo Rich Mountain, W. Va, Bull Run, Va Wilson's Creek, Mo Cheat Mountain, W. Va. Lexing-ton, Mo Ball's Bluff, Va Belmont, Mo Pt. Royal, S. C. May June July Piketon, Ky Milford, Mo Mill Spring:, ^y Roanoke Island, N. C. Ft. Henry, Tenn Ft. Donelson, Tenn. . , Pea Ridffe, Ark Newbern, N. C Winchester, Va Pittsburg; Land'g;, Tenn. Island No. 10 Sept. 30 29-30 Williamsburg;, Va.. . . Winchester, Va Hanover C. H., Va... Corinth, Minn Fair Oaks, Va Fair Oaks, Va Cross Keys, Va Port Republic, Va.. . Chickahominy, Va. . . Gaines Mills, Va Malvern Hill, Va.... Baton Roug;e, La Cedar Mountain, Va. Gallatin, Tenn Kettle Run, Va 17 19-20 Oct. Dec. J any. Feby. May 27-29 1S63 June Groveton, Va.. , Bull Run 2nd Richmond, Ky Chantiliy,Va". [. South Mountain, Md. . . Harper's Ferry, 3 days sieg-e Antietam, Md tuica, Miss ., Corinth, Miss Perryville, Ky Prairie Grove, Ark.. Fredericksburg", Va. Vicksburg- Stone River, Tenn . . , Fort Hindman, Ark.. Fort Donelson, Tenn. . Suffolk, Vu LaGranfje, Ark Fredericksburg;, Va. , . Chancellorville, Va Jackson, Miss Champion Hills, Miss . , Big; Black River, Miss. Vicksburg-, Miss Port Hudson Milliken's Bend, Miss.. Beverly Ford, Va Winchester, Va Shelby ville, Tenn COMMANDERS. Federal. MeiJ. Anderson 6th Re^t. Mass. Vols. Brig-. Gen. Price Cof. Sigel* Gen. McClellan* Gen. Irwin McDowell. Gen. Lyon* Gen. J. J. Reynolds . . Col. Mulligan Col. E. D. Baker Gen. Grant* , j Com.Dupont&Gen. | ■) W. T. Sherman* . f Gen. Nelson*, i Col. J. C. Davis and / ■) Gen. Steele* f Gen. Thomas* j Com.Goldsboroug;h, ( ( Gen. Burnside* . . \ Surrendered to Com. ( Com. Foote & Gen. I } Grant* J Gen. Curtis* Gen. Burnside*. . Gen. Shields*. . . Confederate. Gen. Beaureg;ard. Maj. Gen. MacGruder.. Price and Jackson . . .. Col. Peg^ram Gen. Beaureg;ard* Gens. Priced McCnlloch Gen, R. E. Lee Gen. Price* Gen. Evans* Gen. Draytoa. KIL'D, WOUND'D, PRIS'RS. Federal. Gen. Grant and Buell*. j Com. Foote & Gen. I ( Pope* i" ( Gen. Kearney and I ) Hooker* f Gen. Banks Gen. Morrell* Gen. Halleck* Gen. McClelian Gen. McClelian* Gt-n. Fremont Gen. Shields Gen. McClelian*.. Gen. Porter Gen. McCleilan* Gen. Williams* Gen. N. P. Banks* Gen. Johnson Gen. Hooker* j Gens. Hooker, Sicrel, J j Kearney, Reno*., j Gen. Pope Gens. Mason & Craft*.. Gen. Pope Gens. Hoolcer & Reno''= Col. Miles Gen. McClelian* Gen. Rosencrans* J Gens.Ord,Hurlburt, | ( and Veatch* j" Gen. Buell* Gen. Zollicoffer Gen. Wise Foote, byGen.Tilg;hman, Gen. Buckner Gens. VaaDorn & Price, Gen. Branch Gen. T. J. Jackson J Gens. Johnston and 1 I Beaureg;ard j Gen. Makad Gen. Long-street.. Gens. Ewell & Johnson* Gen. Branch Gen. Beaureg;ard Gen. J. E. Johnston* Gen. J, E. Johnston Gen. T. J. Jackson* Gen. T. J.Jackson* ! Gen. R. E. Lee Gen. R. E.Lee*... Gen. R. E.Lee Gen. J. C. Breckcnridg-e. Gen. Jackson Gen. Morgan* Gen. Ewell J Gens. Jackson and | ) Long;street ) Gen. Lee* Gen. Kirby Smith*. . Gen. Lee* . .no one hurt, 3 k. 7 w. 16 k. 34 w. 6 m. .. ..13 k. 31 w. ... II k. 35 w. 4_i;ook. w.p. 2Sc. 4y1k.1011w.700p 223k.72IW,293m. 13 k. 20 w. 60 p. 42k.ioS W.1624P. 220 k.266\v.5oop. S4 k. 3SSvv.2S5m. $ k. 23 w. 250 p. ....6k. 24 w, ....2 k. 17 w, ..39 k. 207 w. ..50 k. 150 w. Confederate, 446k.1735vv.150p .1351 k. w. &m, 91 k. 466 w, . ...100 k. 400 w, ..1614 k. 7721 w. 3963 ni- !073k & W.623P. (;3 k. 526 m. S9ok.3627wi232p .5739 k. &w, .125 k. 500 w. 67 k. 361 w.574m. Sok. 150 w, 7500 k. w. & m. ipoo k. w. & m. 250 k. w. & m. 500 k. w. & m. 64 k. 100W.200p. ,Soo k. vv. & m. Gens. Blunt and Heron* Gen. Burnside.. Gen. Sherman.. Gen. Rosencrans* j Ad m. Porter & Gen. j McClernand* Col. Harding; Col. Nixon* Capt. DeHuft Gen. Sedg-wick Gen. Hooker* Gen. Grant* Gen. Grant* Gen. Grant* J Gen. Grant, Adml's. 1 I Porter&Farrag-ut, ' Gen. Banks Gen. Thomas* Gens. Buford & Gregg. Gon. Milroy Gen. Rosencrans* . , ■. . . Gen. Lee Gen. A. P. Hill* Gen. R. E. Lee Gen. Price , j Gens, Price, Van- I DornandLovell.. Gen. Brag-g- ' Gens. Hindman, Marmaduke, Par- sons and Frost. . . Gen. R. E. Lee* Gon. Johnston*. ..:... Gen. Brag-g- Gen. Churchill Wheeler and Forrest. Gen. I-ong-street*. Gen. R.'E. Lee.... Gen. Johnston Gen. Pemberton. . . Gen. Pemberton. . . Gen. Pemberton* Gen. Gardner Gen. McCuUoue-h i Gens. J. E.B.Stuart I 1 & F. Hugh Lee. . . j Gen. Ewell*' Gen. Bragg .6ooo[_k. & w. Sook 4000 WJ3000P 2ook.7oow.2ooop . . , .1300 k. & w. 5 w. . .7 k. & 8 w. . ..no report. .250 k. & w. 140 k. 150 w. 1S52 k. & w. 421 k.l3i7w.3m. 100 k. & w. 20 p. ......25 k. 75 w. 30 k. 264 w. 2 p. 26ik.427w,37Sm. ' k. & w. no J report 3500 p > 43 guns capd ) 400 k.&w. 2000 ]>. 1300 P- .. ..193 k. 140 p. 3bk.5o\v.25oop. j 231k. 1007 w. I 1 i5ooop....f \ 1 100 k. 2500 I 1 w. 1600 p. f 50k.200w.200p. 600 k. & W.300P. J 1728 k. S012 f ( w. 959 m. f 17 k. 6300 p. J 700 k. 1000 i w. 300 p. REMARKS. 400 k. & w.6oop, 443 k. iSo6\v. 76m Sok.i20w. 115S3P 12500 loss ■■■■135 k. 527 3i5k.iSi3w233m 3200 k. \v. &'m. 495 k. 600 w. I 1512 k. 6000 f 1 w. 207S p. C 191k.9S3w.756m. ..1533 k. 6000 w. .1000 k. w. & m. 13 k. 20 w. 130 k. 7iSw. 5 m. 2000 k. w. & m. . . . .2000 k. & w. ( 15000k.it w. ) ) 17000 p.... (■ 40 k, 340 w. 6 m. .426 k. 1S43 w. ...29 k. 242 w. 2500I0SS. 900 k. w. & m. 127k. 2S7W. 157m. .3S0 k. w. & m. 200O k. w. & ni. S5k. 46SW. 13 m. 2S00 k. 3897 w. . . Sooo k. & w. .. .600 k. & w. TOGO k. w. & m. 1000 k. & w. About the same. . ..Nearly 5000. ,600 k. w. & m. 1000 k. 1500 w. ... 1 10 k. & w. Sook.&-w.iooop, 12000 k. w. &m. ...700 k. 3000 w. 250 k. 500 w. . ."Soo k. & w. i 500 k. 2343 I I w. 1500 p. J 1500 k. & w. 15000 loss. 263k.4obw.(x)op. j 1423 k. 226S( 1 p. 5692 w. ) J 1300 k. 3000 ( ( w. 200 p. (■ 1500 k. &i^v. . iSoo k. & w. . . .no report, 9000 k, w. looojp. ( 550 k. & w. I I 5000 p. . . . f look. 400 w.3oop. .:5ook.w. irm. iSoook.<& w. ( 5000 p. . . . ) . ..400 k. & w. 400 k. w. & m. 2,600 k. w. & in. no report. , .600 k. w. At m. . . ..200 k. 500 w. . .750 k. -w. & m. ..S5ok. W.& m. i 16^4 p. no >_ 1 rep't.k.&w. ( 150 p. and loss of camp. j Beauregard's report. I Federal " Gen. Lyon killed. Col. Baker killed. 70 wagons with stores and equipage. Gen. Zollicoffer killed, 1200 horses and mules, 100 large wagons, and 2000 musk'ts were capd. 6 Forts, 65 guns, 17500 small arms captured. Gen. Buckner captured; Gens. Floyd and Pillow escaped. Gens. McCulloch, Mcin- tosh, and Slack, killed. 6 forts captured. Confed. report. Fed. retreated. 2000 p. and large amount of supplies captured. Fed. were driven back. Gen. Williams killed. Confeds. repulsed. Gen. Johnson captured. Feds, lost Gens. Kearney and Stearns. Gen. Reno killed. Col. Miles killed. Confed. repulsed. 29 cannon captured. )7 cannon captured. Cavalry fight. i^ A PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE LATE CIVIL WAR— Continued. 697 July 13-3 *' + « 4 U § Sept 1S-19 9 *' 19-20 Dec. ■4 4 " 23-25 " 2? " 27 Mar. 27-30 S«4 2? Apr. >^ " 17-20 May 5-7 • < 12 " 12-15 " '3-15 2S-2.S June 15-1S Julj, *' 27 30 Aug 5 20 I '5 iS 19 2j V Sept. 19 21 26 29 Oct 1 Oct. '9 20 27 Nov. 30 Dec. 1 S6S ■s Jan. '5 Feb. Mar. April May 2-3 6 26 Names and Places of Battles. Gettysburg-, Pa , Vicksburg surrenders . Ifelena, Ark , Bolton, Miss Port Hudson, surrender. Ft. W;i2-ner, S. C Cumberland Gap Chickamauga BristowSUi., Va Knoxville, Tenn, Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Rosencrans. Chattanoog-a ) Missionary Ridge..., f Ringgold, Ga Locust Grove, Va Paducah, Ky. . Mansfield, ill. Plymouth, N. C... Wilderi Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. Gen. rness, Va. Spotsylvania, Va Spotsylvania, Va Ft Darling, Va Resaca, Ga Dallas, Ga Cold Harbor, Va Petersbur^h. Va Weldon R. R., Va Kennesaw Mt., Ga. . . . Monocracy, Md Peach Tree Creek, Ga. .\tlanta. Ga Petersburg;!!, Va Mobile Bay, Ala Deep Bottom, Va 6 Mile Station, Va. ... Weldon R. R, Va r\.tl:inta,Ga... Winchester. Va. Fisher's Hill Ironton, Mo .. Petersburg, Va Cedar Creek, Va Nims' Creek, Mo Hatcher's Ran, Va Franklin, Tenn Nashville, Tenn Ft. Fisher Wilmington, N. C. . Waynesboro*, Va. . Kingston, N. C Averasboro', N. C. Benlonville, N. C... Petersburg, Va Five Forks, Va Selma, Ala Petersburg & Richmond FarmviUe and Sailors ( Creek \ Surrender of Gen. Lee's Ft. Blakely, Mobile. . . Surrender of Salisbury, N. C Surrender of Surrender of Surrender of Surrender of Near Boco, Chico, Tex. Capture of Surrender of COMMANDERS. Federal. tJen. Gen. Meade*. Grant*. . , Gen. Prentiss* . Grant* Banks* Gilmore. . . . Burnside*.. Warren*. . Burnside* Grant* . . . , Hooker*. . Hooker*.. Meade.... Gen. R. E. Lee Gen. Pemberton Gens. Price, Holmes I and Marmaduke.. f en. Joe Johnston Gen. Gardner Gen. Beauregard* Gen. Frazier Gen. Bragg* Gea. A. P. Hill Gen, Longstreet Gen. Bragg Gen. Bragg Gen. Hardee Gen. Lee Col. Hicks* Gen. Banks* n. Wesseils Gen. Grant Gen. Grant Gen. Grant Gen. Butler* Gen. Sherman* Gen. Sherman* Gen. Grant (jen. Grant Gen. Meade Gen. Sherman* Gen. Wallace Gen. Sherman* Gen. Sherman* Gen. Grant Adm. Farragut and { Gen. Granger*... J Gen. Grant t Jen. Warren* Gen. Grant Gen. Sherman* Gen. Sheridan Gen. Sheridan* Gen. Ewing* Gen. Grant Gen. Sheridan* Gen. Pleasanton* Gen. Gr;int Gen. Schofield* Gen. Thomas* Gen, Terrv* Adm. Porter and I Gen. Schofield* .. J ren. Sheridan* Gen. Schofield* Gen. Sherman Gen. Sherman* Gens. Grant & Meade* ( Gens. Sheridan and I I Warren* ( Gen. Wilson* Gen. Grant Gen. Sheridan .\rmy at Appomattox . \ Adm. Thatcher and 1 } Gen. Canby . ] Montgomery, .Ala., to. Gen. Stoneman* Gen. Joe Johnston''s ... Gen. Morgan's Gen. Dick Tavlor with. Tallahassee, Fla Con. Barrett Jefferson Davis Gen. Kirby Smith CoNFEDERjVTE. total loss 2S19S. 245 k.36SS \v.303p. ...250 k. w. & m. Gen. Forrest Gen. Kirby Smith Gen. Hoke* Gen. L*e Gen. Lee Gen. Lee Gen. Beaureg.ard Gen. Joe Johnston Gen. Longstreet Gen. Lee* Gen. Lee* Gen. Lee* Gen. Johnston Gen. Early* Gen. Hood Gen. Hood Gen. Lee* J Gen. Page & Adm. f I Buchanan j Gen. Lee* Gen. Pickett Gen. Lee* Gen. Hood Gen. Early Gen. Enrly Gen. Price Gen. Lee* Gen. Early Gen. Price Gen. Lee* Gen. Hood Gen. Hood . . . 14 k. 46 w. 500 k. & w. 1500 p. . . iijo k. 1700 p. loss 30,ocy: .... loss 10,000 5000 k. w. & it:, . .700 k. 2S00 w, ... iSook. & w, 9000 k. w. & m loss 10,000 600 k. & w. i2c;op, . . . inoo k. & w, . . . 1000 k. & w, 1713 k. w. & m. ...3521 k. & w Gen. Bragg. . . Gen. Early. . .. Gen. Bragg... Gen. Johnson . Gen. Johnson . Gen. Lee Gen. Lee Gen. Forrest. Gen. Lee Gen. L^e C. H.,to Gen. Grant. Gen. Tavlor Gen. Wilson Gardner . . Army to Gen. Sherman. old command to Gen all forces west of Miss. Gen. McCook, Sr Gen. Slaughter , at Irwinsville, Ga and his army KIL'D, WOUND'D, PRISON'RS, Federal. .700 k. w. & m, ( 1644 k. 9262 w. / ( 4945'" i" 51 1^- 329 w. Coo k. & w. , 4000 k. & w. total loss 37000. 9000k. & W.30000P. 500 k. & w. looop. 4000 p. 5500 p. ... 500k. 331 w, 2000 p. 17000 k. w. & in, 1200 k. & w. Soo p. 1600 p. .16000 k. w. & m. . .Soo k. w. & m. .1000 k, w. & m. 5000 120 k. SS \ loss 4000 3000 k. & w. 1000 k.& W.300OP. 50 k. 50 m. 439 w. . . 3000 k. & w. ...Coo k. & w. 9 k. 60 w. . . 5000 k. & w. 4000 k.& w. 1300 p. 2000 p. 1000 k. Sz w. Soom.40ok. igoow, Sgk.io3^w.iio^.m . 6500 k. w. & m, no k. 536 w. 250 k, & w. 69 k. & w. loss lOOC. 74 k. 774 w. loss 1646. ls0k.1240w.990m. loss 3000. .Sooo k. v/. & m, . 2000 k. & 1 Hobson, River to Gen. . . .. . 70 k. Adn Confederate. - 300 p. . 2500 k. w. & p. 1000 k. & w. 2000 p. 1500 k. & w. . loss 30000. . loss 10000. 4000 p. . .no veport. . .no report. 300 p. 4000 k. & w. Sooo k. w. & m. no report. no report. no report. no report. 5000 k.659>4" Construction and maintenance of steam-rams i(37o.730 Signal service ^43.797 Gunboats on the Western rivers. 3)239,314 Supplying, transporting, and de- livering arms and munitions of war to loyal citizens in States in rebellion against the Govern- ment of the United States 1,649,59(5 Collecting, organizing, and drill- ing volunteers 29,091,666 Tool and siege trains 702,250 Completing the defenses of Wash- ington , 912,283 Commutation of rations to prison- ers of war in Rebel States 320,636 National cemeteries 4,162,84s Purchase of Ford's Theater SS.ooo Headstones, erection of head- stones, pay of Superintendents, and removing the remains of officers to Nationnl cemeteries. 1,080,185 Capture of JeffDavis 97.03' Support of Bureau of Refugees and Freedmen II|4S4)237 Claims for Quartermaster's stores and commissary supplies 850,220 Claims of loyal citizens for sup- plies furnished during the Re- bellion 4,170,304 Horses and other property lost in military service 4,281,724 Fortifications on the Northern frontier 683,748 Pay of the navy 74,462,304 Provisions of the navy 16,368,623 Clothing of the navy 1.594.790 Construction and repair 134,178,096 Expenses of National loan and currency $ 5 1.522,730 Premiums 59.738,167 Interest on public debt 1,761,256,198 Subsistence of the army 38i.4'7.54S Quartermaster's Department 299,481,917 Incidental expenses of Quarter- master's Department 85,342,733 Transportation of the army 336,793,385 Transportation of officers and their baggage 3,025,219 Clothing of the army 345.543.S8o Purchase of horses for cavalry and arti llery 126,672,423 Barracks, quarters, etc 31,070,846 Heating and cooking stoves 44S»73 ^ Pay, mileage, general expenses, etc., of the army 97,084,729 Pay of two and three years' vol- unteers 1,040,102,702 Pay of three months' volunteers. 868,305 Pay, etc.of loo-days* volunteers. 14,386,778 Pay of militia and volunteers.... 6,126,952 Pa\', etc., to officers and men in Department of the Missouri . . . 844,150 Pav and supplies of loo-day vol- unteers 4,824,877 Bounty to volunteers and regulars on enlistment 38,522,046 Bounty to volunteers and their widows and legal heirs 81,760,345 Additional Bounty Act of July 28, 1S66 69,998,786 Collection and paymentofbounty, etc., to colored soldiers, etc 268,158 Reimbursing States for moneys expended for payment of mili- tarv service of United States. .. 9,635.5^2 Defraying the expenses of min- utemen and volunteers in Penn- svlvania, Maryland, Ohio, In- dmna, and Kentucky 597>'TS Expenses of recruiting 1,297,966 Draft and substitute fund 9,713,873 Medical and Hospital DepartmH. 45.108,770 Medical and Surgical History and Statistics 196,048 Providing for comfort of sick, wounded, and discharged sol- diers 2,232,755 Freedmen's Hospital & Asylum. 123,487 Artificial limbs and appliances.. 509.283 Ordnance service 4>553t53 ' Ordnance, ordnance stores, and supplies 55.933>932 Armament of fortifications 10,218,472 National armories, arsenals, etc. 23,603,489 Purchase of arms for volunteers and regulars V ' " v; ' * V^'378,935 Payment or expenses under Re- construction acts 3, 128,905 Secret service 681,587 Medals ot honor ..... 29,890 Support of National Home for disabled volunteer soldiers .... 8,546, 1S4 Publication of official reeords of Equipment of vessels 25,174,614 Ordnance 31,422,094 Surgeons' necessaries i ,937,744 Yards and docks. 30,300,302 Fuel for the navy 11,340,232 Hemp for the navy 898,252 Steam machinery , 49,297,318 Navigation '. 2,526,247 Naval Hospitals 499,662 Magazines 404,531 Marine Corps, pay, clothing, etc, 7»757»^i5 Naval Academy. 1,862,132 Temporary increase of the navy. 8,123,766 Miscellaneous appropriations . .. 2,614,044 Naval pensions 6,590,043 Bounties to seamen 2,821,530 Bounties for destruction of ene- mies' vessels 271,309 Indemnity for lost clnlhlng. . 289,025 Expenditures in the District of Columbia from 1790 to 1876. The total amount of money expended by the Government in the District of Columbia tor all purposes from July 16, 1793, to July 30, 1S76, is $92,112,395, This sum was divided as follows: Capitol $17,184,691 I.,ibrary of Congress* 1,575,847 White House ,...,,.. 1,640,449 Purchase of woi^s of art 602,569 Botanic Garden , 722,813 Department of State, etc 4,989,948 Treasury Department 7,062,942 War Department 2,044,065 Navy Department 3,899, 130 Post- Office Department 2,124,504 Department of Agriculture 3,174,192 Smithsonian Institution .... 2,305,420 Patent Office 13.197,908 Benevolent institutions 4,732,448 Penal institutions 4,418 3'»9 ^""""^^ 7S.486 Aqueduct 4,000,822 Fire Department 104,299 g^"/^^ 597,4'8 g^idges 1,290,568 Public grounds '.8^7,537 Streets and avenues 15 .975^294 Loans, reimbursements, etc 4,927,299 Miscellaneoust 3.5C5,40O * First appropriation for Congressional 'Li- brary, i8oo. tPirst appropniation for the support of Public The Federal Army During the Civil War ot 1861-65. The following statement shows the number of men furnished by each State: Maine New Hampshire, Vermont. Massachusetts. . . Rhode Island. .. Connecticut New York New Jersey. Pennsylvania. . . . Delaware Maryland West Virginia. . . Dist. of Columbia Ohio Indiana , Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kentucky Kansas Tennessee Arkansas North Carolina.. California Nevada Oregon Washington Ter. Nebraska Colorado Alabama Florida Louisiana Mississippi Texas Dakota New Mexico. . . . Men furnish ed under Act of April 15, 1S61, for75,ooo militia for 3 months. 77' 779 7S2 3.736 3. '47 2,402 13,906 3."23 20,175 77"; 900 4,720 13,357 4,820 7S1 817 930 96S 10,501 650 2.576 1,290 8,224 545 J. 965 '.510 Aggregate No. of men furnished un- der all calls. 71.745 34,605 35.246 152,018 23,711 57.374 467-047 79,511 366,326 13,651 49,73 > 32,003 16,873 319.659 197.147 258,217 90,1 19 96,11s 25,034 75,S6o 10^,773 78,540 20,097 12,0^7 8,289 3.156 IS 216 895 1,279 1,763 Total. 93.326 181 2,395 2,688,523 The Provost Marshal Cjeneral's report shows that there were killed in action or died of their wounds while in service: Commissioned offi- cers, 5,221; enlisted men, 90,868. Died from disease or accident: Commissioned officers, 2,321. Enlisted men, 182,329; a total loss in service of 280,739. Deaths, from wounds or dis- ease contracted in service which occurred after the men left the army arc not included in these figures. Losses of the Government for Every Adminis- tration from 1789 to 1876. ^ The following table exhibits the losses of the Government through frauds, carelessness and from all causes, and the amount of loss on each thousand dollars, for every Administra- tion from the beginning of the Government till the end of President Grant's Administra- tion, as follows: Period of ser- vice, years. T0L1I Losses. Loss on $1,000. Washington S t s s + s + 4 4 4 4 4 4 S $ 250,970 235.411 603,467 2,191,660 3.229,787 SSS,374 ^,761,111 3.343.792 I.565.003 1.732,851 1,814,409 2.167,982 2,659,107 7,200,984 4.619.599 2,846,192 $ 2.22 2.59 kit 4-39 7-52 11.71 6.40 4.0S 4.19 3.56 3-Si 76 57 34 Jefferson Monroe Adams Van Buren Harrison ( Tyler ) Polk Taylor ( Fillmore ) Pierce Buchanan Lincoln Johnson Grant Total S39.ioS,6os S 1.29 :rr THE NAVAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 699 Showing Navy of the Revolution, Naval Battles of the War of 1812, Mexican War, Civil War, the Number of Vessels Captured and Destroyed for Violation of the Blockade, and Federal Vessels Captured or Destroyed by Confederate Cruisers. THE NAVY OF THE REVOLUTION. In December, 1775, Congress passed an Act ordering the building of thirteen vessels, three of 24 guns, five of 28, five uf 32, with Ezekiel Hop- kins as Commander-in-Chief, as follows: — Name. Hancock . Congress. Montgomery _ Delaware Randolph Washington . Effingham. Raleigh VirgiLia..- Warren .... Providence. Boston ., Trumbull History. Captured by the British in 1777. Destroyed in the Hudson River to avoid cap- ture in 1777, never having been to sea. Do. do. do. Captured in the Delaware River 1777. Blown up in action with the British Ship Yar- mouth, 64 guns, in 1778. Destroyed in the Delaware by the British before getting to sea, in 1778. Do. do. do. Captured by the British in 1778. Captured by the British in 1778. off the capes of the Delaware, before getting to sea. Burned in the Penobscot River in 1779, to pre- vent falling into the enemy's hands. Seized by the Biitish at the capture of Char- leston, S. C.. in 1780. Do. do. do. C-iptured by fhe Briti'ih ship Watt, in 1781. Owing to the superiority of England on the sea, and the great difficulti'js with which Congress had to struggle during the war, it was impossible to give any great attention to our naval armament ; but, notwithstanding this, the waters swarmed with American privateers, and many hundreds of British mer'hantmen were captured. Probably the mo^t daring naval ex- ploit during the war was fought off the coast of Scotland, September-23, 1779, between the Bon Homme Richard, of 40 guns, Paul Jones, com- mander, and the Serapis, a British frii^ate of 44 guns. Captain Pearson, The Serapis surrendered, with a loss of 150. Jones lost 300 in killed and wounded, and while hisship was sinking transferred his crew to the Serapis. The nnvy was disbanded at the close of the war, the few remaining vessels were sold. In addition to the "thirteen" vessels above named, about ten other vessels, ranging from 24 guns down to 10, were purchased and fitted out as cruisers while the others were building. 1799 — The Frigate Constitution captured the French Frigate L'lnsurgentc. 1803 — The Frigate Philadelphia captured by the Tripolitans. 1804 — Coinmodore Decatur destroyed the Frigate Philadelphia. PRINCIPAL NAVAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR, 1862, Feb. 6— Fort Henry, Tenn., c.iptured by Commodore Foote. Feb. 8 — Roanoke Island, N. C. .captured by Commodore Goldbborough and Gen. Burnside. Feb. 16 — Fort Donelson, Tenn., combined forces of Gen. Grant and Commodore Foote. Mar. 8 — Confederate Ram Merrimac "sinks" U. S. Frigates Cumber- land and Congress, Hampton Roads, Va. Mar. 9 — Federal Monitor disables the Merrimac. April 6 — Pittsburgh Landing. April 8 — Capture of Island No. 10. April II — Fort Pulaski, Ga., captured by land and naval forces. April 24 — Forts Jackson, St. Phillip and New Orleans. May 13 — Natchez. Miss., captured by Admiral Farragut. 1863, July I — Malvern Hill. Jan. n- Fort Hindman. Ark.. Admiral Porter. Jan. II — U. S. Steamer Hatteras sunk by Confederate Alabama. an. 17— Monitor Weehawken captures Confederate Ram Atlanta. lay 18 — Vicksburg. Miss., Admiral Porter. July 8— Port Hudson, Miss., captured. July 8— Natchez, Miss. 1864, June 19 — U. S. Steamer Kearsage '■^sinks the Alabama " off Cher- bourg, France. Aug. 5 -Mobile. Ala., Admiral Farragut. 1865, Jan. 15— Fort Fisher, N. C, captured by Gen. Terry and Commodore Porter. During the Civil War the Federal Navy was increased in two years to over 400 vessels, the greater part of which were used in blockading Southern ports; notwith'^tanding their vigilance and effectiveness, many Confederate cruisers managed to escape the blockade and destroy the Northern merchant vessels. At the present time (iSSo) not one-half the vessels belonging to the navy are in active service ; the greater portion of those in commission are em- ployed in what is called squadron service. There are seven squadrons, viz., the European, the Asiatic, the North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, the North Pacific, the South Pacific and the Gulf Squadrons. These squadrons are under command of a high naval officer of the rank of com- mo'lore or rear admiral, whose ship is called the flng-ship of the fquadron. FEDERAL VESSELS CAPTURED OR DESTROYED BY CONFEDERATE '* CRUISERS." Ships -. .— — 80 Brigs o 46 Barks 84 Schooners -.-- — _..---—------- — ...... — 67 Steamboats ....._.........-.-......-.. — .; - 4 Gunboats .-_-.-—.--— — . ......... 2 Cutter I Tug - I NAVAL BATTLES. WAR OF 1812. 1812, Aug, 13 Aug. 19 Oct. 18 Oct. 25 Dec. 20 1813, Feb. 24 June I Aug. 14 Sept. 5 Sept. 10 Oct. s 1814, Mar. 28 Apr. 30 Apr. 29 June 28 Sept. I Sept. II Sept. 15 Dec. 9 1815, Jan. IS Feb. 20 Mar. 23 WHERE FOUGHT. Off Newfoundland .._ Off Massachusetts Off North Carolina... Near Canary Islands . Off San Salvador OffDemerara .... Massachusetts Bay ... British Channel Off Coast of Maine... Lake Erie Lake Ontario Harbor of Valparaiso. Off Co'aVt'of Flor'ida " Near British Channel. Stonington, Ct. Near Africa Lake Champlain Mobile Bay Lake Borgue Off New Jersey .._. Off Island of Madeira Off Brazil... \M. VESSELS AND COMMANDERS. Frig. Essex, Porter* Frig. Constitution. Hull* Sloop Wasp, Jones*t Frig. United States. Decatur* .. Frig. Constitution. Bainbridge*. Sloop Hornet, Lawrence* Erie- Chesapeake, Lawrence Brig. Argus, Allen Brig. Enterprise, Burrows* 9'vessels 54 guns, Perry* BR. VESSELS AND COMMANDERS. Sloop Alert, Laugharne. Frig. Guerriere. Dacres. Frig. Frolic. Whinyates.t Frig- Macedonian, Garden. Frig. Java, Lambert. Brig Peacock, Peake. Frig. Shannon, Broke*. Sloop Pelican, Maples*. Brig Boxer, Blythe. 6 vessels 63 guns, Barclay. Commodore Cbancey captures British Flotilla. Brig Phccbe Hillyar*. Sloop Cherub, Tucker. Frig. Essex, Porter .«..-... Sloop Frolic Sloop Peacock. Warrington* Sloop Wasp. Blakely* Brig. Orpheus. Brig Epervier, Wales. Sloop Reindeer, Manners. British fleet attack the town ; are repulsed. Sloop Wasp, Blakely* 14 vessels 86 guns, McDonougli* Fort Boyer, Maj. Lawrence* 65 gunboats, Jones .- Frig. President. Decatur.--. Frig. Constitution, Stewart* sloop Hornet, Biddle* . Sloop Avon, Arbuthnot. 17 vessels 95 guns, Downie. 4 ships, Qoguns, Col. Nichols. 40 barges, Lockyer*. Squadron, Hayes*. Ship Cyane, Falcon. Ship Levant, Douglas. Brig Penguin, Dickenson, VESSELS CAPTURED OR DESTROYED FOR VIOLATION OF THE BLOCKADE. OR IN BATTLE, FROM MAY, 1861. TO MAY, 1865. Schooners .... 735 Sloops 155 Steamers 262 Barks 27 Brigs 30 Ships 13 Ironclads and Rams , i5 Brigantines . . 2 Gunboats . . 3 Propellers . .... 4 Pilot Boats 2 Boats 8 Yachts 2 Tugs - 3 Barkatine _.- ...... i Pungy ... ..... I Miscellaneous 86 The British vessels captured during the war of 1812 were 1.750, the American 1,683. The only naval engagements of importance dur- ing the war with Mrxico was the bombardment of Vera Cruz, Commodore Connor, which lasted four days, and the city compelled to surrender, and the bombardment of Monterey by Commo- dore Sloat, July 6, 1846, and the capture of Mon- terey on the California coast,by Commodore Sloat. Oct. 25. 1846 — Tobacco captured and Mexican vessek in port destroyed. * Indicates the victorious party. t Afterwards captured, with her prize, by the Poictiers, a British 74. Tl J\" k 700 UNITED STATES PAPER MONEY AND PENSION STATISTICS. AMOUNT OF PAPER MONEY AND FRACTIONAL CURRENCY OUTSTANDING IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE CLOSE OF EACH FISCAL YEAR FROM 1860 TO 1881 INCLUSIVE. Prepared at the Treasury Department, July I, iSSi. Tear end - in^ June 30. 1S60 iS6i 1S62 1S63 1864 1 865, i366, 1S67 180S, 1869, 1S70, ■ 871. .S72, '873. 1S74, 1S7S. 1S76. 1877, 187S. jS^9, iSSo I8SI. State Bank Circulation. $ 207,102,477 202,005,767 183,792,079 338,677,218 '79.i57,7'7 142,919.638 19,996,163 4,484,112 3,163,771 2,553,874 2,222,793 1,968,058 1,700,935 1,294,470 1,009,031 786,844 658,93s 521,611 436,504 352,452 299,700 24 ',967 National Bank Circulation, 31,235,270 146, 137,860 281,479,908 298,625,379 299,762,855 299,929 624 299,766,984 318,361,241 337,664,795 347,267,061 351,981,032 354,408,008 "332,998,336 317,048,872 324,514,284 329,691,697 344,505,427 355,042,075 Lej^al Tender Notes. 96,620,000 297,767,114 4^1, 178, 671 432,687,966 400,619,206 371,783,597 356,000,000 356,000,000 356,000,000 356,000,000 357,500,0=0 356,000,000 ^82,000,000 375,771,580 369,772,284 3.59,764,332 346,681,016 346,681,016 346,681,016 346,681.016 Demand Notes. One and two V'ear Notes of 1S63. (See Notei) 53,040,000 3,351,020 780,999 473,603 272,162 208,432 141,723 123,739 06,256 96,505 88,296 79,967 76,732 70,107 66,917 63,962 62,297 61,470 60,975 60,535 Compound Interest - . Notes. (See Note i) 89,879,475 153,471,450 42,3,38,710 3,454,230 1,123,630 555,493 347,772 248,272 198,573 167,532 143,105 137,625 113.375 104,705 95,735 90,485 86,185 82,485 79,985 15,000 000 193,756,080 159,012,140 122,394,480 28,161,810 2,871,410 2,152,910 708, 500 593,520 479,400 415,210 367,390 338,760 296,630 274,920 259.090 242.590 230,350 Fractional Currency, Paper. 20,193,456 22,894,877 25,005,829 27,070,877 28,307,52,4 33,626,952 32,114,637 39,878,684 40,582,874 4o,S55,»35 44,799,365 45,,S8i,296 42,129,434 34,446,595 30,403,137 16,547,769 15,843,606 7,214,954 7,105,9 53 Fractional Currency, Sliver. 10.926,938 33,185,273 39,i55,6« 39,360,529 24,061,449 19,974,897 Total amount in Currency. ,103,477 ,005 767 ,452,079 ,867,283 ,718,984 ,318,686 ,904,686 927,154 413,603 946,057 375,899 875,751 570,904 063,369 490,916 646,729 •303,474 379.<43 ,215,50s .801,995 522,956 ,584,809 Amo't per Capita Valueof Paper Dol. as compar- ed with Coin, July 1 of each yr. 6.58 6.30 10.19 19.44 24,48 28. 29 2.5.14 22.83 19.48 1S.37 18.16 18.14 iS.iS 17.98 18.23 17.55 16.53 15.68 15.19 14.87 14.46 o S6.6 o 76.6 o 38.7 070.4 66.0 o 71.7 o 70- 1 o 73.5 o S5.6 o 89.0 0S7.5 o 86.4 o 91.0 o 87.2 089.5 094.7 99.4 1 00.0 1 00.0 1 00.0 Value of Currency in Gold. 288,769,500 497,798,339 322,649,247 692,256,355 588,657,093 592,906,769 505,009,235 510,050,352 599,521,770 638,909,418 646,249 541 648,053 887 711,156,734 674,619.947 671,773,938 694,,375,247 725,083.925 734,801,995 735.523,956 780,^84,809 Note l. — The one and two-year notes of 1863, and the compound interest notes, though havings a leg^al-tender quality for their face-values, were in fact interest-bearing securities, payable at certain times, as slated on the notes. They entered into 'circulation but for a few days, if at all, and, since maturity, those presented have been converted into other interest-bearins; bonds, or paid for in cash, interest included. Note 2. — The amount of fractional silver in circulation in i860, 1861, and 1862, cannot be stated. The amounts stated for 1S76, 1S77, 1878, and 1S79, are the amounts coined and issued since Januarv 1876. To these amounts should be added the amount of silver previously coined which has come into circulation. PENSION STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES. List of Pension A^^encies, Names of Pension Affeni^, number of Pensioners on the roll of each Agency y Jnne 30, i881,andtke amount disbursed for pensio7is duriiig the year, together wttk a comparative statement of the number oj pensioners on the roll at the beginning and close of the year ending 'Jnjie JO, jSSi. From the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Pensions for iSSi. Name of Pen- sion Agent. Army. Navy. "VVar of 1812. Disbursements on account of pensions during the year. Whole number of pensioners on the roll. Locat'n of Age'y. Invali's Wid's. Invalids Wid's Survi- vors. Wi'ws of &c. P or regular pensions. For Arrears of Pensions. Salaries and expen- ses of pen- sion ag'ts. Total dis- bursements. June 30, 18S1. June 30, 1880. Boston, Mass Chicago, 111 Columbus, Ohio.. Concord, N. H. . . D. W. Gooch... AdaC. Sweet.. A. T. WikofF... E. L. Whitford Jacolj Rich Samuel Post.. ., Fred. Knefler .. D.T. Boynton.. R. M. Kelly. . . . E. Ferguson . . . Chas. R. Coster H. G. Sickel . . . VV. A. llerron . N. A. Adams .. Henrv Cox .... T.S. 'Poole Theo. Gaines . . 10.156 13,997 14,070 10,482 9,676 7.5'i 10,740 4,699 2,594 8,201 7.384 10,417 9.175 9,433 1,301 10,583 13,597 7,086 5,914 6^884 2,747 2,761 4,478 4,561 2,780 3,113 5,826 5,569 4.109 2,99s 252 5,946 4.144 500 S3 50 149 429 52 74 115 7.5 405 730 1,161 21S 326 219 1.921 3SS 215 545 23S 235 309 8§ 35s 2,074 1.030 3,104 3,l6» 547 721 816 6,396 1,011 416 1,337 1,000 795 S34 105 2,311 1,368 $3,604,673.68 4,637.481.68 4,352,166,21 3,407,494.23 3,220,988.83 2,024,640.30 3,003,455.28 2,667,932.69 1,007.906.60 2,806,721.05 2,609,984.41 3,172.870.08 2,731,350.38 2,853,226.37 361,330.39 3,364,960.30 3,896 975.05 $29,647.03 61,602.88 63,381,23 40,178.64 33,449.55 30,385.46 54,442.78 50,158.74 24.131.22 25,985.68 41,398.79 37,010.34 31,219.82 4585S.S5 5,272.96 43,93i.6o 57,723.17 $14,883.22 15,753.71 18,144.96 16,911 59 11,721.16 10,533.54 12,587.94 13 144.60 7,255.17 9,859.99 17,431.86 15,281.60 12,630.33 11,636.11 4,991.88 15,439.83 16,498.87 $3,649,203.93 4,714,837-27 4,433,692.39 3,464.584.46 3,366,159,53 2,065,459.30 3 069,486.00 2,731,236.03 1,039,292.99 2,842,506.72 2,671,815.05 3,225,162.02 2,775,200.43 2,910.721.33 371,585.23 3,434,338.73 3,971,197.09 20,961 21481 24,533 21,955 13,188 11,375 '6,253 17,746 6,79s 11,996 15,9^9 17,860 14.414 13,628 1.794 19,709 19,170 19,886 19,370 23.36S 21,031 "'PZ loS.S I5.14S 17,192 6,701 10,652 15,308 i6,5S.f 12,919 12,472 1,595 18,468 17,956 Detroit, Mich Indianapolis, Ind. Knoxville.Tenn.. Louisville, Ky. . .. Milwaukee, Wis,. New York, N.Y.. Phil.adelphia.Pa.. Pittsburgh, Pa... St. Louis, Mo S. Francisco, Cal. 24 23 77 9 28 473 3"S 49 34 51 92 16 23 404 321 51 21 30 Washington.D.C. 345 35S Total number of pensioners on roll ■S3.0-5 76,683 2,187 2,OOS 8,898 26,029 49,723- 147.52 678,685 73 324,705.26 50,636,538.51 268 S30 250,803 Increase during the year 19,813 2,089 127 138 1,240 1,279 $13,676,961.63 $531.84 6,614,001.63 18,028 $19,391,485,10 Amount paid for pensions during the past 21 years $So5,345j044.3i, Averagfe annual pension to each pensioner, $ 107.01 . Durinj; the year 2S,74o new names were added to the roll, 1,344 of which had formerly been on the roll, but dropped for various causes. During; same period the name's of 10,713 pensioners were dropped. The salaries of pension ag;ents under the existing- laws are $4,000 /^r a?inumj and an extra allowance or perquisite of 115 cents for each pension voucher above 4,000 issued in any year. Out of this, however, pension agents must pay all clerk hire, office rent, poslag-e, and contingent expenses of their offices. iK^ i\^ RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE IN STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 701 State. Alabama... Arizona Arkansas .,, California.. Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware... Florida (iuorgia Idaho Illinois Indii:na Iowa Kansas z ^ .* H Z . M S w S So S w ^3 5 a 7^ lyr. 3 mos. 30 ds. I vr. 10 ds. lyr. 6 mos. 30 ds. 1 yr. gods. 30 ds. 6 mos. I yr. 6 mos. 90 ds. 1 yr. 1 mo. lyr. 6 mos. I yr. 6 mos. 4 mos. 30 ds. I yr. 90 GH. 30 ds. 6 mos. 60 ds. 30 ds. 6 mos. 60 ds. 10 ds. 6 mos. .... 30 ds. State. Kentucky Louisiana j\Iaryland IVIame Massachusetts . . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey,. New Mexico K z ,- K5 aSg n " S^g s^ S^ 2 yrs. I yr. 60 da. lyr. 10 ds. lyr. 6 mos. 6 mos. 3. mos. I yr. 6 mos. 3 mos. 10 ds. 4 mos. 10 ds. 6 mos. I mo. ivr. 60 ds. 6 mos. 40 ds. 10 ds. 6 mos. 30 ds. 6 mos. lyr- 5 mos. 6 mos. 3 mos. 30 ds. New York North. Carolina- Ohio Oregon Rhode Island South Carolina. Texas Tennessee , Utah.... Vermont Virginia West Virginia __ Wisconsin Wyoming 9 w I yr. I yr. I yr. 6 mos. I yr. 1 yr. lyr. lyr. 6 mos. I yr. I yr. I yr. I yr. 90 ds. 4 mos. 30 ds. 30 ds. 90 ds. 60 ds. 6 mos. 6 mos. 6 mos. 30 ds. u 2 . o - tH K & U w£z 30 ds. 20 ds. 6 mos. 3 mos. NoTEL— In the abbreviations above, yr. stands for year, mos. for months, ds. for days. Kegistration is required in all the States except Delaware, Indiana, Kentucky, Slichigan, Texas, Tennessee and Vermont. Rhode Island, North Carolina, Delaware, Massachu-setts, Connecticut and New Hampshire require a property qualification. In Georgia, delinquent taxpayers are disfranchised. Delinquency for two years disfranchises in Pennsylvania. Tlie payment of a poll-tax is required in Tennessee. Paupers or Indians not taxed are not allowed to vote in Delaware, Massachusetts, Maine, Texas, Virginia, West Virg-iniaor Wisconsin, women can vote in the Territories of Utah and Wyoming. Chinamen are expressly denied the right of suffrage in California, and do not vote in any State. Women are allowed, by statute law. to vote in scliool elections in some of the States. Foreignei-s who have gained a residence^ven if they have not been naturalized, can vote at State and local elections in Indiana, Iowa, Michigan and Minnesota. In Congressional and Presidential elections, Federal Supervisors of Elections are author- ized by Congrea*?, in certain emergencies, and under the general direction of the U. S. Courts, to prevent intimidation at the polls and fraud in counting the ballots. In Kentucky alono the voting is not by ballot, but vive iroce. Where no timo of residence is specified in. the foregoing table, the Constitution of the Stale or Laws of the Territory are silent, or the time for the county and the to^vn are the same. NEW TESTAMENT CANON. Irencens, 180 Muratorian Canon, 180 Clement, 210 _ Tertullian, 220 - Peshito, Syria Old Latin Version, African Origen, 250 Eusebius, 340 Cyril, 356.-. Laodicea, 365 AthanasiuSj 365 Amphilochms,365 Gregory, 3S9 — St. Chrysostom, 407 Theodore of Mopsucstia Theodoret of Cyrus Sinai MS Alexandrian MS Clermont MS., Latin Apostolic Canons Council of Constantinople, 629... Johannes Damascenus, 750 Nicephorus, 810 Photius — (Ecumeniug -- Theophylach Gregory the Great John of Salisbury, 1165 Ebed Jesu, 1318 Council of Trent, 1546..- Council of Jerusalem Erasmus, 15C0 .— .- — Luther Calvin Westminster Assembly, 1647 Acts. in cm tTHES, He- brews. om om d om om d James. ora om om d d d om Peter. om om in om om om d d om om om I John. 2 John, d om om in d d om om om 3 John. om om om om om JUDE. d om om in d d om om om Rev. om om om in d om om om om om om om om om d UOTE. In this table, in denotes inserted ; om. omitted ; d. doubtful. The Council of Trent settled the Canon for the Roman Catholic Church ; the Council of Constantinople for the Greek Church ; the Westminster Assembly for the Protestants. They all agree as to what mitings constitute the New Testament. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. Pkotdjces. AREA. POPULA- TION. POP. PER SQ. MILE. Provinces. AREA. POPUI-A- TION. POP. PER SQ. MILE. Provinces. AREA. POP. PER SQ. MILE. POPULA- TION. Chihli Shantung Shansi Honau Kiangsu Anhwei Kiangsi S8,949 65,104 55,268 65,104 44.500 48,461 72,176 27,990,871 28,958,764 14,004,210 23.037.171 37.843.501 34,168,059 23,046,999 475 444 253 354 850 70s 320 Chehkiang . . Fukien Hupeh Hunan Shensi Kansu Szechuen 39.150 53.480 70,450 84,oco 67,400 86,608 166,800 26,256,784 14,777.410 27.37r'.o98 18,652.507 10,207,256 15.193,125 21,435,678 671 276 389 223 152 175 128 Kwangtung . Kwangsi _.. Kweichow . . Yunnan Totals.. 79.456 78.250 64.554 107,969 19.174.030 7.313.895 5,288,219 5,561,320 241 93 82 51 1,307,826 360,279,079 277 ifT Ai 702 THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS. THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE GOVERNMENT. President. I c Vice-President M 3 5 Secretary of State. 5 c 1 < Secretary of Treasury. C a a < 1789 1793 John Adams 17&) 1793 Thomas Jefferson J7S9 ■79+ 1795 Alex. Hamilton ,789 1795 Edm. Randolph Oliver Wolcott Tim. Pickering- >7?7 1797 Tun. Pickering- 1797 iSoo Oliver Wolcott .... ~- iSoi 1S05 Aaron Burr GtorgeClinton iSoi 1S05 James Madison iSoi S. De.xter I'^OI Thomas Jefferson 1S02 James Madison 1S09 1S13 George Clinton. iSoo IS.3 Robert Smith iSoo iSii 1S09 1S14 1S14 James Monroe G. W. Campbell Alex.J. Dallas 1S17 1S21 Dan. D. Tompkins 1S.7 John Q. Adams 1S17 \V. H.Crawford 1S17 James Monroe .... JS2S John C. Calhoun 1S25 Henry Clay 1825 1821; 1S29 'S33 1S29 1529 1S31 1S33 1S34 Samuel D. Ingham - 1820 Andrew Jackson 1S33 Louis McLane William J. Duane Roger B. Taney Levi Woodbury iS;,-) ■837 1S37 lohn Forsvth 1837 1837 1S41 1S41 IS4I Daniel Webster Hu^h S. Leg-are Abel P.Upshur 1S41 1S43 ■843 1S44 1844 iS.n ■843 tS4( John C. Calhoun 18+5 1S45 James Buchanan 1S45 Robt. J. Walker ■84s Zachary Taylor 1S49 iSjo Millard Fillmore IS49 1S49 1S50 .852 W.M.Meredith .849 1850 Daniel Webster Edward Everett 'S53 William R. Kin-r IS53 William L. Marcy 1S53 iSr? James Buchanan. .^ iSs7 J. C. Breckenridge . . iSS7 ■S57 i860 Howell Cobb 1S57 1S60 Jeremiah S, Black Philip F. Thomas tS6i 1861 1S61 Wm. H. Seward 1S61 iSfii 1864 Hug^h McCuIloch iS<5s 1S6S 1S65 Andrew Johnson 1869 ■S73 1S69 1873 E. B. Washburne 1S69 1S69 1S69 ,S69 187? 1S74 1:576 Henry Wilson Hamilton Fish . Geo. S Boutwell L. M. Morrill „ . Rutherford B. Hayes 1S77 Wm. A.Wheeler 1S77 Wm. H Evarts 1S77 1S77 James A. Garfield 18S1 iSSi iSSi iSSi 18SI iSSi Clicster A. Arthur F. T. Freling-huysen Charles J. Folg-er ' iSSi ^ Ev^ -Jii! THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS. 703 THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE GOVERNMENT. Concluded. Secretary of Wak. n 1 a. <; 17S9 1794 1790 '797 iS.o iSoo )Soi Secretary of Navy. 1 c "0 a < Sec'y of Intekior. a '0 a D. < Postmaster General. c *S c < ATTCiNEY General. G < Henry Knox Henry Knox .7S9 '794 '796 .79S '79? Interior Department created 1S4Q. Samuel O.^good 17S9 '79. '795 17S9 1794 A 795 r. Pickering" T. Pickering J. McHenry Wm. Bradford....!!.'." Charles Lee J. McHenry Jos. Habersham J. McHenry Geore-e Cabot Jos. Habersham 179; 1797 S. Dexter B. btoddcrt John Marshall Rogf. Grisvvold II. Dearborn iSoi B. Stoddert iSo. .S02 1S05 Jos. Habersham iSoi 1S02 Levi Lincoln iSni J. Crowinshield iSos 1S05 J. Breckenridge .8.3 1S15 '¥^ .S,7 William Eustis .S09 .S.3 .8.4 Gideon Granger R 1 Me.^s .809 .8.4 iScq 1 . Armstrong' W Pinrknpv B.W. Crowinshield Richard Rush 1S14 W. H. Cnnvford .si 7 .823 Isaac Shelby B.W". Crowinshield S. Thompson .S.7 .S.S ,823 R.J. Meigs William Wirt .8.7 J. C. Calhoun John McLean .S35 .S25 James Barbour S. L. Southard .825 John M Lean 1S25 William Wirt . .825 P. B. Porter John H. Eaton ,S29 .S3. 1S29 .S3. 1S34 .820 'S35 1829 .83. ■S34 Lewis Cass R. B. Taney. . . . M. Dickerson B. F. Butler.. . . iSjS 1S37 .837 .840 B. F. Butler Felix Grundy H.D. Gilpi iS77 ). K. Paulding- John M. Kiles iS3ti 1S4, .S+. iS+3 ■S44 * * Jt>hn Bell Geo. K. Badg-er ,. Abil P.Upshur David Henshaw T. W. Gilmer .84. .84' 'S43 .S44 .844 .S4( 1846 Francis Gr nger C. A. Wicklifte 1S41 1S41 J.J. Crittenden John C.Spencer James M. Porter Wm Wilkins H. S. Ley^are .841 |S14 W. L. Marcy ■S45 Cave Johnson 'S45 J.Y.Mason N. Clifford .. 1845 John Y. Mason 1846 1S4S .?49 .S50 .S50 .S49 iSio 'S5.3 'S57 G. W. Crawford Wm. B. Preston Wm. A. Graham .S49 .850 Jacob Collamer Nathan K. Hall S. D, Hubbard .S49 .S50 .852 R.Johnson J.J. Crittenden 1S40 A. H. H.Stuart .Ssn Chas, M, Conrad Jefferson Davis James C. Dobbin R. McClelland 'SS3 James Campbell .85, Caleb Gushing '853 iSs7 1S60 .857 Aaron V. Brown Joseph Holt Horatio King.. 'S57 1S59 .861 1S61 .864 J.S. Black tL. M. Stanton .8^7 .Rrto iS6r 1S61 Gideon Welles .S61 .86. 1S63 1S65 Edw. Bates .R6t .Wi4 Uiysses S. Grant 1.S67 ]S6S 1S6S 0. H. Browning- .S66 A. W. Randall .866 H. F. Stanberry 0. H. Browning- W.M. Evarts lSd6 .fW.S J. M. Schofield iSrS J. M. Schofield iS6c) 1SA9 .S69 1S76 1S77 Adolph E. Borie — . . . G, W. Robeson .S69 1S6C, J. D. Cox .869 1570 1875 J. A.J. Cresswell.. Jas. W. Ma shall Marshall Jewell .S69 .S74 1S74 .S76 E.R.Hoar .Rfo C. Delano Zach. Chandler • A. T. Ackerman E. S. Pierrepont G. H.Williams 1S70 W. W. Belknap .S7S Jas. D. Cameron .... .876 .STfi A.Taft G. W. McCrary R. ^V. Thompson \M .877 .877 .877 iSS! Wm. H.Hunt iSSi Sam'lJ.Kirkwood iSSi Thomas L. James Timothy 0. Howe .S8. iSSi Wavne VacVeagh E. H. Brewster .881 t8S. * Before the accession of Andrew Jackson to the Presidency the Postmaster General was looked upon as the head of abureau, but President Jackson invited Mr. Barry lo a seat in his cabinet meetings, since which time the Postmaster General has been considered a regular member of the Cabinet. IK" \ 704 DISTANCES AND STANDARDS OF TIME OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE WORLD. Air-Line Distances from Washington to various parts of the World, MILES. Alexandria, Egypt s.275 Amsterdam, Holland 3,555 Athens, Greece.- 5-o°5 Auckland, N. 2..' 8,290 Algiers, Algeria 3,425 Berlin, Prussia 3.847 Berne, Switzerland 3.730 Brussels, Belgium 3,515 Batavia, Java 11,118 Bombay, Hindostan 8,548 Buenos Ayres, A. C 5'°!^ Bremen, Prussia 3,5°° Constantinople, Turkey 4.880 Copenhagen, Denmark 3,895 Calcutta, Hindostan..- 9-348 Canton, China-— 9,000 Cairo, Egypt --- 5>848 Cape Town, Cape Colony 6,684 Cape of Good Hope 7,380 Carracas, Venezuela .. 1,805 Charlotte Town» P. E. 1 82a MILKS. Dublin, Ireland 3.076 Delhi, Hindostan - 8,368 Edinburgh, Scotland 3*275 Fredericton, N. B 670 Gibraltar, Spain -_ S'^so Glasgow, Scotland 31215 Halifax, N. S 780 Hamburg, Germany 3.57^ Havana, Cuba - 1,139 Honolulu, S. I — 4*513 Jerusalem, Palestine .- 5,495 Jamestown, St. Helena 7'.i5o Lima, Peru 3'5'5 Lisbon, Portugal-.- 3>^90 Liverpool, England 31228 London, ^' 3-315 City of Mexico, Mexico i,8?7 Montevideo, Uraguay SiOt^S Montreal, Canada 471 Madrid, Spain 3,485 Moscow, Russia ...... 4,466 MILES. Manilla, Phil. Islands _ 9,360 Mecca, Arabia 6,598 Muscat, " . 7,600 Monrovia, Liberia 3«^45 Morocco, Morocco 3i305 Mourzouk, Fezzan , 5.525 Mozambique, Moz 7-348 Ottawa, Canada 462 Panama, New Granada 1,825 Parana, A. C . 4i733 Port au Prince, Hayti 1.425 Paris, France 3-48s Pekin, China 8,783 Quebec, Canada - 601 Quito. Ecuador ,.._.. 2,531 Rio Janeiro, Brazil 4,280 Rome, Italy .. 4,365 St. Petersburg, Russia 4,296 Stockholm, Sweden 4 05S Shanghai, China 8,600 Singapore, Malay 11,300 St. John's, N.F San Domingo, S. D San Juan, Nicaraugua -, San Salvador, C. A Santiago, Chili Spanish Town, Jamaica Sydney, C. B I - Sydney, Australia St. Paul de Loanda ... Timbuctoo, Soudan ..._. Tripoli. Tripoli Tunis, Tunis -- Toronto, Canada Venice, Italy Vienna, Austria.- Valparaiso, Chili Vera Cruz, Mexico Warsaw, Poland Yeddr), Japan -.- , Zanzibar, Zanzibar VIILES. 1,340 4.300 1,740 i,<';5o 4.970 1.446 975 8,963 5.578 3.39s 4^425 4,240 343 3.835 4. "5 4i934 1,680 4,010 7.630 7^078 Distances by Water from New York to various parts of the World. MILRS. Alexandria, Egypt 5.07'> Aspinwall .. 2.338 Amsterdam, Holland 3,510 AzTres -. 2.240 Balize. Balize i-79o Batavia, Java - 13,066 Belfast, Ireland _. 2,89^ Bermudas, West Indies 660 Bombay, India 11. 574 Bordeaux, France . 3-3'o Botany Bay, Australia 13^294 Bremen 3.575 Bristol - 3-OIO Brussels, Belgium .-.- 3.^20 Buenos Ayres, S. A 6,120 Callao - 3.500 Cape of Good Hope, Africa.. 6,838 Cape Horn, S. A. ............ 7,000 MILES. Chagres. New Granada 2.32S Cherbourg 3.^25 Columbia River -- I5'9'^5 Constantinople. Turkey 5t'4o Copenhagen, Denmark 3.640 Calcutta, India 12,500 Canton, China 14,090 Gal way .. .... 3,000 Gibraltar, Spain 3-300 Glasgow, Scotland. 2.926 Guayaquil. Equador ... 2,800 Halifax, Nova Scotia 555 Havre, France . 3,325 Hamburg Germany 3-775 Havana. Cuba 1,280 Hong Kong 6,488 Kingston, Jamaica 11^35 Lima, Peru ...... 11,310 MILES. Lisbon, Portugal _._.." 3,175 London, England 3 3''S Liverpool, " :-t.' 84 Madras, British India -.11 851 Malta - 4.35'5 Manilla, Philipi'ie Islands ...10,750 Melbourne, A straUa 11.165 Monrovia, Liberia. . , 3 850 Mozambique, Moz. 6.goo Nagasaki 9,800 Naples, Italy _ 4-330 Panama, New Granada 2.066 Pekin, China 15.325 Pernambuco, Brazil ... 4,780 Quebec, Canada 1.400 Rio Janeiro, Brazil 5.920 St. John, New Foundland 800 St. Petersburg, Russia. __ 4,420 MILES. San Diego _ 4,500 Sandwich Islands, S. I.,- 7«i57 San Francisco, Cal 18,850 San Juan, Nicaraugua.. 2,270 Shanghai, China 14,500 Smyrna, Asia Minor 5,000 Southampton 3.156 Stockholm, Sweden 4-Oi;o Tahiti, S. I - 7,865 Trieste, Austrii 5-i3o Valparaiso, Chili 4,800 Vera Cruz, Mexico 2.200 Victoria, Australia 12,825 Vienna, Austria 4,100 Yokohama, Japan 7-520 Distances from London, England, to various parts of the World. MILES. Amsterdam, Holland ago Baltimore, Md ... 3^700 Barbadoes, W. I 3'78o Batavia, Java — ... 11,812 Bermudas, W. I — ... ... ;.igs Bordeaux, France .... 758 Boston, Mass - 3i*25 Botany Bay, Australia 8,040 Bombay, India .. 11,32a Buenos Ayres, S. A -. 6,685 Calcutta, India .„. 12,160 Canton, China ____^. 1^^650 Cape Horn, S. A /, 50 Cape of Good Hope, Africa.. 6,580 MILES. Chagres, New Granada 4,650 Charleston, S. C 4.3^5 Columbia River 16,130 Constantinople, Turkey 3-260 Copenhagen, Denmark 710 Dublin, Ireland 590 Gibraltar, Spain 1,380 Halifax, N. S 2,7^0 Hamburg, Germany 420 Havana. Cuba.. . 4,610 Havre, France 275 Kingston, Jamaica .. 4.560 Lima, Peru 10,730 Lisbon, Portugal 1,100 MILES. Liverpool, England 650 Madras, Britisn India 11,580 Malta 4,212 Manilla, Philipine Islands 12,425 Monrovia, Africa 3'475 Naples, Italy 2,420 New Orleans, La S.i'5 New York, N.Y .._ 3.37s Panama, New Granada 4,700 Pekin, China 15.100 Pernambuco, Brazil 4*450 Philadelphia, Pa 1 3. =40 Quebec. Canada.. 3.010 Rio Janeiro, Brazil 5,400 MILES. Sandwich Islands, S. 1 15,100 San Francisco, Cal 8,200 St. Petersburg, Russia i'<375 Singapore, China 12,475 Smyrna. Asia Minor 3*120 Stockholm, Sweden 1,120 Tahiti, S. I... ii.Soo Trieste. Austria 3^220 Valparai-:o. Chili.... 9,475 Vera Cruz. Mexico . 5.140 Victoria, Australia 12,575 Washington, D. C. _ 3.775 Standards of Time in the Principal Cities of the World, compared with 12:00 noon at Washington, D. C. Albany, N. Y., 12 13 p. m" Amsterdam, HoU'd, 528 p. m Angra, India, 3 19 p. m Atchison, Kan,, 1047 a, m Athens, Greece, 6 43 p. m Atlanta, Ga., 11 40 a. m Augusta, Ga., 11 40 a. m Augusta, Me., 12 29 p. m Baltimore, Md., 12 02 p. m Bangor, Me., 12 33 p. m Bath, Me., 1229 p. m Berlin, Germany, 6 02 p. m Bombay, India, 1000 p. m Boston, Mass., 12 24 p. m Brussels, Belgium, 5 25p. m Buffalo, N. Y.,ii 52 a. m Cape Town, Africa, 6 22 p. m Cairo, Egypt. 7 13 p. m. Calcutta, India, 11 01 p. m Cant-n, China, 12 41 a. m Cambridge, Mass., 12 29 p. m Charleston, S. C, ir 43 a. m Charlottet'n.P.E.I. 12 58 p. m Chicago, III., II 17 a. m Cincinnati., O., 11 30 a. m Cleveland. O., 11 41 a. m Constantinople, 7 04 p. m Columbia, S. C, 11 44 a. m Columbus, O., II 3'5 a. m. Danville, Va., 11 50 a. m Denver. Col, , 10 o3 a. m Des Moines, la., 10 53 a. m Detroit, Mich., 11 36 a. m. Dubuque, la., 11 05 a, m Dublin, Ireland, 4 43 p. m Edinburg, Scotland, 4 55 p. m Frankfort, Ky., 11 29 a. m Galveston, Tex., 10 49 a. m Halifax. N. S., 12 54 p. m. Hamilion, Ont., 11 49 a. m Hannibal, Mo., ir 07 a. m. Hartford, Ct,, 12 17 p. m Houston, Tex.. 10 44 a, m. Indianapolis., Ind., 11 24 a. m Jacksonville, 111., n 07 a. m Jefferson City, Mo., 10 59 a.m Kabma. Wash. T., 8 5 8 a m Kansas City, Mo., 10 49 a. m Key West, Fla,, 11 41 a. m Knoxville, Tenn,, 11 32 a. m Laiamie, Wy. T., 10 12 a. m Leavenworth, Kan., 10 49 a.m Lisbon, Portugal, 4 31 p. m Lincoln, Neb., 10 41 a. m Little Rock, Atk., 10 59 a, m London. England, 5 07 p. m Louisville. Ky.. n 26 a. m Macon, Ga , 11 37 a. m Melbourne. Aus., 2 48 a. m Memphis, Tenn,, 1 1 08 a. m Meridian, Miss., 11 14 a.m Milwaukee, Win., n 16 a, m Minneapolis, Minn., 10 55 a.m Mobile, Ala., 11 16a, m Montgomery, Ala.. 11 23 a.m Monoton, N, R., 12 4S p, m Montreal, Que., 12 14 p. m Moscow- Russia, 7 38 p. m Nashville, Tenn., 11 21 a. m New Havf n, Ct., 12 16 p. m New London, Ct., 12 20 p. m New Orleans, La., 11 08 a. m New York, N. Y., 12 12 p. m Omaha, Neb,, 10 44 a. m Ottawa, Ont., 12 05 p. m Paris, France, 5 17 p. m Padticah, Ky., 11 16 a. m Pensacola, Fla,, 11 19 a. m Philadelphia, Pa., 12 07 p. m Pittsburgh, Pa., II 48 a. m Port Hope, Ont., xr 54 a. m Port Huron. Mich.. 11 34 a.m Portland, Me., 1227 p. m Portland, On gon, 8 56 a. m Portsmouth, Va,, 12 03 p, m Providence, R. I., 12 22 p. m Quebec, Que., 12 23 p. m Quincv, III., II 07 a m R.ileigh, N C., 11 50 a. m. Richmond, Va , 11 58 a. m Rio Janeiro, Brazil, 2 15 p. m Rome, Italy, 5 58 p. m Rome, Ga., 11 32 a. m St. John, N. B., 12 44 p. ra St. John, N. F., 1 37 J. m- St. Joseph, Mo., 10 50 a. m St. Louis, Mo., II 07 a. m St. ^aul, Minn., 10 56 a. m Salt L. City, U. 1'. 940 a. m Santa Fc, N. Mex., 10 04 a.m San Franci->C'>, Cal., 8 s^a. m Sault St, Marie, M.,ii 31 a.m Savannah, Ga., 11 44a. m Selma, Ala., 11 20 a. m Shreveport, La , 10 57 a. m Sioux City. , la., 10 42 a. m Terre Haute, Ind., 11 iS a. m Topeka, Kan., 10 45 a. m Toronto, Ont., 11 51 a. m. Trenton. N. J., 12 09 p. m Vicksburg, Mi-s., 11 05a. m Vienna, Austr-a, 6 14 p. m Vincennes. Ind . 11 17 a. m Virginia City, M. T., 9 40 a.m Wilmington, Del., 12 06 p. m Wilmington, N. C. 11 58 a.m Winona, Minn., 1101 a. m Wheeling, W. Va., 11 45 a. m Yankton, D. T., 10 38 a. m 705 HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES. Showing Population of 1870 and 1880; When Admitted to the Union, Public Debt, Area, Where and By Whom First Settled, National Electoral Vote, Salaries, Term of Office of Governor and Members of Legislature, Number of Senators and Representatives comprising the Legislature, Miles of R. R. in operation January (, 1880. E 1791 *I788 *'79"> •1788 *178S *I787 J.787 •1787 *I788 ♦1788 •178, *I738 *I788 184s 1819 1817 1312 1845 1836 1796 1792 1863 1803 1837 1816 1818 1848 1S53 1S4J 1821 i36i 1867 1S76 1864 1S30 i8s9 Organ- ized. 1863 1861 1853 1834 1850 1850 1833 1868 1790-91 1834 States and TERRlTORIhS. Maine N. Hamp.'^hire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut .. New York New Jersey.. Pennsylvania Delawaie Maryland Virginia N. Carolina.. S. Carolina.. . Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi ... Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee — Kentucky West Virginia Ohio Michigan Indi ina Illinois . Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebraska Colorado Nevada _ California Oregon- Capitals. Augusta Concord Montpelier.- Boston Prov. & N'port Hartford Albany Trenton Harrisburg. _. Dover -_. Annapjlis.-.. Richmond Raleigh Columbia Atlanta Tallahassee .. Montgomery . Jackson .. New Orleans. Austin Little Rock Nashville Frankfjrt Wheeling Columbus Lansing .. Indianapolis.. Springfield... Vladison St. Paul Des Moines .- Jefferson City fopeka Lincoln Denver Carson City.. Sacramento .. Salem ,._. Arizona Dakota Idaho Vlontana New Mexico . Utah, -- Washington . Wyoming Dis. Col.** .. Indian Ter** Maskai* Prescott Vankton ... Poise City Helena Santa Fe . Salt Lake City Olympia Cheyenne Tahlaquah.. Sitka 331O40 9>305 9,565 S„V5 1,250 4,990 49.170 7,S-5 45,315 2,050 12,210 43,450 52.250 .30,570 59,475 5S,oSo 52.250 46,810 4^,720 265,780 S3.S50 42,050 40,400 24,780 41,060 SS,9'5 36,350 56,650 56,040 83,365 56,025 69.415 S2,oSo 76.S5S 103,92s 1 10,700 ■58,360 96,030 113,020 149,100 84,800 146,080 122,580 84,970 69,180 97,890 70 64,690 577>390 648,936 346,991 332,286 1,783,085 202,5.38 622,700 5,082,871' 1,131,116 4,2552,891 11146,608 934,933 i,5'2,.'!e5 ■,399.750 995.577 1,542,180 269.493 1,262,505 i.i3'.S97 939.9 10 l..59i,749 802,525 1. 542 ,,349 1,648,690 618,417 3,198,062 1,636,937 l,97S,.30i 3.077,87' >.3i5,497 780,773 1,624:615 2, 168,380 996,096 452,402 ■94.327 62,366 864.694 174,768 40,440 135.177 32,610 39. '59 119.565 •43.963 75.116 20,789 177,624 _£1 » 626,915 318,300 330.551 I.457.35I 217.353 537,4.34 4,382,759 906,096 3,521.951 12'\0I5 780,894 1,225,163 1,071,361 653410 I,i84,ic9 187,748 906,992 827.922 726.915 808 579 481,471 1,258,520 1,321,011 442,014 2,665.260 1,184,059 1,680.637 2.536,891 ,054.670 438.706 ,194,020 1,721 265 .364,399 122,015 39,864 42,491 560,247 99923 9.626 14,181 14 990 20,595 90,565 86 786 22.626 9 752 131.700 8,785 661 $5,848,900 3-573.550 59>ii6 3^,020,464 2 534*500 4,967,600 9,iii,os4 2,096,000 4 22,190,088 974,ocQ 6,037,088 See Note 26,850.227 6.146,595 10,844,500 1,150,000 8,596,000 752.150 12,136.166 3.581 663 4,736,500 20,057, I5T 1,850.008 See Note 6.477,840 890.000I 1,093,395!' 282,70^1:.; 2,252,057 430,00013 545,435 i7,co8,ocol4 1,181,97515 499.267 125,000 436,400 3,2oo,rool6 588.843 First Settled at Bristol Little Harbor _, Fort Dummer.. Plymouth _.. _. Providence Windsor New York Bergren Philadelphia , ,. Capu Ilenlopen, St. Mary Jamestown Chowan River , Ashley River. . Savannah St. Augustine . Mobile , Natche2 Iberville San Antonio -. Arkansas Post, Fort London . . Boonesboro Wheeling Marietta Detroit Vincennes Kaskaskia Green Bay._._. Red River. . . . . Burling"ton .... St. Genevieve. . Governor | Legislature. 21,688,323 Genoa San Diego . Astoria Santa Fe Salt Lake City.. Astoria French. English English English English English Dutch . Dutch . English Swedes. English English English English English Span'ds French. French French. Span'ds Frt nch- Engli^h Enclish English English French French French French Amer . English Frer*ch- Amer .. Amer .. Amer .. Amer .. Span 'ds Amer . SpanM? Amer .. Amer .. Amer . . Span'ds Amer . Amer .. Amer .. English State Goveknment. 1625 1623 764 1620 .636 1635 1614 1620 1682 1627 1^34 1^07 165c 1670 '733 1565 1711 1716 1699 1692 itSs ^757 1775 1774 1788 1650 1730 J 682 i66c '812 1830 1764 185 1769 1811 §1,500 1. 000 1,000 5,000 4,oco 2,COO IO,CCO 5. COO 10, COO 2,0CO 4,500 5,occ 3, coo 4,5co 4,000 3i5co 2,GCO 4, ceo 4,cco 4, ceo 4, ceo 5,coo 2,700 4.000 1, 00c 6.000 6.000 5,oco 3,000 3. ceo 5-cco 3,000 2,500 3,000 6,oco 6,oco 1,500 1859 1842 1852 1537 1847 2, £00 2,6cO 2,6co 2, Coo 2,6co 2,('co 2 601 2,6co o rt nonet none j none j noncf nonet nonet ncnet ncnet nonet onet 9°X got 60 i ncnet 4 1 tot 50 1 nonet got bot 6oi 75 f 60}: 45t nonet no et Cot nonet ncnet 6ot nonet 7°t 5ot 40 1 40 1 60 1 60 j 40 1 40 1 4ot 40 1 4ot 4ot 40 1 4c t 40 1 1,009 1,019 873 1,870 210 922 6008 1.663 6068 280 §966 1,672 1.446 1.425 2,460 519 183= 1,140 544 2,591 8c 8 1,701 1,595 694 5.521 3.673 4.336 7.! 78 2.896 3,008 4.779 3.740 3.103 1,634 1, 2'. 3 720 2,209 295 183 4c o 220 10 118 593 212 472 s'eMd 275 ♦Original thirteen States, and date of ratification of the Constitution. lOfEcial. tThe Legislature meets annually. JThe Legislature meets bi- ennially. Ilncludes the District cf Columbia. **No Territorial GovernmeMt. ***This does not include 383,712 Indians, estimated. 1. Cash on hand, $79,203 ; surplus, $20,087. 2. Sinking Fund, $396,190 ; net debt, $1,938,310. 3. Canal Sinking Fund, $1,451,628 ; net debt, $7,659,- 426. 4. Sinking Fund, $1,379,797 ; net debt, $716,503. 5. The State holds railroad mortgages, etc., in excess of this debt, $165,799. 6. Owing t , re- funding and chaotic condition of finances, the exact indebtedness cannot be given. About $30,000,000 worth of bonds are issued, of which We t Virginia is charged with $15,239,370, as her portion of the State debt at the time of separation. 7. An act of thi legislature providing for a compromise of the State d°ebt was passed March 4, 1879. 8. $435,000 worth of bonds are held by the State Educational Fund. 9. No State debt except her ponion cf the old Virginia debt, which has never been adjusted. 10. The Sinking Fund is now more than sufficient to extinguish the entire debt. 11. In addition to this, the State is indebted to the School Fund $3,904,783, for which negotiable bonds have been issued. 12. Was paid January 1, 1 33 1. 13. The whole amount is held by the Educational Trust Funds. 14. $2,900,000 of this belong to the State's permanent School Fund. IS. Of this the permanent School Fund holds $607,925, the Sinking Fund holds $94,275, the State University, $9,800, the Normal School, $1,600. 10. Against this the State owns $2,700,- 000 in School Funds, and h^s $i,o<3o,5i2,5'''5 6iS,457 1,315,497 784,443 40,440 ■35.177 177.624 32,610 39,159 "9,SfiS 143,961 75. "6 20,789 1870. 38,558,371 38,155,505 996,992 484,472 560,247 39,864 537,454 125,015 187,748 1,184,109 2,539,891 1,680,637 1,194,020 364,399 1,321,011 726,915 626,915 780,894 1,457,351 1,184,059 439,706 827,922 1,721,295 122,993 42491 3lS.,30O 906,096 4,582,750 1,071,361 2,665,260 90,923 3,521,951 217,353 705,606 1,258,520 818,579 330,551 1.225,163 442,014 1,054,670 402,866 9,65s 14,181 131,700 14,999 20,595 9i,.874 86,786 23,955 9,n8 1880. 25,518,820 25.075,619 622,629 416,270 518,176 1 29, 1 3 1 305,782 74.10S 136,444 762,981 1,586,523 1,010,361 848,136 536,667 832,590 468,754 324,058 462, 187 858,440 862,355 419,149 567,177 1,127,187 249,241 42,019 170,526 559,922 2,505,322 687,908 ',613,9.36 103.3S1 2.136,655 133,030 490,408 769.277 837,840 166,887 745,589 3 '4,495 680,069 443,201 28,262 82,296 83,57s 2i,Si8 28,177 64,496 74,509 45,973 14,152 639,876 380,246 346,518 65,196 316,918 72,500 133,049 779,199 1,491,748 967,940 776,479 459,429 816,100 471,192 324,878 472,756 924,645 774,58.! 361,624 5''4,420 1,041, '93 203,161 20,247 176,465 571,194 2,577540 711,842 1,584,126 71, ,387 2,146,236 '43,501 5^5, 'f 9 773.082 753.909 165,399 766,976 303,962 635,428 341.242 12,238 52,881 94.046 10,792 10,982 55,069 69,454 29,143 6,637 43,475.840 42,871,556 1,252,771 792,17s 571,820 154,537 492,708 137,140 259,584 1,531,616 2,494,295 1,834,123 1,362,965 886,010 1,589,173 885,800 590,053 852,137 1,339.594 1,248,429 513.097 1,122,388 1,956,802 354.98S ,36.613 300,697 909,416 3.871,492 1,396,008 2,80^,119 144,265 3,695,062 202,538 987,891 1,525.657 1.477.133 291,327 1,497,869 600,192 910,072 604 ,384 24,.39i 83,382 160,502 22,636 27,638 111,514 99,969 .59,313 14,939 6.679,943 6,499,784 9,734 10,350 292,874 39,790 129,992 9,468 9,909 io,5'-4 583,576 144,17b 261,650 iio,oS6 59,517 54,146 58,883 82,806 443,491 388,508 267,676 9,209 211,57s 97.414 25,653 46,294 221,700 1,211,379 3,742 394,943 30,503 587,829 73.993 7,686 16,702 114,616 40,959 14,696 18,265 405,425 180,159 16,049 51,795 17,122 9,974 11.521 8,051 43,994 15,803 5,850 43,402,970 42,714.479 662,185 591,531 767,181 191,126 610,769 120,160 142,605 816,906 3,031.151 1,938,795 1,614,600 952, '55 ',.377,179 454,9.54 646,852 724,693 1,763,782 1,614,560 776,884 479.39S 2,022,826 449.764 53,556 346,229 1,092,017 5,016,022 867,242 3,117,920 163075 4,197,016 269,939 ,391,105 1,1.38,831 1,197,237 331.218 880,858 .592,537 1,309,618 688.491 35.ito 133,147 1 iS,oo6 29,013 35.3S5 108,721 142,423 67.199 19,4,!7 6,580,793 6,518,372 600,103 210,666 6,018 2,435 11,547 26,442 126,690 725,133 46,368 39,228 9,5 '6 +3,107 271,451 483,655 1,451 210,230 18,697 15,100 1,564 650,291 145,350 2,385 48S 685 38,853 65, '04 531.277 79,900 487 85,535 6,488 604,332 403,151 393,384 1.057 631,616 25,886 2,702 62,421 155 401 59,596 53 346 1.015 232 105,465 93,782 4 133 75,132 612 '23 17 209 29 33 19 10 4S9 S 5 229 27 24 51 9i 18 5,416 14 170 109 9,510 148 27 9 25 136 11,683 1,630 23S 13 3,379 1,765 57 501 3.1S6 914 14S 141 86 31,841 3,493 1.391 4 1,663 4.40s 140 4^5 POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD. 101 Vv POPULATION OF THE 100 PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES, IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER — CENSUS OF 1880. Totil Populii'n. State. Albany N. Y.. Allejjheny Pa Atlanta Ga Aub.ni N. Y.. Augusta Ga Baltimore Md . . . Bay City Mich.. Boston Mass. . Briilg-eport Conn. . Brooklyn N. Y.. Buffalo N. Y.. Cambridge Mass... Camden N.J... Charleston S.C... Chelsea Mass. . Chicago Ill Cincinnati Ohio.. Cleveland Oh o.. Columbus Ohio. . Coving-ton Ky. , . . Davenport Iowa. . Dayton Ohio. . Denver Colo... Des Moines Iowa. . Detroit Mich. . Dubuque Iowa.. Elizabeth N.J... Elmira N. Y.. Erie Pa Evansville Ind. . Fall River Mass.. Fort Wayne Ind (5alveston Tex s. Grand Hapids Mich. . , Harrisburg" Pa , Harttord Conn . . Hohoken N. J... Holyoke Mass. ., Indianapolis Ind Jersey Citv N, J.. . Kan- as City Mo. Lancaster Pa , Lawrence Mass. . . l-rfjuisville Ky Lowell Mass. . , Lynn Mass .. Manchester N. H.. . Memjihis Tenn.. . .Milwaukee. . . Wis Minneapolis Minn. . . iSSo. 90,7.';S 78,682 37,409 21,024 21,891 332, v.-? 20,69^ 362,5,19 27,643 566,663 155. 1.34 52,669 4 '.659 49,95*4 21,782 S03.1S5 255.139 160,146 S'.647 29.720 21,8^1 3^,678 3S.629 22,40s '■6.340, 22.25 t 2,S,229 20,541 27.7^7| tS,96l 2'S,S?0 22.24S ^2,Ol6 30.7''' ■ 42.015 3".999; 21.915 7S 05''^ 12 -,722 55.7.?^: 25.7'i9 39.151; 123.75?, 29.475 3S.274: 32/'30 33.5?2: ■ •5.5%; 46,SS7 1S70. (19,42 53.1S0 21,789 17,225 15.3S9 267.354 7,004 150,526 18,969 396,099 ■17.714 39 634 20,045 48,9^6 ■ S.547 298,977 116,239 92,829 3 ■.=74 24,505 20,038 ,30,473 4,759 ■2,035 79.577 ■ S.434 20,832 ■5,863 19,646 21,830 26,766 1771" •3,Si3 16,507 23.104 .37, ■So 20,297 ■ ■,731 4?. '44 82,546 32,26,, 20.233 28,921 ■ro,733 4-.92S 28,233 2 3,5!6 40,226 71. HO 13,066 43.770 3^,489 17,67: 10.940 9.S27 ■57,393 11,318 172,268 13,42 272,248 76,904 25,024 19.923 22,5S5 10,02 256,905 125,492 80,174 26,409 14,192 10,604 18,969 21,539 11.53 56 763 10,855 13.60S 9,749 ■3,752 14,228 23,163 13,71 li,0S6 16,183 14,760 20, 1 46 ■5.254 10,308 36S03 59.9 '9 3^.999 12,212 ■7.7S: 58,952 2'-<,Ss3 ■S,M3 14.698 16,302 57.475 25.291 46,iyS8 40.193 19732 10,984 12,064 ■74.920 9.175 ■90,571 14,222 294,4^5 7'^,23o 27.645 21.736 27.399 ■■,759 246,280 ■29.647 79.972 25.23S ■5.52S 11,227 19,709 14.09^ I. ,877 59,577 ■■,399 14,621 10,792 13.955 ■5,052 25-798 13,163 11,182 ■5.S33 16,002 21,869 15.745 1 1,607 38,191 6. ,8^3 23,786 13.557 21,366 61.776 3!,622 20,031 ■7.932 ■7.290 58.112 21,596 z5 66,993 59,245 35.993 16,981 20,693 276,177 ■1,389 248,043 0.204 388,969 103,866 37.001 37,164 46,034 17,187 298,326 18.3,480 100, 4^,576 23.233 ■4,936 3 ,432 26,924 18,205 70,695 16,10; 20,644 16,967 20,031 23,177 25.386 21 02S 17,202 22,016 28,446 3 ',420 18,004 11,000 62,446 81,464 46,184 22,390 21,885 100,602 36,421 3^,234 20,151 29,62 1 69,5 ■ 4 31,874 1^ P o tsi: 23,705 >9,437 1,416 4.943 1,198 56,1.16 9.304 ■ ■4.796 7,439 ■77,094 51,268 15,668 4 495 3.950 4,595 204,859 7 ',659 59,409 9.07' 64S7 6,895 7,246 8,705 4.203 45.64; 6,147 7.5S5 3,,574 7,706 6,103 23.575 5,852 5,046 I ,000 2,316 10,595 ■2,995 ■",915 12,610 .39.258 9,301 3,379 17,266 23.156 23,154 7,040 12,479 3,971 46,073 15,013 Total Popula^n. State. Mobile Ala. ... Nashville Tenn. . . Newark N.J.,.. New Bedford Mass... New Haven Conn... New Orle ms L i Newport Ky New York N. Y.. Norlolk V.i Oiikland Cal.. . Omaha Neb. . Oswego N. Y. . P.iterson X.J... Peoria Ill Petersburjj Va Philadelphia Pa Pittsburgh Pa, Portland Me. . . Poughkeepsie N. Y, . . Providence R.I.... Quincy lil Reading Pa Richmond Va Rochester N. Y... Sacr.amento Cal.. .. St.Joseph Mo.. . St. I..ouis Mo St. Paul Minn . . . Salem Mass... Salt Lake City .y,'=i'i. ■ • San A ntonio Texas . . San Francisco Cal Savannah Ga Scranton Pa Somerville Mass.. . Springfield Ill Springfield Mass. . . Springfield Ohio.... Syracuse N. Y. .. Taunton : Mass... Terre Haute Ind.. .: . Toledo Ohio... Trenton.- N.J... Troy N. Y... Utica N. Y... Washington D. C... Wheeling W. Va. Wilkesbarre Pa Wilmington Oel Worcester Mass... 1S80. 29,132 43.350 1 36.508 '26,845 62,882 215.090 10,431 1,206,299 21,966 34.555 .30,518 21, 116 5^,03> 29.259 21,656 S47,'7" 156,389 33,Sio 20,207 ■04.857 27,26^; 43,278 63,600 89,366 21,420 32,4 !■ 3505^8 41,473 27.563 20768 20 5.50 233.959 3^7 9 45,850 24,933 19.713 33 340 20 7.J0 51,792 21.213 26,0(2 5-'i37 299... 56.747 .33.914 147.293 30.737 21.339 42.478 58 291 1S70. 32.-34 25.805 105,059 21,320 50,84" 191,418 15,087 942,292 19,229 10,50 16.0S3 20,910 33,579 22,849 18,950 674,032 86,076 31,413 20,. 80 68,904 24,05 33,930 51,03s 62,3811 16,283 19.565 310,864 20,030 24.1,7 ■2,854 12.250 ■49 473 28,23; 35 ("92 ■4,685 17.364 26,703 12,652 41"; 18,629 l6,l'3 31,184 22 S74 46 4''5 28,804 1C9 199 19,280 10, 74 3084 41,1 c 13,189 20,9 66,077 i2,17^ 30,462 ■ 00,89. 9.925 59o,5^4 10,069 18,117 17,104 10,055 24,765 14,56' 9,779 405,975 78,47 ■ ■5,752 9270 49,787 ■3,289 21,099 29,483 42,388 12,271 ■7,832 ■79.520 22,361 12,589 9.9,-3 10.6V, 132,61: 13.936 23,170 ■■,873 9,80 15.767 ■0.563 24.67s 10,328 13,128 25034 14,921 27.^54 K,666 6S.310 I5,I2! 11451 20751 28,927 '5,943 22,4.38 70,43^ ■4,474 32,420 ■15,198 10,508 615,785 11,897 16,4 iS 13,414 1 1, 61 26,2 '( 14,69, ■■,877 441,^95 18,058 10,93' 55.070 13.979 22,179 34,1 1' 46,97: 9,^4^ ■4,599 170,9^8 19 1 I 14.974 10,81 c 9.877 ■0l.35^ ■6.773 22.6S0 13,060 9938 ■7,573 10,167 ''7,'!7 10,885 ,2,914' 25, ■oi 14.989 29593 18,248 78 983 15,610 11,888 21,727 29364 ^•5 26,195 40,325 96.178 20,922 47.214 l^74.933 I '5,422 727,629 2^,^3^ 23,534 20,588 ■5,,55S 32.329 22,134 21,300 642,83s 1 1 1 ,784 26,908 ■6,413 76,782 20,706 39,654 6o,26D 62,744 14.372 26,775 245 ,505 26,398 20,115 13,C95 14,9.52 ■29.7^5 27.71C 29,993 ■9,252 ' ■''•159 25,807 1 7,646 3" 16,084 22,050 35,788 24.19 39,809 24581 133,05 24,623 ■7,0.39 36S04 42,667 47' 2,937 .l.'2S 40, '30 5,923 15,668 41,^57 5,011 1,670 S35 9,930 5.561 iS,7c2 7,125 356 204,33s 44,605 6,902 3-794 26,075 6,562 3,624 3,'40 26,622 7,048 5,656 ■05,013 15,075 7,448 7,67.5 5,598 104,244 2-994 15,857 5,681 4,284 7,531 3-0^4 13,018 5.129 3992 14.,349 5,719 ■ 6938 9,333 1.4 242 0,1 14 6,30D 5,674 15,624 POPULATION OF THE CITIES OF THE WORLD HAVING OVER 100,000 INHABITANTS. Aberdeen, Scotland 105,818 Adrianople, Turkey 100,000 Ag^ra, India 125,0^0 Ahmedabad, India 120000 Alexandria, Eg-ypt iSo,ooj Am oy, China 270,000 Amsterdam, Holland 263,204 Antwerp, Belg-ium 104,628 Bahia, Brazil 180,000 Baltimore, Md 333, .^i.^ Batavia.Java 140,005 Bans^kok, Siam 300,0:0 Barcelona, Spain 202,165 Baroda, India 1 10,010 Belfast, Ireland iSo.oco Benares. India 600,000 Berlin, Prussia . ... 1,20^,000 Bhurtpoor, India 100,000 l?irinino-ham, England... 360,000 Bombay, India 898,218 Bordeaux, France, 215,000 Boston, Mass 362,839 Bradford, Eng-land 160,000 Breslau, Prussia 187,650 Bristol, Eng-land 180,000 Brooklyn, N . Y 5'^.663 Brussels, Belg-ium 325,0" o Bucharest, Turl'cy 150,000 Buenos Avres, S. A 150.000 Buffalo, N.Y 155,134 Cairo. Egypt 300,000 Calcutta, India 600, 00 Canton, China 800,000 Cawnpore, India 100,000 Chang-- Choo-Foo, China.. 1,000,000 Chicago, in 503. 1S5 Cincinnati, Ohio 255,139 Cologne, Prussia 150,000 Cleveland, Ohio 160,146 Constantinople, Turkey,. . 1,000,000 Copenhag-en, Denmark.... 2co,''0o Damascus, Turkey iSo.ooo Delhi, India ' 180,000 Dhar, India 105.000 Dresden, Germany 150,000 Dublin, Ireland 33<^.5oo Detroit, Mich 1I'5,J40 Dundee, Scotland 125,000 Edinburo;h. Scotland 184,000 Florence, Italy i(;o,oo 1 Foo ChooFoo, China 1,000,000 Fy7.abad, India 100,000 Genoa, Italy 150,000 Ghent, Belg-ium 1 30,000 Glasgow, Scotland..,,,... 525,001 Greenwich, England i35,'"^oo Hamburg, Germany 245,005 Hang: Tcheou, China 1,000,000 Havkna, Cuba . .... 225.000 Hue, or Hucfo, Anam 132,000 Hull, Engfland 120,000 Hyderabaa, India 200,00") Joodpoor Marwar, India.. 100,000 Jersey City, N.J 120,722 Leeds, Knirln-nd 354. '"oo Liesre, Bela^um i2o,o"o Lille, or Lisle, France 150,000 Lima, Peru - 100,000 Lisbon, Portug-al. 24O,(-0D Liverpool, England . 640,000 London. England Louisville, Ky 3.SI4.57I i23>75S Lucknow, India . 325,000 Lyons, France . 329,000 Madrid, Spain . 400,000 380,000 Manchester, Eng-land Manilla, Philippine Is... . 155:0 Marseilles, France - 3'5.2 Maranhao, Brazil . \- 0,000 Melbourne, Australia . 247,079 Mexico, Mexico . 212 000 Milan, Italy . 200C00 Munich, Bavari?. • 1 75.. 500 1 15,000 Nanking, China :; 00,000 Nantes, France . irij'ooo Naples, lUily . . 407,500 Newark, N. J . 136-508 Newcastle-on-Tvne, Eng I 5,000 New York. N. Y .1,206 299 Odessa. Russia 120 O'O Palermo. Italv 175.000 Paris, France 2.225,' on Patna, India . ^00,000 Pekin, China 1 ,850,000 Pesth, Hung-ary I3ii735 Philadelphia, Pa 847,170 Pittsburgh, Pa 156,389 Portsmouth, England. . .. 120,000 Prague, Bohemia 150,000 Providence, R. 1 104,857 Riga, Russia 102,000 Rio Janeiro, Brazil 370,000 Rome, Italy 303.000 Rotterdam, Holland 1 40,000 Rouen, France 1 10,000 Saigon, Cochin, China 200,000 St. Louis, Mo 350,518 St. Petersburg, Russia.... 6to,ooo San Francisco, Cal 233,959 Santiago, Chili 100. 000 Seville, Spain i6o,oco Shang-hai, China 160,000 Sheffield, England 237.000 Smyrna, Asia Minor l5o^xx) Stockholm, Sweden....... 169,429 Sydncv, Australia 187,381 Tiflis, Russia in Asia 104,024 Tokio, Japan .594.2S3 Toulouse, F'rance 130,423 Trieste, Austria 100,000 Tunis, Africa 150,000 Turin, Italy 200,000 Valencia, Spain 100,000 Vt-nice, Italy 115,000 Vienna, Austria 726,105 Wars:iw, Poland -37, 560 "Washington, D. C 147,293 Yeddo, Japan 2,100,00b ^r ^ 708 EDUCATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS. Tables showing-, according- to report of 1S7S. the salaries of teachers, expenditures, school ages, school population, enrollment, attendance, etc., of public schools, colleges and universities; also, giving value of buildings, grounds, apparatus, etc., of those owning such: PUBLIC SCHOOLS. STATES AND TERRITO- RIES. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware District of Columbia, . . Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indian Indiana Iowa Kansas ., Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada, New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico Nev/ "V ork. North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Khode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington , , West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming SCH L AGE. 7-2 1 6-21 6-21 6-21 4-16 5 5- 6-,7 4-21 6-iS 5 6-31 6-21 5-21 5-21 .6-20 6-31 4-21 5-20 5 -'5 5-20 5-2 S-2 6-20 4-21 5-21 6-iS 4-31 5-,S .7-IS 5-21 6-31 6-21 4-20 6-21 S-'5 6-16 6-iS S-,4 6-16 5-20 5-2 1 .4-21 6-21 4-20 .7-21 SCHOOL popur.A- TION. NO. EN- ROLLED. AV. DAILY ATTEND- ANCE. 370.245 3,089 216.47s 205,485 26.473 I3S.407 12,30 35.6'I9 38,800 72,985 433.444 4.942 1,002,421 49.213 699,153 575.474 266, 1^75 b. S72,&)8 274,406 214,797 276,120 297,202 476,806 271,428 346.61, 688,24. 5.315 104,030 9,023 73.785 322,166 d. 29,312 1,615,356 422,380 1,027,248 53.462 1,200,000 53.316 328,138 448,917 194.353 33.604 92,831 483.701 b. 12,997 209,532 478,692 Total 14,608,406 9,375,.H0 4,265,742 159,659 2,740 33.747 154,069 16,641 119,828 7. '56 26,730 33,84; 36,964 309,872 706,723 12,22: 512,555 428,, 177,806 b. 2:lS,000 S3.047 155.150 156,274 310,181 359.702 167,825 205,978 44^.03 3.277 62,785 7,613 66,023 202,634 A- 5,151 1.032,052 228,092 740,194 26,902 936,780 45,629 1 16,239 361,151 146,946 21,710 73.08 303,244 b. 5.3S5 130,184 297,502 1,690 98,534 94,696 9,699 75.565 1,342 18,133 23.933 130,605 a. 90 420.031 4,142 315.S93 256.913 io\903 160,000 54.390 108.940 81,829 228,447 310,000 115,976 183,600 4,666 48,412 113,604 577,606 132,553 465,372 21,464 603,825 28,756 172,198 14,949 48,638 1 16,464 AV. DAYS SALARIES OF TEACH ERS. 144 17S 157 1S7 129 146 113 110 So iiS 1S2 176 150 85 79 99 194 132 179 46 175 94 145 1S2 9' 77 S6.76S 137 124 107 130 96 161 S 350,633 14.947 121.397 2.272,557 153.089 1,041,041 30.489 125.S59 237.189 85.361 23,082 4.445,657 3,065,968 f.3,011,230 980,435 g-.i,ooo,ooo 426,839 830,670 1,122,414 h. 871,851 f. 1, 920, 339 878,980 585,393 2.320,430 444,500 106,301 410,258 1,528,986 15,432 7,756,844 292,893 4,956,514 194.571 4,755,620 427,445 291,268 692,198 656.977 84,230 407,835 714,651 TOTAL EXPENDI' TURES. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES WITH THE PREPARATORY SCHOOLS. 501,705 L, 001, 352 16,400 $ 358,697 21,396 133,620 3,155,815 243,050 1.506,477 57.793 216,540 373.606 130,880 412,453 23,082 7,526,109 373.606 4,651,911 4,692,538 i,.54i.4i7 ^.1,130,000 558,231 1,050,709 1.593.260 5,166,988 3. "6,579 1,494,685 592,805 2,406,133 65.505 750,520 204,137 636,655 2,004,048 i. 18,890 10,755,730 324,287 7,995.125 375, 106 8,187,977 679,770 319.030 794,232 747,534 113,193 511.101 963,89s 687,375 2,117,535 J. 16,400 ?5i,7So,63o ?5o,67%-;S4 No. Col- leges 28 55 198 STU DENTS 517 50 193 173 73 94 39 35 73 139 123 58 36 196 33 63 451 47 346 4: 315 10 44 'S3 So 6 15 73 15 355| 3,885 57,9-7 333 2,246 I, "^ k. 943 106 452 5,016 2,868 3,1.52 931 1,647 560 k. 433 1,341 2,081 2,040 6S5 683 2,436 1. ^]o k. 315 5,188 1,08 % 3,844 k. 243 7S2 3.306 1,984 t '^^ k. 192 1,10^ 241 3S2 VOLUMES IN Ll- BRAJIIES. 12,400 1,165 43,610 2,000 136,275 6,500 45,000 33,213 110,893 58,872 48,510 20,300 36,719 22,500 39,900 39,100 267,990 50,240 19,604 9,600 84,425 3,700 54,835 53,200 229,841 28,000 249,821 8, 120 165,596 51,00c 21,780 48,837 14,460 3,717 33,S65 79,5 o 1,143 9,290 44,331 VALUE OF build' GS, GROUNDS i-APPAR'S $ 505,000 ^2,000 1,428,000 130,000 472,884 75,000 770,000 610,000 2,498,020 1,185,000 1,197,000 499,000 642, i;oo 170,000 730,000 380,500 1,250,000 1,068,450 296,870 431,000 1,149,500 216,000 100,000 I,220,CCO 6,353'653 481,000 3,973,336 277,000 4,479,500 220,000 1,247,500 409,000 368,000 1,605,000 ICO,CO0 t 5 5, 000 43,500 ?7.932 $-(6,871,; INCOME FROM FUNDS. $ 24,000 1,900 "6,055 15,000 42,709 4,980 S,5oo 43,300 128,766 47,700 53.700 4,713 35,470 19,488 26,050 iSi,734 304,107 79,95s 49.0S1 3,960 155,135 25,000 81,003 477,943 10,500 177,101 15,600 181,439 3.8,070 31,116 7S,S9o 1,900 13,010 21,858 500 9,800 52,292 S-^548,334 INCOME FROM TUITION. 5, 100 103,400 93,221 „54o 8,000 20,900 75,680 18,043 41,380 7,133 37,413 4,677 16,576 9,902 213,850 20,089 5,139 ^,200 5.900 21,400 33,765 341,775 18,700 53.7S6 11,238 no,349 28,032 6,200 ■ 28,954 38,850 3,070 7,576 26,062 2,COO 5,396 64,639 ii, 555,4*^4 a. In the counties, b. Report of 1877. c. Report of 1875. d. Re port of 1S76. e. Not including average attendance in five c -'es of superintendents included, g In 1S77. h. Partial Report, i. In 1S75. j ''- -""■- ^- ■*'^- - - -■ - < . • , . 1 Massachusetts is accredited in this report with but one preparatory school. .„_ ^ .._____ _. ilized tribes, f. Sal- aries of superintendents included, g In 1S77. h. Partial Report, i. In 1S75. j. In 1S77. k. No preparatory schools included. 1. In preparatory school. Massachusetts is accredited in tnir -. — :^i- ^...L. ^ ^ — v Table showing, according to census of 1870, the number of organizations, members, edifices, sittings, and the value of church property of the several denominations in the United States; also their theological seminaries, according to report for 1878: DENOMINATIONS. Baptist (Regular) Baptist (Others) Christian Congregational , Episcopal (Protestant) , Evangelical Association Friends Jewish Lutheran , Methodist Moravian (Unitas Fratrum) , New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian) Presbyterian (Regular) Presbyterian (Other) , Reformed Church in America (once Dutch Reformed) Reformed Church in the U. S. (once German Reformed).. Roman Catholic Second Advent , Shaker _ Spiritualist Unitarian. United Brethren in Christ Universalist , Union, Unknowr and Miscellaneous Church Organiza- tions. ♦Partial Report, 14,471 ^355 IM 2,83s Sis 692 189 3.03 25,278 7' 90 6,262 1,562 471 1,256 4,12 "I 95 331 1,445 719 462 Church Church Edifices. Sittings. 12,857 3.997. 1 16 1,105 363.019 865,602 2,832 2,715 1,117,212 3,601 991,051 641 193.796 662 224,664 152 73.265 2.776 977.332 6,538,309 21,337 67 25.700 61 iS,755 ^'^i 3,198,900 1.3SS 499,344 468 227,22s 1,145 431,700 3,806 1,990.514 140 18 'mo 32 6,970 310 155*471 937 205,025 602 210,884 596 I72,0'i2 Church Property. i 39,229. 2,37s. 6,425. 35,069, 36,514 2,301 3.939. 5.155 14.917 69,854 709, S69, 47,828. 5.436 10,3.59. 5.7^5 60,985 306, 86. 100, 6,282, 1,819. 5.692. i..'S69. he/; /5 *IO 7 74 68 S05 *4 78 359 268 265 480 28 652 69 58 932 30 49 101 ^'- UNITED STATES CIVIL, ARMY AND NAVY PAY TABLES. 709 FOREIGN EXCHANGE. Estimate of the values in U. S. money of account of the Standard Coins of other Nations and proclaimed by the Secretary of the Treasury, Jan. i, iSSo. COUNTRY. Austria Belgium Boli\da Brazil British Possessions inN. A Central America. Chili Denmark Ecuador Egypt France Great Britain . . . . Greece German Empire . India Italy Japan Liberia Mexico Netherlands Norway Peru Portug-al Russia Sandwich Islands Spain Sweden Switzerland Tripoli Turkey United States of Co- lombia MONETARY UNIT. Florin Franc Boliviano Milreis of 1000 reis. . Dollar Peso Peso Crown Peso. Pound of 100 piasters Franc Pound Sterlings Drachma Mark Rupee of 16 annas. . . Lira Yen(Gold) Dollar Dollar Florin Crown... Sol Milreis ot 1000 reis Rouble of 100 copecks Dollar Peseta of 100 centimes Crown Franc... Mahbub of 20 piasters Piaster STANDARD. Silver Gold and Silver Silver Gold Gold Silver Gold Gold Silver Gold Gold and Silver Gold Gold and Silver Gold Silver Gold and Silver Gold and Silver Gold Silver Gold and Silver Gold Silver ...... Gold Silver Gold Gold and Silver Gold Gold and Silver Silver Gold Silv Value in U.S. money. 5 -413 .S36 •545 1.00 .S36 .912 .26S .S36 4-974 •193 4.8665^ •'93 .23S •397 • '93 • 997 1. 00 .909 .402 .26S 3' .669 1. 00 '.2d .193 .743 .0^4 .8.^6 STANDARD COIN. 5, ID and 20 francs. Boliviano. Peso. Condor,doubloon & escudo. lo and 20 crowns. Peso. 5, 10, 35 and 50 piasters. <;, 10 and 20 francs. 5^ sovereign and sovereip-n. 10, 20, 50 & 100 drachmas 10 and 20 marks. , ro, 20, 50 and 100 lire. , 2, 5, 10 and 20 yen. Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavo. 10 and 20 crowns. Sol. 2, 5 .ind ID milreis. l^, % and I rouble. 10, 20, 50 and 100 pesetas, 10 and 20 crowns. %, 10 and 20 francs. 25, _e;o, 100, 250 and 500 pi- asters. United States Navy. — Active Service. LINE— AT SEA. No. Admiral. i Vice Admiral i Rear Admirals 11 Commodores 25 Captains 50 Commanders 90 Lieut.-Commanders .... £0 Lieuts 2S0 Masters 100 Ensig-ns 100 Midshipmen 40 Cadet Midshipmen 334 Mates 42 Salary. $13,000 9,000 6,000 5,000 4,.'ioo 3.500 3,000 2,600 2,Soo to 2,400 to 1,800 to 2,000 1,200 to 1,400 1,000 950 900 500 to Medical Directors Pay Directors Chief Engineers Surgeons Paymasters Passed or Asst.Surgeons Passed Asst. Paymasters Asst. Paymasters Passed Asst. Engmeers Asts. Engineers. Chaplains Naval Constructors Asst. Constructors Profs, of Mathematics. . Civil Eng-ineers. . . Cadet Engineers $3,8oo to 2, boo to 2,Soo to 3,800 to 4,200 2,Soo to 4,200 1, goo to 3,200 2,000 to 1,700 to 2,000 to 1,700 t J 2,500 to *3,200 to *4,200 *2,000 to *2,600 2,400 to 3,500 2,400 to 3,500 500 to 1,000 4,400 4,200 4,200 2,200 1,900 2,200 1,900 2,800 Marine Corps. — Active Service. Colonel Commandant.. Colonel Lieut. -Colonels Major Captains 1st Lieuts 2d Lieuts No. 30 Salary. $ 3.';oo 3.500 3,000 1,500 1,400 Pay Table of the Leading Civil Officers of the United States, President of the United States, per annum, $50,000. Vice-President of the United States, per annum, §10,000. Cabinet Ministers, per annum, Sio,ooo. Chief Justice Supreme Court, per annum, $10,500. Justices of the Supreme Coui t, per annum, $ [ o ,000. Senators and Representatives in Congress, with raileag-e, per annum, $5,000. Speaker House of Representatives, with mileag-e,per annum, $10,000. Secretary of the Senate, per annum, §5,000. Clerk House of Rcpresent:itives, per annum, .?5,ooo. Assistant Secretaries of Departments, per annum, $6,000. Heads of Bureaus, per annum, $4,000 to §5,000. Superintendent Coast Survey, per annum, §5,ooo. Judges District of Columbia, per annum, S3. 000. Secretary Smithsonian Institution, per annum, $4,000. Ministers Plenipotentiary to Great Britain, France, Germany and Rus • sia, per annum, $i7,t;oo. Mmisters Plenipotentiary to Spain, Austria, China, Italy, Mexico, Brazil and Japan, per annum, $12,000. Ministers Resident and Plenipotentiary to Chili, Peru, Uruguay, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua and San Salvador, per annum, Sio>ooo. Ministers Resident to Portugal, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, Hawaiian Islands, Ha^ti, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Arg^entine Republic, Paraguay, Bolivia and Greece, per annum, $7,500. Interpreter and Secretary of Legation to China, per annum, $5,000. Dragoman and Secretary of Legation to Turkey, per amium, $3,000. Consul-General to Cairo, per annum, $4,000. Consul-General to London, Paris, Havana and Rio Janeiro, per an- num, $6,000. Consul General to Calcutti and Shanghai, per annum, $5,000. Consul-General to Melbourne, per annum, $4,500. Consul-General to Kanagawa, Montreal and Berlin, per annum, $4,000. Consul-General to Vienna, Frankfort, Rome and Constantinople, per annum, $3,000. Consul-General to Turkey and Eg}-pt, per annum, $3,500. Consul-General to St. Petersburg and Mexico, per annum, $2,000. Consul-General to Liverpool, per annum, $6,000. Secretaries of Legation, from $1,500 to $2,625. Consuls, from $1,000 to $7,000. Tlie Postmasters, Collectors of the Revenue, Territorial Governors and Judges, and other officers employed throughout the country, are too numerous to be designated in this place. Pay Roll United States Army. LINE. General Lieut • General Major-Generals Brig'r- Generals CAVALRY. Colonels Lieut.-Colonels Majors Captains Adjutants Reg. Qrs 1st. Lieuts 2d Lieuts .... Chaplains ARTILLERY. Colonels , . . Lieut. -Colonels.. . Majors. . . Captains Adjutants Reg.Qrs , 1st Lieuts 3d Lieuts No, Salary. $'3,500 11,000 7.500 S.50^ IC % S,5oo 10 3,000 30 2,500 120 2,COO to i.Soo 10 i,Soo 120 1,600 120 1,50- 2 1,500 S 8 3.5CO ■; 3,000 K 2,5CO 60 2,0 _0 ■; i,Soo t, l,Soo 120 l,6co "S 1,500 2^, S 3.500 2S 3,000 2^. 2,500 i,Soo 250 INFANTRY. Colonels Lieut.-Colonels Majors Captains Adjutants 25 i,Soo Reg. Qrs 25 i,Soo 1st Lieuts 250 1,500 2d Lieuts 250 1,400 Chaplains 2 1,500 STAFF. Aides-de-Camps, 29; 6 of them the pay of a Colonel, A.-de-C to Gen- eral of the arm}'; 2 of them the pay of a Lieut. -Colonel, A.-de-C. to Lieut.-General; S of them $200 in addition to pay in line, A.-de-C. to Major-Generals; 13 of them $150 in addition to pay in line, A.-de-C. to Brigadier Generals. STAFF. Majors - I 3 1$ 2,500 Captains | 2 | 2,000 RETIRED LIST. — NAVT.-. Brig'r-Gcneral i Lieut.-Colonel i Majors ^ Captains 4 ist Lieuts 2 2d Lieuts 3 Enlisted file of Marine Corps 1,500 men. The enlisted persons in the United States Navy consist of 8,500 seamen, ordinary seamen,jlandsmenand boys. * Shore duty. The Different Departments of the Army. ^^_ g^i^.^. BrigV Generals S $ 5,500 Colonels 12 3,300 Lieut, Colonels 33 3,000 Majors ,'. 150 2,500 Captains 127 2,000 I st Lieuts, 76 1,600 33 150 127 76 ENGINEER CORPS. Brig'r-General. Colonels Lieut. -Colonels Majors Captains 30 % 5>Soo 3. 500 3,000 2,500 i,boo SIGNAL OFFICE. Colonels I i [S 3.5oo Lieutenants 2 1,500 Post Chaplains ' 30' 1,500 RETIRED LIST. — ARMY. Major Generals 5 Brig'r- Generals : iS Colonels 59 Lieut. -Colon els 34 Majors 50 Captains 131 1st. Lieuts 72 2d Lieuts 15 Chaplains 8 Professors Fv *^. METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. #C ^™c a SM4BD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS UNO Wt^SWMS, ;\\k MtflTH TABLES OF EQUIVALENTS ' dHE Metric System is the whole assemblage of measures derived from a fundamental standard called Meter." The metric system of weights and measures originated in France about 1790. In 1799 an international com- mission assembled at Paris on the invitation of the government to set- tle, from the results of the great Meridian Survey, the exact length of the "definitive meter." Representatives were present from France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Swit- zerland, Spain, Savoy and the Roman Re- publics. A committee from the Assembly of Sciences had spent several ^-ears of labo- rious determinations, upon which were to be the standard units of the new metro- logical system. As the result of the inves- tigations of this international commission, a /en millionth part of the earth's quadrant was chosen, and called a meter. To determine the imit of ivcight a cube of pure water at its greatest density, each edge of which is one hutidrcdth of a meter, was taken and called a ^j^r«wz»;e or gram. The mul- tiples and subdivisions were made to correspond to the decimal scale, hence its great simplicity. Probably no influence had contributed, previous to the adoption of this system, more largely to embarrass trade among the different nations of the world, than the endless diversity of instrumentalities einployed for the purpose of determining the quantities of exchangeable commodities. It is to this long-felt necessity for one common system of weights and measures throughout the world, that this sys- tem, after a lapse of but three-quarters of a century, has been adopted by nearly two-thirds of the inhabitants of the civilized and Christian world. In 1S66 an act to authorize ' the metric system in the United States was passed by Con- gress. The utility of this system will commend itself even at a glance, and hence the importance of every person be- coming acquainted with it. All metric measures are uniformly multiplied and divided by ten, which causes the system to be also called decimal system of weights and measures. The metric system comprises only five standard units, or six, including the units of moneys. The names, uses, and values of these units are ; The Meter, which is the unit of length and the basis of all the other metric measures. The Are, which is the unit of land measure, and is the square of ten meters. The Liter, which is the unit of measure of capacity (both liquid and dry), and is the cube of a teni/i part of a meter. The Stere, which is the unit of solid or cubic measure, and equal to one cubic meter. The Gram, which is the unit of measures of weights represented as previously stated by the weight in vacuum of one-hundredth part of the meter. The Franc, which is the unit of metric money, repre- sented by a silver coin weighing five grains, and of which nine-tenths are fine metal. Each unit has its decimal multiples and sub-multiples, i.e., weights and measures ten times larger or ten times smaller than the principal unit. These multiples and sub- inultiples are indicated by seven prefixes placed before the several fundamental units. The following are the prefixes : The multiples are taken from the Greek, the sub-multi- ples from the Latin. Ml'LTIPLES. 1. De^a, which means Ten. 2. Hccto^ " " Hundred. 3. Kilo. " " TItousand. \. Myria* " " Te/lT/mis'd. SUB-MULTIPLES. Deci. which means Tenth. Cf7iti, " " l-!ui:drtdlh. Mini, '• ** Thousaiidtli. Thus with the meter we have The Meter, - I meter. The Meter 1. '* Pcckameter, or 10 " " Decimeter, 0.1 *' Hectometer, " 100 " " Centimeter, • O.OI " Kilometer, " 1000 " " Millimeter, O.COI Note — A similar series may be obtained with any other unit, such as the Gram, one Kilog-ram^ one thousand grains; the Liter, one Hecto- H'.er^ one hundred liters. The unit of money the Franc, admits no multiplying^ prefixes. Its divisions are termed Dccime, Centime, Mill- ime, instead of Decifranc, Centilranc, Millifranc, although Dccime and Millimc are seldom used. The formation of the tables can be seen at a glance by the following : RELATIVE VALUE. LENGTH. SURFACE. CAPACITY. SOLIPITY. WEIGHT. 30,000 Kyriameter*. ijOoo Milometer. Ivilarc.* Kiioliter. Kilostere.* Kilogram. 100. .'. Hectometer, Hectare. HcctoUter.Hectostere.*Hectogr:im. 10 .Decameter. Decare.* Dekaliter. Dccastere. Decagram. UNIT. METER. ARE. LITER. STERRE. GRAM. .1 ..Decimeter. Declare. Deciliter. Decistere, Decigram. .01 Centimeter. Centiare. Centiliter. Centistcre.* Centigram. .001 Millimeter. Milli;ire.* Milliliter. Millistere.* Milligram. * Are not in use. -^2 METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 711 .J- NAMES. PRONUNCIATION. ABR. Millimeter Mill'-e-mee'-ter mm. Centimeter Sent'-e-mee'-ter cm. Decimeter Des'-e-mee'-ter dm. Meter Mee'-ter m. Decameter Dek'-a-mee'-ter dkm. Hectometer Hec'-to-mee'-ter hm. Kilometer Kill'-o-mee'-ter km Myriameier Mir'-e-a-mee'-ter Mill'-e-ure mym. Milliare ma. Centiare Sent'-e-are ca. Declare Des'-e-are da. ./Ire* Are a. Decare Dek ' -are dka. Hectare Hec'-tare ha. Kilare Kill ' -are ka. Myriare Mir'-e-2re Mill'-e-steer mya. Millislere ms. Centistere Sent'-e-steer cs. Uecistere Des'-e-steer ds. Stere Steer s. . Decastere Dek ' -a-steer dks. Hectostere Hec'-to-steer is. Kilostere Kill'-o-steer is. Myriastere Mir'-e-a-steer Mill'-e-li'-ter nys. Milliliter tttl. Centiliter Sent'-e-li'-ter cl. Deciliter Des'-e-li'-ter dl. Liter Li'-ter I. Decaliter Dek'-a-li'-ter dkl. Hectoliter Hec'-to-li'-ter III. Kiloliter Kiir-o-li'-ter hi. Mvrialiter Mir'-e-a-li'-ter Mill'-e-gram myl. Milligram mg. Centigram Sent'-e-gram •^g- Decigram Des'-e-gram dg. Gram Gram g- Decagram Dek'-a-gram dkg. Hectogram Hec'-to-gram !'g- Kilogram Kill ' -o-gram. kg- Myriagi-am Mir'-e-a-gram myg. Quintal Quin ' -tal ?■ Tonneau Tun '-no T. * The a in deca and myna, and the o in hecto and kilo are dropped when prefixed to Are. Tables of Standard English Measures and Weights, and the Metric System. LONG MEASURE. 3 lines or 3 barleycorns make i inch. 3 feet make i yard. Cloth Measure.* SK yards make i rod or pole. 40 rods make i furlong-. S furlongs 1 mile. sixteenths = eighths — ' I eighth. I quarter. 3 inches make 4 " palm. I hand. 6 iS 21.8 '• " 2% feet make 6 " " span. I cubit. I Bible cubit I military pace. I common pace. I meter. 1 fathom. 2 quarters 4 quarters = 1 half. — I yard. 8S0 fathoms make i mile. I knot or geographical mile is -JU of a degree. 3 knots make i marine league. 60 " " 1 69^ statute miles > i degree. 99 I- 12 miles I -^ part of an inch, a hair's breadth. A ships cable is a chain usually about 120 fathoms or 720 feet long. * The old system of measuring cloth by nails and ells is not now used in this country. One minim equals one drop. Scale of Comparison. fur. 320 40 yd. 1760 320 5^ S2S0 = 6.3360 6«o _ 7920 16K - ■OS 3 ~ 36 Table of EqinvALENTS as between Metric and Standard Meas- ures. 1 in. = 25J^ m. m. (nearly). I ft. =305 " " I yd. = 914 " " I rd. = 5,029 •* " 1 mi. = 1609.3s i^- I cm. = .3937 = Yz in. (nearly). I m. = 39.37 in. = 1.093 yd- ' 1 km. = .62137 mi.= 19S rds. 13 ft* 10 in. I sq. m. c^ I sq. ft. = I sq. yd. = I acre = 1 cu. in I cu. ft. I cu. yd. I cord 1 fluid oz. 1 gal. 1 bus. I OE. troy I lb. troy 1 lb. apoth. I oz. avoir. 1 lb. avoir. 6.5 sq. cm. 9.3 sq. dm. .S35 sq. m. 40.47 a. Square Measure. I sq. cm. = I sq. m. e= I are. = I ha. = .155 sq. in. J 1550 sq. in. ") 10.76 sq. ft. ii9.6sq. yd. 2.471 acres. Cubic Solid Measure. T6.3S7 cu. centm. j 2S.34 liters. ( .02S3 steres. .76i:;3i steres. 3.62S1 steres. .0295S liters. 3.7S6 liters. 35.24 liters. I liter I hecto- liter I kiloli- ter I cu. ine ter I stere J 1.0567 qt. liq. meas. ~~ \ .90S qt. dry mea5. j 2.S37 bu. dry meas. = ( 26.417 gal. liq. meas. 1 r 35.316 cu. ft. 1.30SCU. yd. ■ = -^264.17 gal. liq. meas. L .2759 cord. Weight. -= 31.1 grams. [= 37-J.2 " = 2S.35 '« -- 45?.6 " 1 ton avoir. = I gpram. 1 kilogram Angular Measure, = 100 grades. ^ 1^ grades. •= 1.S5 minutes ('cen.). ■= 3.0S seconds('cpn.). I cir. 1 grade 1 ' ccn. 1" cen. 907.2 kilos. ! 15.432 gr- troy. i .5643 dr. avoir. 2.2046Jb. avoir. 2204.6 lb. avoir. 400 grades. 9deg. 5.4'. = 3-34". 2 pints (pt.) 3 quarts 4 pecks 36 iDushels cald. bu. Dry Measure. I quart, I peck, 1 bushel, I chaldron, Scai,e of Comparison. pks, = 144 « cald- qts. 1152 32 pta 230f Note. — The standard bushel is the Winchester, which contains 2150.42 cubic inches, or 77.627 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water at its maximum density. Its dimensions are iSj^ inches diameter inside, 195^ inches outside, and S inches deep. Liq^uiD or Wine Measure. 4 gills make i pint, pt. | 31^^ gallons make i barrel, bbl. 2 pmts 4 quarts ' 1 quart, I gallon, qt. gal. dT, gallons Surveyors*' Measure. 25 links make 1 rod. 4 rods " I chain. 80 ch. " 1 mile. Surveyors* Square Measxhie. Z^Vz gallons make i barrel, - barrels ^ „ , hogshead, hh. 625 sq. links make i sq. rod, 16 sq. rods " I sq. chain, 10 sq. ch. " I acre, 640 A. " I sq. mile, 36 sq. miles (six mile sq.) make township, Sqjjare Measure. sq rd. sq. ch. A. sq. mi. Tp. 144 sq. in. make 1 square foot. 9 sq. ft. " I square yard. 305^^ sq. yds. " 1 square rod. 40 sq. rds. make i rood, or qr. acre. 4 R. " I acre. 640A. " I sq. mile or sec- tion. 7i: METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Scale of Comparison. R. rds. sq. yds. 4 = i6o = 4S40 I = 40 =■ 1210 I = 30'i sq. ft. sq. in. 431^60 = 6272040 10S90 L= 156S160 272J4 = 39204 9 = 1296 I =■ 144 Cubic or Solid Measure. make I cubic foot. I cubic yurd. 172S cu. in. 27 cu. ft. 40 cu. I't. of round timber or I 50 cu. ft. of liewn timber J Scu. ft. 16 cd. ft. or I 12S cu. ft. S 24ji( cu. ft. I ton or load. I cord foot. I cord of wood. I perch of I < stone, or ( masonry. 24 grains (gr.) 20 pwt. 12 oz. 3l .?rains Weights. Troy Weights. make i pennyweight, " I ounce, " I pound, " I carat (diamond wt.), pwt. oz. lb. Scale of Comparison. lb. I oz. 12 I dwt. 240 20 I Ik. 20 grains (gr.) 3 scruples S drams 12 ounces Apothecaries' Weight. make i scruple, " I dram, " I ounce, " I pound. Scale of Comparison. 5760 480 H 3i sc. or 3 dr. or 3 oz. or 3 lb. or lb. lb. I 196 lbs. 200 " oz. — 12 I dr. 96 sc. 2S8 24 3 I 5760 480 60 Table of Miscellaneous Weight. make 280 32 48 56 H 46 44 60 45 57 28 50 barrel of flour. " beet" pork or fish. " salt at N. Y. Salt Works, bushel of oats. " barley. " corn, rye or flax seed. " blue-grass-seed. " castor- beans. " hemp-seed. n ( wheat, beans, clover- } seed, peas or potatoes. " timothy-seed. " onions. " apples or peaches dried. " salt. A sack of wool is 22 stone, that is, 14 lbs. to the stone, 30S lbs. A puck of -wool is 17 stone 2 lbs =240 lbs. — a pack load for a horse. A truss of hay is, new, 60 lbs.; old, 50 lbs.; straw, 40 lbs. A load of hay is 36 trusses. A bale of hay is 300 lbs. A firkin of butter was formerly 56 lbs., but is now generally put up in 50 or 100 lb. firkins. A bale of cotton is 400 lbs., but it is put up in diiTerent States varying from 2S0 to 720 lbs. Sea Island cotton is put up in sacks of 300 lbs. Avoirdupois Weight. 16 drams (dr.) 16 oz. 25 lb. 4qr. 20 cwt. 100 lb. I ounce, I pound, I quarter, I hundredweight, I ton, I cental. Scale of Comparison. cwt. 20 I qr. lb. 80 = 2000 oz. 32000 4 = 100 = 4000 I = 25 = 400 6 = 16 I United States money is a decimal cuirency. Table. oz, lb. qr. cwt. T. dr. 512000 25600 6400 16 10 mills (m.) I cent, 10 cents ct. dime, d. lOO mills. 10 dimes i dollar, $ looo *' lOO cents. 10 dollars i eagle, E. loooo *' looo " loo dimes. I eagle (gold) weighs 258 Iroj grains. I dollar (silver) " 412.5 " I cent (copper) " 168 " 23.2 grains of pure goldi=$i.oo. Note. — The gold coins are the double-eagle^ eagle^ Italf- eagle^ quarter-eagle^ three- dollar piece and dollar. Table of Comparison of the Measures of Capacity. I gallon or 4 qt. wine measure contains 231 cubic inches, ^ pk. or 4 qt. dry measure " 268|- " I gallon or 4 qt. beer measure " 282 " I bushel dry measure " 21503^ " In England the following weights and measures are sometimes used: WEIGHT. 3 pounds -= I stone, butchers' ineat. 7 pounds = I clove. 2 cloves = I stone common articles. 2 stone = I tod of -wool. 6^ tods = 1 wey *' 2 weys = I sack •' 12 sacks = I last " 240 pounds = I pack " CLOTH MEASURE. zYz inches = i nail. 4 nails = I quarter. 4 quarters = 1 yard. 3 quarters = i Flemish ell. t; quarters = i English ell. 6 qu.lrtcr.; = l French ell. 4t*V Qu^i'ters =- I Scotch ell. 2 quarts 2 bushels 2 strikes 2 cooms 5 quarters 3 bushels 36 bushels f MEASURE. =- I pottle. = I strike. = I coom. = I quarter. = I load. -= I sack, = I chaldron. WINE MEASURE. 18 U. S. gal. = I runlet. 2 tierces = i puncheon. If 5:^1: |al.°"'h' hogshead. 2 hogsheads = i pipe. 2 pipes = I tun. 7J.^ Eng. gal. = I firkin of beer, 4 firkins = i barrel *• Table of Comparison of Weights, &c. 1 U. S. pound Troy=576o grs. Troy I Eng. poundTroy^^76o " " I pound Apoth. =.5760 *' '* I U. S. pound Av..^7ooo ** " I Eng. pound Av. =7000 " *' 144 pounds Av. ^ 175 lb. Troy. I Frenchgram =15.433 grs. " 1 U. S. yard =36 inches. I English yard=36 inches. I French meter ==39. 36S^inches. I U. S. bushel ^21 50,42 -j-cu. in, I Eng. " =2218.19-)- " I U. S. gallon =231 " I Eng. " =277.26+ I French liter =61.533-]- " I French are =1 19.664 sq. yds. French, English and United States Money Reduced into United States, English and French money. Francs. I 5 Dollars. Pounds Sterling. Shillings. Pence. = 0.1930 = =. 0.964S =. 5.1S26 =1. =. 25.20 =0 4.S63 126.00 24-315 - 5. 0.0396S = 0.7936 ^ 9.523 0.19S40 = Z'^^ =■ 47-'52 0.2056 ==■ 4. II = 49. 1 . 02S0 = 30 . 56 ^ 247 . 1. = 20.00 = 240. =^ lOO.OO = 1200. "c) ^ t>L. 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I commend it lo my pupils and friends as agood investment. PrcJ. A/. J. GOLDSMITH, Prof. Penmanship Southern Business University, Atlanta, Ga. Embodies the most practical and useful amount of information of any book I ever saw. It is a perfect business library in itself JAMES S. BOTNTONy Pres. Georgia State Senate. It contains a vast amount of valuable information presented in an attractive form. It will be found useful to a business man, and valuable in a family of young people. B. F. MOORE, A. M., Pres. Southern Business University, Atlanta, Georgia, I can recommend * Gaskell's Compendium of Forms" as a useful book of reference, for business and professional men, and is more comp.ete than any work of the kind previously published. BOSTON HERALD. Its pages are so well stocked with useful knowledge, that few will hesitate to give it the second place, a^ least, among the volumes in daily use. BOSTON COURIER. 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Senate of Georgia), Attorney at Law- I unhesitatingly pronounce it a valuable book of reference, as regards business, social and Itgal forms. I have a copy which I appreciate very highly, and would not part with it for five times its cost. ^F ^iT- 1MMII;1l'llllllll|l||iiill 018 499 672 8 sas-s-^^JimsiJ^^i^ss :^sssKi:s>^