^V "^ A^ ^'^^A- ^ "oK ^^-^^^ '^ * o « o -^ ^ ^oV^ ■> '^'^!?A^ Vc^'* :^M- U ^^ V^'^ t.o °^^ *'"'' ^f° V '*'«'.«'' ,^ .^^ .• *^ ^^ ^"^./ms^j A^ .^j.>L'^. ^> THE HANDLEY FUND WINCHESTER, VA. A REPORT TO THE BOARD OF HANDLEY TRUSTEES GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 61 Broadway New York 1918 THE HANDLEY FUND THE HANDLEY FUND WINCHESTER, VA. A REPORT TO THE BOARD OF HANDLEY TRUSTEES GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 61 Broadway New York 1918 COPYRIGHT, 19 18, BY General Education Board OEC 23 i918 ©GI.A508654 -^ \ x^^ CONTENTS PAGE Preface v I. Winchester: Its People and Industries 3 11. The Schools of Winchester .... 20 III. Needs of the Winchester Schools . . 36 IV. Use of the Handle y Fund .... 52 V. Appendix 65 PREFACE The last item in the will of the late Judge John Hand- ley, who died at his home in Scranton, Pennsylvania, in 1895, contained the following words: "All the rest and residue of my estate I give, devise and bequeath to the City of Winchester, to be accumulated by said city for the period of twenty years. The income arising from said residue estate to be expended and laid out in said city by the erection of school houses for the education of the poor."^ The time for the accumulation of this bequest has ex- pired. The Handley Board of Trustees, created in 1896 by an act of the Virginia legislature to administer this gift, is now ready to act. To this end, the Trustees in- vited the General Education Board "to make an educa- tional survey of the City of Winchester and its environs, 1 "The clause in the residuary bequest, ' to be expended and laid out in said city by the erection of school houses for the education of the poor ' is hereby ascertained, construed and held to mean, and shall be so appUed, as though it did in express terms provide that the fund be expended and laid out in the purchase of the necessary land, the erection and equipment of school houses and in the maintenance and conduct of the school so provided for." (See records of the Circuit Court of Fred- erick County, Virginia, Board of Handley Trustees vs. Winchester Me- morial Hospital et al.) vi PREFACE and to work out a plan for the application of the Handley Fund to educational purposes." The Board of Educa- tion of Winchester extended a similar invitation, giving assurance of its willing cooperation. The General Education Board accepted these invi- tations, in the belief that Judge Handley's beneficence was of more than local importance, inasmuch as it in- volved the problem of utilizing private endowments in the advancement of public education. The study of the local situation was carried on under the most favorable conditions and hearty thanks are due the Handley Board of Trustees, the Board of Education, the principal and teachers of the public schools, and various city officials for their generous assistance. THE HANDLEY FUND THE HANDLEY FUND I. WINCHESTER: ITS PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES WINCHESTER is located at the northern apex of Virginia, in the heart of the Shenandoah Valley. At this point the valley is about thirty miles wide and stretches northward into West Virginia and southward beyond Lexington, Virginia. The region is distinguished for natural beauty, for the fertility of the soil, and for its equable climate. As might be expected, it is given over to general agriculture, with apple growing and the industries incidental to apple growing of increasing importance. There is little in the immed'ate locality of Winchester to suggest any marked development of productive in- dustries and factories. There are no known mineral deposits, or natural advantages such as water power. The textile industry has indeed taken root, but this is due rather to the enterprise of individuals than to nat- ural advantages. Nor are conditions altogether favor- able to the easy development of outside trade connec- tions. The Great North Mountains block the direct 4 THE HANDLEY FUND way to the west, although a railroad has lately been pro- jected through them to tap the lumber and mineral re- sources of West Virginia. The Blue Ridge Mountains bar the way to the east. Winchester is thus without direct east and west railway connections. Its railroads are branch lines. Within the valley itself, Winchester commands only the trade of the neighboring counties, as it comes into competition with Martinsburg, West Vir- ginia, twenty-two miles to the north, and with Harrison- burg, Virginia, sixty miles to the south. Winchester is thus located in a region of unusual agri- cultural promise. While in recent years textile mills have been prosperously estabUshed, the possibilities at Winchester naturally connect themselves with agricul- ture, and more especially with the orcharding of apples, and with such occupations and activities as spring natur- ally from apple orcharding. The Winchester apple dis- trict is one of the most important in the United States. The town ships more apples than any other single point in the state, and, it is claimed, has larger special facilities for the cold storage of apples than any other place in the country. Vinegar plants and barrel factories have al- ready sprung up and will doubtless grow rapidly in the near future. The population of Winchester is thus largely engaged in occupations directly or indirectly connected with agriculture and in such businesses, trades, and professions as are required to sustain the life of a rural community and rural town. The total population, according to a complete census PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 5 taken by us in November, 191 7, is 6,469 — an increase of 605 over the federal census of 19 10. Of the present population, 5,561, or 86 per cent., are white, and 908, or 14 per cent., are colored.^ The white population is singularly American in char- acter and unusual in its racial homogeneity. For ex- ample, 2,265, or 41 per cent., were born in Winchester; 1,370, or 25 per cent., in Frederick County; 884, or 16 per cent., in other parts of Virginia; 970, or 17 per cent., elsewhere in the United States; only 72, or i per cent., are foreign born. With 99 per cent, of its white population American and 82 per cent, of it Virginian, Winchester enjoys an unusual degree of social soHdarity, its people having similar standards of living and conduct. The negro population is equally homogeneous, for 405, or 45 per cent., were born in Winchester; 112, or 12 per cent., in Frederick County; 266, or 29 per cent., in other parts of Virginia; 124, or 14 per cent., elsewhere in the United States; only i was born outside of the United States. Winchester, like most rural cities, grows slowly. It will continue to grow slowly, unless there is an unex- pected development of such industries as attract labor, and this is probable only to a limited extent. Such growth as there has been in recent years has been con- fined entirely to the white portion of the population. For instance, the whites have increased from 3,773 in 1890 to 5,561 in 191 7. On the other hand, the negro ^See Appendix, Table I, page 65. 6 THE HANDLEY FUND population is steadily decreasing, having dropped from 1,423 in 1890 to 908 in 1917.^ The distribution of the population of Winchester has an important bearing upon questions that will be dis- cussed in the course of this report. Winchester occupies a territory rectangular in form, about two miles long and about one mile wide. Loudoun Street, running north and south, and Water Street, running east and west, divide this rectangle into four parts, formerly known as Wards I, II, III, and IV.^ (Fig. i.) Fig . I Wards of \ Vinchester n Ward II Ward IV Ward I Ward III •N The white population is scattered rather evenly among these wards, although the largest number of whites (1,733) live in Ward III, and the smallest number (1,108) in Ward IV .^ The colored population is not so ^See Appendix, Table II, page 66. ^The town is now legally divided into two wards, separated by Water Street. We follow the former division for purposes of convenience. ^See Appendix, Table III, page 66. PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 7 evenly distributed. Wards I and II have 233 and 256 negroes, respectively, and Ward IV only 18, whereas Ward III is clearly the colored center, having 401 ne- groes, which is nearly a fifth of the total population of the ward, and 44 per cent, of the entire colored popula- tion of the city. As might be expected, the relation between Win- chester and the surrounding country is close. Parents who live a mile or two out of town have for years sent their children to the Winchester schools and in all prob- ability will continue to do so. Therefore, in planning for the future, the population of the immediately surround- ing country should be taken into account. Accordingly, a census was taken for a mile out along the roads leading into the city. These outlying districts have a total pop- ulation of 703 — 661 whites and 42 negroes.^ Of those of school age, that is, children between six and eighteen years of age, there are 149 white children between six and fourteen and 43 between fifteen and eighteen. Among the colored children of corresponding ages, there are 7 and 5 respectively. To ascertain the occupations in which the people of Winchester are engaged, a complete occupational census was made in November, 1917.^ Winchester can scarcely be said to have a leisure class, ^See Appendix, Table IV, page 67. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. The data in this table follow the general classifications given in the Index to Occupations of the United States Bureau of the Census. 8 THE HANDLEY FUND at any rate, among the men. There are to be sure, 86 white men and 1 1 colored who report no occupation and who are listed as '^at home." These include, however, mostly the very old, the unfortunate, and the sick. In fact, 90 per cent, of the white men, or 1,481 out of a total of 1,636, are at work, and this is exclusive of 12 at school and 57 in the army. Similarly, out of a total male col- ored population of 260, 245, or 94 per cent., are in bread- winning occupations; there are, besides, 4 in the army.^ There may be a small leisure class among the white women, as only 19 per cent., or 387 out of a total of 2,064, are engaged outside the home. On the other hand, 43 per cent, of the colored women are wage earn- ers.^ It does not follow, however, that women are at leisure simply because they are reported as at home rather than in business. The great majority of the women — both white and colored — whether listed as at home or at work, are doubtless homemakers, with home- making as much their occupation as if they were engaged in industry, trade, or service. The 2,260 active workers of Winchester engage in a great variety of pursuits. This is not surprising. The number of different occupations and professions re- ported in a census does not depend altogether on the size of the city. A certain variety is necessary to sustain any city irrespective of its size. For example, a town, whether of ten thousand or fifty thousand, requires ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69, PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 9 ministers, doctors, lawyers, tradespeople who deal in food and clothing, skilled workers such as blacksmiths, tailors, milliners, carpenters, painters, and a certain amount of unskilled labor. Hence, the first difference between cities is not in the number of occupations represented, but in the number of persons engaged in each of these and in the number and extent of speciahzed industries, such as woolen mills, knitting mills, by-product plants, etc. The men of Winchester are engaged chiefly in agricul- ture, trade, and manufacture. In respect to the number of persons engaged, agriculture outranks any single manufacturing or trade occupation. One hundred and four of the men of Winchester are so occupied. The predominance of agriculture is still more marked if the industries necessarily connected with it (e. g., the making of barrels) or springing out of it (e. g., the making of vinegar) are taken into account.^ Especially important from the educational point of view is the fact that agriculture is a scientific occupation, the principles of which, with their application, can be taught. Manufacturing includes : 1. Skilled workers in the several hand trades, for ex- ample, blacksmiths, masons, carpenters, painters, plumb- ers, tailors, tinsmiths, and a few factory specialists, such as dyers. 2. Semi-skilled workers in the textile industries as well as in other industries, for example, sewing machine operators, mill feeders, and glove finishers; and ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. lo THE HANDLEY FUND 3. General or common laborers. The skilled workers are scattered among as many as twenty different hand trades, so that, while they total 332,^ the number in any one is in all except a few instances very small. Cabinetmakers and carpenters are the most numerous, 73 in all, while there are as few as 3 in a trade like stonecutting.^ From the educational point of view, two things are pecuHar to the hand trades. In the first place, they in- volve a minimum of general knowledge and general train- ing, and a maximum of experience and skill acquired thereby. In the second place, each separate hand trade calls for its own particular kind of experience and pecuKar kind of skill, mostly acquired through practice. A pro- ficient mason cannot as such turn his hand to house painting, nor is practice in house painting a preparation for masonry. It is also well to note in this connection that only ^6 out of the 332 skilled workers are under twenty-five years of age.^ The opening at Winchester for young men in the skilled trades is therefore very limited. Probably not more than 7 or 8 in any one age group between nineteen and twenty-four find employment in them. Nor is there any reason to believe that the number who can profitably pursue such employment in Winchester will greatly increase. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES ii The two textile and the other industries employ i68 semi-skilled workers.^ These semi-skilled workers are variously engaged. For instance, in the textile indus- tries there are washers, carders, drawers, nappers, spin- ners, and weavers. In the other industries, there are knitters, glove finishers, sewing machine operators, evaporators, and so on. With these semi-skilled indus- trial workers may well be grouped most, if not all, of the 128 whites employed in transportation,^ for transporta- tion includes railroad employes, expressmen, chauffeurs, draymen, liverymen, etc. Semi-skilled work is thus a broad term, covering many kinds of employment. Yet in few or no instances does such work require prolonged apprenticeship, or special educational preparation. On the face of the figures^ it appears that there are only 252 general or common laborers. The actual num- ber is considerably higher. Certainly the 29 negroes in transportation might be included, for they perform the roughest kind of service — handle freight, express, and luggage, clean streets, and repair roads. Nor can the 36 men who failed to specify any particular occupation be high up in the scale of labor. Finally, the 61 whites and 6^ negroes in domestic and personal service are mostly caretakers, janitors, cleaners, waiters, and porters. If these several groups are combined the number of com- mon laborers becomes considerable — a total of 441, a ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 8 and 69. 12 THE HANDLEY FUND larger number than is found in any other single field. Of these, 202 are colored, which is 82 per cent, of all negro workers.^ In fact, common labor is practically the only kind of labor open at Winchester to negroes, the skilled and semi-skilled trades being almost exclusively in the hands of whites. After manufacturing, trade is next in importance. Trade includes banking, wholesale establishments, and every possible kind of retail store — drygoods stores, gro- cery stores, shoe stores, notion stores, meat shops, fruit stands, etc. Moreover, the term covers not only proprie- tors and managers, but salespeople, drivers, and delivery- men as well, including, in fact, everyone directly engaged, except bookkeepers, clerical workers, and stenographers. The tradespeople alone number 357.^ Yet the variety of wholesale estabUshments, stores and shops is so great that, as with the skilled hand trades, the number in any single line is exceedingly small. An important distinc- tion must, however, be made. While no single skill or group of skills is common to the hand trades, there is a considerable body of knowledge and technique common to all kinds of business. A part, at least, of this com- mon knowledge and common technique can be made a matter of school training. What is true of business in general is even more true of such aids to business as bookkeeping, stenography, and typewriting, in which 68 men are employed. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 13 Of the occupations of women, homemaking unquestion- ably ranks above all others. In the first place, of the 2,405 women in Winchester nineteen years of age and older, 1,857, or 77 per cent., are at home.^ There may well be among these, as stated before, a leisure class, but homemaking certainly consumes the time, energies,' and thought of the great majority of these women. In the second place, of the 534 women who are engaged outside of the home, 44 per cent, are in domestic or personal service, that is, in work connected with the home. In fact, some form of homemaking appears to be almost the only field open to colored women. Of the 147 colored women workers, i is in agriculture, 2 are dressmakers, 3 are in professional service either as teachers or nurses, and 141, or 96 per cent., are in domestic or personal service.^ White women have greater industrial opportunities, yet domestic and personal service enlists the largest proportion even of these. Of the 387 white women work- ers, 95, or 25 per cent., are in domestic and personal ser- vice; industry — chiefly the two textile mills — employs 82; 61 are in professional service, the majority being teachers; 35 are saleswomen; and 50 are bookkeepers, clerks, or stenographers. Finally, 9 are reported as engaged in transportation, but these may well be grouped with those in clerical occupations, as they serve mostly in a clerical capacity.^ ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 2See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 14 THE HANDLEY FUND OCCUPATIONS AT WINCHESTER (Of All Persons Nineteen Years of Age and Older) Occupations Agriculture SkUled Workers: Masons Carpenters Dressmakers Foremen Mechanics Painters and Paper- hangers Miscellaneous^ Semi-skilled Workers: Textile Industries .... Other Industries Common Laborers Trade: Bankers Retail Dealers Salesmen and Sales- women Miscellaneous. . . . Public Service Professional Service : Clergymen Doctors Lawyers Miscellaneous^ . . . . Domestic Service . . . Clerical Occupations: Bookkeepers Clerks Stenographers .... Miscellaneous .... At Home At School In Army Total. Men WHITE NEGRO 91 18 73 40 32 27 135 135 160 239 33 140 100 70 36 13 12 11 49 18 45 1 12 57 1,636 13 2 1 202 260 Women WHITE NEGRO 40 13 65 17 35 1 61 95 13 12 34 1,664 13 2,064 141 193 1 341 Total 1C5 20 73 42 42 32 27 151 200 178 441 33 145 139 77 36 16 12 11 117 236 31 57 35 4 1,954 26 61 4,301 iThis item represents seventeen different skilled trades. 2The women in this group are chiefly teachers and nurses. PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 15 If the several kinds of workers at Winchester are now regrouped along the lines suggested above, a better idea is obtained of what they are actually doing. This re- grouping, showing how these workers are engaged, is ex- hibited in tabular form on the preceding page. We now have in hand the two local factors that must be taken into account in deciding the kind of public schools to be provided at Winchester. The first of these is the population — the human material with which the schools have to do. The second is the occupations — what the output or the graduates of the schools find to do. PubHc schools — and all schools, for that matter — are confronted with two problems, viz. : (a) How to prepare young people to live full personal, family, and community lives; and (b) how to prepare them to make an honest and honorable Hving for themselves and those dependent upon them. In answer to the first question, most thoughtful persons are in accord. The schools pre- pare the young to lead full fives when they give to all the children of the community, white and colored, the best possible general education — an education general in the sense that it equips them to meet the obligations of personal, family, and community life. In answer to the second question, much depends on the natural interest and abifity of the child, on his prob- able vocational destination, and on his occupational op- portunities. For Winchester the answer is reasonably clear. A general education, such as proposed above, is the best possible preparation for doing well and effec- i6 THE HANDLEY FUND lively what most of the workers of Winchester will find to do, whether they remain in Winchester or, in individual instances, seek another field. This is certainly true of the skilled workers and of the semi-skilled and common laborers, who, together, com- prise more than half of all those engaged at Winchester in active pursuits. Of course, it is possible to establish a trade school for the training of skilled workmen in each of the many skilled trades; but there is practically no market at Winchester for the output of such a school. All the skilled trades together, as we have seen, do not give employment to more than 8 or 9 new workmen annually. To train boys for trades in which they cannot possibly find employment would be expensive and un- wise. Specialized industrial training for semi-skilled and com- mon laborers is likewise out of the question. These workers are engaged in an infinite variety of tasks. Even if the school offered specific industrial training for every kind of labor they find to do, it would be a profit- less service. As has been pointed out, Httle or none of the work which semi-skilled and common laborers do requires either prolonged preparation or prolonged ap- prenticeship. Most industries are prepared to give such special training as is required, and they can do this more effectively and more economically than the school. While Winchester does not need and could not really use a technical school, unquestionably proper provi- sion should be made in its public schools for such indus- PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 17 trial work as has general educational significance. In addition, there should be provided at least two or three different kinds of industrial instruction which will have vocational as well as general value. The first and most obvious kind of practical instruction of a general character for the schools of both the white and the colored is work in household arts. The house- hold arts include sewing, cooking, dressmaking, milli- nery, home sanitation, home decoration, etc. Such in- struction would serve all the women of Winchester who have no occupation other than homemaking. At the same time it would directly prepare women to enter skilled trades, such as dressmaking and millinery, and it would provide the best possible practical preparation for those who go into domestic service — i.e., 44 per cent, of all women workers. Similarly, there should be provided for all boys ample manual and shop opportunities, including at least wood- work, sheet metal, forge, and machine shop practice. None of these shops need be elaborate, nor would the in- struction aim to prepare boys simply to become car- penters, tinners, or machinists. Such instruction would be helpful to any boy who afterwards decided to enter one of the hand trades or to become a skilled worker, and at the same time would furnish all boys with experience in hand work and in work with typical modern machinery. The statistics above presented also suggest the need of practical instruction in business in the schools for the whites. Approximately a fifth of all white workers are i8 THE HANDLEY FUND engaged in trade and in clerical occupations. It is true that, while many different kinds of business are repre- sented at Winchester, relatively few persons are engaged in any one kind, so that it would be impossible to give direct preparation for entrance upon a particular kind of business. There is, however, as pointed out before, a common body of knowledge and technique underlying all business and clerical occupations. Hence, a business course of broad scope would unqjiestionably serve a useful and practical purpose. The statistics indicate, further, that agriculture is needed in the schools of both races. Agriculture, it will be remembered, engages more of the men of Winchester than any other single pursuit and is, to a greater extent than any other activity, the foundation of its prosperity, present and prospective. Young people coming up from the country to the Winchester schools will, in some instances, at least, want to prepare for life in the open. Therefore, whatever the schools do to prepare young people for farming, and whatever they do toward advanc- ing the science and practice of agriculture, especially in the line of pomology, will contribute not only to the prac- tical equipment of those wanting such instruction, but also to the prosperity and basic development of the city. Finally, the close relationship between Winchester and its immediate environment might well be considered in making educational plans. The rural sections find in- creasing difficulty in securing well prepared and efficient teachers. Winchester itself now has 64 women in pro- PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 19 fessional service, mostly teachers; in fact, teaching is one of the principal occupations of its white women. The number of women who in the future choose teaching as an occupation will doubtless increase rather than decrease. With the need of the rural sections for well trained teachers, on the one hand, and the desirabiHty of Winchester's having an appropriate outlet for its women workers, on the other hand, it would seem the part of wisdom for the public schools of Winchester to provide training for rural teachers as a graduate course beyond the high school. How much of this suggested program are the schools of Winchester now carrying out? It is the object of the next chapter to ascertain, by inquiring into their re- sources, equipment, and programs. II. THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER THE plant of the Winchester public schools for white children consisted, at the time of this study, of nineteen rooms — fourteen in the John Kerr building, and five in the Wall property, a rented residence. The colored children occupied the Old School Baptist Church, more commonly known as the ''Old Stone Church," which supplied three rooms — two in the main structure and one in the frame lean-to extension. There is a seven year elementary course for both white and colored children, and a four year high school course for white children. During the school year 19 16-17, the schools had a total enrollment of 1,1 11. Of these, 929 were white children — 787 in the elementary and 142 in the high school. The colored schools enrolled 182 pupils. These children were instructed by twenty white and three colored teachers, at a total current ex- pense for all purposes of $16,601.71. Of this amount, the City Council appropriated, or there was raised by local taxation, $11,500; the remainder came from the state and from tuition fees of children living in outside districts. The total current cost per pupil on the basis of the total enrollment (1,1 n) was, accordingly, $14.94, and $20.73 0^ the basis of average daily attendance (801). THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 21 The position occupied by the Winchester public schools in public esteem, what they now are, and what their needs are can be appreciated best in the light of a brief historical survey. The public schools of Winchester first opened their doors for the reception of pupils in February, 187 1. Two private schools, one for boys and one for girls, each hav- ing two rooms, were taken over and made into public schools. The Board of District Trustees also rented three additional rooms, inaugurating the white schools with seven teachers. Two rooms and two teachers were provided for colored children. There are no records of the attendance at this first session. But 285 white and 117 colored children were enrolled during the school year 187 1-2, a total of 402, with an average daily atten- dance of 259. The increase to the present enrollment (1,1 11) is due to two factors : (a) the growth in the school population, that is, of children between six and eighteen years of age; and (b) the increased proportion of the school popu- lation attending the public schools. For example, the white school population — children between six and eighteen years of age — has increased from 632 in 187 1 to 1,007 in 1917, a growth of 59 per cent.^ At the same time, the white school enrollment rose from 285 in 187 1-2 to 929 in 1916-17, an increase of 226 per cent. The increase in average daily attendance is even more strik- ing, amo unting to 258 per cent., a growth from 197 in ^See Appendix, Table VI, page 68. 22 THE HANDLEY FUND 187 1-2 to 705 in 191 6- 1 7. In a word, the white school enrollment and average daily attendance have increased approximately four times more rapidly than the white school population, with the result that the proportion of children between six and eighteen years of age who attend school has increased from approximately 45 per cent, in 1871-2 to approximately 92 per cent, in 1916-17. Perhaps the school census has not always been equally complete; perhaps the number of children under six years of age and of pupils nineteen years of age and older who attend school now is larger than formerly; perhaps the number of children enrolled from out- side rural districts has increased in recent years/ thus accounting in part for the larger proportion of the school population in the public schools. In any case, it is certain that the pubHc schools are reaching a larger and larger proportion of both the white and colored school population. In other words, the idea of public education at public expense has won a victory at Win- chester, and the public schools are becoming more and more the schools of all the people. This growth in public confidence has been accompa- nied by a somewhat larger service on the part of the schools, as is indicated by the expansion of the high school program, particularly in recent years. The establishment of public schools marked no radical break between what the private schools of the city at- tempted and what the pubHc schools undertook to do. ^There were t^S such white children enrolled November, 191 7. THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 23 In fact, the courses of study — both the elementary and the secondary — of the two private schools taken over by the Board of District Trustees became by common consent the courses of the pubHc schools. Accordingly, the elementary pubHc school course at the beginning covered seven years. Since 187 1, its length has been twice changed, being extended in 1885 to eight years and in 1908 reduced to seven years, its present length. The first elementary program included the conven- tional and formal studies of the day — reading, spelling, grammar and composition, handwriting, arithmetic, geography, and history. For approximately forty years, or until 1908, no changes were made in the program, though there was during this period doubtless some change in the subject matter actually taught in branches like reading, arithmetic, and geography, as new text- books came into use. The years since 1908 have witnessed only slight modi- fications. The state course of study for elementary schools,^ now followed by the Winchester schools, pro- vides, in addition to the fundamental studies mentioned above, music and drawing for all grades, for the first four grades constructive work besides, and for the three upper grades physiology and industrial work. In con- sequence, there is now in the lower grades of the Win- chester schools enough music, drawing, and constructive work to give color to the instruction. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades physiology receives attention, while ^3tate Course of Study for Elementary Schools, 1915. 24 THE HANDLEY FUND music and drawing are incidental; but there is no indus- trial work, such as manual training for boys, and no cooking or sewing for girls. In a word, despite the changes the last half century has wrought in our indus- trial, political, and social life, and despite our changed ideas of the educational needs of children, the elemen- tary program of the Winchester public schools has been but slightly modified; it is still decidedly bookish. On the other hand, the high school program has been much improved. As suggested above, the public schools not only adopted the elementary but also the secondary program of the two private schools taken over by the Board of District Trustees. This first public high school course was narrow in its opportunities and dis- tinguished by the prominence of the traditional high school studies, such as Latin and mathematics. It cov- ered three years, as follows: First year: English grammar and analysis Elementary algebra Latin grammar and exercises Natural philosophy Ancient history Bookkeeping Higher arithmetic Second year: Rhetoric and composition Algebra Elementary geometry Latin grammar and exercises THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 25 Latin reader Physiology History of the Middle Ages Third year: History of English literature Algebra Geometry and trigonometry Arnold's Prose Composition Caesar Chemistry Modern history In 1885, the high school course was reduced from three to two years. This change was, however, not significant. In the first place, part of the high school work eliminated was put in the eighth grade, the course of the elementary schools being extended to eight years at this time. In the second place, the new high school course was really an improvement over the old, since it recognized certain modern tendencies. For example, the amount of re- quired mathematics was reduced, and physical geography and physiology introduced. Drawing was also added for girls. The new course was as follows : Male High School junior ■ senior 1. Physical geography i. Natural philosophy 2. English grammar 2. English grammar and and composition composition Spelling Physiology 26 THE HANDLEY FUND 3. Algebra 3. Algebra 4. Arithmetic 4. Geometry Bookkeeping Latin Latin Female High School junior senior 1. Reading i. Reading Spelling Spelling Arithmetic Arithmetic 2. Physical geography 2. Natural philosophy 3. English grammar 3. English grammar Physiology 4. Algebra 4. Algebra Drawing Drawing A distinction existed from the beginning between the high school for boys and the high school for girls. The difference, however, consisted at first chiefly in the fact that the boys and girls recited in separate classes. Later there was a tendency to provide more Hberally for boys than for girls. This tendency, evident in 1885, became pronounced in 1902, when the high school program for boys was considerably extended, without correspond- ing improvement for girls. A single course served the girls, departing only slightly from the course of 1885. In contrast, three separate programs were instituted for boys: a classical course, containing Latin; an Eng- lish course; and a business course, which included, in THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 27 addition to bookkeeping and commercial law, both stenography and typewriting. However, six years later, the high school course was extended to three years, the distinction between the ''male high school" and the "female high school" dropped, and equal opportunities were provided for boys and girls; two years later, 19 10, the course was lengthened to four years. The State Board of Education now classifies the Winchester high schools as first grade. Four differ- ent, though closely related, programs are provided, all conforming to the minimum state requirements^ and open alike to boys and girls. These may be characterized as the classical course, the modern language course, the general course, and the business course. The graduates of all save the last enter without difficulty the principal colleges and universities of the South. Nevertheless, despite these improvements, the Winchester high school compares unfavorably with the iDctter high schools of the country; the programs are still too bookish, lacking particularly provisions for physical education, science, and practical work such as manual and shop instruction for boys and household arts for girls. Nothing beyond the elementary grades has been pro- vided for colored children. The colored elementary schools follow in the wake of the white schools, doing work of much the same kind. The extension of the school program, particularly of the high school, along with the growth in enrollment, led ^State Course of Study for High Schools, 191 5-16. 28 THE HANDLEY FUND to an enlargement of facilities. On the one hand, the num- ber of teachers employed has risen from 8 in 187 1-2 to 23 in 1916-17.^ There has, however, been only a slight decrease during all these years in the number of pupils a teacher is expected to teach. The average per teacher in the seventies, eighties, and nineties ran well over 50; and at present the average number of pupils per teacher in the white elementary schools is 48;^ in the colored schools it is still higher and in both it is altogether too high for satisfactory results. To accommodate the very large classes, particularly in the first two grades, it has of late years become the practice to divide the class, one section coming to school in the forenoon and the other section coming in the afternoon. This device reduces the number of pupils under the teacher at any one time, but the children get only a half instead of a whole day's schooling. If the number of pupils a teacher is expected to teach has not materially decreased, teachers are, at any rate, better paid than formerly. For example, the average salary has risen from $373, in 187 1-2, to $514, in 1 916-17, with a decided advance since 1910-11.^ Still, Win- chester pays exceedingly low salaries — low even when compared with those paid by other Virginia cities of ap- proximately the same size.^ For of the seven cities of ^See Appendix, Table VII, page 69. ^See Appendix, Table VIII, page 70. ^See Appendix, Table IX, page 71. ^See Appendix, Table X, page 71. THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 29 Virginia having a school population of between one and two thousand — and this includes Winchester — only two pay less than Winchester and four pay more; Fredericksburg, for example, pays on the average $80 more. In the school as well as in the business world, there is a close relation between salaries and quality of service. Receiving lower salaries than is customary, it is not sur- prising that the teachers of Winchester, taken as a body, are not well prepared either academically or profession- ally. Teachers in an elementary school should possess at least a high school education followed by two years of normal school training, and high school teachers — certainly of the usual branches — should be college grad- uates. Measured by these standards, not more than six of the twenty white teachers of Winchester can be said to be adequately prepared for their work. Close arid adequate supervision might partly over- come this handicap, but the Winchester schools are not closely supervised. The supervision of the division superintendent, who has many other duties, has been merely nominal. The principal of the Winchester schools has always been a teaching principal, having not only to look after the routine of the school, but also to teach an entire class or a number of different classes for a period or two daily. Not until 1886 was he given any free time at all for supervision, and even at present he has only about half of his day for the management of the schools and for supervision, with the result that 30 THE HANDLEY FUND he is able to do very little toward helping weak or inex- perienced teachers. With the increase of pupils and teachers, more space and more equipment have had to be provided. The pub- lic schools for both races at first occupied rented quarters. In 1875, the Board of School Trustees requested $7,000 from the City Council to build at public expense a school for white children. The request was refused. From the standpoint of public sentiment, it is probably unfor- tunate that at this time the will of John Kerr left the residue of his estate to be used ''for the education of the poor white children of the city." It was decided to use this legacy to secure a perma- nent home for the white schools. The legacy, amounting finally to about $10,000, did not become available until 1882 and thereafter. To this sum the City Council added in all something over $6,000, and the whole amount was used to erect the John Kerr public school, the corner stone being laid in 1883, and the building first occupied in 1884. The building was a good ex- ample of the school architecture of the day, providing eight classrooms and a basement. The delay had been so prolonged that the new quar- ters when opened were scarcely adequate to accommo- date the enrollment. An additional room had to be rented the very next year. In fact, by 1888 the need of more rooms became so pressing and the difficulty of securing suitable rented quarters so great that the Boaj'd of Education petitioned the City Council, though in THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 31 vain, for funds for another building. Partial relief was now sought by equipping two basement rooms in the John Kerr school. Though the Board of Education recog- nized and officially stated that these rooms were "un- safe and dangerous to the health of pupils and teachers/' they were in continuous use for more than a decade. The need for more room was finally met in 1908 by a six room addition to the John Kerr building; at the same time a new heating plant was installed and toilets added to the old building, at a total cost of about $16,000. These additional facilities stemmed the tide for a year or two, when it again became necessary to rent outside quarters. There were in November, 19 17, five such rented rooms, all located in the Wall property, and all unsuited to school purposes. The fourteen rooms of the John Kerr school are ordi- nary classrooms, and, with the exception of the lower mid- dle one of the addition, which is very poorly lighted, are reasonably well adapted to the needs of a conventional elementary school. However, the high school occupies the three upper rooms of the addition and it is only by dint of using sliding doors and partitions that they are made to answer at all. Moreover, if the elementary classes were reduced to proper size and the classes now on half day session were given a full school day, the elementary school alone would require five additional rooms, to say nothing of the pressing need of the high school for larger and better quarters. Of the educational equipment of the white schools 32 THE HANDLEY FUND there is little to say. It is of the conventional sort and meets more or less adequately the requirements of a bookish school. It would, however, be wholly inade. quate for a school offering an extended program. For example, there are no gymnasium, baths, playgrounds, school gardens, auditorium, manual training and indus- trial shops, household arts rooms, practically no labora- tories for high school science, and no provision whatsoever for nature study and general science in the elementary school — all of which are to be found in our best public schools. The situation in the colored schools is much the same. Like the white schools they first occupied rented quarters, one class in the Old School Baptist Church and one in the Bethel Church. These colored classes remained here until 1876, when the Board of School Trustees secured free of cost a lease for ninety-nine years of the Old School Baptist Church — more generally known as the *'01d Stone Church.^' Two classrooms were fitted up for something Hke $650. Of this sum, $400 came from the sale of the Medical School site, which the School Board inherited when the Medical College was aban- doned. The number of colored classes increased to three in 1883, but the added class occupied rented quarters. In the meantime, the "Old Stone Church" fell into bad repair, and by 1886 became unsafe. Something had to be done. On application of the School Board the county court extended the lease of the "Old Stone W'oorl Shop THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER S3 Church" to five hundred years. The two gables and the roof were now rebuilt and a frame lean-to extension added, at a total expenditure of approximately $525, thus providing three classrooms, all of which are still in use. That they are entirely inadequate and unsuited goes without saying. To summarize, Winchester is face to face with an acute building problem. If the present demands seem large, it should be remembered that during the entire history of her public schools less than $23,000 of pubKc money, exclusive of rent, has been expended for white school buildings, and less than $800 for buildings for colored schools. No other city of Virginia of equal size has spent so Httle, Winchester having a capital invest- ment in school property of only $24.98 per child of the school population.^ In contrast, Fredericksburg, the city nearest, has an investment of $27.72, while Bristol has an investment of $1 17.46. The result is that white children have been almost continuously housed in rented quarters. It should, however, be stated that the crowded condition of late has been permitted to continue partly because it seemed desirable to await the final disposition of the Handley Fund. The growth of the schools has been accompanied by an increase in the total current school expense, and also by an increase in the current per pupil cost. Begin- ning in 1871-2 with a total current expense of $3,912.05, ^See Appendix, Table XI, page 72. 34 THE HANDLEY FUND expenditures aggregated in 1916-17 $16,601.71.^ But not all of this money was or is raised locally. As has already been stated, appropriations by the City Council provide part of it, the state provides part of it, and part of it comes from tuition fees and miscellaneous re venues. ^ Although money is received from these different sources, it is significant that an increasing proportion of the current school expense is derived from appropri- ations by the City Council, that is, raised by local tax- ation. Such appropriations in 187 1-2 equaled only 38 per cent, of the total current expense of the schools, whereas in 1916-17 they equaled 69 per cent.,^ irrefut- able evidence that the people are increasingly willing to provide proper and adequate support. Despite this growth, Winchester lags far behind other Virginia cities in taxpaying liberality. Land at Winchester is assessed unusually low, and the tax rate is also un- usually low. Both are probably lower in Winchester than in any other city of Virginia.^ As suggested above, there has been an increase in the current per pupil cost.^ This has risen, on the basis of total enrollment, from $9.73, in 187 1-2, to $14.94, in 1916-17, and, on the basis of average daily ^See Appendix, Table XII, page 72. 2For a number of years Winchester received liberal allowances from the Peabody Fund. 'See Appendix, Table XIII, page 73. ^See Appendix, Table XIV, page 74. ^See Appendix, Table XII, page 72. THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 35 attendance, from $15.10 to $20.73. ^^st of the rise, however, has occurred within the last decade. But even the present per pupil expense is extremely small- even small as compared with that of other Virgim'a cities of about the same size, at most only three spending less.^ Indeed, it is so small that good modern schools cannot possibly be provided at any such per pupil outlay. This inadequate support is reflected throughout the system, and accounts for the present narrow and con- ventional elementary course of study, the Hmited high school advantages, the employment of inadequately prepared teachers, the lack of proper supervision, and the dearth of suitable buildings and equipment. I iSee Appendix, Table XV, page 75. I III. NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS IN THE light of the facts developed in the two pre- ceding chapters, what are the needs of the Win- chester schools, if they are to render full service to the community and to the youth of the city? The ques- tion can be answered most satisfactorily in the light of what progressive schools which face similar conditions elsewhere are seeking to accomplish. Our best public schools realize that a narrow and bookish curriculum does not provide an all-round training and does not adequately equip children for adult responsibilities. Hence, progressive schools are extending and diversifying their programs, thus seeking to provide for the development of the body as well as the development of the mind. The formal and bookish studies, Hke spelling, arithmetic, and grammar, are of course as important as ever; but attention is also given to play, recreation, and physical training, because health, bodily development, and physical vigor are of growing importance both to the individual and to the community. Nature study, school gardens, science, music and the fine arts, manual and industrial shop work for boys, and the household arts for girls provide useful experience and training. Finally, special classes in the 36 NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 37 lower grades and optional courses in the upper grades enable the school to recognize individual differences in physical endowment, mental ability, interest, and voca- tional outlook. Our best public schools also realize that the old type of school organization — a teacher for each class and for each classroom — is not adapted to the requirements of an enriched and diversified program. Progressive schools are therefore developing a new type of organiza- tion, which calls for a new grouping of the different school grades and for a further division of work among teachers. The new type of organization gives children more freedom, and provides abundant opportunity for participation in group activities; at the same time it fosters habits of correct thinking and proper self control. It permits teachers, particularly in the upper grades, to confine their attention to one or two studies, thus favor- ing the development of teaching efficiency ; it also permits a maximum use of teachers, buildings, and educational equipment — an important consideration as public edu- cation becomes more costly. In view of the best practice of progressive schools, nothing short of a complete reconstruction of the public schools of Winchester will answer, if they are to do effec- tively the work that lies before them. It need hardly be said, however, that education is a constantly develop- ing art and that, therefore, even with a largely increased outlay, no system of pubHc schools can be created which will suffice for all time. Furthermore, the discussions and 38 THE HANDLEY FUND suggestions contained in this report are not designed to control local action even at present, still less in the dis- tant future. They are meant rather to indicate the kind of educational organization and opportunity approved by the most competent contemporary thought. Doubt- less, additional and different suggestions of value will be made by others, and, in course of time, steps not now thought of will and should be taken. In this spirit it may be suggested, first of all, that the white schools of Winchester require a change in organi- zation. They are now divided into an elementary school, with a seven year program for grades i to 7, and a high school, with a four year course for grades 8 to 11. Pro- gressive schools are now preferably organized on what is known as the six- three- three plan. Besides a kinder- garten of one year, they have an elementary school of six years for grades i to 6, a junior high school of three years for grades 7 to 9, and a senior high school of three years for grades 10 to 12. Thus a year would be added to the school course, bringing Winchester in line with other progressive American cities. This arrangement may not always be best. It has, however, undoubted advantages at this time, and can be modified in the future, whenever modification becomes advisable. After organization on the six-three-three plan, the next need of the Winchester schools is an extended pro- gram for each of the three units. According to the present practice of progressive schools, the elementary school program, that is, the program for grades i to 6, NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 39 would include those studies and activities which all pur- sue in order to gain command of the tools of learning and to acquire that general development and common body of knowledge, ideals, and standards of conduct essential to living in a democracy. Such a program would include the so-called fundamental studies: reading, spelling, composition, handwriting, arithmetic, geog- raphy, and history. It would also include music, free- hand and mechanical drawing, nature study, and school gardening, and, for the first four grades, handwork, and for the two upper grades abundant opportunity to par- ticipate in a variety of household and industrial activi- ties. Finally, such a program would give prominence to play, recreation, and physical education, including medical inspection and the follow-up services of a school nurse. Lest the program above outlined appear altogether too extended for young children, it should be remembered that the Elementary State Course of Study, ^ prepared by the Virginia Department of PubKc Instruction, recommends most of what is here proposed. Besides, the only part of such a program all pupils take all the time is the fundamental studies, with play and physical training. They pursue activities like shop work and drawing for a term or a year, and then take up others, such as nature study and gardening, for a given period. The children thus rotate from study to study, but this rotation is so ordered that each study is pursued a prescribed length of ^Elementary State Course of Study, 1915. 40 THE HANDLEY FUND time. This arrangement permits children to participate in a variety of activities and yet at no time are they over- burdened. The junior high school, that is, grades 7, S, and 9, carries forward the program of the elementary school on an advanced plane. For example, nature study gives way to science of a more systematized type, freehand and mechanical drawing are differentiated, and the practical opportunities for boys and girls are somewhat specialized, the boys entering the manual and industrial shops, the girls going to regular instruction in the household arts, including at least cooking and sewing. New stud- ies and activities are added, in order that the junior high school may take account of individual differences in physical endowment, mental ability, and vocational outlook. Accordingly, the junior high school provides Latin, modern foreign languages, geometry and algebra, and introductory work in bookkeeping, stenography, and typewriting. Of course, no child can take all these studies. It is possible, however, within limits, to select for each child the program suited to his particular needs and ambitions, the choice being based on the prefer- ences of the child, of his parents, and the advice of the school principal. To facilitate selection, the program of the junior high school might be organized into three different courses, each with its peculiar emphasis; for example, an academic course for children intending to go to college; a commercial course for those who propose to enter business on the completion of the junior NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 41 or the senior high school; and, finally, an industrial course for children who are looking forward to an early entrance into industry. The senior high school, that is, the program for grades 10, II, and 12, carries forward and intensifies the division of courses begun in the junior high school, thereby permitting the senior high school to take further account of individual differences, needs, and ambitions. This requires a further extension of studies and activities. For example, the program will provide varied opportuni- ties in history — United States, modern, medieval, and ancient — and intensive work in most of the old-line studies, such as English, Latin, modern foreign languages, and mathematics. The sciences include at least zool- ogy, botany, chemistry, and physics. The commercial instruction begun in the junior high school is expanded. The practical instruction for boys includes still more specialized practice in woodwork, forge, sheet metal, and machine shop, while the girls have cooking, dress- making, milhnery, laundry, home sanitation, home decoration, etc. As previously pointed out, there is particular need at Winchester of ntensive instruction in agriculture, and a post graduate course for teaching in the rural schools is much to be desired. To facilitate intelligent selection from a somewhat wide range of opportunities, it is the common practice to organ- ize specific courses, in which part of the work is required and part is left to the choice of the student. Should this practice be followed at Winchester, the senior high school 42 THE HANDLEY FUND might offer (a) an academic course for all going to college or higher technical schools; (b) a general course for those neither going to college nor intending to enter gainful pursuits; (c) a commercial course for those going di- rectly into business; (d) an agricultural course for those expecting to take up agriculture; and (e) a teacher train- ing course for those wishing to prepare to teach in the rural schools. In all these courses there is, to be sure, a large common core, that is, much work that all students take irrespective of the particular programs they may have chosen, so that the diversity of instruction is not so great, after all, as it appears to be. In any event the various courses of study above mentioned are, as has been already stated, to be regarded merely as suggestions indicating what has now become possible in the field of education. Specific decision as to precisely what should be offered may well be deferred, and whatever policy is adopted, adjustments must be made from time to time. Should the Winchester schools be reorganized in some such fashion as above suggested, their effective adminis- tration and supervision will require more than a principal who has only a part of his time free from teaching. A superintendent^ will be needed who can devote all his energies to administration and supervision. His pri- mary interest, however, should center in the improvement ^Tn order that Winchester may have a superintendent of its own, Win- chester will need to be made a separate school district. The power to do this is vested in the State Board of Education, as is also the power to appoint the superintendent (Sec. 132, Constitution of Virginia). NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 43 of the subject matter and methods of instruction, and in improving the quality of classroom teaching. This service would call for supervisory talent of a high order. The superintendent's academic and professional prepa- ration should be broad and liberal; he should be a man of progressive sympathies, with a record of previous suc- cess. Likewise, teachers of high grade will be required. These will be of two kinds — regular teachers and special teachers. Regular teachers teach the fundamental studies, such as reading, arithmetic, and geography, in both the elementary school and the junior high school, and the old-line studies, such as Latin, English, mathemat- ics, and history, in the senior high school. The qualifi- cations of regular teachers differ somewhat according as they teach in the grades, the junior high school, or the senior high school. Irrespective, however, of where they teach, they should all be well trained both academically and professionally, and be of proved efhciency. Among the special teachers will be teachers of play and physical training, of music, freehand and mechanical drawing, of nature study, biology, physics, chemistry, and agricul- ture, of manual and industrial work for boys, of the household arts for girls; and, finally, there should be employed a training teacher, a school physician, and a school nurse. Each of these should be a speciaUst in his or her respective field. Finally, proper building faciHties and educational equipment will have to be provided. Cities having such 44 THE HANDLEY FUND programs find that to secure the needed space for free play, recreation, school gardens, experimental farm (for the agricultural course), and a general athletic field, an ample school site must be secured. Two dif- ferent kinds of rooms are needed for instruction: regular rooms for the fundamental studies of the elementary and junior high schools and for the old-line studies of the senior high school, and special rooms suited to the re- quirements of particular act'vities. For example, the physical training equipment includes gymnasium, swim- ming pool, shower baths, locker and dressing rooms. Rooms of special design are required for the library, the fine arts, and mechanical drawing. The science equip- ment comprises a nature study room, a general science room, and separate laboratories for biology, chemistry, physics, and agr'culture. The commercial branches need specially equipped rooms for typewriting, stenog- raphy, and bookkeeping. Proper provision must also be made for manual and practical work. The general service portions of a modern building include sanitary toilets and lockers, storage rooms, rest and study rooms for the teachers, reception, inspection, and office rooms for the school physician and school nurse, reception room and ofiices for the principal, and, finally, a cafeteria for the school luncheon, and an auditorium which varies in size according as it is used for school purposes alone or serves also the recreational, intellectual, and civic needs of the community. NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 45 The difference between the ordinary box-like school- house and a modern school plant is thus striking. The difference is, however, an essential one and not an extrav- agance. When the school appealed almost entirely to the head, rectangular rooms on either side of a hallway, furriished with fixed desks which children occupied hours at a time, sufficed. When, however, the whole child is put to school — his body as well as his mind — facilities and equipment of an altogether different type are re- quired. Nor are the building provisions suggested above a mere dream; they already exist in some cities. The reading of the preceding pages has doubtless raised the question: What would such schools at Win- chester cost? This depends, in the first place, on whether there is a single plant for all white children, or whether there are two elementary schools, the one a separate plant and the other connected with the junior and senior high schools. The single plant is undoubtedly preferable on the score of economy and efficiency. A moment's con- sideration will make this point clear. A modern elementary school must contain regular classrooms, play- grounds, gymnasium, industrial arts rooms, auditorium, etc. There must be provided also most of the general service portions of a modern building. Therefore, to have two elementary schools involves duplicating most special facilities and most general service features. Obviously, a single good sized playground for boys and one for girls will serve all the white children of the city; 46 THE HANDLEY FUND a single gymnasium, a sing'e swimming pool, a single auditorium are ample for all; a single central plant also obviates duplication of heating plants, storage space, reception room and offices for the school doctor and nurse, and reception room and offices for principals. In a word, to provide two small elementary schools, even though one of these is in connection with the two high schools, will probably increase as much as a third the first cost of the special facilities and general service fea- tures distinctive of a modern plant. It also costs more to operate two small schools than a single large plant. The number of furnaces to be kept going, the number of head janitors or custodians, and the number of principals increase with the multipli- cation of buildings. Quite as serious financially is the difficulty, in small schools, of making full use of the time particularly of special teachers. Even in a large build- ing there is some loss from this cause; nevertheless, the large plant is favorable to the most efficient use of all the time of all the teachers and is hence favorable to the conduct of the school at a minimum cost. The management and supervision of the schools are also simplified. The possibility of division of interest on the part of the superintendent is obviated. Unity of aims among teachers is more easily achieved, and teachers are more easily brought to work as a team. Of scarcely less importance is the civic significance of a single, imposing plant in a small community. Such a plant inevitably quickens respect for the public schools I NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 47 and arouses pride in them. It provides a common meet- ing place for all, children and adults alike, and readily be- comes the intellectual, recreational, and civic center of the entire community. By thus fostering growth in mutual respect and fellow feehng, a central school contributes powerfully to civic unity and democratic solidarity. A single school for Winchester is, there- fore, economically, educationally, and socially desir- able. To accommodate the present school enrollment and future increases up to 1,500 pupils will require a 42 room building, exclusive of general service quarters, gym- nasium, and auditorium. A modern plant of this size, exclusive of grounds, would in ordinary times cost about $400,000, or $250 per pupil. The estimated size of the building rests on the follow- ing considerations: To add a kindergarten and to extend the elementary course a year will probably bring 100 new pupils into the schools, increasing the present enrollment (929) to over 1,000. The enhanced attractiveness of the schools will in the near future add from Winchester and the outlying districts probably another 200, making a total enrollment for the immediate future in excess of 1,200. To accommodate these children, scattered from the kindergarten to the last year of the senior high school, will require at least one kindergarten for 50 children, 21 classes in the elementary school (grades i to 6, inclusive), 9 in the junior high school (grades 7 to 9, inclusive), and at least 9 sections in the senior high 48 THE HANDLEY FUND school.^ Altogether these classes will occupy not less than 40 rooms. This would leave in reserve two class- rooms, the auditorium, and the gymnasium, and a con- siderable leeway in the size of classes, particularly in the senior high school — ample for a total school enrollment up to 1,500 children. The estimated cost of the proposed building is based on the experience of other cities. For example, the newer modern elementary buildings of Boston, exclusive of edu- cational equipment, are costing from $209 to $258 per pupil; of Cleveland, from $150 to $208 per pupil; of St. Louis, from $192 to $240 per pupil;^ while the Froebel building at Gary, Indiana, erected in 1911-12, which represents the type of building that Winchester needs, cost, including educational equipment, $355,945.80 with an additional $77,571.75 for grounds and improvements, making a total of $433,517.55. What now of the colored schools? The reasons ad- vanced for the reconstruction of the white schools hold good for the colored schools. But, in their reorganiza- tion, three pertinent factors should be kept in mind: (i) the small number of colored children to be instructed; (2) their special need of practical education; and (3) the needs of the colored people of Winchester as a whole. The colored population of Winchester is decreasing; it now numbers only 908, and the outlying districts ^See Appendix, Table XVI, page 76. ''School Buildings and Equipment, by Leonard P. Ayres and May Ayres, pp. 76, 78, and 84. NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 49 add only 42 more. Under these circumstances, the number of colored school children cannot be large. There are 26 of kindergarten age, that is, five years old; 149 of elementary school age, that is, between six and fourteen; and 57 between fifteen and eighteen or of high school age, altogether providing a school enroll- ment of probably not more than 200. A kindergarten, an elementary school, and a junior high school should suffice. For, although there are 43 colored children of senior high school age (i.e., between sixteen and eigh- teen), a junior high school will doubtless accommodate all w^ho will remain in school and who are prepared for work beyond the elementary grades. In the elementary school, the program would be simi- lar to that already described. It would, however, be well to emphasize strongly the industrial arts for boys and the household arts for girls. The junior high school course should be divided about equally between prac- tical academic instruction and industrial training. The industrial program should provide opportunities for boys in the industrial arts, with gardening and agriculture stressed, and for girls in the household arts, giving prom- inence to simple cooking, sewing, and dressmaking. Finally, it is most important that the new colored school be the civic, intellectual, and recreational center of the entire colored population, that is, serve not only the children, but the parents also, endeavoring to elevate their standards of living and their sense of civic and personal responsibihty. The distribution of the 50 THE HANDLEY FUND colored population is favorable to the achievement of these purposes. Again the question arises: What will such a school cost? In the first place, sufficient space will be needed to afford playgrounds for both girls and boys, provide an athletic field for the older children and for the colored community as a whole, and supply a school garden. The building should be sufficient to accommodate an enrollment of 200, scattered from the kindergarten through the junior high school. It should probably include : I kindergarten room 3 regular classrooms I Hbrary room (a branch of the Handley Library) I nature study and agriculture room I household arts room I industrial arts room gymnasium, with locker rooms and shower baths, for both girls and boys, and an auditorium, with stage and dressing rooms; also, besides the usual general service quarters, there should be a reception room and office for the principal, and re- ception room, inspection room, and offices for the school doctor and school nurse. The cost of such a plant, sub- stantial yet simple, wou'd certainly be not less than $50,000. Therefore, to reconstruct the Winchester public schools and to provide all children with superior educational advantages involves an immediate capital NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 51 investment of approximately a half million dollars in grounds, new buildings and educational equipment. The amount of the annual current expense budget would of course be greatly in excess of the city's present ex- penditure, the precise amount depending on the extent to which opportunities such as have been above de- scribed are offered. Some conception of the amount which can be profitably expended may be obtained from the present expenditures of cities which are either especially favored financially or have developed an unusual educational interest. For instance, in 1915-16 the per pupil cost on average daily attendance at New- ton, Mass., was $6^, at Montclair, N. J., $84, at Pasa- dena, Cal., $87; and there are about a score of cities of the size of Winchester that are now spending annually from $60 to $109 per pupil" ^See Appendix, Table XVII, page 77. I IV. USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND JUDGE HANDLEY'S gift has aroused deep in- terest. Several valuable suggestions as to its use, already made, are worthy of careful consid- eration. There are those, for example, who feel that the bequest — principal and accumulated income, now amounting to $1,640,953.59 — should be used to establish a college. This is natural, for private benefactions usually go to higher institutions, rarely to pubHc schools. The establishment of a college was, however, not con- templated by Judge Handley, whose will specifically states: "The income arising from the said residue estate to be expended and laid out in said city by the erection of school houses for the education of the poor." Judge Handley showed great wisdom in formulating the object of his bequest in such broad terms. He did not hamper his beneficiaries with details; but none the less, even while leaving to the future the manner of work- ing it out, his fundamental purpose was most explicitly stated, viz., the "education of the poor."- This phrase, when interpreted in present day terms, must mean pub- lic education. 52 USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 53 Aside from Judge Handley's plain intent, certain practical considerations are, we believe, fatal to the suggestion that the bequest be utilized to establish a college. There are in Winchester only 525 persons (white) of college age, that is, between nineteen and twenty-four years old. Under the most favorable cir- cumstances, hardly 100 out of this number would attend the proposed college. In fact, there are now only 21 persons of these ages in other than the public schools, and not more than 10 of these are in college. Hence, a local college would directly serve only a small fraction of the entire school going population. Moreover, higher educational institutions are already within easy reach. The State University is distant less than 150 miles, Washington and Lee University is about 135 miles away, and a number of women's colleges are within easy reach. . Again, a college, however small, cannot be firmly established on a foundation of less than $2,000,000. Therefore, to estabHsh a college at Winchester with the Handley gift is to run great risk of merely adding, to a list already too long, one more institution that will shortly be required to seek additional funds. Even so, in all probability many of the youth of Winchester would continue to be attracted by the larger and more diversified opportunities of stronger institutions. Others hold that a technical high school should be established. Undoubtedly, there is a growing apprecia- tion of both the social and individual value of industrial training, and we are not unmindful of its importance. 54 THE HANDLEY FUND But our study of local conditions proves that Winches- ter offers no adequate field to the graduates of a higher technical school. To make use of knowledge and skill ac- quired in such an institution, its graduates would have mostly to seek employment elsewhere, so that a constant drain on the human resources of the community would be forced. Moreover, a technical school serves only a small part of the entire school going population. Most of the school going population of Winchester would derive no benefit from it. Like the college, it would involve subor- dination of the welfare of the many to the interests of the few. However, as has been stated, we do not lose sight of the importance of training that will tell in practical pursuits. The programs of the schools de- scribed in the preceding chapter emphasize such train- ing. Industrial training of the kind that Winches- ter needs can thus be otherwise adequately and efficiently cared for. It has, again, been suggested that the Handley Trus- tees should take over the high school, becoming entirely responsible for its financial support and educational management. The Board of Education would then manage the elementary schools and the community would be responsible for their financial support only. To this proposal there is, among others, the objection already made. A relatively small group would enjoy all the benefits of Judge- Handley 's gift; for the high school enrollment will probably never exceed 300 to 350, whereas the elementary schools will easily have 1,150 I USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 55 to 1,200 children to care for. Moreover, the close rela- tionship which should exist in a city like Winchester be- tween the elementary school and the high school renders any such division of control and responsibiHty imprac- ticable. Besides, to place an elaborate high school on top of an ordinary elementary school is like building an elaborate house on an inadequate foundation. Finally, there are constitutional and statutory objections to this proposal. It has also been suggested that the Handley Trustees should establish a system of schools for all the children of the community, ultimately to displace the public schools and forever relieve the community of all school taxes. On its face, this is a tempting proposal. Sev- eral facts must, however, be considered in deciding on its merits. The annual net income from Judge Handley's gift, available for the maintenance of schools, will be about $59,000. Compared with Winchester's present expenditure for pubhc education, this is a large sum. Yet it is not large enough to do for the children all that an adequate school system can do for the children of a community. With it great improvements could be effected; but they would in the end fall short of what should be achieved under the circumstances. There is, however, a more serious objection. It has been well and wisely said that one of the best things about public educa- tion is the doing of it by the community itself. Nothing in the world is as wholesome and energizing for a com- munity as the effort, sacrifice, and pride involved in solv- 56 THE HANDLEY FUND ing its educational problemso Wholly to relieve the community of such responsibility would prove nothing short of a public calamity. It would affect unfavorably public interest in the schools, check the present healthy growth of self-sacrifice, and keep Winchester from per- forming an inspiring service to the country at large. Private benefactions are best employed when they stimu- late public interest and public participation in social enterprises that the pubHc cannot otherwise for the time being undertake. Such use fosters the development of sound pubHc opinion, enlarges the field of public ac- tivity, and deepens the sense of public responsibihty. In our judgment this principle should not be lost sight of in deciding upon the use of Judge Handley's gift. Most serious of all, the proposal under discussion is, we are informed, legally impossible. The state guar- antees the education of its citizens and reserves to itself educational control. Accordingly, there is actually imposed on each and every subdivision the obligation to provide "an efficient system of free public schools'' for all the children of the community.^ For instance, the law provides that the city council of each city^ shall ap- point a board of education,^ and that the board of educa- tion shall establish and maintain "a general system of pubHc free schools in accordance with the requirements ^ Sec. I, Virginia School Laws. 2 The school board of Winchester is an exception, being appointed ac- cording to the provisions of a special law. 3 Sec. 192, Virginia School Laws. USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 57 of the Constitution and the general educational poHcy of the Commonwealth."^ An elaborate system of machinery is provided to carry these laws into effect. Obviously, no exception can or should be made of Win- chester. To permit Winchester to give up its public schools and to free itself from the obHgation of support- ing them would be to abandon a cardinal principle of democracy. There is excellent authority for holding that the courts would interpose to prevent. To us it seems that the wisest use the Handley Trustees can make of the funds at their disposal is to cooperate with the people of Winchester in establishing a system of superior public schools. Such use would appear to be in accord with Judge Handley's will. It takes due account of the educational needs of Win- chester, the size of the fund, the financial resources of the city, and it conforms to the spirit and the letter of the constitution and school laws of the common- wealth. It may perhaps also be added that the pro- posed use would not only be best for the children of Winchester, but it will in all probability draw to Win- chester people from all over Virginia who are seeking better educational advantages for their children. This has been the common experience of towns in other sec- tions that have developed superior public schools. The question at once arises as to how the Board of Education and the Handley Trustees can attack the problem thus presented to them. Certain legal ar- ^•Sec. 198, Virginia School Laws. 58 THE HANDLEY FUND rangements between these two bodies must of course be concluded; but, in our judgment, no legal formulations will meet the situation, unless a spirit of mutual defer- ence and consideration in the interest of a great public purpose prevails. Cooperation between public authori- ties and private beneficence in an undertaking of this kind is a new thing; but only through cordial coopera- tion between the Board of Education of Winchester and the Handley Trustees can the problems involved be suc- cessfully solved and the utmost benefit be procured from Judge Handley's gift. Both parties have responsibilities and duties that are clear. The law charges the Board of Education with the conduct of the public schools; Judge Handley's will imposes on his Trustees the duty of safeguarding the use of his bequest. It is obvious that, whatever legal form the relations between the two bodies may have to take, both are interested in one and the same object. The essential steps towards defining and reaching that object ought, therefore, to be taken informally in conference between representatives of the two bodies, with such expert advice as they may desire, and the final agree- ment should be such as to command the support of both bodies and of public opinion as well. We have mentioned the fact that the relations between the Handley Board and the Board of Education must be reduced to legal form. In our judgment, it is important that this agreement be in general terms, first, so as not to interfere with future developments; second, because no USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 59 technieal precautions can in any case take the place of mutual confidence and good will. The points which an agreement of this kind might perhaps well include are, in our opinion: 1. A provision obligating the Handley Board of Trustees to devote the income of its trust to establish- ing and maintaining, in cooperation with the Board of Education, a superior system of public schools at Win- chester. 2. A provision that the Handley Board of Trustees shall provide from its accumulated income the needed sites, buildings, and equipment for both white and col- ored schools, the sum to be so expended, the sites to be selected, the type of buildings to be erected, and the equipment to be provided to be mutually agreed upon by the Handley Trustees and the Board of Education. The facilities thus provided shall be leased by the Hand- ley Trustees to the Board of Education at a dollar a year, for a term mutually agreed upon. 3. A provision that the Handley Board is obHgated to turn over to the Board of Education for school mainte- nance no part of the income from the Handley Fund unless the Common Council shall have levied or appro- priated for current school purposes at least the sum of $15,000. 4. A provision that the Handley Board of Trustees agree to appropriate from its income for current school maintenance such sums as shall be called for by the in- auguration of the new scheme, less sums needed (a) for 6o THE HANDLEY FUND the ordinary running expenses of the Board, (b) for any unusual expenses incurred in the execution of its trust, and (c) for sinking fund requirements for the replace- ment of buildings and equipment, provided also that the Handley Board of Trustees may, at its discretion, deduct annually from its current income the sum of $10,000 and add this amount to the principal of its trust as a protection against capital loss and as a safeguard against reduced interest rates. 5. A provision that the Board of Education shall adopt by-laws, rules and regulations for the conduct of the schools, centering in the superintendent the respon- sibility for the administration and management of the schools. 6. A provision that the Handley Board of Trustees may from time to time have studies made of the working of the schools. 7. A provision that the Board of Education will an- nually make to the Handley Board a report of the work and needs of the schools, and will annually submit a classified estimate of current financial needs, including a later statement of the levy or appropriation made for current school purposes by the Common Council. With some such agreement approved by the Common Council, the next step of importance is the choice of a superintendent, to whom would fall the responsibility of working out details and carrying out the general plan adopted. Technically, the choice of the superintendent falls within the province of the State Board of Education. USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 6i Here we have another illustration of the point already made — that only hearty cooperation between the various responsible parties can achieve the end which all alike desire. Though we have made no inquiry on this point we cannot but believe that, in view of the extraordinary opportunities, the State Board would wilHngly make a separate educational district of Winchester and defer to the combined wishes of the Board of Education and the Handley Board of Trustees in the matter of appointing a school superintendent. This office would necessarily carry with it a salary ample to procure the services of a man competent to create and to manage a superior sys- tem of pubKc schools. The Handley Board might well assume the salary of the new superintendent whenever he is chosen and takes office, and provide also for his necessary expenses, including those for stenographic as- sistance, visiting schools in operation elsewhere, selecting teachers, etc. In our judgment, these are the really fundamental steps: (a) decision on the general plan; (b) choice of a high class superintendent in sympathy with the plan and enjoying the confidence equally of the Board of Educa- tion and the Handley Trustees. These major points once arranged, there is no reason why the settlement of the necessary details should not proceed smoothly. The making of building plans, the drafting of new courses of study, the selection of teachers — these and other mat- ters can one by one be taken up under the leadership of the new superintendent, who would assuredly endeavor to 62 THE HANDLEY FUND carry with him the approval of the two bodies of Trus- tees and public opinion as well, even though technically he is responsible only to the local and the State Board of Education. An agreement on some such basis as we have suggested safeguards the obligations of the Handley Trustees, while reserving to the community, through its Board of Education, the final responsibiHty for the conduct of the schools, as is required by the constitution and laws of the state and the principles of American democracy. By providing for close cooperation between two pubHc boards, and for a union of their financial strength, it brings within reach of Winchester public schools of a high order, which should be a lasting benefit to the community and an inspiration and guide to the country at large. At the same time it procures a wise and effective use of a great gift in the greatest of causes — public education in a democracy. V. APPENDIX APPENDIX 6S ^ tH 00 CO W O ^ii lOjM T— 1 1— I CO H'^ COOi tH Oi (M HCO OOt-I i-T CO ^ O tiiS ^ e^s ^ Sg2 §3^ CO .u=g3 00,^ »— r lO 1— 1 t3 p 00 lO us OJ o •S W) 66 APPENDIX TABLE II Growth in White and Negro Population Year White Negro Total 1890 1900 1910 1917 3,773 4,056 4,826 5,561 1,423 1,105 1,038 908 5,196 5,161 5,864 6,469 TABLE III Population by Wards Whites Negroes Total Per Cent. OF Total Ward I... Ward II... Ward III... Ward IV... 1,432 1,288 1,733 1,108 233 256 401 18 1,665 1,544 2,134 1,126 26 24 33 17 Total 5,561 908 6,469 100 APPENDIX 67 '-KM CO H 5 >< « H o u o h-) O ^g^ ^^ s? (M H CO ^^ g tH -^ t>CO 1-H Sg2 CO 10 00 «o^ rH UD CO CD i—i §^ S3 « women lo thu group are chiefly teachers and nurses. 206 216 245 11 4 135 33 168 213 S9 252 357 33 144 104 76 124 160 13 1,758 1,664 13 117 147 1,857 14 2.405 6 20 7 78 6 42 6 11 8 8 42 32 6 12 27 16 17 6 10 3 7 7 18 387 200 60 218 89 166 16 4 12 11 1,9E4 26 61 4,301 APPENDIX 69 a ^ « p a w 1^ U D Average BER OF P PER Tea aiiocoa5i:DcO'«*oo(McoiH i tOt-t~t:-U3tr-U3U3«D g H m Q w b-OCCCOt-OOrH^t-OiC^ THlO^CCXXMOStr-OOlOOO T-Hi— 11— (C<1i-H(MtHt— (1— li— (tH ;? w P^H 0^ iv; W (M(MWCOCOCOCOC0COCOCO Isi *< B W 1^ § ^ « tJ ? H ^Sg w « PI ^^ H iz; Ol 1-1 S a H H H rf w H§ ^ Ss PQ ^ (Xiu:>CD0iT-(TH(M,-HTj4OO rH T-H tH rH T-I(M (M i-HCD t- P^ < (M?OrHCr>rHCD^CD,-lrHl^ i-HLOOlOOiOOlOOlOCO >^ t>t-0000CriaiOOT-HrH,-H 00 00 00 cx3oo(X) OS oi as asoi 70 APPENDIX TABLE VIII Size of Elementary Classes (White Schools) November, 191 7 Teacher Grade Enrollment A 1st • 63 B 1st 63 C 1st and 2d 47 D 2d 40 E 2d 53 F 3d 47 G 3d 41 H 3d and 4th 48 I 4th 41 J 4th 45 K 5th 47 L 5th 39 M 5th and 6th 50 N 6th 50 6th and 7th 47 P 7th 50 Average 48 APPENDIX 71 TABLE IX Teachers' Average Salaries Total Expenditures Number Year FOR Teachers' OF Average Annual Salaries Teachers Salary 1871- 2 $ 2,986.28 8 $373.29 1875- 6 3,459.98 7 494.28* 1880- 1 4,128.00 8 516.00* 1885- 6 4,336.00 12 361.33 1890- 1 5,303.75 14 378.84 1895- 6 5,354.00 14 382.43 1900- 1 5,350.00 15 356.67 1905- 6 5,857.00 14 418.36 1910-11 7,860.60 17 462.39 1915-16 11,500.84 23 500.04 1916-17 11.821.67 23 513.99 ♦Probably some error in records. TABLE X Average Salaries of Teachers, 1916-1917, en Virginia Cities Having School Population Between One and Two Thousant) City School Popula- tion Total Expendi- tures FOR Teachers' Salaries Number OF Teachers Average Annual Salary Bristol Clifton Forge . . Fredericksburg. Hampton Harrisonburg. . Radford Winchester. . . . 1,758 1.505 1,627 1,310 1,349 1,181 1,261 $20,864.63 16,520.93 13,051.05 15,838.17 18,065.38 9,635.78 11,821.67 38 37 22 29 35 23 23 $549.07 446.51 593.23 546.14 516.15 418.95 ,513.99 72 APPENDIX TABLE XI Total Value of All School Property per Child of School Popu- lation IN Cities of Virginia Having a School Population Between One and Two Thousand City Total Value of All School Property School Population Amount of Prop- erty per Child of the School Population Bristol Clifton Forge Fredericksburg. . . Hampton Harrisonburg Radford Winchester $206,500.00 68,300.00 45,100.00 61,700.00 109,875.00 54,300.00 31,500.00 1,758 1,505 1,627 1,310 1,349 1,181 1,261 $117.46 45.38 27.72 47.10 81.45 45.98 24.98 TABLE XII Per Pupil Current Expense, Winchester Total Total Per Average Daily Attend- ance Per Year Current Enroll- Pupil Pupil Expense ment Expense Expense 1871-2 $ 3,912.05 402 $ 9.73 259 $15.10 1875-6 5,598.76 414 13.52 266 21.05 1880-1 4,991.41 467 10.69 301 16.58 1885-6 5,831.82 741 7.87 470 12.41 1890-1 7,228.73 759 9.52 544 13.29 1895-6 6,821.82 821 8.31 599 11.39 1900-1 6,808.48 770 8.84 611 11.14 1905-6 7,332.81 804 9.12 632 11.60 1910-11 10,334.25 836 12.36 602 17.17 1915-16 14,241.17 1,073 13.27 860 16.56 1916-17 16,601.71 1,111 14.94 801 20.73 APPENDIX 73 W* O ^ >«;i Oa(MCO^C0C0COC0CO(M(M i < Total Current Expense pt-;'rfOqt-:C»'<^oqC ■fl* < Pi < < g '^ 00 Oi r-j ^D t:^ t>» Oci t-' t-' O lb t:)^ o T— I «D 1— I CD CO tH «-H 00 (M CO O C^ O 1-H,'— I 05 Oi O 00 00 « M ;^ w & w Ph P f^ w 00 -"d^ -^, O CO CD ^ 00 lb ^ -rjJ oi T-^ ''t tH rH ^ (Mt-H rH l-l ;^coot-oo (M Oi -<^ OiOlO Tti (M 1-H i-H CO tH 00 1- T-( T— 1 00 c P4 M o > F-i X ^5 W w S ^ ,_] m o . CNOOO COC0O5 1 CO « kJ T— 1 Oi O c^ c^ 1 2 S 1—1 1 IS T— 1 t-oco ■rJiCOO CO ^1 ^U1 T— 1 OOi-IOS 00 00 en 1-1 o l^ SS8 ^^^' ^ 'rl<(X>0 t-COO 1 CO Oi-H(M O 1- H i-i 1-1 ^ 1-1 1 1 O coa5(M o«£> CO o Cnr-li-l o c T-H 1—1 1- OOiCS CO^DC- i CO Oi 1-lT-|(M o c >< T— 1 1—1 1— ^ T- f4 < ■^ t-1-l t--^ 1- CO 00 Oir-i T-t 05 C 1-1 a t-CO Oi-li- < CO H t- OtH(M 05 O- 1-^ 7—1 1—1 W (MCDOO '^T-iu: ) CO cr> tHi-I(M 1-1 1-1 ■"^ '^ w ^ M W S H 1^ u-i o«o?r> 1 1 1 1—i OSi-HO 1—1 1 1 1 ^ o . . . tfl . 03 u : ^XJ cfl tn °.s 1^ Is ,u 1 •^ « .^ .^ i^ V y5 be Is ii CO 1 CO w II *^ b. a M ert Tl ^ 1 P w H W pq o < O ^ ^ n. APPENDIX ooc:-?£)t-'X)^Di:oooix>otoS^-cr)coS § ^ W g O ^ 60- tH tH (M rH rH Sri (in N ^ 13. , -ill- -Si, , a^ ^^g;^ =« ^ c , , ui cu s ii JD ^ . > V 6 ,s'''^^ /^,m>' •l'^. ^^o<