LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
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 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
Science, Art, 
 
 — AND — 
 
 Methods of Teaching; 
 
 — CONTAINING 
 
 Lectures on the Science, Art, and Methods of Educa- 
 tion with the Most Practical Modes of Ir)ipari- 
 ing Instruction in Eleven Common 
 School Branches, 
 
 -b/- 
 
 PROFESSOR DANIEL B. ViLLIAMS, A. M, PH, D, 
 
 Dean of the Collegiate Department, Professor of Ancient Languages, 
 and Instructor in Pedagogy in the V. N. & C, I, 
 
 — ALSO — 
 
 Author of "Outlines of School Management," "Freedom and Progress," 
 "The Ethiopians — Pioneers in Civilization," Etc., Etc. 
 
 WITH EXTRACTS FROM SKETCHES 
 
 Written by Robert W. Whiting, Esq., John Mitchell, Jr., Professor D. 
 W. Davis, and Professor I. G. Penn. 
 
 ISETTISETD 'mI^^ID BIDITIOaiT. 
 
 PETERSBURG, VA, 
 
 •rvH w X ' 
 
 DANIEL B. WILLIAMS, A. M., PH. D., PUBLISHER. 
 
 1893. 
 Copyright, 1892, by Daniel B. Williams, A. M., Pli. D. 
 
 t 
 
LBiOiS 
 
 Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1SS7. by Professor 
 
 Daniel B. Williams, in the office of the Librarian of Congress 
 
 at Washington. 
 
 Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1887, by Professor 
 
 Daniel B. Williams. A. M.. Ph. D., in the office of the 
 
 Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
 
 Printers and Book Binders. 
 Petersburg, Va. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 After a careful study of the best works on educa- 
 tion, and after an extensive experience in instructing 
 students and teachers in the principles and methods 
 of teaching, I was convinced that a work which would 
 present the laws and modes of teaching more definite- 
 ly than they are usually presented should be publish- 
 ed. This work was mainlj^ undertaken at the solici- 
 tation of a number of my students and friends with 
 .the intention of placing a useful handbook in the reach 
 of the educators of our youth . 
 
 The principles and methods herein discussed and 
 •illustrated are in perfect harmony with the teachings 
 of the most successful educators of Europe and the 
 United States. They have been applied by myself 
 with satisfactory results during twelve years of public 
 and private school service. 
 
 The success of the work has been such as to warrant 
 the expense of a revised edition. A few corrections 
 and alterations have been made in the present edition 
 which make an improvement on the first publication. 
 
^CONTENTS.*^^- 
 
 Page. 
 Extracts from Sketches 5 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 The Science of Education 17 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 The Art of Education 40 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 Methods of Education 56 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 How to Teach Reading 68 
 
 LECTURE y. 
 
 How to Teach Spelling and Phonics 76 
 
 LECTURE VI. 
 How to Teach Arithmetic 82 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 How to Teach Geography 96 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 How to Teach History 105 
 
 LECTURE IX. 
 
 How to Teach Language, Composition, and Gram- 
 mar 114 
 
 LECTURE X. 
 
 How to Teach Writing and Drawing 124 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM SKETCHES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 LIFE OF PROFESSOR OAN'L B. WILLIAMS, A. M., Pb. 0. 
 
 "We live in deeds, not years ; in thoughts, not breaths ; 
 In feelings, not figures on a dial. 
 
 We should count time by heart-throbs. He most lives 
 Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best." 
 
 I. His Early Life and Education. 
 
 By Pi'ofessor D. Webster Davis, Teacher in the Rich- 
 mond Schools. 
 
 PEOFESSOE DANIEL BAECLAY WILLIAMS 
 first saw the light of day in the city of Eich- 
 mond, Va., November 22, 1861. As a boy he was 
 good at ball, bandy, tops, marbles, foot-ball, and won 
 fame in swimming. With all this, he was manly and 
 above mean and low acts. He passed through the 
 common schools of Eichmond, and graduated from 
 the Eichmond Normal and High School in 1877 with 
 distinguished, honors, having won the gold, medal for 
 
SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 excellence in scholarship and deportment and a silver 
 one for excellence in orthography. 
 
 His teachers having seen the wonderful promise of 
 future greatness in him persuaded him to attend 
 Worcester Academy, where he was the acknowledged 
 leader of his class till his graduation in 1880. He was 
 matriculated in Brown University in the summer of 
 1880, and, in the fall of the same year, commenced 
 to teach in the public schools of Eichmond. He 
 taught in the city till June, 1884, and, in the fall of 
 1885, taught in the schools of Henrico county. With 
 a wonderful tenacity of purpose, he pursued the en- 
 tire course of Brown University, which he completed 
 in 1885. In the fall of 1885, he was elected as teach- 
 er in the V. I^J". & C. I., and, in 1887, he was elected 
 Professor of Ancient Languages and Instructor in 
 Pedagogy. He is also Dean of the College Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 II. As AN Educator. 
 
 By John Mitchell, Jr., Editor of the ^' Planet.^ ^ 
 
 ^ ^Professor Williams is a gentleman of learning, 
 taste, and sound judgment." — Eev. W. J. Simmons, 
 D. D. 
 
 As an educator, Professor Williams has few equals. 
 He seems to have a heaven-born gift for the work. 
 He has had thirteen years' experience, and has given 
 instruction in about all the common school branches 
 and high school courses, in several scientific courses, 
 in Greek, Latin, French, German, and Hebrew, in 
 Plane and Solid Geometry, in Plane and Spherical Trig- 
 onometry, and in Surveying. To him is due the cred- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 it of building the Method Department of the V. N. 
 &C. I. 
 
 A Polished Linguist. 
 
 As a linguist, he occupies a prominent place. He 
 reads with ease French, German, Hebrew, Latin, and 
 Greek. To him is mostly due the credit of building 
 the Latin and Greek Department of the Institute. 
 The Latin and Greek courses taught by him are as 
 follows: Latin Grammar and Inductive Latin Les- 
 sons, Caesar, Cicero, Sallust, Yirgil, Livy, Horace, 
 Tacitus, Greek Grammar and Inductive Greek Les- 
 sons, Anabasis, N^ew Testament Greek, Homer, So- 
 phocles, Demosthenes, Plato, and Modern Greek. He 
 has carefully studied the methods of Ascham, Ollen- 
 dorf, Eosenthal, Harper, and others, and has devised 
 methods of his own, by which he teaches Latin and 
 Greek with great ease, and enrobes them in living 
 beauty. The chair of Ancient Languages of the V. 
 I^. & C. I. is one of the most thorough and practical 
 in our colleges. He has taught these languages to 
 hundreds of students . 
 
 Extract from Prof. I. Garland Penn, of Lynchburg, Va . 
 
 Professor Williams has the honor of building the 
 pedagogical department of the institute. He com- 
 menced it in 1885. He has added to it year by year, 
 and caused it to rank among the foremost professional 
 departments for teachers in the country. He has 
 taught his methods to hundreds of students and teach- 
 ers, and many teachers feel themselves indebted to 
 him for their success. The greatest evidence of the 
 
8 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 success of his educational work consists in the fact that 
 the teachers have reported his methods practical, and 
 that they have worked like charms in their school 
 rooms. In his department of pedagogy, he is so 
 original and scholarly that he begets for himself ad- 
 miration from every intelligent mind. His grand 
 work in building the Pedagogical Department of the 
 V. ]Sr. & C. I. ranks him among the foremost educa- 
 tors of the nation. It is a great work. His course of 
 instruction covers School Management, Methods of 
 Teaching, Philosophy of Education, and History of 
 Education. For eight consecutive years he has taught 
 the students of the Senior Class of the school and the 
 hundreds of teachers who assemble in Petersburg every 
 summer. 
 
 Extract from Professor Robert W. Whiting. 
 
 Professor Williams possesses an harmonic mind, 
 and is a conqueror in all the fields of learning to which 
 he has ever turned his attention. He is a linguist of 
 a high order, ranks high as a mathematician, and has 
 taught more mathematics than any other colored man 
 in the State. Even in the difficult and abstract fields 
 of science and philosophy, he is profoundly versed. 
 While he is known as a lecturer, orator, and author 
 of marked ability, Professor Williams holds himself 
 distinctly as an educator. Among the educators of 
 the colored people, he occupies a first place, and in 
 his departments of Languages and Pedagogy, he has 
 few equals and no superior. 
 
 III. As A Writer, Author, and Publisher. 
 
 By Professor I, Garland Perm, Author of '^The Afro- 
 American Press and its Editors.'''' 
 
 *• ^Science, art, and Methods of Teaching reflects the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 classic finish of its author." — Professor E. D. Scott. 
 For the last twelve years, Dr. Williams has con- 
 contributed numerous articles to leading newspapers 
 and magazines. It would be tedious to mention the 
 newspapers with which he has had correspondence 
 at different times. He has been a constant contribu- 
 tor to our leading journals. The readers of the Planet, 
 the Freemcm, the Age, the Plaindealer, the A. M. E. 
 Beview, and many others have often been delighted 
 and benefited by his versatile pen. He is one of the 
 few colored writers whose articles have been accepta- 
 ble to the editors and readers of white journals. The 
 Virginia Journal of Education, the New York Sun, the 
 Rome Mission Monthly, and the Index- Appeal of Peters- 
 burg, are among the white journals to which he has 
 contributed. 
 
 'As an Author. 
 
 He satisfactorily demonstrates the skill and ability 
 of the Afro -American in another and comparatively 
 new field of labor; viz., that of a book-maker. In 
 1883, he sent from the press his ^'The Ethiopians, not 
 the Egyptians, Pioneers in Civilization." This little 
 work was revised and copyrighted in 1890. In 1885, 
 he sent from the press his ^'Why we are Baptists," 
 and revised it in 1890. In 1892 he issued his ^^Jeru- 
 salem Destroyed" and ^'The Solar System." In 
 1891, he published ^'Outlines of School Management" 
 and ^'Pestalozzi and Froebel." 
 
 In 1887, he published ^ ^Science, Art, and Methods 
 of Teaching." This work crowns him leader. An 
 eminent man of letters thus speaks of it : '^This book 
 
10 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 is used in seven courses of study, is the constant com- 
 panion of five hundred or more teachers, and has 
 been indorsed by sixty educators and thirty newspa- 
 pers. It has been circulated in twenty states and 
 Hayti.^' ^ ^Freedom and Progress" is the largest 
 and most versatile of any of his works, and was 
 sent from the press in 1890. The issue of this work 
 is the result of his intense race interest. His origi- 
 nal, easy, and ready way of expressing himself in 
 print always commands attention. Professor Wil- 
 liams possesses wonderful brain power. This book 
 has been extensively circulated throughout the na- 
 tion. Aside from the above mentioned writings, he 
 wrote ^^The Life and Times of Capt. E. A. PauP' in 
 1885, '^The Theory of Eev. John Jasper Concerning 
 the Sun" in 1884, and the '^Introduction to the Afro- 
 American Press." m 
 
 As a Successful Publisher. 
 
 He has not only penned the thoughts comprising 
 his books, but he has published and agented them 
 successfully beyond a doubt. He assumes every dol- 
 lar of expense on his works, and manages by close at- 
 tention and perseverance in appointing and regulating 
 agents to successfully pay for them and have a margin 
 of profit. Scores of students and teachers and others 
 in and out of the State have worked for his publica- 
 tions among the people, and have earned for them- 
 selves good remuneration . Through the channel of his 
 books, he has caused hundreds of dollars to flow into 
 the pockets of young men and women, and inspired 
 many a boy and girl, young man and woman to strive 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 more energetically in the battle of life. Thns lie ben- 
 efits his race, and ranks as a benefactor of it. 
 
 IV. As AN Orator. 
 
 By John Mitchell, Jr., Editor of the ^'Flanet.'''' 
 
 ^^As an Orator, Professor Williams ranks high.'^ 
 Professor D. W. Davis. 
 
 The subject of our sketch has a wide reputation as 
 an orator and brilliant conversationalist. For twelve 
 years he has delivered orations and lectures and ser- 
 mons in different parts of the State. His services are 
 frequently in demand at home and abroad. His dis- 
 courses are enjoyed alike by the ignorant and the 
 scholarly. His method and style are his own. He 
 has studied with care the matter and method of an- 
 cient and modern orators and selected excellencies 
 from them all . The hearer is deeply impressed with the 
 earnestness of the Professor . The principle on which he 
 discpurses runs through his address with the majesty 
 and force of a river, and the matter of his speeches 
 is as varied as his learning and scholarship. Since 
 his connection with the institute he has taught essay 
 and oration writing. He is now the rhetqg^'ical instruc- 
 tor of the Demostheno-Websterian Oratorical College 
 Class of the V. IST. & C. I. 
 
 Extract from Professor E. W. Wliiting. 
 
 Professor Williams is a brilliant conversationalist 
 and an orator of convincing logic. On any subject 
 that he discusses, his propositions are clear and his 
 words are like bees laden with honey, and dull must 
 
12 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 be the intellect that does not learn something from this 
 river of gold. 
 
 V. His Widespread Keputation. 
 By Professor I. Garland Penn. 
 
 ^'We bespeak for him an imperishable fame." — Pro- 
 fessor D. W. Davis. 
 
 Professor Williams' reputation is not by any means 
 confined to State limits, but the nation knows him as 
 a scholarly and high-toned gentleman. He is not 
 over-rated as some are. An evidence of his popular- 
 ity is noted in the fact that a number of our leading 
 men have conferred distinguished honors upon him. 
 His cut and sketch adorned the columns of the great 
 Kew York Sun on May 15, 1887, and those of the 
 Cleveland Gazette and Indianapolis Freeman on May 2, 
 1889. The late Eev. W.J. Simmons included him in 
 his biographical work, ^'Men of Mark," in 1887, and 
 It was purely upon the merits of the Professor that I 
 included him in my ^^ Afro- American Press" in 1891. 
 On November 30, 1889, the Eichmoud Planet pre- 
 sented a cut and sketch of him, and in August, 1892, 
 the Petersburg Herald likewise honored him. 
 
 ^^Poets of America" was published in 1891 by 
 Thomas W. Herringshaw. It contains poems from 
 only two colored persons in the country, and one of 
 them is ^'The Ee volution and Yorktown," by Profes- 
 sor Williams. ^ ^Golden Thoughts of American Wri- 
 ters" was given to the public in November, 1892, by 
 Mr. H. H. Bevis of Cincinnati. He requested Pro- 
 fessor Williams early in September to send him an ex- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 tract from some of his writings. His articles were so 
 much admired that he inserted two of them in this 
 noted workj one of which is entitled ^^The Benevo- 
 lence of Christ." He is the only Colored -American 
 writer represented in this noted work. 
 
 On May 19, 1889, Livingstone College conferred on 
 him the degree of A. M., and, in May, 1891, Shaw 
 University honored him with the degree of Ph. D. 
 The following letters speak for themselves : 
 
 '^Salisbury, N. C, June 21, 1889. 
 Professor Williams, 
 
 Dear Sir: — 
 
 I take this opportunity to 
 officially inform you that Livingstone College, at its 
 last commencement on May 19, 1889, conferred on 
 you the degree of A. M. 
 
 Eespectfully, E. Moore." 
 
 ^^Shaw University, Ealeigh, K. C, 
 
 May 29, 1891. 
 Professor B. B. Williams , 
 
 Dear Sir and Brother: — 
 
 This letter will inform 
 you that, at the commencement exercises held to-day, 
 the degree of Ph. D. was conferred upon you by the 
 Faculty and Trustees of Shaw University in conse- 
 quence of your scholastic attainments, distinguished 
 talent, and ability. 
 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 H. M. TUPPER, President." 
 In July, 1892, he was unanimously elected Presi- 
 
14 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHINO. 
 
 dent of the Virginia Teachers' Association after he 
 had filled with consummate ability the position of 
 Chairman of the Executive Board for three years. He 
 has during the last thirteen years filled a number of 
 prominent positions in the State. In November, 
 1892, an excellent cut of Dr. Williams appearecl in 
 the American Press Association. At the Conference 
 of Colored Authors which met on December 28, 1892, 
 in Wilmington, N^. C, he was selected to read a paper 
 on the ^'Urgent Need of Text-books Prepared by Afro 
 American Educators . ' ' 
 
 VI. His Moral and Eeligious Character. 
 By Professor I. Garland Fenn. 
 
 ^ ^Virtus ariete fortior." ^ ^Virtue is stronger than 
 a battering-ram." 
 
 I am reminded that Professor Williams is a Chris- 
 tian gentleman of the first water. In all his life, he 
 has seldom attempted to do anything of himself inde- 
 pendently of God. The Professor will pardon me if I 
 publicly expose a sentence or two to which he gave 
 utterance in my presence. Said he, '^I try to obey 
 the injunction, ^In all thy ways acknowledge Him, 
 and He will direct thy paths.' " Again he said, ^'I 
 live for God, Heaven, and Eternity. I love my Bace, and 
 State, and Natmi. I must benefit my people." These 
 ideas constitute the key to his success. He has reach- 
 ed manhood without a single blot upon his record 
 either as a student or a gentleman. He has never 
 forgotten his mother, and he looks to her welfare 
 scrupulously. 
 
INTKODUCTION. 15 
 
 Extract from John Mitchell , Jr. 
 
 Professor Williams is a man of unblemished moral 
 character, and scrupulously dutiful to his aged 
 mother, for whom he cherishes a most devoted affec- 
 tion. Kind-hearted, affable, able. Professor Wil- 
 liams is ^^a man among men." It is with no little 
 pleasure that we pay this tribute to Virginia's noble 
 son — a 3^oung man who has steadily climbed the ladder 
 of fame until to-day he can gaze with a serenity that 
 comes from a consciousness of success. Having watch- 
 ed him in his upward flight, we pause for words with 
 which to express our admiration for one who has 
 overcome such apparently insurmountable obstacles. 
 In the ecstacy of the moment, we find ourselves ex- 
 claiming: 
 
 "His life is gentle ; and the elements 
 So mixed in him, that nature might stand up 
 And say to all the world, 'This is a man.' " 
 
LECTURE I. 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF EDUGATION. 
 
 What it is — Physical Education — Intellectual Educa- 
 tion — The Primary and Secondary Poivers of the Intellect — 
 Moral Education — The Sensihility and Will — How the 
 Child should he Trained in Morality and Religion. 
 
 "Mark then the cloven sphere that holds 
 All thought in its mysterious folds, 
 That feels sensation's faintest thrill, 
 And flashes forth the sovereign will ; 
 Think on the stormy world that dwells 
 Locked in its dim and clustering cells ; 
 The lightning gleams of power it sheds 
 Along its hollow, glassy threads!" 
 
 jr> DUCATION, in its broadest sense, is a general 
 __/ expression that includes the divers ^influences 
 / which operate on a human being* from his birth 
 to his grave. The circumstances by which he may be 
 surrounded, the nature of the country, the character 
 of the family life, the school, church, and society of 
 which he is a member, the food which he eats, and the 
 water which he drinks constitute a potent factor in 
 converting him into a physically strong, intelligent, 
 moral, and religious man, or into a physically weak, 
 ignorant, and wicked one. 
 
 The interesting study of biography ^'and daily expe- 
 
18 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 rieiico clearly evince liow differently this comprelien- 
 sive training" affects men and women. In some, ^ood 
 and noble forces predominate ; in others, wicked and 
 vicious ones are the more prominent. This idea of 
 education accounts for the treachery of Judas and the 
 perfidy of Benedict Arnold, the devotedness of St. 
 John and the patriotism of Washington. 
 
 Let us define education in a more specific sense, 
 and, especially, in the sense in which it is used in 
 connection with school life. It is derived from the 
 Latin word cducare (the primitive of which is educere)^ 
 and means to draw forth frequently and persistently 
 the powers of the being to be trained, so that he be- 
 comes sound in body, vigorous in mind, and noble 
 in moral character. 
 
 By the science of education, we mean the princi- 
 ples and facts derived from the human being which 
 furnish rules for the educator's guidance. The being 
 to be trained and instructed possesses bodily, mental, 
 and moral constitutions. It is essential that the 
 teacher thoroughly understand the nature, use, and 
 conditions of growth of each. Well did the able and 
 scholarly Dr. Youman of Now York say, "A knowl- 
 edge of the being to be trained, as it is the basis of 
 all intelligent culture, must be the first necessity of 
 the teacher." 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The nature, functions, and means of invigorating the 
 body are admirably set forth in the science of Physi- 
 ology, with which every instructor should be well ac- 
 quainted. Dr. Andrew Combe, in speaking of physical 
 culture, says, '*I cannot regard any teacher or parent. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 19 
 
 as fully and conscientiously qualified for his duties, 
 unless he has made himself acquainted with the na- 
 ture and general laws of the animal economy." Her- 
 bert Spencer, Dr. Youman, Col. Francis Parker, and 
 other prominent educators agree that teachers can 
 better improve the physical condition of their pupils, 
 if they are acquainted with the immutable laws of 
 health. 
 
 It is a fundamental principle of the science of edu- 
 cation that the mind and body are"intimately connec- 
 ted. Upon strength and vigor of body depend, in 
 large measure, power and brilliancy of intellect. 
 Kousseau truly said, "The weaker the body is, the 
 more it commands ; the stronger it is, the better it 
 obeys." When the body is deranged, the intellect 
 has little inclination to delve into the profound depths 
 of science and mathematics, or to soar to the lofty 
 heights of linguistry and philosophy ; but, when it is 
 sound and healthy, the reason readily grasps the most 
 abstruse truths in the fields of science and philoso- 
 phy. The teacher must be mindful of the many bless- 
 ings attending physical robustness and the multitudi- 
 nous ills concomitant upon constitutional weakness. 
 
 The leading thinkers of our age are considering 
 the question, "How can the men and women of our 
 country be made more robust in body ?" It is an 
 acknowledged fact that the women of England and 
 Germany are more healthy than those of the United 
 States. The reason is evident ; they pay more atten- 
 tion to physical culture than we. 
 
 One of the grand results of the laws of Lycurgus 
 was, that Sparta could boast of a vigorous and heal- 
 thy womanhood, the basis of a strong and courageous 
 
20 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 nation. Such a womanhood should be the boast and 
 glory of America. The great ends of physical cul- 
 ture are healthiness and longevity, which are certainly 
 worth our toils and painstaking. 
 
 How many young girls of both races ranging from 
 the ages of twelve to twenty are affected with neural- 
 gia, dyspepsia, catarrh, consumption, and other cor- 
 roding diseases! How many of our most brilliant 
 and promising young men sink into premature graves ! 
 These evils are to be counteracted by the skilled and 
 dutiful instructor who must be indefatigable in ward- 
 ing off every influence injurious to the scholar. The 
 cleanliness of the person of the student, the proper 
 ventilation of the room, the posture of the pupil in 
 school, his exercise at recess, and other matters apper- 
 taining to health should receive due attention. Calis- 
 thenics can be easily taught by any live teacher. The 
 motto of every thoughtful, progressive teacher is, 
 Corpus studiosi doctrinoe conservandum est, (The 
 body of the student must be preserved.) 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 The being to be educated possesses a mind as well 
 as a body. The word mind is frequently used to de- 
 signate the mental constitution ; but, in this lecture, I 
 use it as synonymous with soul. The mind, as thus 
 defined, is unity in trinity, and may be divided into 
 intellect, sensibility, and will. These are the three 
 great co-ordinate powers of the human soul. The 
 skilled teacher must be able to so train them, that 
 they will produce the greatest good to the student 
 and the richest blessings to mankind. 
 
 Let us first speak of the intellect which is the know- 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 21 
 
 ing, thinking, reasoning power of the human soul. 
 It may be divided into three primary powers, sense, 
 consciousness, and reason. Sense is that primary 
 power of the intellect, which gives us a knowledge of 
 external phenomena. Seeing, hearing, tasting, smell- 
 ing, and feeling are termed the five senses. Some 
 philosophers, as Haven and Wayland, speak of sense 
 under the name of Perceptive Faculties. The educa- 
 tor should know how to systematically develop sense, 
 or the Perceptive Faculties; for, upon the proper 
 training of sense, depends the power of accurate ob- 
 servation, — the foundation of all education. 
 
 No doubt, many men had seen apples fall to the 
 ground before Sir Isaac Newton; but no one had 
 really observed it, that is to say, no one had so deep- 
 ly excogitated upon it as to discover the great law of 
 gravitation. Newton saw with the eye the falling 
 apple ; he then investigated the cause of its fall, and, 
 by assiduous observation, revealed to mankind a 
 grand truth. Pestalozzi said, "I find that, in recog- 
 nizing observation as the absolute basis of all knowl- 
 edge, I have established the first and most important 
 principle of instruction." 
 
 The pupil must be taught to employ the eye, ear, 
 and other organs of sense with accuracy ; he must be 
 led to perceive the parts in a whole, the whole in the 
 parts, and his attention must be called to a compari- 
 son with other like and unlike objects. The scholar 
 must not stop at a mere seeing or hearing; he must 
 vigorously think upon that to which his attention is 
 directed. If the pupil is thus instructed, he is in pos- 
 session of the golden key which unlocks the door of 
 the palace of all truth 
 
22 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 Consciousness is that primary power of the intel- 
 lect which gives us a knowledge of internal phenom- 
 ena. When we reason, think, or remember, we know, 
 by the power of consciousness, that we are reasoning, 
 thinking, or remembering. Self-Consciousness is that 
 function of consciousness which gives the operations 
 of consciousness. This power is easily developed by 
 reflecting upon our own mental acts. 
 
 Reason is that primary power of the intellect which 
 is correlated to absolute, necessary, infinite truth. 
 By it, man perceives great scientific, mathematical, 
 moral, and religious truths, measures the distances of 
 the sun and planets, and reasons with Bacon-like 
 power from cause to effect and from effect to cause. 
 
 Socrates, the greatest and noblest teacher prior to 
 Christ, by this power, inaugurated a system of phi- 
 losophy that has influenced the thought of the world 
 to the present day. Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurus, 
 Seneca, Zoroaster, Confucius, Menu, Buddha, Mo- 
 hammed, and other great sages and philosophers, by 
 the same power, fastened upon mankind great philo_ 
 sophic and religious systems. Bacon, by it, saw the 
 barrenness of the old Aristotelian philosophy as 
 taught at Oxford, and introduced into scientific in- 
 vestigation the inductive method of philosophy, the 
 soul of which is "utility and progress." 
 
 The progressive instructor must teach the scholar 
 the why and wherefore of things, and call his atten- 
 tion to truths of science, linguistry, mathematics, phi- 
 losophy, and practical life ; he must lead him from 
 cause to effect and from effect to cause. Cato, deeply 
 convinced of the power of reason displayed in Plato's 
 Phiedo, which treats of the immortality of the soul, 
 
THE SCIENCE OP EDUCATION. 23 
 
 exclaimed, "Plato, thou reasonest well!" The true 
 teacher must aim to enable the pupil to reason well. 
 
 Aside from these three primary powers of the in- 
 tellect, there are eight secondary ones. They are un- 
 derstanding-, judgment, reflection, memory, associa- 
 tion, recollection, imagination, and fancy. The un- 
 derstanding is the notion forming power of the intel- 
 lect." By it, man forms ideas of education, business, 
 science, philosophy, religion, and practical life. Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte, after profoundly studying the dif- 
 ferent systems of warfare employed by the great 
 generals of antiquity, formed, by this power, the no- 
 tion that the method of fighting originated and prac- 
 ticed by the distinguished and patriotic Epaminon- 
 das of Thebes was superior to all others. By it Tous- 
 saint Louverture, the world's foremost general, was 
 inspired by the thought, that Hayti should be free, 
 and, by masterly sagacity and wonderful generalship, 
 liberated his countrymen from British, Spanish, and 
 French tyranny. 
 
 How absolutely necessary it is that we form cor- 
 rect notions of men and things! How important it 
 is, then, that the teacher should use all diligence in 
 assisting the child to have a good understanding! 
 The pupil must be taught to form correct thoughts 
 on the different studies and lessons given. If this 
 faculty is properly developed in youth, manhood 
 will experience little difficulty in forming right views 
 of life. 
 
 Judgment is the discriminating power of the intel- 
 lect, and, on the principle of resemblance and differ- 
 ence, is also the classifying power. By this faculty, 
 we distinguish good actions from vicious conduct, 
 
24 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 the superiority of one religious system to another, 
 and the differences among the multitudinous things 
 of life. By it, we decide on the relative merits of the 
 teachings of Yoltaire and Ingersoll and those of 
 Christ and Paul, and pronounce Jesus Christ the 
 greatest of the world's great teachers. 
 
 The child is very apt to pass over his lessons with- 
 out exercising much discrimination ; but the teacher 
 should carefully direct the attention of the student to 
 the resemblances and differences in the lessons taught. 
 For example, in studying U. S. History, the different 
 characters, methods, and achievements of different 
 generals should be discussed, and the scholar should 
 be encouraged to form opinions on the merits of dif- 
 ferent leaders. This idea naturally leads to a con- 
 sideration of taste, which is that function of judg- 
 ment which discerns beauty, symmetry, excellence, 
 and propriety in art, conduct, or anything. Taste is 
 plainly shown in the sculpture of Edmonia Lewis, the 
 poems of Bishop D. A. Paine, the neatly arranged par- 
 lor, and the personal adornment of men and women. 
 The preceptor can very readily develop this faculty by 
 teaching the child to draw beautiful forms and to 
 sing sweet songs. His attention should be called to 
 whatever is captivating in Nature, or beautiful in art. 
 Cleanliness of person, neatness of dress, and the pre- 
 servation and orderly arrangement of books and 
 slates should be constantly enjoined. 
 
 Reflection is that secondary power of the intellect 
 which brings knowledge under the mind's eye and 
 holds it there. Contemplation, meditation, musing, 
 and ruminating are frequently employed to designate 
 it. The world's great thinkers, discoverers, and in- 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 25 
 
 ventors, by the aid of this power, accomplished their 
 marvelous and stupendous achievements. When 
 Sir Isaac Newton was asked by what means he had 
 worked out his great discoveries, he replied, "By 
 always thinking on them." Benjamin Banneker, the 
 colored philosopher, astronomer, and mathemati- 
 cian, enjoyed the most meagre school training. By 
 self-instruction and reflection, he published in Phila- 
 delphia almanacs for the years 1792-3-4-5. They 
 contained tables of the motions of the sun and moon, 
 their risings and settings, the different aspects of the 
 planets, and the courses of the heavenly bodies. 
 
 The skillful pedagogue must impress the scholar 
 with the importance of reflecting on subjects taught. 
 One of the most effective methods of accomplishing 
 this consists in causing the pupil to carefully write 
 out his thoughts on a given subject. The beneficial 
 habit of thinking is also gradually acquired by allow- 
 ing the scholar sufficient time in answering questions. 
 
 Memory is that secondary power of the intellect 
 that holds every principle, fact, and experience. With- 
 out it, our knowledge would be forgotten as soon as 
 learned, and the experiences daily gained would be 
 of no service to us. With it, however, our knowledge 
 becomes a means of power, and the great truths 
 taught by the checkered history of nations may be 
 securely held as helpers and promoters of individual 
 and national growth. To what extent it can be de- 
 veloped, Locke, Mackintosh, Wayland, and other 
 philosophers have never been able to show ; but that 
 it is susceptible of a wonderful cultivation, the facts 
 of history and experience alike attest. 
 
 We are very well assured that the poems of Ho- 
 
2(> HOIENOK, Alii' AND MKIMIODS OK 'I'KAdllTNd. 
 
 nior woro transiuiiit^d from }i«::o to a.i::o by tlio unaid- 
 Oil powtn* of intMiiory. In l\\o tiino of So(M':it(^s (1(58 
 ',\\)\) \\. i\),i\\o\o wovo \{\\cn'iiu\ i!;on[\(mion ^y\\o i'onld 
 r(>|)(\Mi botli pooms. li was said that Arisitidi»s know 
 by nnnu>, ovt^ry ciliziMi of Ailu^iis, and that Oyrua the 
 (}n>M.t wa.H woll acHiuaintod witii tn'iM-y man of liis vast 
 army. W'hiK^ thi^ n^mnrUnblo momory of those 
 nuvn was (^\i't>ptional to tho «;(MiorM.l ruU\ and wliilo 
 tho toa(th<M- may not t^xptn^t tliat tho nu>mory of liis 
 studonts will (upinl tliat of AristotU^s and ("'yruS; 
 n(n(>illioh^ss h(^ shonhl ondiMivor to doo|)on, stroni^th- 
 on, and (>\pand it. This ist>asily ai^hiovinl by caiisini;' 
 tho scholar to moinoi*izt> tlu^ mnin [>rin('iplos jind facts 
 tan.i;ht in his varii)ns stndios, Tlio old [>ractico of 
 committini;- ovorythin.i;- rerhatim et literatim should 
 not oftiMi bo allowotl ; nor should momoriziuj^ with- 
 out roason and judj;inont bo countonanoiMl. 
 
 AssiH'iation is Unit sooontlary powtM- of thointolloot 
 whii'h brinj;;s to tho momory similar oxporioncos, 
 facts, conditions, and knowKnli^'o wliich havo passed. 
 N\ h(Mi i\\o charmim;- and t>loqn{>nt orator dt>piots in 
 i^lowini:: hinj^nai;t> tho capturo of Kort Loo in 18()4 by 
 [>!i(riotic ami valiant N(\i;"ro troo[)s, association brinies 
 to tlu> mt>mory tluMr darini;' d(H>ds at IMillikon's l>ond, 
 ()lnstt>t>, l\>rt \Va.i;iior, Tort lluilst>n, l'\>rt Harrison, 
 and oilu>r plaoos of historic riMiown. 
 
 What a i^lorious j^ift of Doity is this [)ONVor to man ! 
 Tjiko all other powers of the human soul, it is sus- 
 ceptibl(> of tlu> hi,i;lu>st cultivation. The wise instruc- 
 tor of tlu> youth must not be nt\L:'lii::ent in seekinj;- to 
 t>xpand and improve it. How easily ahnost any 
 teacher of (>ven moderatt^ acquisitions can vlo this! 
 Suppose that, in tho study of i:;:eo^nn)hy, the cities, 
 
'J^IE HCIIKNdE OF EDUCATION. 27 
 
 rivers, mountaiiiH, and othor mattcn'S of iiitorost of 
 Yir«^inia hnvo \hh)\\ i;iui;lils Jiiul iliafc tlm child Ih how 
 oni^M,^(Ml in tlio wtiidy of Maryland. IN^rhaps, niosfc 
 of tlui ciiicH, rivors, and oUuvr niatlc^iH of iuic^ront luivo 
 by this iiiiK^ wlippcHl from tho nu^uoiy of tlio child. 
 The toaclicr asks him to name the cities of Virginia. 
 Now the ])ower of association is appi^alcMl to, Jind it 
 brings to the sln^*t;ish nu^iioi-y the Ivnovvhul^cwdiiiost 
 lost. In the same manner, tlu^ iianu^ of I'oncu^ De 
 Leon will enable the instructor to cause tlui child to 
 recall the names and achievements of (/olumbus, the 
 Cabot brothers, Cortez, Jialboa, DeSoto, and other 
 discoven^rs. 
 
 Kecolloction is that sc^condary power of the intel- 
 lect which calls u^) knowhHl«^e almost lost, and holds 
 it in the memory. The teacher asks the pupil to name 
 the nine ])arts of speech lie names seven, but f;uls 
 to recall tlui n^maiiiin*];- two. Now, if h(^ is allowed 
 sullicicMit time to think, Ik vmay recall theoth(n-s. I*er- 
 ha[)S, th(^ Ixist way to strenj^then and empower recol- 
 lection is to f^ive the student sulHcient time to icu'.all 
 the re(|uir(Ml knowlcnl^'e which has almost escai)ed 
 from his mt^mory. 
 
 Imagination is the ima^'-e formin<;- power of the in- 
 tellect, correlated to the ideas of the Ix^autiful, the 
 sublime, and the ^dorious. Dante, by this i)ower, 
 pictured to himself the terrors and miseries of the 
 unfortunate damned, lie ckiarly saw in his mind a 
 vast thronjj;' of human beini^-s borne by temi)estu()us 
 winds from fiery llames to icy regions, from tropic 
 climes to arctic snows. To his fertile ima<j;-i nation, 
 some were immersed in mud and mire sullerinf** per- 
 l)etual strangulation, while others, arch heretics that 
 
28 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 they were, were placed with heads down in burn- 
 ing pits. 
 
 Edmonia Lewis, the colored American artist, pic- 
 tured to her poetic mind Hagar in her despair in the 
 wilderness and the Virgin Mary with the Infant Christ 
 in her arms and two adoring angels at her feet. By 
 her masterly power of genius, she realized in stone 
 the sorrowing Hagar and the group of the Madonna, 
 the Infant Christ and the angels. Homer, Virgil, 
 Chaucer, Spencer, Milton, Shakespeare, Phidias, Mi- 
 chael Angelo, Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Longfel- 
 low, Whittier, Mrs. Frances Ellen Harper, and Phillis 
 Wheatley have illustrated to mankind the power, 
 beauty, and excellence of the power of imagination. 
 
 Fancy is very closely connected with the imagina- 
 tion, for it is that secondary power of the intellect 
 which furnishes the materials out of which the imagfi- 
 nation makes its images. When the imagination of 
 Dante needed materials out of which he could give 
 a representation of Hell, fancy supplied them from 
 the mythology and history of Greece and Rome, the 
 religious beliefs of nations, and the truths of Holy 
 Writ. 
 
 There is no faculty of the mind which requires more 
 careful cultivation than the imagination. When pro- 
 perly regulated, it contributes to the development of 
 all that is noble and estimable in our nature. In 
 speaking of the importance of cultivating this faculty, 
 that eminent educator, T. Tate, in his Philosophy of 
 Education, says, "A man deficient in imagination, 
 however estimable he may be in his general conduct, 
 is usually unsocial, illiberal, and selfish." On the 
 other hand, a person with a wild, misguided imagi- 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 29 
 
 nation occupies his mind in the pursuit of idle dreams 
 and delusions to the neglect of all those pursuits 
 which are calculated to ennoble a rational being. The 
 imagination should always be kept under the control 
 of reason. The picture method of teaching is one of 
 the best means of developing the imagination of the 
 child. Pieces of poetry, prose composition of taste 
 and feeling, fables, and simple tales are excellent 
 agencies in cultivating it. 
 
 In the cultivation of the intellectual faculties — pri- 
 mary and secondary, — the instructor should not seek 
 to develop one at the expense of the others ; all should 
 be systematically and harmoniously trained. It must 
 not be inferred from what has been said, that, when 
 one of these faculties is at work, the others are at 
 rest. Often all seem to be acting at once, and it is 
 difficult to conceive of one acting without the assist- 
 ance of some of the others. 
 
 MORAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Let us now consider the two remaining co-ordinate 
 powers of the human soul, — sensibility and will. The 
 sensibility is the great feeling power of the human 
 soul. It is the seat of all appetites, emotions, affec- 
 tions, and desires. How diverse are the longings, 
 ambitions, wants, and cravings of mankind! These 
 multitudinous and ever-recurring desires, longings, 
 and ambitions, are the motive power of the world's 
 ]3rogress and civilization. But the selfish wishes and 
 the base-born passions of men and women have often 
 retarded the advancement of the world. 
 
 The wish to deprive men of life and liberty, to op- 
 press the poor, to enslave the helpless and the igno- 
 
30 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 rant, to heap ignominy, insult, and disgrace upon the 
 weak has crushed the bright hopes of teeming myri- 
 ads, bHghted the brilHant prospects of the world's 
 benefactors, drunk the righteous blood of a host of 
 martyrs, and converted joy, love, and happiness into 
 woe, hate, and misery. The high and heavenly aspi- 
 ration to preserve life, liberty, and property, to libe- 
 rate the enslaved, to elevate the poor, to protect the 
 weak has put greater value on human life and prop- 
 erty, released the oppressed bondman, freed the con- 
 science, advanced humanity in art, science, and 
 civilization, brightened our homes, and augmented 
 our joys. 
 
 Look at the great and illustrious leaders of the 
 World's great anti-slavery movement! See Wilber- 
 force, Pitt, and Burke pleading in matchless elo- 
 quence, unanswerable logic, and wondrous power the 
 cause of the oppressed! Behold brilliant Phillips, 
 earnest Garrison, bold Samuel E. Ward, eloquent 
 Douglass, scholarly Langston, with fearless John 
 Brown, brave Lovejoy, and silver-tongued Sumner 
 suffering ostracism, making sacrifices, and braving 
 death for ignorant, helpless, bleeding slaves ! When 
 these and other noble men of pure and tender sensi- 
 bility saw the absolute and relative rights of man ut- 
 terly violated and ignored, they were so moved in the 
 depths of their souls, that they were compelled to 
 cry aloud against the oppressor and to demand the 
 immediate and unconditional abolition of slavery. 
 
 What a great and serious undertaking the educator 
 assumes ! The sensibility of the student must be so 
 directed that his wishes are high and noble, his aspi- 
 rations pure and heavenly. He must be taught the 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 31 
 
 ennobling influence of the principles embodied in 
 the following words of George Herbert : 
 
 "Pitch they behavior low, thy projects high ; 
 
 So shalt thou humble and magnanimous be. 
 Sink not in spirit ; who aimeth at the sky 
 
 Shoots higher much than he that means a tree." 
 
 The distinguished Disraeli truthfully said, "The 
 youth who does not look up will look down, and the 
 spirit that does not soar is destined, perhaps, to grov- 
 el." It is the plain duty of the instructor to cause 
 the youth to look up, so that his spirit will "soar" 
 and not "grovel." The child must be taught to love 
 truths justice, benevolence, humility, patience, and 
 self-control. He should be so taught, that he volun- 
 tarily chooses to realize in life the fruits of noble 
 thoughts and aspirations. This brings us to a con- 
 sideration of the third and last co-ordinate power of 
 the human soul. 
 
 The will is the purposing, choosing power of the 
 human soul. It always acts in view of some motive. 
 Anything, a fact an experience, a consideration, a 
 mental condition affecting the intellect or sensibility 
 may constitute a motive. The will has the power to 
 originate its own motive. 
 
 While the activities and operations of the intellect 
 and sensibility are governed by the law of necessity, 
 the will is free to act, or not to act in the line of a 
 given motive. When we gaze upon the beauties of 
 creation, our minds of necessity think of what we see 
 and our sensibility is more or less affected. We 
 behold that matchless exhibition of Divine power, — 
 Niagara. We strive not to think of it and not to be 
 
32 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 moved by it, but we cannot help ourselves. But how 
 differently the great executive power in man, the will 
 is affected ! Our wise and beneficent Creator deter- 
 mined that our volitions and executive acts should 
 be governed by what may be designated the law of 
 freedom. 
 
 Here, then, is the real seat of character. Character 
 is what a person really is : in a psychologic sense, it 
 is the submission of the will to some particular mo- 
 tive whether it be good or bad. Where there is no 
 freedom, there can be no responsibility, and where 
 there is no responsibility, there can be no real char- 
 acter. The seat of character in mankind is found 
 neither in the intellect, nor sensibility ; for they are 
 directed in their activities by the law of necessity. 
 It can be found in the will only, as it alone is free 
 to act. 
 
 By this power, men choose virtue or vice, truth or 
 falsehood, God or Satan. By it, men freely deter- 
 mine and choose what will be their over-shadowing 
 purpose, or ultimate intention in life. Many of the 
 great philosophers and religious teachers of the 
 world chose as their over-shadowing purpose the im- 
 partation of truth, virtue, morality, and religion to 
 mankind. They all, with few exceptions, greatly ben- 
 efited the people of their times and deserve the high- 
 est praise. 
 
 Socrates, the grandest and most self-sacrificing phi- 
 losopher of aesthetic and cultured Greece, purposed 
 to employ his time and efforts in the discovery of 
 truth with the noble intention of benefiting people in 
 their every day life. The despiser of vice, the enemy 
 of injustice, he zealously labored for the inculcation 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 33 
 
 of pure principles of virtuous thinking and virtu- 
 ous living. He did not agree with the canting hy- 
 pocrites and the philosophic mountebanks of his age, 
 and was unjustly put to death. Though dead, he 
 speaks; and his memory is redolent with the sweet 
 scented perfume of integrity and truth. Who can 
 estimate the good achieved through the manly sacri- 
 fices and toils of Menu, Buddha, Confucius, Pythag- 
 oras, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Seneca, Zoroaster, and 
 Bacon? 
 
 Let us look at the greatest of the world's great re- 
 ligious teachers— Jesus Christ. His mission to man- 
 kind was to save them from the curse and penalty of 
 violated law. Between a holy, righteous God and 
 unholy, sinful man there could exist no fellowship. 
 He came to earth to reconcile man to his God by 
 making for him an atoning sacrifice. He spoke to 
 the people as man never spoke ; for he declared new 
 doctrines concerning God, the immortality of the 
 soul, the will of God concerning men, and the duties 
 of men to God and to each other. 
 
 He lived a life of self-sacrificing devotion to man 
 and holy rectitude. He alleviated the sick, and gave 
 the balm of joy to the disconsolate and the distress- 
 ed. He was hated and feared by the self-styled re- 
 ligionists and the canting infidels of his time, and, on 
 a false charge, was nailed to a wooden cross. The 
 master of death, he burst the strong bonds of the 
 grave, appeared for forty days among men, and, at 
 last, triumphantly ascended to Heaven. He left to 
 the world a philosophic system of holy truth which 
 regenerates the life, ennobles mankind, purifies gov- 
 ernments, erects our grand institutions, and advances 
 
34 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 our civilization. His grand, absorbing purpose was 
 to save men from the evils of life and the curses of 
 eternity. 
 
 How differently the will manifests itself in the lives 
 and teachings of the world's noted infidels and athe- 
 ists! Celsus and Porphyry, the zealous antagonists 
 of the early church, Diderot, Rousseau, Voltaire of 
 France, Bolingbroke, Gibbon, and Hume of England, 
 Paine and Ingersoll of America exerted their utmost 
 endeavors to the demolition of the sacred temple of 
 Christianity. Gladly would they deprive mankind 
 of the greatest comfort in life and the surest hope in 
 death. Their doctrines, when once received, lead 
 only to darkness, despair, and the grave. At death, 
 most of their blind followers virtually declare with 
 infidelic Hobbs, "I am about to take a leap in the 
 dark." Their overshowing purpose was to destroy 
 faith in a personal God or Saviour, the immortality 
 of the soul, and the final accountability of man to 
 God. 
 
 The world's traitors, robbers, assassins, and wicked 
 persons of every description submitted their wills in 
 the past and submit them in the present to the choice 
 of vice, corruption, and sin, while the reformers, ben- 
 efactors and true builders of humanity chose and 
 choose as their ultimate intention the worship of 
 God and the elevation of their fellow-men. 
 
 What a wonderful power is the will which holds in 
 its grasp the possibilities of a virtuous or vicious life 
 with all their resulting blessings and miseries ! What 
 a great and important work for the teacher, whose 
 duty and privilege it is to so control and direct this 
 choosing power of the student, that he prefers virtu- 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 35 
 
 ous to vicious conduct ! The proper development of 
 the moral nature of the child is of transcendent im- 
 portance. His feelings, desires, and will are to be 
 guided and directed. All these forces must be so 
 regulated by the teacher, that the pupil grows up the 
 happy possessor of a noble character. Col. Francis 
 W. Parker well said, ''No matter how much educa- 
 tors may differ in regard to the means and method of 
 teaching, upon one point there is substantial agree- 
 ment; viz., that the end and aim of all education is 
 the development of character." Let us make a few 
 suggestions as to how this may be the most easily 
 and effectively done. 
 
 First, the child should be taught concerning the 
 existence, the nature, and the dealings of God with 
 man. To suppose that the child is incapable of re- 
 ceiving any idea of God's existence or nature is op- 
 posed to the lessons of experience. Scores of faithful 
 Christian, day-school and Sunday-schoolteachers, du- 
 tiful pastors, and loving mothers attest that children at 
 a very tender age exhibit reverence and respect for 
 their Heavenly Father. Solomon was fully cogni- 
 zant of this great truth when he wisely wrote in the 
 6th verse of the 22nd chapter of Proverbs, "Train up 
 a child in the way he should go : and when he is old, 
 he will not depart from it." That distinguished Eng- 
 lish educator, Mr. T. Tate, says, "Away with those 
 false metaphysics which would persuade us that the 
 idea of God is too subtle for the mind of a child." 
 The child readily understands something concern- 
 ing God's love, mercy, goodness, truthfulness, and 
 power. 
 
 Secondly, the teacher must let him understand that 
 
36 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 God has not left himself without a witness in our be- 
 ing, and that every person has a conscience. ^^Con- 
 scientia est ilia functio rationis adjuncta notionibiis 
 juris et injurice, approhans quid estjustum et prohih- 
 ens quid inalum est'' The translation of this defini- 
 tion of conscience is, Conscience is that function of 
 reason correlated to the ideas of right and wrong, ap- 
 proving what is right and prohibiting what is wrong. 
 The child must be made to know that it is the ^'vox 
 Dei in nobis I' "the voice of God in us." The schol- 
 arly Byron strongly expressed this idea in this beau- 
 tiful stanza : 
 
 "Yet still there whispers the Small Voice within, 
 Heard through Gain's silence and o'er Glory's din; 
 Whatever creed be taught or land be trod, 
 Man's Conscience is the oracle of God." 
 
 Dr. Francis Wayland, the renowned moral philoso- 
 pher, in speaking of this faculty says, "Conscience 
 follows the general law by which the improvement of 
 all our other faculties is regulated. It is strengthen- 
 ed by use ; it is impaired by disuse." It is improved 
 by obeying its dictates and hearkening to its impulses. 
 The child should be taught to cultivate the habit of 
 deciding whether an action is right or wrong before 
 it is done and of obeying the monitions of his con- 
 science. He should also learn the importance of re- 
 flecting upon an action and the intention with which 
 it was performed, after it has been done. He must 
 be taught and impressed with the truth embodied in 
 the following beautiful stanza, that, if he obeys his 
 conscience, he will be happy ; if he disobeys it, he 
 will be unhappy : 
 
THE SCIENCE OP EDUCATION. 37 
 
 "Oh! Conscience! Conscience! Man's most faithful friend, 
 Him canst thou comfort, ease, relieve, defend; 
 But if he will thy friendly checks forego, 
 Thou art, oh! woe for me, his deadliest foe." 
 
 Thirdly, every child should be thoroughly instruct- 
 ed in the Ten Commandments. They constitute the 
 foundation of God's moral universe. Coming from 
 God, they are holy and just, and unmistakably teach 
 our duty to God and our duty to our fellow-men. 
 They are the basis of the organic law of all nations 
 and the rock on which all legislative and municipal 
 enactments and laws rest. Their observance insures 
 individual and national prosperity while their viola- 
 tion is a sure precursor of individual and national 
 decay. 
 
 The instructor should systematically explain them 
 and see that the child commits them to memory and 
 understands them. When cases of lying, stealing, 
 swearing, and infringement on the rights of others 
 occur, the teacher should endeavor to impress the 
 pupils with the evils arising from such. He must be 
 taught to do good, because it is pleasing to God, and 
 to avoid evil, because it is displep,sing to his Heaven- 
 ly Father and injurious to himself. 
 
 Fourthly, children should be taught the life, char- 
 acter, and work of Jesus Christ. Of all the revela- 
 tions made by God to man from the earliest ages to 
 the present day, the fullest and greatest was that 
 made through the Savior of the world. He united 
 in his wonderful personage the dual nature of man 
 and God. His teachings concerning God, the soul, 
 and his own mission should be inculcated into the 
 mind of every child. The pupil should be so taught, 
 
38 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 that he will accept Him as a personal Saviour, and 
 seek to obey his commandments. 
 
 Certainly, a school teacher should make no apology 
 for teaching the greatest of all religious systems, — 
 the system which founded, prospered," and preserved 
 our beautiful country, and has benefited mankind in 
 every age and in every clime. Gen. George A. Sher- 
 idan, in an able lecture delivered on the 30th of March, 
 1887, in the city of Washington in opposition to the 
 infidelic teachings of Col. Robt. Ingersoll, said, "The 
 history of America is simply a grand poem sounding 
 in immortal numbers the praises of Christianity. 
 The country was discovered by Christians, settled by 
 Christians, Christians declared its independence, 
 fought the battles which established it, formed the 
 institutions under which we live, destroyed human 
 slavery in our borders, established our schools, uni- 
 versities, and hospitals." 
 
 Col. Ingersoll and his infidel followers may clamor 
 against the use of the Holy Bible and the practice of 
 praying in schools, but the grand results which come 
 from the Bible and prayer, as observed in the lives of 
 men and women, attest, at once, the ignorance and 
 folly of infidels and infidelity. The many occurrences 
 of life clearly demonstrate that the surest basis of a 
 noble and pure life is found in the religion of Christ. 
 
 It is true that many make loud protestations of 
 Christian faith, and, at the same time, are the zealous 
 devotees of wrong and crime ; but by far the greater 
 number of law-abiding citizens, faithful husbands, 
 devoted wives, honest merchants, and true friends of 
 almost every community are found among the follow- 
 ers of the Savior. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 39 
 
 There is no true, permanent morality for mankind 
 apart from the soul-inspiring* teachings of Revela- 
 tion ; and the best and surest basis on which the mor- 
 ality of the child can be built is found in our holy 
 religion. A great English educator well and truth- 
 fully said, "There is no sure anchor for the human 
 soul but that infantile faith in the love and goodness 
 of God, which exhibits itself in the following forms : 
 faith in God's providence, faith in his promises, as 
 revealed in his Holy Word ; faith in his son Jesus 
 Christ for salvation." 
 
 Fifthly, the teacher should educate the moral fac- 
 ulties of the student by the inspiring example of a 
 holy life. His deeds and conversation should be the 
 living embodiment of his precepts. The teacher, 
 whether male or female, should, at least, be a person 
 of sound moral character; that is, a believer in a per- 
 sonal responsibility to God and in the importance of 
 obeying the Ten Commandments. But the teacher 
 is so much more valuable to the community and the 
 State when he is a faithful follower of Jesus Christ. 
 Many people suppose that intellectual training and 
 moral culture are separate and distinct, but they are 
 greatly mistaken ; for all acts and attitudes of the in- 
 structor, all that he does or says develop moral or 
 immoral tendencies. 
 
 To meet the grave responsibilities of his work, he 
 should bring to it the powerful influence of a virtuous 
 and Godly life. He should ever hold before his 
 mind, in the broadest sense, the principle expressed 
 in the following words of Shakespeare : 
 
 "This above all, To thine own self be true ; 
 And it must follow as the night the day, 
 Thou cans't not then be false to any man." 
 
 To efficiently equip himself for his responsible and 
 arduous task, he should study profoundly Psychol- 
 ogy, Moral Philosophy, Logic, the Holy Scriptures, 
 and Human Nature. 
 
LECTURE II. 
 
 THEARIORPRAGTIGEOFEDDGATION. 
 
 What is Meant by the Art of Teaching — The Scholar is 
 his Own Best Teacher — The Teacher is his Guide and Di- 
 rector — The Testimony of Arnold, MarJcby, Stuart and 
 Rousseau — The Great RcKidts of the True Art of Teach- 
 ing — Hotv the Child Should be Taught. 
 
 "All the best cultivation of the child's mind is obtained 
 by the child's own exertions, and the master's success may- 
 be measured by the degree in which he can bring his schol- 
 ars to make such exertions absolutely without aid." — Dr. 
 Temple. 
 
 The Art of Education involves all the means by 
 which an educator brings his influence to bear on a 
 pupil and embraces school organization, discipline, 
 the regulation of studies, and actual teaching. Let 
 us be careful to distinguish between Science and Art. 
 Science tells us what a thing is and why it is what 
 it is; it deals with the great laws of the thing. Art 
 obtains its rules from the knowledge of the thing, and 
 directs us to do this and that with the thing to accom- 
 plish our end. 
 
 The Science of Education informs us that the mind 
 and body are very closely connected; when one is en- 
 feebled, the other is injured. The Art of Education 
 
THE ART, OR PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 41 
 
 furnishes from this great principle the rule, that the 
 educator, in imparting instruction, should not do it 
 to the injury of the physical constitution. In this 
 lecture we do not propose to speak of all that is in- 
 cluded in the Art, or Practice of Education, but we 
 shall consider it as another term for teaching and 
 school discipline. 
 
 The true aim of the Practice of Teaching should 
 be to enable the pupil to teach himself and to think 
 for himself. In the impartation of instruction, the 
 learner and instructor are conjointly engaged. The 
 student possesses an intellectual and a moral nature 
 by which he assimilates the knowledge imparted. 
 The teacher can no more obtain discipline and knowl- 
 edge for him than he can eat, drink, or sleep for him. 
 The learner, by the exercise of his own sense, reason, 
 judgment, reflection, imagination, and other faculties, 
 develops into a sound, intellectual and moral being. 
 It follows from what has been said that the scholar 
 is his own teacher, and that learning is self-teaching. 
 The experience of mankind shows that pupils would 
 not generally seek to educate themselves without the 
 assistance of a teacher, and that, if they should at- 
 tempt it, they would not carry it to a successful issue. 
 Hence the teacher's part in the process of instruction 
 is that of a guide, director, or supervisor of the ope- 
 rations by which the pupil teaches himself. 
 
 Before the child comes under the control of the pro- 
 fessed teacher, he has learned the use of his senses, 
 knows the elements of his mother tongue and some- 
 thing about the different objects seen. How has he 
 been taught by these natural circumstances which we 
 
42 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 may call Nature*? l^ature furnishes knowledge by 
 object-lessons which consist of the sky, trees, flowers, 
 animals, rivers, people, and other objects. She 
 strengthens the legs, artas, and body by causing them 
 to be exercised, and she acts analogously in regard to 
 mental and moral training. She teaches quietly and 
 leaves him to correct his own blunders. She allows 
 him to experience the consequences of his own ac- 
 tions. These are the leading features of Nature's 
 teaching, and they are consistent with the assumption 
 that the pupil, throughout her course of instruction, is 
 teaching himself. 
 
 There is no necessity for copious explanations to the 
 child, provided the teacher knows how to direct him. 
 The multitude of directions, exhortations, warnings, 
 and explanations given by the unwise instructor often 
 bewilder and enfeeble instead of strengthening the 
 scholar. Nature seems to direct her pupils to find 
 out things for themselves. Explanations are some- 
 times necessary and beneficial; for there may be some- 
 thing connected with the study which the pupil can- 
 not possibly discover by his unaided efforts; but the 
 teacher should never explain to the pupil what he can 
 find out for himself with reasonable labor. Rous- 
 seau, in his interesting and somewhat romantic Emile, 
 gives the following opinion on this subject: ^^I do 
 not at all admire explanatory discourses; young peo- 
 ple give little attention and never retain them . Things ! 
 things! I can never enough repeat it, that we make 
 words of too much consequence." 
 
 It maybe well to state here that Nature's teaching, 
 though, in general, it is the archetype of the educa- 
 
THE AKT, OR PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 43 
 
 tor's, has some defects which are to be remedied by 
 the instructor. 
 
 (1.) Her teaching is not systematic; for she gives 
 lessons in science, number, language, and morality all 
 together. Her main work seems to be the training of 
 faculty. We should imitate her in regard to the de- 
 velopment of faculty, but should insist upon an or- 
 derly acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 (2.) Her teaching is sometimes inexact. This arises 
 from the imperfections of her pupils. If the child is 
 born with a diseased brain, Nature makes little or 
 no improvement upon it. The educator must seek to 
 improve on her labors. 
 
 (3.) Her instruction is too constantly repeated; for 
 the pupil meets the same circumstances and objects 
 almost daily. The instructor must repeat his teach- 
 ings but not to an excess. 
 
 (4.) She accustoms her pupils to little generaliza- 
 tion. The educator must incite the student to gen- 
 eralize on a larger scale. 
 
 (5.) N^ature is inflexible in her discipline. Ignor- 
 ance furnishes no excuse with her. The innocent of- 
 fender suffers the evil consequences of his actions. 
 The instructor must exercise sympathy with the offen- 
 der, and give him opportunity for repentance. 
 
 In the light of the excellences and blemishes of Na- 
 ture's teachings, we see the force of the old maxim, 
 ^^Art improves Nature," and of the declaration of 
 Lord Bacon, ^^Ars est homo additus Naturce^''^ — ^'Art is 
 man added to Nature." Hence, we are justified in 
 the statement, that the Art of Teaching is the appli- 
 
44 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 cation by the instructor of the laws of science, which 
 are discovered by investigating Nature. 
 
 I shall now attempt to illustrate my subject by pre- 
 senting two specimens of the Art of Teaching. In 
 the first, the teacher fully recognizes the competency 
 of the pupils to instruct themselves, and gives them 
 the least explanation possible. In the second in- 
 stance, the instructor proceeds on the assumption that 
 the pupil's success depends more on what is done for 
 him than on what he does for himself. 
 
 The teacher is just beginning to teach children 
 Geography. He conducts the class out into the school- 
 ground, and calls their attention to the Earth on which 
 they stand. He takes them to the bank of the bab- 
 bling brook or the rolling river, and walks, in com- 
 pany with his gleeful scholars, through a valley orna- 
 mented with sweet-scented flowers and grasses. They 
 climb the steepy hill, and drink from a gushing 
 spring. The busy minds of the children are con- 
 stantly observing and thinking upon the various ob- 
 jects seen. 
 
 When they are again assembled in the school -room, 
 the preceptor tests their knowledge by asking them 
 about the surface of the Earth as seen by them, the 
 valley, hill, spring, creek, and river observed. After 
 the children have obtained a clear idea of the thing, 
 the teacher causes them to learn that a hill is land a 
 little higher than the surrounding land, that a spring 
 is water rising up out of the ground, that a creek is a 
 small stream of water flowing through the land, and 
 that a river is a large stream of water flowing through 
 the land. 
 
THE ART, OR PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 45 
 
 The skillful instructor does likewise in teaching an 
 island, peninsula, cape, strait, gulf, and other objects 
 of Geography. When he cannot conduct the chil- 
 dren to see the object to be taught, he gives them an 
 illustration of it by drawing it on the blackboard. 
 
 Let us see what is involved in this mode of teach- 
 ing. (1.) We notice that the scholars begin with con- 
 crete, tangible facts which they can comprehend, not 
 with abstract principles which they cannot under- 
 stand. They see the valley, hill, spring, river, island, 
 and other natural objects, draw their own conclusions 
 concerning them, and healthfully exercise their senses, 
 their observation, their judgment, and other faculties. 
 
 (2.) In thus teaching themselves, they employ the 
 analytic method in noticing the details of the objects 
 seen; they also use the synthetic in attempting to tell 
 their teacher what they saw. 
 
 (3.) They gain mental power by this exercise, and 
 find pleasure in the observations and discoveries made 
 by themselves. 
 
 (4.) In teaching themselves by seeing the things 
 and not by attempting to learn the burdensome expla- 
 nations of the teacher, their knowledge will be, for 
 the most part, clear and accurate, because it is gained 
 by their own powers. 
 
 (5.) From this method they are on their way to ac- 
 quire the method of investigating and discovering 
 things for themselves, by which they gain the habit 
 of mental self-direction and self-power, the real end 
 of education. 
 
 Let us now note the other case. The instructor 
 aims to instruct a class in Geography by means of 
 
46 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 definitions before thinf^s, pvineiples before facts. He 
 proceeds about as follows: The surface of the Earth 
 is made uj) of land and water. The children are ex- 
 pected to repeat this after the teacher and commit it 
 to memory. He gives other definitions as the follow- 
 ing: A valley is low land between high land. A hill 
 is land higher than the surrounding land. A spring 
 is water rising up out of the ground. A creek is a 
 small stream of water flowing through the land. A 
 river is a large stream of water flowing through the 
 land. An island is laud entirely surrounded by water. 
 A cape is a point of land projecting into the water. 
 
 He seeks to impress the little ones with these tink- 
 ling-cymbal and sounding-brass definitions. They, 
 having never seen the things of which he speaks, and 
 having no clear conception of them from an accurate 
 drawing on a black-board, manifest but little atten- 
 tion to the lessons. Their mental faculties are not 
 elicited, and they strain the memory in trying to an- 
 swer what to them is partly Greek or Spherical Trig- 
 onometry. I'heir knowledge of the svd)ject is far from 
 being accurate, and they have no opportunity of in- 
 vestigating and discovering for themselves. 
 
 This teacher seems to proceed on the erroneous 
 principle that everything must be served up for the 
 student in the form of abstract definitions. He may 
 be a person of earnestness, industry, and knowknlge, 
 but he is certainly ignorant of the Art of Education. 
 Hence, I repeat that the real aim of a true Art of 
 Teaching is to enable the pupil to teach himself and 
 to think for himself. The teacher who secures this 
 result is an efficient artist in his profession. 
 
THE ART, OR PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 47 
 
 This important principle is recognized in the prac- 
 tice of the most successful teachers . Such teach ers gen - 
 erally say little during the time of a recitation, but al- 
 low the pupils the opportunity of displaying their own 
 knowledge of the subject. The great English teacher, 
 Dr. Arnold, scarcely ever gave an explanation, and 
 Mr. Matthew Arnold, his son, tells us that such is the 
 rAethod employed by the best teachers of Germany. 
 The eminent Markby said, ^^To teach boys how to in- 
 struct themselves — that, after all, is the end of school 
 work . ' ' James Stuart sensibly declared, ^ 'The obj ect of 
 all education is to teach people to think for themselves . ' ' 
 Listen to the strong testimony of the philosopher, Rous- 
 seau, on the importance of self -teaching: ' 'Obliged to 
 learn by himself, the pupil makes use of his own reason 
 and not that of others. From the continual exercise of 
 the pupils own understanding will result a vigor of 
 mind like that which one gives the body by labor and 
 fatigue. Another advantage resulting from this 
 method is^ that we do not accustom ourselves to a 
 servile submission to the authority of others."' 
 
 In giving instruction to children in the common - 
 school branches, I always aimed to enable them to 
 think for themselves on the subjects taught while I 
 gave them the least possible explanation. I have of- 
 ten been surprised at the progress made by this meth- 
 od by even the dull and sluggish of the school. I 
 always imbue my students in Languages, Math- 
 ematics, Science, and Philosophy with the idea 
 that they must depend more upon themselves than 
 upon me, that they must be their own self- teach ers, 
 and that they must expect me to direct and superin- 
 
48 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 tend them in the pnrsnit of their various branches. 
 I have frequently witnessed the rapid progress made 
 by them in the understanding of their various studies 
 when they were thoroughly convinced that they could 
 teach themselves by my simple direction. I have ob- 
 served, too, how conscious they became of their own 
 power, and how often they displayed originality of 
 thought in considering intricate problems and diffi'- 
 cult questions. 
 
 This method of instruction invariably produces 
 thinking students. Their various faculties become 
 sound, deep, and accurate, and they become con- 
 scious of their own power and capacity. They not 
 only gain the important development of mental and 
 moral power; but they acquire knowledge itself with 
 greater ease, and are enabled to handle it with grace, 
 skill, and effect. This is the unanimous testimony of 
 Dr. Arnold, Markby, Comenius, Froebel, Parker, 
 Payne, and other prominent educators. 
 
 This Art, or Practice of Teaching has produced for 
 the most part the world's great philosophers, states- 
 men, inventors, doctors, lawyers, preachers, teachers, 
 authors, business men, and skilled laborers. For 
 most of the eminent men who stand prominent among 
 the above-mentioned classes of great men were taught 
 by their instructors to rely upon themselves in the 
 pursuit of learning. When they went forth to en- 
 gage in life's battles and to meet life's responsibilities, 
 they brought to bear upon the things with which they 
 came in contact the immovable power of well -discip- 
 lined faculties, sturdy self-reliance, and an indomita- 
 ble will. 
 
THE ART, OR PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 49 
 
 The purpose of this lecture forbids me to minutely 
 illustrate the significant fruits of this kind of teach- 
 ing; it is sufficient to say that it produces and has 
 produced the best thinkers who are the chief benefac- 
 tors of mankind. It is not strange, then, that Sir 
 Walter Scott said, ^^The best part of every man's ed- 
 ucation is that which he gives himself, ' ' and that the 
 renowned Gibbon declared, ''Every person has two 
 educations, — one which he receives from others, and 
 one more important, which he gives himself. ' ' 
 
 How true it is that 
 
 "All is the gift of industry ; whate'er 
 Exalts, embellishes, and renders life 
 Delightful." 
 
 How can the scholar be so trained by the instruc- 
 tor that he becomes his own self-teacher? I answer 
 this question by saying that the teacher must pay 
 particular regard to the following general principles, 
 or axioms of education: 
 
 (1.) Our methods of instruction should be in ac- 
 cordance with the natural order and mode of develop- 
 ment of the physical, intellectual, and moral faculties 
 of the pupils . The faculties of children develop them- 
 selves slowly, and are invigorated by being properly 
 exercised. On the other hand, they are weakened by 
 being overstrained, or by being exercised on subjects 
 which do not come within their proper sphere. Hence 
 the preceptor should be thoroughly acquainted with 
 the physical, mental, and moral laws of the being to 
 be educated. 
 
 (2.) In early childhood our subjects of instruction 
 should appeal to the senses. The first aim of teach- 
 
50 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 ing should be the gradual unfolding of the perceptive 
 faculties which are the absolute basis of all knowl- 
 edge. At this stage of development, a knowledge of 
 facts is the proper intellectual food . Objects are distin- 
 guished from one another by properties, and a knowl- 
 edge of these can only be obtained by sensation and 
 perception. The child must see these properties be- 
 fore he can have any idea of the object to which they 
 belong. 
 
 (3.) The chief aim of primary education is to de- 
 velop all the faculties of the child's nature, physical, 
 intellectual, and moral. The first ten, or twelve years 
 of a child's life are distinctly the period of growth. 
 During this time the acquisition of knowledge is sim- 
 ply a means for the gradual unfolding of the faculties. 
 
 The development of the faculties of children above 
 a certain age should have a due regard to their future 
 employment in the present world as well as to their 
 future destiny in the world to come. The question 
 should not be whether or not the greatest amount of 
 technical knowledge has been conveyed in a short 
 time; but has every element of intellectual or moral 
 vitality which has lain dormant been awakened, and 
 has this been attained with a due regard to the future 
 pursuits and destiny of the pupil. 
 
 The form needs to.be cultivated, the railway must 
 be constructed, houses are to be built, machines are 
 to be made and repaired, the labor of civilization must 
 be performed. Are classic scholars and abstract math- 
 ematicians best qualified for achieving the stupendous 
 work of progress and civilization'? No doubt, they 
 can assist, but there is much which they cannot do. 
 
THE ART, OR PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 51 
 
 We want men of skilled labor, thoroughly acquainted 
 with our practical sciences and arts. The leading ed- 
 ucators of the country are gradually turning their at- 
 tention to the industrial training of the youth . They 
 are rapidly discovering that they must educate the 
 boy and girl with reference to their future employ- 
 ment in life. Let us all assist in the good work. 
 
 (4.) The faculties should be unfolded and strength- 
 ened in harmony with one another, and no power of 
 the mind should be developed at the expense of an- 
 other. 
 
 (5.) Our method of teaching must foster self-in- 
 struction. The pupil should be encouraged to think 
 for himself, and the teacher should not tell him any- 
 thing which he is capable of discovering for himself. 
 In the course of instruction, the pupil must be re- 
 garded not as a passive machine to be moved at our 
 will or as a mere recipient of knowledge; but as a 
 thinking, voluntary agent capable of gathering and 
 originating ideas. 
 
 (6.) Instruction should proceed from the simple to 
 the complex. We teach from the simple to the com- 
 plex when we explain the particular forms of a gen- 
 eral principle before we attempt to explain the gen- 
 eral principle itself. We should proceed from the 
 known to the unknown, and should teach a subject 
 little by little until the whole is taught. What the 
 pupil does know becomes a stepping stone to what he 
 does not know. 
 
 (7.) Facts should be given before causes, and the 
 concrete should be taught before the abstract. We 
 should inake use of familiar things and objects to 
 
52 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 illustrate and explain terms, facts, and principles. 
 
 (8.) Principles as applied to particular cases should 
 be given before rules. Eules enable us to attain re- 
 sults without the labor of research, and are therefore, 
 soon forgotten. The instructor should never teach by 
 rules when he can teach by principles, and he should 
 not allow the pupil to learn by rote until he under- 
 stands the subject matter. The scholar must be im- 
 pressed with the idea embodied in the Latin maxim, 
 '^Labot^ omnia vincit,^^ ^' Labor conquers all things." 
 The labor-saving rule System really conquers nothing. 
 Of course a principle itself must be taught from nu- 
 merous examples. 
 
 (9.) Instruction should be inculcated orally to chil- 
 dren. In fact, all children beginning in the common- 
 school branches should be taught by the oral method. 
 The teacher must be so well acquainted with the sub- 
 jects of Geography, History, Grammar, and other 
 studies that he can converse upon them with ease, 
 grace, and simplicity. The living voice and the sym- 
 pathetic look cause the thoughts and words to pene- 
 trate and invigorate the faculties of the child. 
 
 (10.) Children should receive pleasure from in- 
 struction. When this is not the case, there is some- 
 thing wrong in the mode of teaching or in the subject 
 matter taught. In accordance with the immutable 
 laws of our Creator, the proper exercise of our phy- 
 sical, intellectual, or moral faculties afford us pleas- 
 ure. If instruction is imparted in harmony with the 
 general principles named, it must afford that pleasure 
 which does not enfeeble character, but ennobles and 
 invigorates it. 
 
THE ART, OR PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 53 
 
 (11.) School Discipline, or Government has a di- 
 rect bearing npon the effectiveness of the instruction 
 given. Every experienced teacher knows that order 
 and attention are essential to the progress of the 
 scholar in his various studies. A noisy, talking, whis- 
 pering school is, without exception, a poorly taught 
 and disagreeable one. The following quotation from 
 Atterbury respecting government in general is equally 
 applicable to the government of the school: ^'Few con- 
 sider how much we are indebted to government, be- 
 cause few can represent how wrelched mankind would 
 be without it." Truly, a school without a proper 
 government makes teacher and pupils wretched. 
 
 The direct and immediate object of school govern- 
 ment is to secure the obedience, punctuality, and un- 
 divided attention of the child. The pupil must form 
 the habit of attention, punctuality, obedience, and in- 
 dustry. Habits become a second nature which ren- 
 der toil easy and the performance of duty pleasant. 
 But, after all, the great purpose of school discipline is 
 to impart to the child the ability and power to govern 
 himself in all the relations, duties, and responsibili- 
 ties of life. The important question to the teacher 
 is. How can these results be obtained ? 
 
 To secure these great ends, the school must be ruled 
 on the principle of love. Can the cultured, neatly- 
 dressed teacher love the dirty, ragged child? Chris- 
 tianity teaches that he can and should. That filthy, 
 uncouth child has physical, intellectual, and moral 
 faculties capable of wondrous expansion. Christ, the 
 Saviour of mankind, died for him and loves him. 
 The principle of love begets love. When the unruly 
 
54 8CIEN0E, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 child is convinced that the instrnctor loves him, he 
 will in return love the teacher. A kind, loving pre- 
 ceptor makes a kind, loving, obedient school. Love 
 reigns in heaven, and is the dominant power of our 
 nature; it should, therefore, pervade the school with 
 its holy influences. 
 
 Fear should never be the governing principle of a 
 school. It paralyzes the intellect, deadens the aspi- 
 rations, blunts the nobler feelings, and makes child- 
 ren slavish, deceitful, and hypocritical. Some think 
 that it is much easier to maintain order by wielding 
 the rod of terror than to rule by reason and moral 
 suasion. It is true that fear may sometimes be used 
 with telling effect on incorrigible students who are 
 callous to the mollifying influences of love, yet it 
 should never be the controlling force for managing a 
 school . 
 
 Corporal punishment should be the last resort of 
 the teacher. It may sometimes tend to check vice, 
 but it seldom fosters virtue. Often it is as painful to 
 the instructor to exercise corporal punishment as it is 
 to the child to receive it. Praise is a better force for 
 ruling a child than rebuke. The preceptor should 
 visit the parents and secure their co-operation in the 
 disciplining of the school. 
 
 If kindness, moral suasion, and the teachings of 
 religious principles and actions fail in reclaiming a 
 pupil, then the teacher must of necessity have recourse 
 to punishment. The scholar must be impressed with 
 the facts, that God is the author of law, that order is 
 Heaven's first law, and that the law of the school 
 must be obeyed. The distinguished Hooker was right 
 
THE ART, OR PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 55 
 
 when lie said of law, ^'Kev seat is the bosom of God, 
 her voice the harmony of the world, all things in 
 Heaven and earth do her homage, the very least as 
 feeling her care and the greatest as not exempted 
 from her power." 
 
 If the teacher pays due regard to these eleven ax- 
 ioms of education, he will enable his pupils to become 
 their own self- teachers. They will learn the impor- 
 tant principle of thinking, investigating, and discov- 
 ering for themselves. In whatever walks of life each 
 may labor, he will, with rare exception, achieve the 
 injunction of Joubert, ^'Excelle et tu vivras.'^^ '^ Excel 
 and you will live." 
 
 Entering upon life's duties and responsibilities he 
 will, for the most part, be blessed with the honors 
 and joys so beautifully expressed in the following 
 lines: 
 
 "His the city's pomp : 
 The rural honor his. Whatever adorns 
 - The princely dome, the column, or the arch, 
 The breathing marbles, or the sculptured gold. 
 Beyond the proud possessor's narrow claim, 
 His tuneful breast enjoys. For him the Spring 
 Distils her dews, and from the silken gem 
 Its lucid leaves unfolds ; for him the hand 
 Of Autumn tinges every fertile branch 
 With blooming gold and blushes like the morn. 
 Each passing hour sheds tribute from her wings ; 
 And still new beauties meet his lonely walk, 
 And loves unfelt attract him. Not a breeze 
 Flies o'er the meadow — not a cloud imbibes 
 The setting Sun's effulgence — not a strain 
 From all the tenants of the warbling shade 
 Ascends, but whence his bosom can partake 
 Fresh pleasure, unreproved." 
 
LECTURE III. 
 
 METHODS OF EDDGATION. 
 
 The Importance of Method — IliMory of Method — The 
 Five Characteristics of a Good Method — The Inductive, 
 Deductive, Interrogative, SimuUa7ieous, Illustrative, Lec- 
 ture, and Essay Methods — How the Teacher Should Use 
 Them . 
 
 "One of the chief characteristics of a good method consists 
 in enabling learners to dispense with the assistance of a 
 teacher when they are capable of self-government." — C. 
 Marcel. 
 
 By a Method of Education we mean the special 
 manner in which a subject is taught. The teacher 
 who gives instruction in arithmetic by the use of sticks, 
 pebbles, chalk, beans, and other objects displays his 
 method, or manner of imparting instruction in that 
 branch of mathematics. 
 
 How strange it is that some educators have been 
 slow to believe in the importance of method in edu- 
 cation! They seem to have supposed that the full 
 development of the physical, intellectual, and moral 
 natures of man would be attained by fortuitous cir- 
 cumstances. They appear to have been ignorant of 
 the intrinsic value of method in other pursuits of life. 
 The builder, machimst, and painter complete their 
 constructions of art by methods, the result of vast ex- 
 
Methods of education. 57 
 
 perience. There was little method in science in the 
 days of Thales, Heraclitus, and Anaximines when 
 mankind were made to believe that water, fire, and 
 air were the original elements from which everything 
 came and into which everything would be finally re- 
 solved ; but, when the thoughtful mind of Bacon in- 
 troduced the Inductive Method of investigating Na- 
 ture, men awoke to a consciousness of the fact that 
 they had misinterpreted Nature through ignorance of 
 the best manner of studying her. 
 
 Who can peruse "Paradise Lost" of Milton, "Rich- 
 ard the Third" of Shakespeare, or Pope's "Essay on 
 Man" without detecting system in their structure ? 
 Who can read "Demosthenese on the Crown," "Cice- 
 ro's Orations," Webster's, Calhoun's, Clay's, Doug- 
 lass', Langston's, or Lincoln's speeches without dis- 
 covering the mode by which they informed the intel- 
 lect, swayed the feelings, and moved the wills of their 
 auditors ? 
 
 Must men engaged in the various walks of the in- 
 dustrial and professional worlds be forced to make 
 use of methods while the instructor who deals with 
 the immortal mind and shapes the destiny of a hu- 
 man being finds no need of them ? While we may 
 admit, to some extent, the doctrine contained in the 
 saying, '^Poeta nascihir non fit',' "The poet is born, 
 not made," and we may rightly believe that some per- 
 sons are born with special aptitude for teaching, and 
 make successful teachers without much knowledge of 
 methods ; nevertheless we are forced to acknowledge 
 that the most distinguished instructors of the world 
 have displayed not only, a predilection for teaching 
 but also an ardent zeal in the study of methods. 
 
58 SCIENCE, ARr AND METHODS OJ' TEACHING. 
 
 No man can become a great, successful teacher un- 
 less method has become to him a livinj^" reality. All 
 that he has read, experienced or seen of the bein^" to 
 be educated assumes a great unity, a great law wliich 
 imparts to him his method of instruction. 
 
 The history of method in relation to primary edu- 
 cation shows tliat mankind from the earliest times 
 have been more deeply interested in studying the 
 simplest ways of inculcating advanced studies than 
 in devising means for teaching children. Aesthetic 
 Greece and imperial Rome paid particular attention 
 to their schools of philosophy and rhetoric for young 
 men, but almost totally neglected primary education. 
 They did not scruple to intrust the educational train- 
 ing of their children to slaves. During that period of 
 intellectual dearth known as the Middle Ages, the 
 secluded monk was the recognized educator. Deeply 
 interested in the propagation of his peculiar, narrow 
 tenets of religion, he had little time and less inclina 
 tion to study methods for teaching the little ones. 
 
 The theoretic and profoundly-read scholiasts ex- 
 pended their efforts in discussing subjects which had 
 little or no bearing on practical life. It is not to be 
 expected that men who hoped to solve the mathema- 
 tico-theological problem. How many angles can stand 
 on the point of a needle ? would have either any spare 
 time or extra mental force to consider the best methods 
 of developing the faculties of a child. 
 
 Even after the partial dissemination of false veiws 
 of government, learning, and religion by the giant 
 mind of Martin Luther, a knowledge of the languages, 
 logic, and geometry of the ancients was regarded as 
 the end of all education. The philosophy of Aristotle, 
 
METHODS OP EDUCATION. 59 
 
 the giant thinker of Greece, distorted by Duns Sco- 
 tus and his visionary followers, was ardently and 
 constantly pursued. The memory was overtasked to 
 hold useless rubbish while reason, invention, and pro- 
 gressive thought were discouraged and throttled. 
 
 The immortal Bacon, convinced of the barrenness 
 of this system as taught at Oxford, bade mankind to 
 investigate facts before principles. His philosophic 
 system embraced the leading principles of primary 
 education, but his followers did not seem to recognize 
 their importance. The great father of metaphysics, 
 the illustrious John Locke, was the first distinguish- 
 ed philosopher who recognized that the chief busi_ 
 uess of primary education is to gradually unfold the 
 faculties of the child. 
 
 He learned by observation that the first ideas of 
 children are obtained by sensation, and that the per- 
 ceptive faculties should be first cultivated. Locke 
 believed in the development of the intellectual and 
 moral feelings through the agency of things or sub- 
 jects which could be known by the child. The emi- 
 nent Eousseau of France became an advocate of this 
 principle, and Pestalozzi and Froebel carried it into 
 practice. In our own country, Col. Francis W. Par- 
 ker ably and successfully applied it in the manage- 
 ment of the Quincy Schools which have gained a 
 world-wide fame. 
 
 In France, Germany, England, the United States, 
 and other enlightened countries, methods of educa- 
 tion are growing in dignity and importance. Hun- 
 dreds of newspaper articles, pamphlets, and books 
 attest the progressive character of the educational re- 
 formers of our whirling age. The conservative edu- 
 
60 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 caters who entertain the opinion that the education 
 of the child should be conducted as it was forty years 
 ago are gradually losing* prominence in the educa- 
 tional world. Educational reformers boldly asseve- 
 rate that a system of education should be character- 
 ized by utility and progress. They claim that the 
 rising youth should be taught things which apper- 
 tain to their future pursuits in life. Industrial and 
 technological institutions are receiving a great im- 
 petus while the best educators are curtailing the study 
 of the classics and abstract mathematics. The best 
 normal schools of the country are paying particular 
 attention to the best methods of educating the child 
 and are training young men and women with refer- 
 ence to teaching children according to them. 
 
 Let us now consider the essential features of a 
 good method of instruction. In the lecture on the 
 Art of Education, we aimed to show the pupil's natu- 
 ral method of learning. It was argued that the 
 scholar is his own self-teacher, and that he must of 
 necessity think for himself, if he is to grow to intel- 
 lectual manhood. Now that mode of teaching which 
 secures the independent thinking of the child is the 
 best. Any method which does not incite the pupil 
 to think for himself is radically false. 
 
 The characteristics of a good method of teaching 
 are suggested by the features of a good method of 
 learning. In the preceding lecture, it was shown that 
 before the pupil comes under the supervision of the 
 professed teacher, he has taught himself his mother 
 tongue and something about the various objects seen. 
 It was also stated that Nature, or the circumstances 
 by which he was surrounded, furnishes lessons by 
 
METHODS OF EDUCATION. 61 
 
 object lessons, which consist of the sky, trees, flow- 
 ers, animals, rivers people, and other objects ; sec- 
 ondly, that she strengthens his legs, arms, and men- 
 tal faculties by causing them to be exercised ; and, 
 thirdly, that he teaches himself and gains his knowl- 
 edge by synthesis, and imparts it to others by 
 analysis. 
 
 A good method of instruction must possess the lead- 
 ing characteristics of the pupil's method of teach- 
 ing himself under the guidance of Nature. He must 
 be taught the concrete before the abstract, facts be- 
 fore principles, principles before rules, things before 
 definitions. His own observations, judgment, and 
 reasoning must be called into service, and he must 
 explore, discover, and investigate for himself. He 
 must be directed to use synthesis and analysis in 
 gathering and imparting his knowledge. The most 
 prominent and successful educators agree that a good 
 method of instruction should possess the following 
 features. 
 
 (1.) A good method should favor self-teaching. It 
 should be so employed as to incite in them the belief 
 that they can acquire by assiduous and iDatient work- 
 ing whatever men have acquired. 
 
 (2.) A good method should be in accordance with 
 Nature. It should be so contrived that it does not 
 operate against any physical, intellectual, or moral 
 law of the child's nature. 
 
 (3.) A good method should comprise induction and 
 deduction, or synthesis and analysis. 
 
 By induction, or synthesis we put the parts of a 
 subject together; by deduction, or analysis we take 
 them to pieces. By synthesis the learner passes from 
 
62 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 the known to the unknown. In a rational method, 
 we should employ the rational course of mental in- 
 vestigation; we should proceed from facts to princi- 
 ples. We should begin with synthesis and close with 
 analysis. 
 
 (4.) A good method should be a means of intellec- 
 tual culture. The mode of imparting knowledge 
 should serve as a developer of the various intellectual 
 faculties, primary and secondary. 
 
 (5.) A good method should have reference to the 
 future pursuit of the child in this life and his destiny 
 in the life to come. 
 
 In teaching Reading, Writing, Grammar, Arithme- 
 tic, and other subjects, it is not difficult to show how 
 useful they are in the various callings of life. In 
 lessons on the sun, stars, the human body, and the 
 mind, the child readily comprehends the idea of an 
 intelligent, all-wise Creator. His duty to God and his 
 fellow-men can be very easily impressed upon him. 
 
 The most successful teachers of modern times have 
 unanimously agreed that these are the leading char- 
 acteristics of a good method of instruction. Joseph 
 Payne, one of the greatest educational reformers of 
 the age, in speaking of the mode of teaching the in- 
 structor should employ, said, "The teacher must be- 
 gin his instruction in science, language, etc., with 
 concrete matter — with facts ; must exercise his pupil's 
 native powers of observation, judgment, and reason- 
 ing ; call on him to practice synthesis and analysis ; 
 make him explore, investigate, and discover for him- 
 self." C. Marcel, in a famous work entitled, "Lan- 
 guage as a Means of Mental Culture and Interna- 
 tional Communication," declared, "A good method 
 
METHODS OF EDUCATION. 63 
 
 favors self-teaching, is in accordance with nature, 
 comprises Analysis and Synthesis, is both practical 
 and comparative, and is an instrument of intellectual 
 culture." 
 
 The renowned Roger Ascham v»^ho impressed upon 
 the people of England the importance of the English 
 Language, T. Tate, the profound and erudite scholar, 
 Jacotot, the learned and enthusiastic instructor, Froe- 
 bel, the philosopher and educator. Col. Francis W. 
 Parker, the founder of the Quincy Schools, and oth- 
 ers have expressed, in substance, the same sentiments 
 respecting the true manner of educating the child. 
 The Latin apothemn, ''Experto crede,'' "Believe an 
 experienced man," is duly regarded by the progres- 
 sive instructor. 
 
 Every teacher should well understand in theory and 
 in practice the Synthetic, or Inductive, the Analytic, 
 or Deductive, the Socratic, or Interrogative, the Sim- 
 ultaneous, the Illustrative, the Lecturing, and the 
 Essay Methods of teaching. 
 
 (1.) THE SYNTHETIC AND ANALYTIC, OR THE 
 INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS. 
 
 The Synthetic, or Inductive Method is best adapt- 
 ed to elementary instruction The instructor should 
 unfold the subject step by step to the pupil until he 
 comes to the general principle or principles which he 
 wishes to establish When the scholar has obtained 
 a clear knowledge of the principle from the facts on 
 which it rests, the teacher can impart the same 
 knowledge by the Analytic, or Deductive Method. 
 He may announce the principle which has been learn 
 
64 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 ed, and proceed to give the facts which demon- 
 strate it. 
 
 In teaching Arithmetic, we instruct synthetically, 
 or inductively when we proceed to work out a num- 
 ber of examples from certain known principles with- 
 out following any abstract rule ; we pursue the ana- 
 lytic, or deductive method when we lay down a gen- 
 eral rule, and work out examples under it. 
 
 The teacher may impart instruction on a general 
 principle drawn from the history of nations syntheti- 
 cally, or inductively in this manner. Ethiopia and 
 Egypt surrendered themselves to idolatry, indolence, 
 and wickedness, and were overcome by a more pow- 
 erful nation. Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Kome 
 arose to affluence and power, succumbed to false reli- 
 gions and criminal practices, and finally perished. 
 Italy, Spain, and other countries were gradually un- 
 dermined by the insidious influences of vice and cor- 
 ruption. We learn from the records of these nations 
 that idolatry, laziness, and corruption inevitably in- 
 duce the decay of a people. 
 
 Now the same, significant truth may be taught an- 
 alytically, or deductively as follows. We learn from 
 the records of nations that idolatry, laziness, and cor- 
 ruption inevitably induce thte decay of a people. Ethi- 
 opia and Egypt surrendered themselves to idolatry, 
 indolence, and wickedness, and were overcome by a 
 more powerful nation. Babylon, Persia, Greece, and 
 Rome arose to affluence and power, succumbed to 
 false religions and criminal practices, and finally 
 perished. Italy, Spain, and other countries were 
 gradually undermined by the insidious influences of 
 vice and corruption. The Constructive Method is the 
 
METHODS OF EDUCATION. 65 
 
 best form of the Synthetic Mode of teaching. It em- 
 bodies the leading characteristics of our most approv- 
 ed methods of primary instruction. The elements of 
 Geography, History, Grammar, Arithmetic, and 
 Spelling may be efficiently inculcated by it. 
 
 (II.) THE SOCRATIC, OR INTERROGATIVE 
 
 METHOD. 
 
 Questioning pupils on subjects studied may be used 
 for the purpose of examination for the impartation 
 of instruction. Strictly speaking, it is an excellent 
 form of synthetic teaching, and is, perhaps, better un- 
 derstood and more frequently used by the great body 
 of teachers than any other. In employing it, the 
 following directions should be observed. 
 
 (1.) The language used by the instructor should be 
 as simple and as concise as possible, and he should 
 never put a question which can be answered by yes 
 or no. 
 
 (2.) The questions should be given in such an order 
 as to form a progressive development of the subject. 
 
 (3.) Children should be accustomed to answering 
 questions in their own language, and should be per- 
 mitted to interrogate each other. 
 
 (4.) In preparing questions for examination, the 
 questions should form a strict analysis of the subject, 
 and, in order to inspire confidence in the children, the 
 first ones should be easy and short ; but the others 
 should gradually increase in difficulty. 
 
 (III.) THE SIMULTANEOUS METHOD. 
 
 According to this mode of teaching, all the pupils 
 are allowed to speak at once. This method seems to 
 
C)C) SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 arouse the interest and attention of the class, though 
 it often creates noise and confusion. After the inter- 
 rogative method has been used for some time, the 
 teacher may profitably change to the simultaneous. 
 This is but another form of the Interrogative Method, 
 for all of the scholars answer togetlier instead of each 
 one replying separately. It is so universally known 
 and employed that I deem it unnecessary to illustrate 
 it: however, it may be well to remark that the in- 
 structor should counteract the following evils con- 
 nected with its use. 
 
 1. Some will reply before others, while others will 
 purposely wait to learn from them the answers. 
 
 2. Some will not attempt to answer, and others 
 will interject something in no manner related to the 
 subject. 
 
 (IV.) THE ILLUSTRATIVE METHOD. 
 
 By this mode of instruction, we seek to convey 
 knowledge to the child by means of pictures, draw- 
 ings, diagrams, experiments, and incidents. In teach- 
 ing, for instance, the discovery of America by Colum- 
 bus, the faculties can be expanded, and knowledge 
 can be conveyed with much greater facility by means 
 of a picture of Columbus and a map showing his voy- 
 age. In giving instruction in Grammar, Geography, 
 and other studies, diagrams and maps are of great 
 service. 
 
 (V.) THE LECTURING METHOD. 
 
 A subject may be taught by this method by giving 
 a continuous discourse on it at one recitation and 
 asking questions on it at another. This mode of im- 
 
METHODS OF EDUCATION. 67 
 
 parting" iDstruction is very profitable to somewhat ad- 
 vanced students who understand the elements of the 
 subjects with which the lecturer deals. In fact, it 
 may be employed with great advantage in teaching a 
 new subject, provided the students are habituated to 
 the practice of writing out an outline on each lecture, 
 and are critically and systematically questioned by 
 the instructor on the knowledge given. 
 
 (VI.) THE ESSAY METHOD. 
 
 The practice of writing compositions on different 
 parts of a subject is denominated the Essay Method 
 of teaching. This mode of instruction imparts effi- 
 ciency to all the methods ordinarily employed in the 
 schools. It may be used with great advantage in 
 teaching almost all the common school, high school, 
 and collegiaie branches. 
 
 The MIXED METHOD, which is a combination 
 of two or more of the preceding modes of conveying 
 knowledge and disciplining the faculties, is always 
 used by the most thouglitful instructors. 
 
 The teacher must not evince a blind, unreasoning 
 devotion to some pet method. He should exercise 
 discrimination in selecting such methods as are best 
 adapted to the existing circumstances. They should 
 be tested and modified to suit the various tastes, hab- 
 its, and future pursuits of the scholar. The system 
 or method of instruction which secures the proper 
 development of the physical, intellectual, and moral 
 faculties in harmony with one another, and best fits 
 the child for his future work in this life and his des- 
 tiny in the life to come is the most valuable. 
 
LECTURE IV. 
 
 HOW TO TEAGH READING. 
 
 What is Beading? — The Preparatioji tvhich the Child 
 Has Made — How to teach Beading hy the Word Method — 
 Should Script or Print he Used First, ox Both Together % 
 The Object, Word, Sentence, and Script Methods Were 
 Discovered Years Ago — The Professional Teacher Should 
 Know the A B G and the Word Methods, 
 
 "Reading is the interpretation and expression of the 
 thoughts, sentiments, and feelings of an author." — Fertich's 
 Instructive Elocution, 
 
 Reading is, first, obtaining thoughts, feeHngs, and 
 purposes by means of written or printed words and, 
 secondly, expressing them intelHgently to others. In 
 perusing Samuel R. Ward's "Autobiography^ of the 
 Negro Fugitive" or Joseph Wilson's "Emancipation," 
 we should certainly obtain a clear understanding of 
 the thoughts, feelings, and purposes of the author, 
 and should be able to make them known to others 
 with intelligence. 
 
 The old method of teaching Reading demanded 
 that the child should be first taught the entire alpha- 
 bet and then the spelling of simple words. When 
 he could sj)ell with some degree of ease a few com- 
 mon words, he was allowed to begin with the Primer 
 or First Reader. Many excellent readers have been 
 
HOW TO TEACH READING. 69 
 
 taught by the A B C Method; but the "New Educa- 
 tion" shows an easier mode of teaching the child to 
 grasp and express thought. The best and most suc- 
 cessful teachers of children in this and other coun- 
 tries advocate that the child should be taught the 
 whole word first and not the letters and spelling of it. 
 
 When the teacher attempts to give instruction by 
 this method, he should thoroughly understand the 
 preparation which a child has made for learning to 
 read and what is necessary to be performed in learn- 
 ing to read. 
 
 First, the child has obtained certain knowledge 
 from Nature by his senses ; secondly, he has express- 
 ed the ideas thus gained by spoken words ; thirdly, 
 he possesses a moderate vocabulary of common 
 words, and, fourthly, his emphasis, inflection, and 
 melody of voice in most instances are good. In learn- 
 ing to read, it is necessary for the child to obtain an 
 idea and then to clearly express it. Oral Keading 
 should be so performed by the scholar that the teach- 
 er should discover the thought in the child's mind in 
 its fullness and beauty. The pupil should be taught 
 to express himself in reading as he does in talking. 
 The desired result is best achieved by teaching Read- 
 ing by the Word Method. 
 
 The child of five or six years of age has acquired 
 ideas and learned to express them in spoken words. 
 In learning to read, he must learn to use written 
 and printed words precisely as he has employed 
 spoken words. How does the child acquire spo- 
 ken words ? is a question of some importance to the 
 careful instructor. In answering this query, it should 
 be stated that the child sees the object first, and then 
 
70 SCIENCE, ARr AND METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 learns the word which desigriates it. The spoken 
 word recalls to the little one an idea, but the idea ex- 
 isted in his mind before the word. 
 
 Now, in teaching the child according to the Word 
 Method, the same significant principle must be ob- 
 served. A word is used to recall an idea, and it can 
 be thoroughly learned only by association with the 
 idea recalled. When the child learns the spoken 
 word, he learns it as a whole and does not know that 
 it has any elementary parts. If we would follow Na- 
 ture in her teaching, we should teach the written 
 word as a whole, and should not attempt to separate 
 the written word into parts. The AVord Method, 
 which consists in learning the word as a whole with- 
 out directing attention to its parts, demands that the 
 object should be held up before the child, and its 
 name should be written or printed as the instructor 
 may prefer. In the selection of objects, those with 
 which the child is best acquainted should be chosen. 
 Sketches, pictures, simple conversations, and pointed 
 stories may be sometimes used with effect in enabling 
 the pupil to associate ideas with written words. 
 
 As learning to read is essentially mastering a vo- 
 cabulary of written and printed words, it is important 
 to know what words should be taught first. The 
 greatest difficulty to the child consists in learning the 
 first few words, and, hence, those words should be 
 selected with respect to objects and ideas known to 
 the child. Such words as dog, cat, fan, man, rat, egg, 
 nest, the, a, an, dress, hat, fox, cap, fish, here, there, 
 where, bag, and jug should be first learned by the 
 child. 
 
 I shall now endeavor to illustrate the simplest mode 
 
HOW TO TEACH BEADING. 71 
 
 of teaching words. We shall suppose that we wish 
 to teach the children the word "hat." Let the teacher 
 take a hat in his hand and say, "What is this ?" Of 
 course every pupil will readily and correctly answer. 
 Let him then tell the school that he will put on the 
 board the word "hat." The teacher should then 
 print the word "hat," and afterward write it in script; 
 or he may write it in script, and then print it. In 
 printing and writing a word, it should be printed and 
 written with the first letter both large and small. 
 The slates of all the children should be ruled by the 
 teacher by cutting deep lines with a knife, and the 
 scholars should copy with exactitude the word "hat" 
 as printed and written on the board. 
 
 We may suppose that the instructor wishes to teach 
 the word "ax." A real ax should be shown to the 
 school and taught in the same manner as the word 
 "hat" was. If the real ax cannot be obtained, the 
 picture of an ax should be drawn on the board, and 
 then the teacher may proceed as I have before stat- 
 ed. He should continue to teach in this manner un- 
 til he has taught about one hundred or one hundred 
 and fifty words. In selecting the list of words, he 
 should be careful to bring to the mind of the child 
 those words which represent ideas and objects with 
 which he is perfectly familiar. As the Primer or First 
 Reader will be studied by the child, it is advisable to 
 pick from three or four such books a number of the 
 words which will first come to the attention of the 
 pupil. 
 
 We might consider at this point the question. Should 
 print or script be taught in the beginning, or should 
 both be taught together? I have associated with 
 
72 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 skilful teachers who used with great success both at 
 once. In the hands of a live, industrious teacher, 
 the child can learn with profit both the printed and 
 written form at the same time Many prefer to teach 
 the printed form alone of about one hundred or more 
 words and then the same in script, while others do 
 just the reverse. Those who prefer to teach the script 
 alone first argue that it is easier for the child to mas- 
 ter one form than it is to master two, and that, as 
 writing is a mode of expression which the child will 
 use all his life, he should be taught it in the beginning. 
 None of these ways of teaching a word is violative 
 of any principle, and, hence, the teacher is at liberty 
 to employ at the beginning print or script, or print 
 and script combined. The best teachers of the Word 
 Method, with few exceptions, now advocate the teach- 
 ing of both at once. If the instructor is not thor- 
 oughly conversant with this method, I would advise 
 him to take the following advice as given by Col. 
 Francis W. Parker, "Train the child to use one set of 
 forms, made in one way and one alone. In my ex- 
 perience extending over eleven years of supervision 
 of primary schools, I have never known the failure 
 of a single class to change from script to print 
 easily and readily in one or two days." Even in 
 teaching script and print together, the word should 
 be first written in script and then in print Though 
 Col. Parker so strenuously advocated the use of script 
 alone, he acknowledges that script and print may be 
 used at the same time with good effect ; for he says, 
 "I will try to present the argument in favor of script 
 alone, not denying, however, that script and print 
 may be used at the same time with good effect." 
 
HOW TO TEACH READING. 1^ 
 
 When the child has been taught about one hun- 
 dred or one hundred and fifty words, he may be 
 taught how to read from the board short sentences. 
 Short sentences may be well taught in the following 
 manner. Let the pupil take a hat in his hand and be 
 led to say, "This is a hat." The instructor now writes 
 the sentence on the board, and tells the child that the 
 chalk has said what he said. He may then ask the 
 question, "What did the chalk say on the board?" 
 The pupil readily replies. Now write in succession, 
 in the place of hat, all the object-words that have 
 been taught. Change "this" to "that," "that" to 
 "here," and "here" to "there." As the scholar reads 
 each sentence, he should hold up the required object. 
 It would be well to change the singulars to plurals, 
 and to use "these" and "those." Questions of this 
 kind should be written ; "Where is the hat ?", and the 
 scholar should reply orally by holding up the object, 
 "Here is the hat." The answer should then be placed 
 on the board. When about six or eight sentences 
 have been written, let the scholars read them indi- 
 vidually and collectively. Continue thus to intro- 
 duce new words with objects. 
 
 Qualities of objects may be inculcated next; as, the 
 "blue" hat; the "red" cap; the "large" box; the "fat" 
 boy. Exclamatory sentences may be brought in ; as, 
 Oh, here is a box! See the pretty dress ! Imperative 
 sentences may be brought in at this point ; as. Come 
 to me. Go out. Stand up. Short connected stories 
 may be placed on the board by the teacher. A bird 
 in a nest in a tree may be sketched on the board, and 
 short sentences may be written concerning the ob- 
 jects seen in the picture. I would advise the teacher 
 
74 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 to write each sentence in script and print and teacli 
 both together. 
 
 When the child has learned to read with ease and 
 accuracy about one hundred short sentences from the 
 board, and can write them on the slate, he is prepar- 
 ed to beg-in the first reading book. A number of the 
 sentences written on the board should be taken from 
 the book which the child is to use. Some teachers 
 use the Primer as the first book, but the greater num- 
 ber employ the First Reader. 
 
 Due attention to the following directions will great- 
 ly aid the instructor in teaching primary reading by 
 the Word Method. 
 
 (1.) Teach words by first presenting objects, 
 sketches, or pleasant conversations ; for they give 
 ideas which should always precede words. 
 
 (2.) Teach the words very slowly, and arrange 
 them in many different sentences. 
 
 (3.) See that the child obtains the thought before 
 he is allowed to express it, and do not permit him to 
 guess at words and sentences. 
 
 (4.) Lead each child to write all words and sen- 
 tences on a well-ruled slate and also on the black- 
 board. 
 
 (5.) Teach the pupil to begin each sentence with a 
 capital letter and to use the correct punctuation mark 
 at the end of each. 
 
 The Object, Word, Sentence, and Script Methods 
 discussed in this lecture were discovered long ago, 
 and teachers have often employed them. The Script 
 Method is certainly not less than one hundred years 
 of age, and it is the youngest of all. All of these 
 modes of instruction were discovered by teachers 
 
HOW TO TEACH READING. t5 
 
 from observing and studying the great laws of mind. 
 Each of them is good, and should be used in its pro- 
 per place. It should be remembered that all these 
 methods are intended, first, to enable the child to ob- 
 tain a clear conception of the thoughts, feelings, and 
 purposes of an author, and, secondly, to express with 
 understanding his thoughts, feelings, and purposes 
 to others. That mode of instruction which leads the 
 child to do this most readily is the best. 
 
 While the Word Method is, without doubt, the bet- 
 ter mode of teaching Beading for the great majority 
 of children, the experience of a good number of ex- 
 cellent teachers proves that the ABC Method is 
 sometimes found better for a few. The skilful and 
 professional instructor should know how to handle 
 each with grace and efficacy. 
 
LECTUKE V. 
 
 HOW TO TEAGH SPELLING:^ PHONIGS. 
 
 The Old Method of Teaching Spelling — The True Fur- 
 pose of it — How Should it he Taught? — What is Meant by 
 Phonics — The Best Mode of Teaching Phonics. 
 
 "Spelling is the art of representing words by their proper 
 letters. — Greeners Eng. Grammar. 
 
 In teaching Spelling according to the old method, 
 the instructor usually began by putting a spelling 
 book in the hands of the child who was frequently 
 forced to spell words which he did not comprehend. 
 Often he was permitted to give by voice simply the 
 letters of a word, and was seldom taught to write them. 
 It was discovered that, though children studied 
 through different spellers under such instruction, 
 they did not acquire the needed capability of writ- 
 ing words. The great majority of teachers of the 
 old New York Spelling Book method proceeded 
 upon the assumption that naming the letters of a word 
 with the voice was the great desideratum in teaching 
 Spelling. 
 
 We can readily perceive the great defect of this 
 mode of teaching, when we remember that the main 
 purpose in teaching Spelling is to prepare one for 
 composition. If the child is to become in time a neat, 
 
HOW TO TEACH SPELLING AND PHONICS. 77 
 
 correct composer, he must have a good understand- 
 ino- of the meaning of words, and must be able to 
 write them correctly in neatly formed sentences. 
 
 The following method will secure the desired re- 
 sults more readily and effectively than any other. 
 We must remember that the words first taught on 
 the black-board in Reading should be the first words 
 spelled by the child. We shall suppose that the 
 teacher wishes to teach the child how to spell with 
 understanding the word "cat." The instructor first 
 pronounces the word "cat." The child then pro- 
 nounces it, and spells it orally. The teacher now 
 causes him to give a neat sentence containing the word 
 "cat." The child says, "I see a cat." The pupil is 
 now directed to write this word on his ruled slate. 
 When this is correctly done, he is directed to write 
 the sentence, "I see a cat." The scholar proceeds in 
 this manner in learning to spell any word. 
 
 Let us take another case in which the pupil is to 
 spell a word of two or three syllables. The word 
 ' 'follow" is to be taught. The teacher first seeks to im- 
 press upon the child its meaning and then its spelling. 
 He pronounces it and says f-o-1, fol, 1-o-w, lo, fol- 
 low. The scholar then pronounces it in the same man- 
 ner. He then gives the meaning of it by employing 
 it in a sentence, after which he writes it, and then 
 writes a sentence containing it. The teacher may 
 proceed thus with all words. 
 
 The question is often asked. When should the child 
 begin spelling ? It is very important that the teacher 
 should know just at what time in a child's mental 
 growth each study should be commenced; for, if he 
 does not know this, he is liable to do violence to the 
 
78 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 child's nature. According to my judgment, Spelling- 
 should be begun by the pupil when he has finished 
 about one hundred sentences, and is prepared to be- 
 gin the Primer or First Reader. At this stage of his 
 mental growth, he is acquainted with a number of 
 individual words and a few sentences. He knows his 
 alphabet, and is prepared to name the letters of words 
 and to use them in sentences. If an attempt is made 
 to have the pupil begin spelling before he has ob- 
 tained this preparation, too much is crowded upon 
 him, and he will accomx^lish but little. 
 
 Every word which occurs in the different reading 
 books used by the child should be spelled in the man- 
 ner indicated. In fact, it is very advantageous to the 
 student to have him learn to spell every word which 
 occurs in any book which he may study. In teach- 
 ing Arithmetic, Geography, History, Grammar, or 
 any other study, the instructor must impress the child 
 with the importance of knowing how to spell correct- 
 ly any word in them. 
 
 I have frequently employed the method explained 
 in this lecture with great success. For ten years I 
 tested it, and always found that I could teach spell- 
 ing by it with more satisfaction than by any other 
 mode. My own testimony in this respect is corrobo- 
 rated by the experience of numbers of excellent teach- 
 ers with whom I have conversed on methods from 
 time to time. The teacher must exercise patience in 
 endeavoring to use it, and must be mindful of the 
 fact that children learn slowly by constantly doing 
 what is required to be done. Hence the child must 
 be taught to spell orally, to give sentences embody- 
 ing the words, to write them, and to write neat sen- 
 tences containing them. 
 
HOW TO TEACH SPELLING AND PHONICS. 79 
 
 PHONICS. 
 
 By Phonics, we mean the science of the sounds of 
 the human voice. When should Phonics be taught 
 the child? is a question which has been frequently- 
 discussed among teachers. 
 
 In the English language there are about forty ele- 
 mentary sounds. As it is not a purely phonetic 
 tongue, one character frequently has more than one 
 sound. Now, the question might be put in this form, 
 When should the child begin to associate the element- 
 ary sounds with the letters which stand for them ? 
 
 I would not advise the teacher to commence such 
 instruction when the child begins the Word Method 
 of Eeading or when he commences Spelling ; for, in 
 either case, too much is put upon him, and he will 
 make bat little progress in what is attempted. I am 
 convinced that a pupil is prepared to commence with 
 advantage Phonology, when he has spelled such 
 words as are usually found in the First Reader. Pho- 
 nics may be very readily taught by the following 
 method. Take a word which illustrates the first 
 sound of a, as "ale." The child should be taught to 
 spell it phonetically by the voice and by writing it 
 on the slate. Silent letters should be crossed by 
 neat oblique lines. Then select words which illus- 
 trate the second, third, and fourth sounds of a ; as, 
 hat, far, ball. 
 
 In indicating on the board or state the different 
 sounds of «, some teachers use the numbers, 1, 2, 3, 
 4, while others prefer to employ diacritical marks. 
 In teaching children, the instructor must determine 
 from the general abihty of the school whether four 
 or six sounds of a should be taught. In the begin- 
 
80 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 ning it is better, perhaps, to teach only four sounds 
 of it. 
 
 Words illustrating the two sounds of e may be 
 chosen; as, me, met; then those having the two 
 sounds of i ; as, fine, fin ; then those embodying the 
 four sounds of o ; as, gold, box, move, morn ; then 
 those showing the four sounds of u ; as, mute, cup, 
 pull, fur, and those having the two sounds of y, when 
 it has the sounds of i ; as, myth, thyme. 
 
 While the different sounds of the vowels are learn- 
 ed, the child becomes acquainted with the sounds of 
 such consonants as are found in the words taught. 
 But he should understand the sounds of all the con- 
 sonants, and should be able to give them. The teach- 
 er can very easily impart to him this knowledge by 
 picking out simj^le words of one syllable embodying 
 the needed consonantal sounds. Particular care 
 should be exercised in teaching consonants which 
 have more than one sound, those having the sounds 
 of two other letters, and those which are sounded 
 together ; such as, c, x, ch, sh, and th. 
 
 The different sounds of these letters may be easily 
 taught by employing the signs which indicate them, 
 or by writing over them the letters which represent 
 their real sounds. C soft, as in "cede," may be indi- 
 
 s 
 
 cated thus, cede or cede; ch as in "chaise," thus,- 
 
 SH _ ' 
 
 chaise. 
 
 Some instructors do not employ diacritical marks in 
 indicating to the eye the different sounds of different 
 letters on the ground that they are too difficult for 
 the child ; but the experience and testimony of a 
 large number of successful teachers prove that chil- 
 dren can soon master them. 
 
HOW TO TEACH READING AND PHONICS. 81 
 
 It should be remembered that the best lexicograph- 
 ers, as Webster and Worcester, use diacritical marks 
 very extensively in indicating the pronunciation of 
 different words. If one does not know the sounds 
 represented by such marks, he cannot understand 
 the exact pronunciation of words. It is important, 
 therefore, that the child should know them. 
 
 Phonetic Spelling must be first learned orally by 
 the child. As soon as he can do this with ease and 
 readiness, he should be taught to spell them phoneti- 
 cally on the black-board and slate. It is by the writ- 
 ing exercises that he becomes acquainted with the 
 different diacritical marks. 
 
 Thus far we have referred to the spelling of words 
 
 of one syllable ; for the iDupil must learn how to han- 
 dle with ease that class of words before he proceeds 
 to spell those of two and more syllables. When the 
 teacher is confident that the scholar can spell pho- 
 netically one-syllable words, he should teach him 
 simple words of two syllables, after which words of 
 three syllables and more should be taught. 
 
 The different words found in the different readers 
 of the child should be spelled phonetically as well as 
 by naming their letters. It is excellent practice to 
 cause the pupil to first spell a word by naming its 
 letters and then to spell it by phonics and call his 
 attention to the real difference between the spellings. 
 I have had a school of more than fifty children aver- 
 aging eleven years of age to obtain by this'^method 
 from 95 to 98 per cent in an oral and written exami- 
 nation. 
 
 The importance of teaching phonics may be seen 
 from the fact that a correct knowledge of the ele- 
 mentary sounds of the different letters is the basis of 
 all correct reading and spelling. Deficiency in pro- 
 nunciation and articulation arises, in great measure, 
 from an indefinite knowledge of Phonology. 
 
LECTUEE VI. 
 
 HOW TO TEAGH ARITHMETIC. 
 
 What is Niimher f — - What Cun he Done With it f — How 
 Must it he Taught f — The First Yearns Worlc — The Second 
 Yearh Work — The Third Yearns Worlc may Begin with 
 the First Steps in Addition, Suhtraction, and MuUifplication 
 — The Numhers from Thirty to Fifty — The Second Steps 
 in Addition, Subtractio7i, and Multiplication — After Sixty, 
 Teach Time, Dry Measure, and Long Measure — From Sev- 
 enty to One Hundred — The Third Step in Multiplication — 
 The Steps in Division — Other Suhjects of Arithmetic. 
 
 "Number is the useful thing, 
 Which man must know whatever comes ; 
 
 For peace and life do often hinge 
 Upon the way he counts his sums." — The Author. 
 
 In teaching Arithmetic, we first aim to impart to 
 the child a correct idea of number. The question 
 may be asked, What is number ? Number definitely 
 limits objects of the same kind to how many. It is 
 very important to know what can be done with num- 
 ber. Here are several numbers : the question natu- 
 rally arises, In what relations can they be seen ? I 
 can unite them into one number and separate this 
 number into other numbers. Every operation in 
 Arithmetic consists of one or both of these simple 
 processes, — uniting and separating. 
 
HOW TO TEACH ARITHMETIC. 83 
 
 Uniting numbers is addition ; uniting equal num- 
 bers is multiplication. Separating numbers is sub- 
 traction; separating numbers equally is division. 
 These are the four fundamental operations in Arith- 
 metic, and it should be remembered that the applica- 
 tion of these simple relations enter into the various 
 operations of it. The instructor should ever hold in 
 his mind the reasons for teaching number. There 
 are two important motives for giving instruction in 
 Arithmetic : first, it trains the intellectual faculties 
 to calculate with exactitude and rapidity, and develops 
 the power to reason logically ; secondly, it assists us 
 in the practical affairs of life. 
 
 Let us now consider the question, How must num- 
 ber be taught? I do not deem it necessary to ex- 
 plain the old method of teaching beginners Arith- 
 metic ; for almost every teacher is well acquainted 
 with it. I shall simply endeavor to present a method 
 which experience has proved to be superior to it, 
 and which possesses all its excellencies with the best 
 features of the "Quincy Methods." As no good 
 teacher would think of teaching Geography without 
 maps, Botany without j)lants, or Physiology without 
 charts or bones, so no skilful instructor would attempt 
 to teach number without numbers of objects. He 
 should supply himself with sticks, peas, beans, blocks, 
 spools, pebbles, shells, buttons, measures, cups, and 
 other objects. 
 
 The first step in teaching number consists in ascer- 
 taining, by careful examination, just what the pupil 
 knows. This may be easily done in the following 
 manner. Hold up two objects and say, "Bring me 
 so many." If this is done, hold up three objects and 
 
84 BCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 say, "Bring- me three blocks." Then present three 
 beans and ask, "How many?" Give questions such 
 as this. I take one stick from two sticks ; how many 
 sticks are left ? A child may count up to a number, 
 and not have a clear knowledge of it. Hence, his 
 ability to count should not be taken as a test of his 
 knowledge of numbers. From repeated tests given 
 by myself to a large number of children, I discover- 
 ed that the average child of five or six years of age 
 does not know beyond the number two when he en- 
 ters the school-room for the first time. In most in- 
 stances, it is best to begin with three in teaching" 
 number. 
 
 There are two important points to be observed in 
 teaching every number. First, we should teach the 
 number as a whole, and, secondly, the addition, sub- 
 traction, multiplication, and division facts of it. I 
 shall now take the number three to illustrate the best 
 method of teaching number. 
 
 1. Three as a Whole. Pick me out two spools, and 
 put one more with them. How many are there ? 
 Show me just as many sticks, beans, desks, boys, 
 girls, trees. 
 
 2. The Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and 
 Division Facts of Three. Teach two and one thus. 
 Show me two sticks. Show me one more stick. How 
 many sticks have you shown me ? Cause the child 
 to do likewise with the other objects. Then tell them 
 such incidents as the following. Nellie had two birds, 
 and bought one more ; how many did she then have ? 
 Teach one and two thus. Hand me one pea. Hand 
 me two more peas. How many peas have you hand- 
 ed me? 
 
HOW TO TEACH ARITHMETIC. 85 
 
 Now teach the subtraction facts. Teach three mi- 
 nus one thus. Hand me three beans. Take one away. 
 How many are left ? Do likewise with other objects. 
 Willie had three apples and ate one ; how many 
 were left ? Teach three minus two thus. Take three 
 pieces of chalk. Give me two of them. How many 
 have you left? Sarah had three dolls, and g-ave away 
 two ; how many did she have left ? Teach likewise 
 three minus three. 
 
 Now teach the division and multiplication facts as 
 follows. Teach three divided by one thus. Take 
 three pencils. How many one-pencils can you find 
 in them ? Mary had three apples, and g-ave one each 
 to some girls ; to how many g-irls did she give them ? 
 Teach three divided by three thus. Take three ap- 
 ples. Hand them to three boys. How many does 
 each receive ? In three there is but one multiplica- 
 tion fact which may be taught thus. Here are three 
 pens with a pig in each pen. How many pigs are 
 there? One boy has one nose; how many noses 
 have three boys ? In teaching this number, a larger 
 assortment of practical examples should be used than 
 I have presented. The figure three may be easily 
 taught after the different facts of the number three 
 are clearly understood. 
 
 When the pupil thoroughly understands the num- 
 ber three, he should learn the other numbers in reg- 
 ular order in the same manner. Each number as a 
 whole and the addition, subtraction, multiplication, 
 and division facts of it should be systemetically in- 
 culcated. The different facts of any number from 
 three to one hundred may be very easily found. In 
 selecting the addition facts, find what numbers will 
 
86 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 give you the number which you are teaching. For 
 instance, I know that two and two, one and three, 
 and three and one make four. The subtraction facts 
 may be readily picked out by remembering that the 
 number and all lower numbers can be taken from the 
 number itself. Thus, we observe that the subtraction 
 facts of six are six minus six, six minus five, six minus 
 four, six minus three, six minus two, and six minus 
 one. In presenting the multiplication facts, find 
 what two numbers multiplied together will produce 
 the number taught. Thus, we note that the multipli- 
 cation facts of eight are eight ones, two fours, four 
 twos ; we sometimes say eight times one, two times 
 four, and four times two. In teaching the division 
 facts, find what numbers will exactly divide the num- 
 ber taught. In each division, the divisor will be one 
 number, and the quotient will be the other. For in- 
 stance, we perceive that one, two, and five exactly 
 divide ten. Hence the division facts of ten are 
 ten divided by one, ten divided by two, and ten di- 
 vided by five. There is no necessity to divide the 
 number by itself. 
 
 As soon as the pupil has learned the number ten 
 the fractions one-half, one-third, and one-fourth may^ 
 be taught. The following method is a good one for 
 teaching the fraction one-half. Take a stick, and 
 divide it into two equal parts. How much of the 
 stick is each part? Some child will probably say, 
 "One-half." Do likewise with a number of objects. 
 Show me one-half of two buttons, one-half of four 
 buttons, one-half of six buttons, one-half of eight but- 
 tons, one-half of ten buttons. In this manner teach 
 one-third and one-fourth. Some teachers object to 
 
HOW TO TEACH ARITHMETIC. 87 
 
 the teaching- of the fractions one-half, one-third, and 
 others before the child understands numbers well, 
 and knows addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
 division. They claim that the child is made to at- 
 l;empt too much at once. On this point, I simply- 
 state that fractions do not present much difficulty 
 when they accompany the teaching of whole num- 
 bers from the beginning*. 
 
 In presenting the number eleven, ten sticks should 
 be tied in a bundle, and the attention of the child 
 should be called to this fact. With twelve, the signs 
 of equality -^ , plus I , and minus — should be learn- 
 ed by the child. The signs may be given by the fol- 
 lowing method. Who will supply the word that is 
 necessary to complete this sentence, 5 and 3 . . . 8 ? 
 Some pupil will probably say, "Equal." Then im- 
 press him with the fact that the sign = means equal. 
 Who will give the word that is necessary to complete 
 this sentence, 8 . . . 2-- 10? Some one will say 
 "And." Then let him understand that the sign f 
 means and. Who will tell the word that will fill out 
 this sentence, 9 ... 7-2? Some one will, in all 
 probability, say, "Less " Impress the child with the 
 fact that the sign — means less or minus. Introduce 
 a large number of exercises, such as the following-, 
 and cause the pupil to supply the necessary signs and 
 numbers: 7+3= . . ; 9— 6=- . . . ; 7 . . . 3=4; 
 10 . . . 7=3; 12—10 ... 
 
 The question is often asked. How much should the 
 child attempt to learn during the first year ? Accord- 
 ing to the testimony of those who are best acquainted 
 with this method, the pupil, during the first school 
 year, can really learn between ten and fifteen. I am 
 
88 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 convinced that the teacher can, by careful training, 
 enable the child to master at least twelve in that time. 
 Some think that the attempt to teach four operations 
 at once confuses the pupil ; but experience shows that 
 the child readily grasps them, when they are proper-' 
 ly and systematically taught. As I have before inti- 
 mated, the figure which represents a number may be 
 taught as soon as the nuruber itself is thoroughly mas- 
 tered. As far as my experience is concerned, 1 see 
 no serious objection to teaching figures along with 
 numbers. Hence the child may, during the first year, 
 commence slate and blackboard work. 
 
 The second year's work may be begun with thir- 
 teen, if the first year's teaching ended with twelve. 
 During the first year, the teacher should not attempt 
 to teach beyond the number fifteen, and the second 
 year's instruction in number should not commence 
 with any number beyond sixteen. The signs of 
 multiplication and division may be given with fifteen 
 in the same manner as the others. After the child 
 learns nineteen, tens should be inculcated as prepara- 
 tory to the teaching of twenty . One hundred sticks 
 should be put into bundles of ten each. The pupil 
 should be so thoroughly drilled that he can readily 
 tell how many there are in two tens, three tens, four 
 tens, five tens, six tens, seven tens, eight tens, nine 
 tens, and ten tens. Practical examples and slate 
 work should be given. After the number thirty has 
 been learned, the fractions one- fifth, and one -sixth, 
 may be taught as one-half was. Liquid Measure may 
 be also taught at this point. To do this with efficien- 
 cy, the instructor should supply himself with gill, 
 
HOW TO TEACH ARITHMETIC. 8^ 
 
 pint, half -pint, quart, and gallon measures. Dry 
 Measnre may be then taught. 
 
 The first step in addition, when the sum of the 
 units does not exceed nine, may be taught after thirty 
 thus. Three boys had some marbles; one had thir- 
 teen, another, twenty-four, and the other, thirty-two. 
 Let some pupil show by the sticks or some other ob- 
 jects what the ^um is. He picks out the bundle of 
 ten sticks and three separate sticks for thirteen, two 
 bundles of ten sticks and four separate ones for twen- 
 ty-four, and three bundles of ten sticks and two sepa- 
 rate ones for thirty -two. He then counts nine single 
 ones and six tens, which make sixty -nine. Give a num- 
 ber of examples such as the foregoing, and cause the 
 child to show their sum by the objects. When he 
 can readily do this, the examples may be transfer- 
 red to the board and slate, and added in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 The first step in subtraction, when the number in 
 each order of the minuend is greater than the corre- 
 sponding number in the subtrahend, should be taught 
 in the following manner. I have fifty -seven chickens, 
 and sell twenty -four. Let some child show from the 
 objects how many are left. He removes from the five 
 tens and seven single sticks two tens and four single 
 sticks, and he at once sees three tens and three single 
 sticks remaining. Give several like examples, and 
 when the pupil is familiar with their solution by 
 means of the sticks, the same or like examples may be 
 transferred to the board and slate, and subtracted 
 in the usual way. 
 
 The first step in multiplication, when the multi- 
 
do SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OP TEACHING. 
 
 plier is less than ten, and the product of any order in 
 the miiltiplieand is hiSs thanten, may be well j^^iven by 
 the following method. If it takes twenty-two cents 
 to buy one melon, how many cents will it take to buy 
 four? The child should take the sticks or some ob- 
 jects, and show how many twos are needed. He then 
 shows how many tens are wanted. After he has 
 worked mentally a number of examples in this man- 
 ner, he is prepared to solv^e them on the board and 
 slate. After these steps are learned, we teach from 
 thirty to fifty. I shall say at this point that the sec- 
 ond year's work shonkl end with thirty, and that the 
 pupil should be^in the third year with the first steps 
 in addition, subtraction, and multiplication. Some 
 teachers, however, pn^fcjr to include these steps in the 
 second year's teaching. 
 
 As soon as the child has learned fifty, he may pro- 
 ceed to master the next steps in addition, subtraction, 
 and multiplication. The second step in addition, 
 when the sum of the ones exceeds nine, should also be 
 taught by objects in the following manner. Three 
 boys were counting their marbles. One had twenty- 
 six, another had thirty-five, and the other had twen- 
 ty-four. Let us see how many marbles they all had. 
 Let the pupil show each numl)er by sticks. Let him 
 find the numb(;r of on(;s, which are fifteen. He 
 knows that, in fifteen, th(;ie are one ten and five sin- 
 gle oijcs. I*ut a string or rubber band around the 
 ten. Now let him count the tens, whi(;h are seven, 
 and add the one ten to them. He will then have eight 
 tens and five single ones, which make eighty-five. Do 
 other examples in the sann; way, and then put them 
 
ttOW TO TEACH AKITflMETlC. 01 
 
 on the board, tiud have liiiri work them. Now he 
 may be readily iaii^ht to add aliriowt any numbers. 
 
 The Keeond step in Hubstraetiori, when th(i ntnnber 
 in the right hand order oC the minuend Ib leHH than 
 the number in the corresponding order of the subtra- 
 hend, may bf^ inculcated by objects in the following 
 manner. .John had lil'ty-three marbles, and sold twen- 
 ty seven. We wish to know how many he had left. 
 We must subtract th(5 ones iirst. When the teacher 
 asks, 'Mlow many ones must we subtract?" some one 
 wi 1 1 say , ' SSeven . ' ' l'>u t we cannot take seven ones from 
 three ones. The instructor says, ^^ Who knows what 
 to do?" Some one will probably say, ^' Break a bun- 
 dle of tens." We now break a bundle of tens, and 
 put them with the ones. Now we may take away 
 seven. The child then sees that two tens must be 
 taken from the remaining four tens. He then knows 
 that John had twenty -six marl)le8 left. When the child 
 can readily solve such examples by means of the ob- 
 jects, he is prepared to work them on the ])oard and 
 slate. When he understands how to work this kind 
 of exami)les on the slate, he may be easily taught how 
 to subtract any number from a larger one. 
 
 The second st(q) in multiplication, when the multi 
 plier consists of one figure, and the product of the 
 number in the lowest order of the multiplicand by the 
 multiplier exceeds nine, may be well taught thus. A 
 farmer had seven pc^ns and forty six pigs in each. 
 How many pigs did he have in alH Jjead the pupil 
 to find seven sixes first. He knows that there are 
 four tens and two single ones in forty-two. He puts 
 a string or rul)ber band about each ten, and lays the 
 
92 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 two single sticks on one side. He next finds seven 
 four-tens which are twenty-eight tens. Lead him to 
 see that the four tens must he added to the twenty - 
 eight tens, making thirty -two tens. The whole num- 
 ber of pigs was three hundred and twenty -two. The 
 child can very readily learn that the three in this an- 
 swer means three hundred. Commence board work 
 as soon as the child can easily separate the tens from 
 the ones in the product of units by units, and can 
 add these tens to the product of tens. When these 
 different steps in addition, subtraction, and multipli- 
 cation are learned by the pupil, he should proceed to 
 master the numbers from fifty to one hundred inclu- 
 sive according to the method which is explained in 
 the preceding part of the lecture. 
 
 After sixty is presented, the pupil may learn Time 
 and the Time Table. This should be inculcated by 
 the following method. Let the teacher suspend in 
 front of the class a string with a weight attached to it. 
 The string should be thirty -nine inches long. He 
 must impress the child with the fact that whenever 
 the weight moves under the hook, one second of time 
 passes. He must now teach the child that sixty sec- 
 onds make a minute. He can make the child easily 
 comprehend this by showing him that the smallest 
 hand of a watch moves once around the little circle 
 while the weight swings sixty times . The pupil learns 
 from this that it takes the little hand sixty seconds, 
 or one minute to go entirely round the circle. Now 
 see if some child cannot discover that it takes the 
 long hand one hour, or sixty minutes to move round 
 the face of the clock. Cause him to know how many 
 
HOW TO TEACH ARITHMETIC. 93 
 
 minutes it takes the long hand to move from twelve 
 to one, from one to two, and to the other figures on 
 the face of the clock. When the scholar thoroughly 
 understands seconds, minutes, and hours, he is pre- 
 pared to learn, with little effort, the number of hours 
 in a day, the number of days in a week, the number 
 of weeks in a month, and the number of months in a 
 year. Kow he can easily write the Time Table. 
 
 After seventy is learned, he may be taught Long 
 Measure. The teacher should supply himself with a 
 foot-rule and a yard-measure. Let him cut a piece 
 of paper one inch in length, so that the pupil will be 
 enabled to tell an inch whenever he sees it. He then 
 easily learns that twelve of these little measures make 
 a foot, and that three foot-measures make a yard. 
 Kow let the pupil learn the length of a rod by seeing 
 a string five and a half yards long. He may then be 
 impressed with the fact that there are three hundred 
 and twenty rods in a mile . Cause the pupil to take the 
 measures and find out lengths for himself. Proceed 
 to teach the remaining numbers from sixty to one 
 hundred according to the method illustrated in teach- 
 ing the number three. Before one hundred is taught, 
 Eoman I^umbers may be given. Almost any Arith- 
 metic gives a simple method of teaching them. 
 
 After one hundred is learned, the third step in mul- 
 tiplication, when the multiplier consists of two fig- 
 ures and the left hand figure is one, may be presented 
 thus. A man had eighteen coops and thirty -six 
 chickens in each . How many did he have in all ? 
 Icead the scholar to find by the sticks how many 
 chickens there were in eight coops. Then let him 
 
94 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 find how many there were in ten coops, and add both 
 nnmbers together. Give a number of practical ex- 
 amples of this kind, and then let the child work 
 them on the board and slate. When he has master- 
 ed this step, he can very easily be taught to work ex- 
 amples of this kind : Thirty-six times forty-eight are 
 how many? He can then be led to multiply any 
 number by any number of two figures . After this he 
 very readily learns to multiply, in the usual manner, 
 any number by any number of three or four figures. 
 
 The first step in division, when each order in the 
 dividend is exactly divisible by the divisor, may be 
 presented thus. A farmer has forty -four sheep, and 
 wishes to put two in a fold. How many folds does 
 he need ! Lead the child to pick out all the twos pos- 
 sible from forty-four. Give other examples like these : 
 Divide sixty-six by three ; ninety-six by four ; one 
 hundred and five by five 5 and ninety by six. Let the 
 
 pupil solve all these by sticks, and then put the work 
 on the board and slate. 
 
 The second step in division, when the number of 
 tens in the dividend is not exactly divisible by the 
 divisor, may be taught thus. A farmer has ninety- 
 six sheep, and puts them in six folds. How many are 
 there in each fold "? How many sixes are in nine tens, 
 and how many tens are left ? We break the three 
 bundles of tens, and put them with the six, and make 
 thirty -six ones. How many sixes are in thirty-six 
 ones "? Then take an example such as this : How 
 many eights are there in one hundred and thirty - 
 eight? Do this likewise, and show that two are left. 
 As soon as the pupil comprehends the first and sec- 
 ond steps of division, he is prepared to begin the di- 
 vision of any number by any number of three or four 
 figures. 
 
HOW TO TEACH ARITHMETIC. 95 
 
 I have presented the best approved methods of 
 teaching Primary Arithmetic to children. I do not 
 deem it necessary to give methods for teaching prop- 
 erties of numbers, fractions, percentage with its ap- 
 plications, and other subjects of Higher Arithmetic ; 
 for good methods of inculcating these subjects are 
 found in the Arithmetics of Quackenbos, White, 
 Greenleaf, and Wentworth. The teacher must lead 
 the pupil from the simple to the complex, from ob- 
 jects to ideas, from the known to the unknown. When 
 a new subject is begun, let the pupil discover facts 
 concerning it for himself. When he commences frac- 
 tions, he should be led to discover what fractions are 
 by means of sticks or some other objects. Let him 
 look at the fractions and handle them. Then pursue 
 the usual course in teaching them. By this method 
 the child will discover for himself mixed numbers^ 
 proper, and improper fractions. In teaching reduc- 
 tion, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi- 
 sion of fractions, good use can be made of the objects. 
 The question is often asked, When should objects 
 be dispensed with in the teaching of number ? Wheth- 
 er this should be done at ten, fifteen, or some other 
 number, I am not prepared to say ; however, the in- 
 structor may safely follow this rule. When the child 
 can comprehend a number without the presence of ob- 
 jects, their use may cease. I would exhort the teach- 
 er to seek to know the subject of number in its length, 
 breadth, and depth? Do not imagine that you fully 
 comprehend number, because you are well acquainted 
 with figures ; for this is a common mistake. Lead 
 the pupil to discover step by step the various rela- 
 tions of each number. Definitions, processes, and 
 rules are excellent agencies in mental growth, if they 
 are discovered by the pupil for himself. Eemember 
 the old maxim, '^Is^ever do anything for a pupil that 
 he can be led to do for himself." 
 
LECTUKE VII. 
 
 HOW TO TEAGH GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 A Definition of Geography, and its Relation to other 
 Sciences — The Aim in Teaching it, and How it Should be 
 Taught — The Teachmg of the Forms of Land and Water — 
 Moulding the Continents — Elementary Geography — An 
 Easy Method of Teaching States and Countries — Teach the 
 Cities, Rivers, Mountains, Boundaries, Occupation, His- 
 tory, and People of Bach State and Country. 
 
 "Geography is the science of the Earth. It deals not only 
 with facts, but also with laws that govern these facts ; and 
 hence it is a science." — Warren^ s Physical Geography. 
 
 Geography is a description of the earth's surface 
 and its inhabitants. It is instructive to note that the 
 study of the earth's surface leads to the study of the 
 various physical sciences. A knowledge of the earth 's 
 surface paves the way for an investigation of its crust, 
 which is the subject of Geology. The great rivers 
 and river basins determine, to a large degree, the 
 character of the vegetation. Thus we are brought to 
 the science of Botany. Upon vegetation depends ani- 
 mal life, a description of which is found in Zoology. 
 The phenomena and composition of the earth's sur- 
 face and crust give us both Physics and Chemistry. 
 Humboldt made more observations and generaliza- 
 
HOW TO TEACH GEOGRAPHY. 97 
 
 tions on matters pertaining to the earth's surface and 
 its inhabitants than any man who lived before him. 
 The genius and industry of Carl Eitter discovered the 
 great laws which govern the multitudinous facts found 
 out by the observations and presented in the general- 
 izations of Humboldt, and gave to mankind the 
 science of Geography. Previous to the time of Eit- 
 ter, the study of Geography consisted in mastering a 
 heterogeneous mass of isolated facts, which overtask- 
 ed memory to the injury of reason and judgment. 
 
 So far as an impartation of a knowledge of Geogra- 
 phy is concerned, the first aim of the instructor should 
 be to build into the child's mind an exact knowledge 
 of the structure of the earth's surface. He should en- 
 able the child to obtain, by his imagination, clear, 
 accurate pictures of the forms of continents, their 
 plains, mountains, rivers, countries, cities, products, 
 and people. The average child is not prepared to be- 
 gin the study of Oral Geography until the (fourth or 
 fifth year of his school life. 
 
 The question now presents itself. How must Geo- 
 graphy be so taught that the pupil may most easily 
 and readily gain the necessary knowledge? I shall 
 now endeavor to answer this question by presenting 
 the methods which are approved by the leading edu- 
 cators of Europe and America. When the child com- 
 mences Geography, he should be taught orally 5 for, 
 if a text book is put into his hand at first, he will 
 make but little progress. The teacher should, by 
 skilful questions, lead him to know that the great 
 world on which we live is called the earth . He should 
 show by means of a globe that the earth is almost 
 
98 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 round, and that it is very large. He may then show 
 that the outside, or surface of the earth consists of 
 land and water. At this point, the child may pro- 
 ceed to learn the different forms of land and water 
 found on the earth's surface. These forms can be best 
 learned from a careful study of the locality in which 
 the scholar resides. 
 
 Take the class out into the school grounds and the 
 immediate neighborhood. Call their attention to the 
 low land, hill, valley, spring, creek, brook, lake, pond, 
 and river which may be seen. When they return to 
 school, cause them to tell in neat language what they 
 saw, and let them draw representations of the hill, 
 creek, and other forms. Thus they learn something 
 of their own township or city. The following easy 
 definitions may now be given: A hill is land higher 
 than the surrounding land. A valley is a tract of 
 low lands between hills. A spring is water coming 
 out of the earth. A brook, or creek is a small stream 
 of water flowing through the land. A river is a large 
 stream of water flowing through the land. If the 
 school is situated in a mountainous district, they can 
 see it. If they are unable to see a mountain, lead 
 them to know what a mountain is from theij" knowl- 
 edge of a hill. Teach them to know what a mountain 
 chain and a mountain system are. From their knowl- 
 edge of a tract of level land, you may teach them what 
 a plain is, and then give the definition of it. From 
 their knowledge of the springs, creek, and river 
 which they have seen, you may tell them of others 
 which they have not seen. 
 
 The pupils may then be taught the different forms 
 
HOW TO TEACH GEOGRAPHY. 99 
 
 of land and water which are principally found on the 
 sea-coast. If the school is located near the coast, the 
 scholars should be conducted to it, and permitted to 
 observe an island, peninsula, isthmus, cape, promon- 
 tory, gulf, or bay, sea, and strait. If the scholars 
 cannot see them, they should learn them from a map 
 or blackboard drawing. They are then prepared to 
 learn easy definitions of them; as. An island is a body 
 of land surrounded by water. A peninsula is a body 
 of land nearly surrounded by water. An isthmus is a 
 narrow neck of land which connects two large bodies 
 of land. A cape is a point of land projecting into the 
 water. A promontory is a high cape. A gulf, or bay 
 is a body of water Which extends into the land. A 
 strait, or channel is a narrow passage of water con- 
 necting two large bodies of water. A lake is a body 
 of water surrounded by land. A pond is a small lake. 
 
 The five oceans and the grand divisions of North 
 America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and 
 Australia should be presented with the different forms 
 of land and water. Then the following definitions 
 may be given ; as. An ocean is one of the five parts 
 into which the sea is divided. A continent is a large 
 bodj^ of land. The scholars should be made to draw 
 representations of these different forms on their slates 
 and on the blackboard. It is very profitable to the 
 pupils to write the foregoing definitions in note books 
 and commit them to memory. 
 
 Moulding the continents will impart to the school 
 the most comprehensive idea of them. When they 
 are taught from a globe or map alone, they present a 
 too flat appearance. In order to show, to some ex- 
 
100 SCIENCE, AET AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 tent, the valleys and mountains, they should be mould- 
 ed with sand or putty. A board or table about three 
 feet long and four feet wide, and some dampened sand 
 or putty are sufficient materials for moulding. As 
 South America has the simplest form, it should be 
 moulded first. Draw the outlines of it on the board 
 or table, and then throw up the great Andes Moun- 
 tains and the highlands of Brazil and the north. Re- 
 fer to the abrupt slopes of the west and the gradual 
 slopes of the east. Show the river basins of the Am- 
 azon, the Orinoco, and the Parana Elvers. Then 
 mould, in regular order, North America, Africa, Aus- 
 tralia, Asia, and Europe. Some general information 
 concerning the soil, production, climate, and people 
 should be imparted with the moulding of each conti- 
 nent. This creates a lively interest in the work. 
 
 The countries of North America should then be pre- 
 sented and particular attention should be given to the 
 United States. Impress the children with the facts, 
 that the United States is their own country, and that 
 it has many parts, one of which is the state in which 
 they live. If they live in Massachusetts, they should 
 see a map of it and learn its name. Before Oral Geo- 
 graphy is completed, the primary and secondary 
 points of the compass should be taught as follows. 
 Draw on the board a neat square and write north in 
 the centre of the upper line, east in the middle of the 
 right hand line, south in the centre of the bottom line, 
 and west in the middle of the left hand line. Impress 
 the pupil with the ideas, that the middle part of the 
 top of the map is north ; that the middle part of the 
 right hand is east ; that the centre of the bottom part 
 
HOW TO TEACH GEOGRAPHY. 101 
 
 is south ; and that the middle of the left hand part is 
 west. They can be made to easily understand that, 
 if a person stands with his right hand pointed to 
 where the sun rises, north will be in front of him, 
 south, behind him, and west, on the left hand side. 
 
 When they are well acquainted with the primary 
 points, the secondary points may be given. Write on 
 the square, midway between the north and east, north- 
 east ; between north and west, northwest; between 
 south and east, southeast ; between south and west, 
 southwest. Then practice them until they can readily 
 pick out the secondary points on the maps of :N'orth 
 America, the United States, and their own state. 
 Teach them, too, to locate the principal places in the 
 neighborhood. The knowledge of the different forms 
 of land and water, the shape of the earth, the differ- 
 ent continents, oceans, the country, state, township, or 
 city in which they live, the points of the compass, 
 together with some general information imparted 
 constitute Oral Geography, and require about four or 
 five months for efficient work. 
 
 As soon as the pupils are well drilled in Oral Geo- 
 graphy, they are prepared to begin Elementary Geo- 
 graphy. As the first part of Elementary Geography 
 deals with such matter as the teacher imparts orally, 
 it is wise to commence at the beginning of the book, 
 and more systematically and thoroughly teach what 
 the pupils fairly understand. The children should, 
 after a general study of I^orth America and the 
 United States, commence with that section of States 
 and that individual State in which they live. In im- 
 parting instruction on a state, the cities, rivers, moun- 
 
102 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 tains, boundaries, climate, productions, with some 
 general information in reference to the industries, re- 
 ligion, and government of the people, should be given. 
 Let us suppose that the school is located in Virginia. 
 Call the attention of the class to the Middle Atlantic 
 States, and impart such general information concern- 
 ing their surface, climate, productions, and people as 
 is found in the text book employed. Draw on the 
 blackboard a neat, accurate representation of the 
 whole group. Direct the attention of the class to their 
 own State, Virginia. Teach the cities, rivers, moun- 
 tains, boundaries, climate, industries, history, and 
 government of the people of the State. In teaching 
 the cities, begin with the one in which the school is 
 situated. 
 
 Let us suppose that the school is located in Eich- 
 mond. Teach it thus : Richmond is situated in the 
 southeastern part of Virginia on the right bank of the 
 James River. It is the capital of the State, and is 
 noted for flour mills, tobacco factories, and iron foun- 
 dries. Then lead the pupils to tell what they see in 
 the city daily. Call their attention to its stores, ho- 
 tels, churches, courts, prisons, and other matters of 
 interest. Teach them to know thoroughly their own 
 city, and they will very easily learn others. This il- 
 lustrates the general manner in which the other cities 
 of Virginia and all the cities of the world should be 
 taught. If the school is not situated in a town, but 
 in a township, the township with its surroundings 
 should be first taught. 
 
 Let us take the James River to illustrate the man- 
 ner in which all rivers should be presented to the 
 
HOW TO TEACH GEOGRAPHY. 103 
 
 mind of the child. The James Eiver rises in the 
 western part of the State in the Alleghany Mountains, 
 flows mainly southeasterly, and empties into the Ches- 
 apeake Bay. Give instruction on mountains thus. 
 The Blue Eidge Mountains are in the western part 
 of the State, and extend from northeast to south- 
 west. Give instruction on boundaries thus. Yir- 
 ginia is bounded on the north by West Virginia 
 and Maryland, on the east by Maryland, Chesapeake 
 Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by ^orth 
 Carolina and Tennessee, and on the west by Kentucky 
 and West Virginia. Now give some general informa- 
 tion concerning the occupations, history, and govern- 
 ment of the people. This makes Virginia a lively 
 picture to the children, full of beauty and interest. 
 This same method should be used in teaching every 
 state and territory of the United States. 
 
 The various countries of the world may be present- 
 ed to the minds of the scholars in the same manner. 
 After the states and territories of the United States 
 have been learned, the different countries of North 
 America, Alaska, Canada, Mexico, and Central Amer- 
 ica with the West Indies, should be taught. Then 
 the different countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, and 
 Australia, with their surrounding islands, should be 
 inculcated in regular order. Some general informa- 
 tion concerning the surface, climate, productions, 
 minerals, and people should be presented, after which 
 the cities, rivers, mountains, and boundaries should 
 be given in regular order. Then the scholars are pre- 
 pared to learn something concerning the occupation, 
 history, government, and other matters of interest of 
 
104 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OE TEACHING. 
 
 the country. While globes and maps may be advan- 
 tageously employed, the child should be also taught 
 from neat and accurate maps of the different countries 
 drawn on the blackboard by the instructor. The 
 scholars, too, should draw maps of the different states 
 and countries studied. When the pupil has attained 
 that mental growth which fits him for the study of 
 Intermediate Geography, he can very readily learn 
 the subjects of it, for the most part, in the order in 
 which they are presented in almost any text-book. 
 Now and then a different arrangement of certain mat- 
 ter may be profitably made. 
 
LECTUEE VIII. 
 
 HOW TO TEAGH HISTORY. 
 
 What is History ! — The Main Purpose in Teaching it — 
 It Should be Taught With Eeference to the Great Causes 
 Which Underlie it — How the ChikVs Mind may be Prepar- 
 ed for it — United States History Should be Learned First 
 — Methods for Teaching Discoveries, Settlements, Wars, 
 and Administrations — A Course for the Study of General 
 History. 
 
 "I have read somewhere or other, in Dionysius of Hali- 
 carnassus, I think, that History is philosophy teaching by 
 example." — Bolingbroke on History. 
 
 A record of all that men have done in the past and 
 are doing" at present is as comprehensive a definition 
 of history as can be found. The main purpose for 
 the study of it is to guide and assist us in social, po- 
 litical, and religious progress. From the days of 
 Adam to the present time, many nations have risen, 
 flourished, and passed away. We can, by a system- 
 atic study of them, become acquainted with their 
 customs, manners, political and religious institutions, 
 and the general ideas which actuated them. We are 
 enabled to note the great evils which ground the 
 people beneath harsh oppression and bitter tyranny, 
 and we may easily avoid them. On the other hand, 
 we can contemplate the preserving principles and 
 
106 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 lofty aspirations wliicli sometimes permeated them, 
 and may engraft them into our social, political, and 
 religious institutions. The fund of useful knowledge 
 which has come to us from the past has aided largely 
 in making the United States the fairest, richest, and 
 most humane government on the face of the earth. 
 
 The question now suggests itself, How must His- 
 tory be so presented that the child, after spending a 
 few years in the study of it, may be enabled to un- 
 derstand the principles which inevitably tend either 
 to the decay or prosperity of a nation or people ? 
 The teacher should ever remember that the children 
 of the school will soon move in the social, political, 
 educational, and religious walks of life. Some will 
 take part in the councils of the nation, state, city, or 
 county ; others will occupy prominent positions in the 
 legal, educational- and ministerial professions; and 
 others will grow to be husbands, wives, fathers, and 
 mothers of the state. In any event, they need the 
 light which comes from the lamp of past nations and 
 people to dispel the darkness which will often over- 
 hang their future. If the scholar cannot, in time, 
 readily recall the salient facts of the past, and under- 
 stand their fundamental causes, he will not be able, 
 when a social, political, or religious question arises, 
 to decide it with intelligent judgment. The teacher 
 should, therefore, endeavor to so instruct that the 
 record of the past may become a clear picture to 
 the pupil. To accomplish this, he should seek to in- 
 spire into him an intense love of historic study, for 
 the true foundation for success in any study is an ar- 
 dent love of it. But another important purpose for 
 the study of History is to cultivate and foster 
 
HOW TO TEACH HISTORY. 107 
 
 patriotism and to regard and value citizenship. As 
 the instructor gives daily lessons in U. S. History, 
 he should aim to show the superiority of our consti- 
 tution and citizenship over those of any other coun- 
 try, and to inspire the mind of the scholar with a love 
 for his native land. 
 
 History should be taught with reference to the 
 great causes which underlie its events. When facts 
 are presented, the real causes of those facts should be 
 known. This is called the "philosophy of History." 
 According to the old method of historic teaching, 
 the child was compelled to commit to memory page 
 after page of facts without the exercise of the reason 
 and judgment on the motives, purposes, and ambi- 
 tions to which they owed their origin. When His- 
 tory is taught in this manner, it presents to the mind 
 a mass of disconnected facts ; but when the wishes, 
 purposes, wants, and ambitions of men and women 
 are known to be the springs of historic fact, History 
 becomes a thing of beauty and attractiveness. 
 
 History should be taught by topics. The topics 
 should cover the salient facts of the history of the 
 country studied, and should be so arranged that one 
 may grow out of the other. Scholars should be en- 
 couraged to read different authors in connection with 
 the text-book. It greatly expedites the labor of the 
 instructor and scholars to sub-divide a topic and dis- 
 cuss each sub-division. In teaching by topics, the 
 interrogative method should be freely used, for the 
 scholar's knowledge of History can be made much 
 more exact and permanent if he is thoroughly ques- 
 tioned on the leading facts of it. 
 
 Before children begin the study of History, their 
 
108 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 minds may be prepared for it by reciting- to them 
 short and interesting stories. They should also read 
 such books as "Stories of American History," and 
 "Quackenbos' Elementary History." Scholars should 
 be required to tell orally and in writing what they are 
 told or what they read. It seems almost superflu- 
 ous to state that the best teachers agree that schol- 
 ars should be encouraged to explain the principles 
 and facts of history in their own language. 
 
 The question now arises, When should the direct 
 and systematic study of History begin? Children 
 are best prepared for historic study when they have 
 completed Third Reader, Elementary Geography, 
 and Oral Grammar. It is generally begun in the 
 fifth or sixth year of the child's school-life. 
 
 There is a difference of opinion among educators 
 as to whether the history of a state or that of the 
 United States should be studied first. In some states, 
 state history is read or studied before the history of 
 the country is begun. I do not see any valid objec- 
 tion to thus doing. All educators of our nation are 
 unanimous in the declaration that our youth should 
 study United States History before they devote their 
 attention to that of any foreign country. 
 
 The whole history of the United States may be well 
 presented under four general heads — discoveries, set- 
 tlements, wars, and administrations. An illustration 
 of how each of these general heads should be taught 
 will illustrate the best method of teaching History by 
 topics. 
 
 Let us take a brief survey of the Discovery of 
 America by Columbus to illustrate an excellent meth- 
 od of teaching all discoveries. First, lead the pupils 
 
HOW TO TEACH HISTORY. 109 
 
 to see the principal causes which led to it and the 
 time of it. This will bring to their minds the desire 
 of Columbus to go to rich India by sea, his wish to 
 test his theory concerning the shape of the earth, and 
 to bring the unknown barbarous nations of the East 
 to a knowledge of the Christian faith. His persever- 
 ance for eighteen years, his sacrifices, disappoint- 
 ments, and failures will be clearly shown. Secondly, 
 teach the events of it. Under this head, they will 
 journey with him to San Salvador, the Windward 
 Islands, Jamaica, Porto Rico, the Island of Trinidad, 
 and the mainland of South America. They will learn 
 something concerning the Indians, animals, and re- 
 sources of the different countries visited. Thirdly, 
 call their attention to the leading results of his dis- 
 covery. They will see how the people of Europe 
 were aroused, and how other nations soon sent out a 
 number of discoverers. Fourthly, teach the contem- 
 poraneous events of Spain with special instruction 
 on Columbus, Isabella, Ferdinand, and the Indians. 
 When the scholar studies English discoveries, his at- 
 tention should be directed to the contemporaneous 
 history of England and the leading men connected 
 with any discovery. Pupils should trace on the map 
 all places mentioned. 
 
 We shall now take the Settlement of Virginia at 
 Jamestown to illustrate a good method of imparting 
 instruction on Settlements, or the History of the Col- 
 onies. First, investigate the time of it and the main 
 causes which led to it. They will discuss the desire 
 of the settlers for riches and the granting of the char- 
 ter to the London Company by James the First. Sec- 
 ondly, consider the events of it with the cause and 
 
110 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 result of each. Their government, their neglect to 
 plant, the starving time, the second charter, the cap- 
 ture of John Smith, Bacon's Eebellion, and the found- 
 ing of William and Mary College are a few of the 
 multitudinous facts connected with it. Thirdly, give 
 instruction on the general results of the settlement. 
 The scholars are made to realize that Jamestown, at 
 last, became a flourishing colony and the basis of our 
 own state. 
 
 Let us briefly consider the Revolutionary War to 
 illustrate the best mode of giving instruction on wars. 
 First, direct their attention to the time and causes of 
 it. This will lead them to consider the many acts of 
 usurpation and tyranny of George the Third, and the 
 attempts of the mother country to impose taxes upon 
 the colonies without representation. Secondly, direct 
 their minds to the events of it with the cause and re- 
 sult of each. In teaching the different battles, lead 
 them to discover the time and cause of each, its 
 events, and results. Under this head, they will learn 
 the great things of the great struggle from the Battle 
 of Lexington to the Treaty of Paris. Thirdly, call 
 their attention to the general results of the war. 
 This will bring to their consideration the general re- 
 joicing among the people, the independence of the 
 country, and our present national government. 
 
 A few facts concerning Washington's Administra- 
 tion will serve to show the best mode of teaching all 
 the administrations. First, teach the time of the 
 administration, and the leading causes which made 
 it possible. This will lead to a discussion of the in- 
 dependence of the country, his record as commander- 
 in-chief, and his great popularity. Secondly, give 
 
HOW TO TEACH HISTORY. HI 
 
 instruction on the different events of it with the cause 
 and result of each. Under this head, the scholar will 
 learn about the doings of Congress, the whiskey in- 
 surrection, the treaty with Spain, and other important 
 transactions. Thirdly, lead them now to learn its 
 general results, or effects upon the country. They 
 will then see that a revenue was provided ; that sev- 
 enty-four millions of dollars were paid ; and that gen- 
 eral prosperity existed among the people. 
 
 In teaching the history of the United States, the 
 contemporaneous events of Spain, France, England, 
 and Holland should be carefully learned by the schol- 
 ars. Cause them to know the inner life of the peo- 
 ple ; how they lived, what they did, and what was the 
 character of their social, political, and religious in- 
 stitutions. In these facts, they will discover the prin- 
 ciples of the family, their morality, education, and 
 religion, which tended either to their progress or de- 
 cline. 
 
 Kemember that maps and globes should be con- 
 stantly referred to in connection with all your teach- 
 ing of historic facts. A definite knowledge of the 
 structure of the earth's surface is of great importance 
 in understanding and remembering History. The 
 first thing to be done in imparting instruction in this 
 study is to fix in the mind of the child the place where 
 the actions were performed. A drawing of an out- 
 line of the places mentioned is usually of a more 
 practical value to the scholar than highly ornament- 
 ed maps. 
 
 History should be taught from more than one text- 
 book. To do this it is not necessary that each mem- 
 ber of the class should have a different book. On the 
 
112 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 whole, it is better that each one should study the text- 
 book of the same author; but the teacher should 
 have before the class a number of histories, and al- 
 low the scholars to read the views and opinions of 
 different authors on the same subjects. The pupils 
 should be encouraged to read and consult various 
 authorities in connection with the statements of his 
 own author. History should not be presented in a 
 prejudiced and dogmatic manner. The teacher 
 should be an impartial dispenser of historic data, and 
 should not endeavor to make it appear that the cruel- 
 ties, bloodshed, and persecutions performed in the 
 name of religion and government resulted from the 
 fact, that men were Catholics or Protestants, Demo- 
 crats or Republicans. He should teach the student 
 to go below party names and sects to discover the 
 causes of their usurpation and tyranny. They will 
 soon learn that evil desires and purposes, love of 
 power, and lust for gain lead men and women to the 
 commission of the vilest crimes. 
 
 It may be profitable to the advanced teacher for 
 me to indicate at this juncture the course of study 
 which the student should pursue, after he has ob- 
 tained, at least, a fair understanding of the many and 
 interesting events of his own country and state. His- 
 tory had its beginning in the garden of Eden, and, 
 like an ever-widening, ever-dividing stream, has broad- 
 ened and deepened with the roll of the ages. It 
 should be studied systematically from its commence- 
 ment until the whole fabric of History stands com- 
 plete before the mind. General History should be 
 first studied from the time of our First Parents to the 
 flood ; after which the history of the descendants of 
 
HOW TO TEACH HISTORY. 113 
 
 Ham, Shem, and Japlieth should be pursued accord- 
 ing to the dates of the origin of the different king- 
 doms and governments which were founded by them. 
 It is very difficult to give the exact order, in which 
 the various nations of antiquity rose, flourished, and 
 fell, since some of the remotest nations left either no 
 reliable chronological system or none at all. I shall 
 present, however, the order of their rise according to 
 the most reliable historians and ethnologists. The 
 earliest nations were the Chaldfeans, or Early Baby- 
 lonians, the Assyrians, the Ethiopians, the Egyptians, 
 the Hindoos, the Canaanites, the Hebrews, the Phoe- 
 nicians, the Medes, the Babylonians, the Lydians, 
 the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans. 
 
 After the broken state of Rome, the Roman Empire 
 was divided into ten kingdoms. S. D. Baldwin reck- 
 ons the first ten kingdoms in Europe after the broken 
 state of the Western Empire as follows: the Visi- 
 goths who invaded Italy from Pannonia, the Sueves 
 in Spain, the Franks in France, the Burgundians in 
 Burgundy, the Britons in Britain, the Huns in Hun- 
 gary, the Saxons and Angles in Britain, the Ostrogoths 
 in Italy, the Western Empire in Italy, and the Lom- 
 bards in Italy. These various people laid the basis 
 of most of the kingdoms, empires, and governments 
 which exist in Europe to-day. The student should 
 devote his attention to the history of the various peo- 
 ple and kingdoms mentioned, and should then study 
 the history of Italy, France, Spain, Germany, Hun- 
 gary, Norway, England, Scotland, Wales, Turkey, 
 Holland, Portugal, Russia, Ireland, and Switzerland. 
 As far as practicable, the history of other nations and 
 kingdoms should also be pursued. All study of his- 
 tory should embrace the social, political, and religious 
 life of the nations. 
 
LECTUKE IX. 
 
 HOW TO TEACH 
 
 LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION,! GRAMMAR. 
 
 What Language is — Language Lessons Should Begin 
 When the Child Enters School — Ln Teaching Gomposition, 
 the Child Should he First Taught to Write and Pimctuate 
 Single Sentences Correctly — The Regular Studies, an Ad- 
 junct to Language Lessons — Oral Grammar — Hoio to Teach 
 the Nine Farts of Speech — Elementary and Practical 
 Grammar — Some Directions Concerning Analysis and 
 Parsing. 
 
 Of all those arts in which scholars excel, 
 
 The great, grand one is speaking well."— T/ie Author. 
 
 Language is that teaching of the child which will 
 give him a correct and fluent use of his own tongue. 
 It includes Heading, Writing, Spelling, and the use 
 of language, oral and written, and Grammar. When 
 the child enters school for the first time, he should 
 begin simple Language lessons. Lead him to talk as 
 freely in school as he does at home. Teach him to 
 converse upon anything which he sees with fluency 
 ai^d ease. He roay be easily induced to say some- 
 thing concerning the desk, chair, cloak, slate, book, 
 hat, dress, and other objects seen. When he makes 
 slight grammatical mistakes, correct him by repeat- 
 ing what he said in a correct manner. Pictures are 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 115 
 
 of good service in inciting the child to talk. Let him 
 say something in neat, correct expression concerning 
 the picture. This kind of teaching should be contin- 
 ued until the pupil acquires a good degree of free- 
 dom in talking. Be careful to allow him to employ 
 no ungrammatical forms. 
 
 When the child can talk with some degree of fluen- 
 cy, he is prepared to commence to write short sen- 
 tences. In teaching Composition, remember that 
 you should always insist on thought before expres- 
 sion. The very best stimulus of thought to a child is 
 the observation of objects. Take an apple and ask, 
 "What did I do?" After the scholar's reply, write 
 on the board, "I took an apple." Then let each pu- 
 pil copy the sentence with care, and punctuate it cor- 
 rectly. Give a number of like sentences. 
 
 Teach the school that each sentence should begin 
 with a capital letter, and enable each pupil to under- 
 stand the use of the period, comma, interrogation 
 point, and exclamation point. Use pictures, and ask 
 the children what they contain. Write the answers 
 on the board, and then copy them correctly. Make 
 use of natural objects; as, springs, rivers, valleys, 
 hills, mountains, flowers, and trees. Make short sen- 
 tences on the foregoing objects, and also on the dog, 
 cat, cow, and other animals. Cause the pupils to 
 copy with exactitude these sentences. It is excellent 
 practice to direct them to erase a given sentence and 
 write and punctuate it from memory. 
 
 When a child has acquired the ability to write and 
 punctuate with correctness single sentences, he may 
 proceed to write connected ones. I have found out 
 from experience that most children fall into the bad 
 
116 HCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 habit of using a number of "ands" in writing*. This 
 bad practice can be corrected by teaching- them to 
 use but one "and" in a sentence which embraces more 
 than one thought. By doing thus, they learn to di- 
 vide a lengthy, compound sentence with a number of 
 "ands" into a number of short ones. 
 
 Story-telling and story-writing constitute an excel- 
 lent method of teaching connected sentences. Every 
 teacher should practice telling historic incidents and 
 stories until he can do it in a simple, concise, and 
 fluent manner. Incidents concerning the early dis- 
 coveries, settlements, and wars of our country can 
 be found in any United States History. Interesting 
 and instructive fables can be learned from Aesop's 
 Fables. Tell a story or incident to the pupils, and 
 then cause them to repeat it in their own language. 
 When they can tell it well, let them write it on their 
 slates or paper. 
 
 The regular studies of the school furnish a fruitful 
 field for Language lessons. The various forms of 
 land and water, cities with their people, rivers, lakes, 
 lofty mountains, the innumerable productions of all 
 climes may be described by the pupil in writing as 
 well as by the voice. History, like Geography, 
 abounds in material highly suitable for a develop- 
 ment of the power of composition. The Battle of Bun- 
 ker Hill, the Surrender of Cornwalhs, and the Color- 
 ed Troops' Attack on Port Hudson make excellent 
 subjects for composition. Arithmetic and Grammar 
 also may be made helpful adjuncts to Language les- 
 sons. The various processes of the one and the dif- 
 ferent subjects of the other may be explained in neat 
 writing by the student. In teaching the scholars to 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GEAMMAR. 117 
 
 pen neat, carefully-thought compositions on the dif- 
 ferent studies pursued, he becomes far more profi- 
 cient in a knowledge of the studies themselves. 
 
 When the scholar can write with fluency and cor- 
 rectness compositions on such subjects as he becomes 
 familiar with from pursuing various studies, he may 
 proceed to write on subjects of an abstract char^acter ; 
 as, courage, faith, temperance, hope, mercy, religion. 
 Be careful to instruct the student to write all produc- 
 tions in a logical, systematic manner. This can be 
 easily done by teaching him to form an outline, or 
 skeleton of his subject after he has studied it. Then 
 direct him to compose in accordance with this care- 
 fully-conceived outline. Insist upon the correct 
 spelling of every word used in any writing. 
 
 GRAMMAE. 
 
 Greene says, "Grammar is the science which treats 
 of the general principles of language." Goold Brown's 
 Grammar of Grammars declares, "Grammar as an 
 art, is the power of reading, writing, and speaking 
 correctly." It is perfectly evident from these two 
 definitions that Grammar, as a science, deals with the 
 great principles of language, and, as an art, with the 
 actual use of it The art of language, which em- 
 braces the correct reading, writing, and speaking of 
 it, can only be learned by constantly reading, writing 
 and speaking correctly. Hence, the instructor of the 
 youth in English Grammar should be a master not 
 only of the principles but also of the use of the Eng- 
 lish Tongue. 
 
 The main purpose of the study of Grammar is to 
 enable us to master the principles and usages of the 
 
118 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 lang-aage studied. You must remember that every 
 language has its own Grammar ; but, as I am address- 
 ing in this lecture those who speak the English 
 Tongue, my statements in connection with methods 
 of teaching Grammar have reference to English 
 Grammar. 
 
 Let* us now direct our attention to the questions, 
 When should the scholar begin the study of technical 
 Grammar, and how should it be taught ? From in- 
 structing a large number of pupils, I discovered that 
 the mass of children need such mental training and 
 knowledge before they learn even Oral Grammar, as 
 they generally obtain after they have completed Ele- 
 mentary Composition, about one-half of Third Read- 
 er, about one-half of Elementary Geography, and 
 Long Division in Arithmetic. This course of study 
 is generally completed in about the fourth or fifth 
 year of the child's school-life. Children should be 
 taught Grammar orally at first and not from a text- 
 book. In imparting instruction in Oral Grammar, 
 aim to enable the student to, at least, fairly under- 
 stand the nine parts of speech into which the Eng- 
 lish Language may be divided. I shall now illus- 
 trate the simplest and most concise method of teach- 
 ing them. 
 
 The idea of a noun may be taught thus. The desk 
 is large. "Desk" is the name of an object, and we 
 call it a noun. Book, pencil, slate, ribbon, and dress 
 are names of objects, and hence they are nouns. 
 When the child has obtained a clear idea of a noun 
 from such examples, write on the board the defini- 
 tion, "A noun is the name of an object." Practice 
 the child in giving sentences containing nouns, and 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GKAMMAK. 119 
 
 cause him to name all nouns found in the reading 
 book and in other books studied. 
 
 Teach the pronoun thus. John saw Mary and 
 Mary saw John. Instead of saying, "and Mary saw 
 John," we may say, "and she saw him." "She" 
 stands for Mary, and "him" stands for John. "She" 
 and "him" are called pronouns, because they are used 
 for the nouns Mary and John. In like manner show 
 that I, me, your, you, we, our, us, and the other pro- 
 nouns stand for nouns, and are, therefore, called pro- 
 nouns. When a child has a clear conception of a 
 pronoun from such examples, write on the board the 
 definition, "A pronoun is a word used instead of a 
 noun." It is beneficial to the student to copy the full 
 list of pronouns from the blackboard, and commit 
 them to memory. Let the pupils select from the 
 reading book or from any other lesson all pronouns 
 possible. 
 
 The following method is a good one for teaching 
 the adjective. James has a red cap. The word 
 "red" describes the kind of cap which James has, and 
 is called an adjective. Give a number of like illus- 
 trations. In the expression, I have this cap, "this" 
 does not describe "cap," it limits it. Give a number 
 of like examples containing a, an, the, that, former, 
 and some other limiting words. Write on the board, 
 "An adjective is a word which is used to describe or 
 limit a noun." Cause the scholars to pick out each 
 adjective in the various lessons studied. 
 
 Give instruction on the verb as follows. In the 
 sentence, I hit a dog, what is said of dog? Some 
 one will say, "I hit him." The word "hit" tells what 
 I did, and expresses action. In the sentence, God 
 
120 SCIENCE, AKT AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 lives, the word "lives" expresses being, or existence. 
 In the expression. The post stands in the ground, 
 the word "stands" ex^Dresses state. In the light of 
 these illustrations, now write on the board, "A verb 
 is a word which expresses action, being, or state." 
 
 The instructor should exercise jDarticular care in 
 teaching the child the different ideas of action, being, 
 or state. As a participle is a verbal adjective, it 
 should be taught next in the following manner. The 
 horse running broke the carriage. The word "run- 
 ning" is a form of the verb "run," and limits the 
 meaning of horse, and is called a participle. Having 
 written a letter, he went home. "Having written" is 
 a form of the verb "write," and limits the pronoun 
 "he." After a number of such examples have been 
 given, write on the board, "A participle is a form of 
 the verb that limits or qualifies a noun or pronoun." 
 See that the pupils can point out the participles in 
 the reading lesson. 
 
 Teach the adverb thus. In the sentence. He walks 
 slowly, "slowly" modifies the meaning of the verb 
 "walks," and is called an adverb. In the expression. 
 Grant was a truly great general, "truly" modifies the 
 meaning of the adjective "great," and is called an ad- 
 verb. Bishop Hood rising slowly addressed them. 
 In this sentence "slowly" modifies the meaning of 
 the participle "rising," and is called an adverb. In 
 the expression, Samuel R. Ward spoke very forcibly, 
 "very" modifies the meaning of the adverb "forci- 
 bly," and is called an adverb. After a number of 
 such illustrations have been given, write on the black- 
 board, "An adverb is a word used to modify the 
 meaning of a verb, adjective, participle, or another 
 adverb." 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 121 
 
 Give instruction on the preposition thus. In the 
 expression, the plot was reported to Cicero, "to" 
 shows the relation of "was reported" to the noun 
 "Cicero," and is denominated a preposition. Illus- 
 trate thus a number of prepositions, and write the 
 definition, "A preposition is a word used to show the 
 relation of a noun or ^^ronoun to some other word." 
 It is beneficial to the pupils that they copy the list of 
 prepositions, and familiarize themselves with them. 
 Let them point out all prepositions found in the read- 
 ing lesson. 
 
 Teach the conjunction thus. In the sentence. Gar- 
 rison and Phillips were able orators, "and" connects 
 "Garrison" and "Phillips," and is called a conjunc- 
 tion. In the expression, the Colored People have 
 written many books, though they were once slaves, 
 "though" connects the two sentences, and is called a 
 conjunction. Illustrate thus other conjunctions, and 
 write on the board, "A conjunction is a word used to 
 connect sentences and parts of a sentence." Direct 
 the scholars during the reading lesson to name all 
 conjunctions met. Ask them to give sentences con- 
 taining conjunctions. 
 
 The following method is an easy one for teaching 
 the interjection. In the sentence. Hark! some one 
 comes, "hark" expresses a sudden emotion of the 
 mind, and is called an interjection. In the expres- 
 sion. Pshaw! that is ridiculous, "pshaw" expresses a 
 strong emotion of the mind, and is called an inter- 
 jection. When the pupils have obtained a clear idea 
 of an interjection from a number of such examples, 
 write on the board, "An interjection is a word used 
 to denote some sudden or strong emotion." 
 
122 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 It will require about four or five months of careful 
 training to enable the majority of children to so thor- 
 oughly understand the nine parts of speech that they 
 can define, illustrate, and pick them out when asked 
 to do so. It is excellent practice to cause the child 
 to write sentences containing all or nearly all of the 
 parts of speech, and have him write over each word 
 what it is. In recitations in Arithmetic, Beading, 
 and Geography, require the scholars to name the 
 different parts of speech. See that they state them- 
 selves in neat, correct utterances. 
 
 When the student has completed Oral Grammar, 
 he is prepared to begin Elementary Grammar with 
 the use of a text-book. "Harvey's Elementary Gram- 
 mar and Composition" and "Swinton's New Lan- 
 guage Lessons" are excellent text-books for the use 
 of students. The main object in allowing a child to 
 use a text-book is to more thoroughly fix in his mind 
 the definitions, analysis, parsing, and grammatical 
 forms taught. He should see in print exhibitions of 
 the science and art of his tongue. 
 
 I do not deem it necessary to say much concern- 
 ing the method of teaching Elementary and Practical 
 Grammar, because the text-books of Harvey, Swin- 
 ton, Greene, and other grammarians present good 
 and practical methods of teaching the different sub- 
 jects of this study. It may prove beneficial, however, 
 to those who have not had a large experience in giv- 
 ing instruction on this subject to state a few things 
 concerning it. 
 
 In Elementary Grammar, the subjects of syntax 
 and analysis are presented before parsing. In giv- 
 ing instruction on the analysis of sentences, teach the 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 123 
 
 pupils to first analyse orally and then by form. Each 
 text-book named presents neat forms for the analysis 
 of simple, complex, and compound sentences. In 
 teaching parsing, be careful to see that the scholar 
 can parse well orally and then by form. Forms for 
 parsing each part of speech are found in the gram- 
 mars named. A form for parsing all the parts of 
 speech saves much time and labor to the teacher and 
 student. Such a form can be made by drawing twelve 
 horizontal lines across the slate or a sheet of paper, 
 crossed by twelve perpendicular ones in such a man- 
 ner as to make one hundred and forty-four squares. 
 Each word to be parsed can be put in one square, its 
 part of speech in another, and, on the same line, its 
 properties and construction in the others. On the 
 line below, another word may be treated likewise. 
 In teaching analysis and parsing, do not allow the 
 scholars to be so absorbed in them that they overlook 
 the fact that all analysis and parsing are simply in- 
 tended to enable us to better understand how to 
 speak and write our language correctly. The sub- 
 stance of Grammar is sometimes lost in an attempt 
 to teach analysis and parsing. The teacher should 
 guard against this evil tendency. 
 
LECTUKE X. 
 
 HOW TO TEAGH WRITING^ DRAWING. 
 
 Writing — Important Reasons for Teaching it — A Sim- 
 ple Method of Teaching it — Letters SJwuld be Constructed 
 and Analysed Carefully — Copy-hooh Writing. Drawing — 
 The Straight Line and Circle ^ the Alphabet of Drawing — 
 How the Teacher ShoiUd Give Instruction in it — Draiving 
 from Text-booJcs. 
 
 '*Of all those arts in which the wise excel, 
 Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well." — Sheffield. 
 
 "True ease in writing comes from art, not chance. 
 As those move easiest who have learned to dance." — Pope. 
 
 The child really begins writing when he copies in 
 ruled lines the script words written on the blackboard. 
 Technical writing^ however, should be learned by the 
 pupil when he becomes conversant with the names of 
 the letters. There are some very important reasons 
 for teaching scholars to do written work. When chil- 
 dren are permitted to answer questions orally, the 
 dull and sluggish imitate and follow the diligent and 
 bright. When, however, each one is made to write 
 for himself, he learns to express his own thoughts and 
 to express his own individuality. Then again, writ- 
 ing out thought begets and develops exactitude of 
 knowledge. In giving instruction in the art of writ- 
 ing, the teacher should aim to enable the child to form 
 
HOW TO TEACH WEITING AND DRAWING. 125 
 
 the letters on the model of the highest authorities on 
 the subject. It is very important that children should 
 be taught to make these forms correctly from the very 
 commencement of their learning to write. 
 
 The following method for imparting instruction in 
 technical writing is an easy one for enabling the child 
 to obtain the power of making the forms of the letters 
 correctly and to acquire ease and grace in the move- 
 ment of the pen. Teach the three simple principles, 
 the slanting straight line, the right curve, and the 
 left curve. ISTow cause the scholars to learn the 
 letters which embody these principles. The letters 
 which illustrate them are ^, u^ m, n, lo, v, x, o, a, c, e, 
 s, r, t, dj p, and q. I shall now present an analysis of 
 the letter ^'V^ to show how each letter should be learn- 
 ed by the pupil. It should be carefully made in a 
 space and described thus. The letter ^'i" is one space 
 high and two spaces wide. It has a right curve, a 
 slanting straight line, and a right curve. The schol- 
 ars should then make it and carefully analyse it. 
 
 The following method advocated by Spencer is also 
 an excellent one for enabling children to better under- 
 stand the forms and construction of letters. The anal- 
 ysis of the letter "V^ is as follows. It has principles 
 two, one, and two. The construction of it is given in 
 this manner. Begin on the base line, and ascend with 
 right curve on connective slant one space ; unite an- 
 gularly and descend with straight line on main slant 
 to base ; turn short and ascend with right curve on 
 connective slant one space. Finish with light dot, 
 one space above straight line on main slant. It is one 
 space high and two spaces wide. This mode is some- 
 
126 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 what more difficult than the one explained above. 
 The teacher is at liberty to select either one for incul- 
 cating a knowledge of the letters. Each small letter 
 illustrating the first, second, and third principles 
 should be taught likewise. 
 
 Now teach the fourth principle which is called the 
 loop, and then cause them to learn the letters which 
 illustrate it. These letters are, ?, /?, &, k, j, y, g, Zj 
 and /. Each of these should be analysed and explain- 
 ed by the pupils. Principles one, two, and three are 
 also found in some of them. The capital 0, or fifth 
 principle should next be taught. The capital E 
 which embraces principles three, two, three, and five 
 should be then learned. The sixth and seventh prin- 
 ciples with the letters embodying them should next 
 be presented. These principles are found in such cap- 
 ital letters as X, TT, Q, Z, U, F, T, I, J, A, N, M, T, 
 F, H, K, S, L, 6r, P, B, B. Some of these capitals 
 contain the first, second, third, and fourth princi- 
 ples also. Each letter of the alphabet, small and 
 large, should be well made and correctly explained 
 by the scholars. 
 
 In order that these various letters may be carefully 
 constru^cted and well understood, pupils should sys- 
 tematically pursue copy-book writing. When chil- 
 dren begin copy-book writing, they should write with 
 a lead pencil and not with pen and ink. As soon as 
 they can make the letters with a good degree of accu- 
 racy with lead pencil, they should use pen and ink. 
 The Spencerian and Graphic Systems of writing em- 
 brace a regular graded series of copy-books, which 
 are highly commended by the best authorities. Every 
 
HOW TO TEACH WRITING AND DRAWING. 127 
 
 letter is fully analysed and explained in the ^'Spence- 
 rian System of Penmanship" or in almost any good 
 work on writing. 
 
 When scholars are about to commence copy-book 
 writing, they should be taught to maintain an easy 
 and erect position at the desk. The fore-arm should 
 be on the desk, and the elbow should next be drawn 
 back of a right angle. The pen should rest between 
 the thumb and the first two fingers, and the holder 
 should be opposite the knuckles. See that this posi- 
 tion is taken at every writing exercise of the school. 
 Transfer the copy of the book to the board, and explain 
 it fully by showing how it should be made. Direct 
 the pupils to trace it carefully with the pen without 
 ink, and then permit them to write it. Do not allow 
 them to write too much at once. Whenever they are 
 required to write their different lessons, they should 
 be made to form all letters as they have learned them. 
 If this is done, it will not be necessary for them to 
 write through a dozen different copy-books, and they 
 will soon learn that merely writing through a number 
 of such books does not necessarily enable one to be- 
 come a good writer. Impress scholars with the fact, 
 that, if they would become neat, legible writers, they 
 must at all times form their letters with care and ac- 
 curacy. 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 "Immortal art! where'er the rounded sky 
 Bends o'er the cradle where thy children lie, 
 Their home is earth, their herald every tongue."— O. W. 
 Holmes. 
 
 The practical utility of drawing furnishes a suffi- 
 cient reason for giving it an important place in edu- 
 
128 SCIENCE, ART AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 cation. It is no small thing to possess the ability to 
 represent with ease and accuracy different objects. 
 The main object in teaching drawing is to enable the 
 scholar to delineate with grace and exactitude any 
 desired object. The question arises, How must draw- 
 ing be so taught that the child may possess the abil- 
 ity to give a true representation of what he wishes to 
 sketch 1 In answering this question, I unhesitatingly 
 affirm that the following method, approved by the 
 leading educators of the world, is best adapted to se- 
 cure the desired end. 
 
 First, the pupil must learn well the elements of 
 form which are the straight line, the circle, and parts 
 of a circle. He must learn to make the different 
 straight lines, after which he must be taught to draw 
 the various geometrical figures formed by straight 
 lines ; as, angles, triangles, squares, oblongs, com- 
 mon borders, boxes, stairs, toy-houses, and other ob- 
 jects. After he well understands straight lines and 
 the various geometrical figures formed by them, he 
 should learn how to draw the circle and parts of a cir- 
 cle, after which he should proceed to draw the differ- 
 ent geometrical figures formed by curved lines ; as, 
 kites, borders, clocks, tops, wheels, umbrellas, pitch- 
 ers, glasses, and cups. These principles, the straight 
 line and the circle, constitute the alphabet of draw- 
 ing. The different straight lines, the circle, and 
 parts of a circle together with a few of the objects 
 formed by them may be well presented to a scholar 
 without a text-book. After he has obtained a fair 
 understanding of the alphabet of drawing, he may, 
 with great benefit, make use of ^'White's Industrial 
 
HOW TO TEACH WKITING AND DRAWING. 129 
 
 Drawing/' ^'Krusi's Drawing," or '^The American 
 Text-book of Art Education/' all of which present a 
 regular series of books well adapted for imparting in- 
 struction in drawing to children. 
 
 Secondly, in teaching the child to represent the va- 
 rious objects delineated in the text-books, the teach- 
 er should carefully sketch them on the board. Let 
 the pupil draw line after line as the instructor pro- 
 ceeds with the explanation. Then he may copy the 
 drawing without an explanation. Eemember that 
 copying is the first step in drawing after straight lines 
 and curves are learned. 
 
 Thirdly, after the student learns how to draw well 
 from copy, he should learn to draw from familiar ob- 
 jects. To give a representation of a natural object is 
 more difficult than to make a copy of a drawing al- 
 ready made. The teacher must, therefore, show the 
 scholar how to make an accurate sketch of the requir- 
 ed object, and explain why lines are drawn in a cer- 
 tain way. The scholar who carefully pursues this 
 system and method of drawing under a skilful in- 
 structor will, in all probability, become an efficient 
 drawer. The thorough teaching of the method which 
 is explained in this lecture presupposes that the teach- 
 er is fully acquainted with the whole system of draw- 
 ing taught, and is able to explain in detail every fea- 
 ture of every copy and object to be drawn by the child. 
 
130 
 
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ADYEETISEMENTS. 131 
 
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