o V > ^.* %.^^ • vv vc A Study of School Recesses W. H. Heck, Professor of Education, University of Virginia. This study is based upon notes taken from October, 1915, to De- cember, 1916, during conversations with ten superintendents, 42 prin- cipals, and two representative teachers of 41 city, town, or rural schools or school systems in nearly every section of Virginia. Listed as one each in this group of 41 are three counties, eleven cities, and ■27 smaller communities, including over 180 elementary and 53 high schools and over 51,000 elementary and 8,000 high-school students. The schools as a whole are probably typical of average conditions in man}'^ states. Minor variations within one system were not noted, and only the general tendencies are here emphasized; individual schools are not named. The data could not be consistently grouped according to size or type of school. No form of questionnaire was used, because the actual conditions could be interpreted better through informal discussion. Recesses are one of the most neglected phases of school manage- ment and nave received little attention in educational literature, a page of discussion being an unusual amount specifically for this sub- ject. The literature on play tells of some games for these periods "but does not deal with the recess problem as a whole. It is earn- estly hoped that more interest will soon be shown in recesses, which occupy about one-sixth of the school day and influence the organi- zation and success of the remainder. This large proportion of the child's school life must be used to the greatest possible advantage and made to serve indispensably in furthering the aims of education. Although the main points in this study are the uses of the recess, the initial points are (a) the amount and (b) the distribution of recess time in relation to the total school time. What is the length *This study is the sixth in a series on the School-Child's Day. The first three studies were on Mental Fatigue in Relation to the Daily School Program, the fourth and fifth were on Home Study, and the seventh will be on a Comparison between Home Work and School Work. The first study was published in book form, the sec- ond and third, appeared in the Psychological Clinic, the fourth and fifth in the School Review, and the sixth in the American School Board Journal, from which the present bulletin is reprinted. The author's International Source-Book on Home Study, containing over 200 se- lections and 600 references, will be completed next Spring. [3] 4 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES of the school day in each grade and how does it vary from grade to grade? How much recess time is given in each grade and what is its proportion to the total school day? Does it vary as the school time varies? How is it distributed in each grade through the day? To what extent do the amount and distribution of the recess time influence each other? The length of the school day for the different grades has mainly been decided by tradition and is changed almost as slowly as relig- ious dogma. But either scientific justification for, or modification of, present schedules is an extremely difficult question, due to the many contributory problems of school hygiene, personal hygiene, curricu- lum, methods, fatigue, boredom, home and social conditions. Most administrators change the school day only under pressure from out- side or inside the system; and those using this pressure, on account of some interest not accommodated by the existing schedule, seldom realize the related problems involved. The present report does not deal directly with this question, which will be studied in detail later on, but only indirectly as affecting recesses. Schedules in Virginia Schools. The following Virginia school law allows the necessary local va- riation in matters of schedule, and the few specific requirements are often not closely followed in practice:* "Length of daily session. — The time of opening and closing school shall be prescribed by the district board of school trustees, subject to the approval of the division superintendent: provided, that where an in- termission of thirty minutes or more is given no school shall open later than 9 o'clock a. m., nor shall any school be taught less than five hours each school day, including the necessary time for appro- priate opening exercises. The time of opening and closing schools, with the intermission to be given, must be specified in contracts with teachers." The State form of contract with teachers does not limit the local trustees further in this matter: "It is also agreed that the said party of the second part shall open school at in the morning, give minutes at o'clock, minutes at o'clock, and minutes at o'clock, and close the school at o'clock in the afternoon (a school day shall consist of hours and minutes, and a school month of four weeks of five school days each)." We now come to a summary of actual conditions in the state, as represented by the data collected for the present study. The schedules for first and second grades are too varied to be *For regulation of the school day by other States, see Hood's Di- gest of State Laws Relating to Public Education, pp. 441, 510-15. A STUDY OF SCHOOL RE;CE;SSeS 5 combined in single averages. The seventeen first grades with ses- sions not alternating with those of other classes average 291 minutes of school and 41 minutes of recess, netting 250 minutes for school work; the eighteen first grades with morning sessions average 181, 13, and 168 minutes respectively; the nineteen first grades with after- noon sessions average 137, 7 and 130 minutes respectively. The 22 second grades with sessions not alternating with those of other classes average 340 minutes of school- and 59 minutes of recess, netting 281 minutes for school work; the fifteen second grades with morning sessions average 188, 12, and 176 minutes respectively; the eleven second grades with afternoon sessions average 147, 8, and 139 minutes respectively. Noticeable is the great difiference between these three groups in the same grade, as compared with corresponding groups in the two grades. Furthermore, the recess time is 14, 7, and 5 per cent, re- spectively, of the total school time in the first-grade groups, and 17, 6, and 5 per cent in the second-grade groups. For each min- ute of recess in the former groups there are 6.1, 12.9, and 18.6 min- utes, respectively, of school work, and in latter groups 4.8, 14.7, and 17.4 minutes. The average deviations in the first-grade groups are 67, 12, and 18 minutes, respectively, from the group averages of total school time, and 19, 3, and. 6 minutes from the group averages of r&cess time; and the corresponding deviations in the second-grade groups are 40, 16, and 25 for school, and 19, 3, and 8 for recess. The range of variation in the former groups is 180-420, 150-220, and 105-180 minutes, respectively, for school, and 10-70, 10-20, and 10-30 minutes for recess; and the corresponding range in the latter groups is 245-420, 150-220, and 105-180 for school, and 10-85, 10-20, and 0-45 for recess. These figures reveal an extreme lack of uniformity in the total school and the recess time in both the first and second grades, while the following figures reveal an extreme uniformity from the third grade through the high school. There is evidently needed some golden mean of similarity in similar grades and progressive differ- ence from grade to grade, especially in the first five grades. The 34 third grades with full sessions average 357 minutes of school and 63 minutes of recess, thus netting 295 minutes for school work; the 37 fourth grades average 362, 63, and 299 minutes, respectively; the 39 fifth grades average 372, 63, and 309 minutes; the 39 sixth and 39 seventh grades (also eighth in two systems) average 371, 62, and 309 minutes; the 37 high schools (8-11) average 371, 62, and 309 minutes. Bach of the grades 3-11 approximates six hours of school, one hour of recess, and five hows of school zvork. In each, the recess is about seventeen per cent {16.7-17.4) of the total school time; and for each min- ute of recess there are about 4.8 minutes (4.76-4.90) of school zvork. The average deviations of the five groups from their group averages 6 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES of school time are 30, 25, 21, 22, and 23 minutes, respectively, and from their group averages of recess time 15, 14, 16, and i:> minutes. In each group the longest school day is 420 and the longest recess 80 minutes; the shortest school day ranges from 220 to ;)20 and the shortest recess from ten to thirty minutes. The general similarity in these schedules is partly explained by the uniformity in the same school or system for grades 3-11, but only in part. The full grammar-school schedule begins with the first grade in five schools or systems, with the second grade in four, the third grade in 1(5, the fourth grade in five, the fifth in five, and the sixth in four. Only six high schools (five in separate buildings) vary at all from the full grammar-school schedule, and they average twelve minutes less school and eight minutes less recess. Half-day schedules are not reported for grades beyond the fourth. In the third grade three morning sections average 185 minutes of school and twelve minutes of recess; four afternoon sections average 170 and ten minutes respectively. In the fourth grade two morning sections average 157 minutes of school and twelve minutes of recess; one afternoon section has 120 and ten minutes, respectively. The distribution of the recess time has little uniformity. Nearly all of the half-day classes in the morning have one recess of ten or fifteen minutes, coming near the center of their schedule but often varying somewhat to coincide with the first recess of the full-session day. The afternoon sessions are shorter and may need less recess, but it is inadvisable to omit this period altogether, even when not included in the full schedule of the school. However, the complaint is often justified that marching in the halls and play on small school grounds disturb the other children at work. This is one .phase of a more general problem, that of having recess periods, like arithmetic periods, through the day, especially when the school has much-needed teaching of games, light exercises, etc. By arrangement of rooms and exits for specific classes or divisions, by tiptoe marching in halls, and by use of play space some distance from the school, this diffi- culty could be met. It is about the only way of getting full use of limited outdoor, or even indoor, playgrounds. The first recess in a full schedule comes from 10:15 to 11:10, gen- erally at 10:30, and lasts from ten to twenty minutes — ten in 25 schools or systems, fifteen in eleven, and twenty in four. The length of this recess does not vary inversely as the variations in the sec- ond, or long, recess. The third recess comes from 1:55 to 2:40, the time varying in relation to the time of dismissal from 3:00 on, and lasts for ten minutes. The first recess is omitted in six high schools, and the third recess in 27 elementary and 32 high schools. Nearly all the schools have gross recesses, the two or three minutes required to get hats and wraps and to march out being taken from tlie recess time; but the minutes required to form in line, return to A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 7 rooms, and settle down to work again are generally taken from the following class period. All recesses of less than fifteen minutes should be net, and the schedule should allow at least five minutes more for getting out and in. The second recess is the pivot on which the school day turns. The dispute as to the one or two-session day is primarily a matter of this recess. In Europe the period is generally 120 minutes or more and really ■ makes two-sessions, so the discussion of a change to "undivided in- struction" is important; but in America the period is generally 60 minutes or less and is really a long recess in a one-session day. In the schools or systems here studied this recess begins from 11:43 to 1:15, depending (a) on the time of opening school (8:45 to 9:00) and of dismissal (2:15 to 4:00), and (b) on the time for other recesses. The amount of the second recess varies from fifteen to 70 minutes, eight schools having 30 and nineteen having 60 minutes. There are 30 schools or systems with 35 minutes or more, and fourteen with 30 rninutes or less, some schools varying from others in the same system. Where should the line be drawn between a one and a two-session day? It would be arbitrary, tho sometimes convenient, to make 30 minutes the point of demarcation. As will be shown later, the eat- ing of lunch at school or at home is almost universal at this period and cannot be made a distinguishing characteristic. Some city schools, especially high schools, shorten this period, primarily on account of little room for play. Altogether, it seems best to deal with the problem of this recess as a matter of minutes, rather than as a dividing line. If a large per- centage of children can and wish to go home, the time should be made sufficient for the journey and the home meal; if there is space for genuine play for most of the students, the time should be made sufficient for more than tidbit playing; if there is little other oppor- tunity during the day for social recreation, as in many rural schools, the time should be made sufficient for such an essential. In fact, the noon recess can be made the climax of educational opportunities. Definite relaxation periods between recitations are reported only from two primary schools, tho similar breaks in the routine are prob- ably customary in others. And the change of classes, and especially of rooms, furnishes a little relief for the older children. The Ger- man "pauses" of ten or fifteen minutes an hour are more like relax- ation periods during change of classes than what American recesses are or ought to be. In addition to these recesses two or more re- laxation periods of about five minutes each would well be worth the time both for the younger and the older children. These little periods could be differently used in the classrooms according to grade and be varied from day to day for the same class, with con- versation, singing, marching, games, stories, etc. 8 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES Suggested Length of School Day. It is impossible to make suggestions that would suit all the schools here represented, with their different internal and external condi- tions. As mentioned before, the amount and distribution of the to- tal school time are influenced by many of these conditions; and, in turn, the amount and distribution of recess time are conditioned by the length of the school day. But the author is led by his knowl- edge of the general conditions in the schools here represented, which are probably similar to those in other states, to suggest a schedule subject to local modifications. A comparison with the data just given will show that there is nothing radical in this schedule. Starting with the first grade, the total school time should increase by more or less equal degrees until a school maximum is reached in the grammar grades, preferably the sixth. The prevalent custom of increasing unevenly up to the second, third, or fourth grade and then jumping to a maximum has nothing to commend it. The child makes no corresponding jump in physical or mental growth at this time; the school does not, or certainly should not, have such a sudden in- crease in instructional requirements; and there is no parallel change in the home and social life of the children. Gradual development of school child, of school requirements, of school time — mutually con- sistent with each other; this is the desideratum. The excuse from some rural and semi-rural schools, that the younger children must be kept in school until their older brothers and sisters can go home with them, has only limited application. It has been found in actual practice that most of the younger children get home without difficulty, if they are dismissed early, and that the few remaining at school (especially to wait for school wagons)^ can play quietly on the school grounds or, in bad weather, can read or amuse themselves quietly in some supervised room. Their teach- ers and their classrooms can generally be used for departmental in- struction of upper-grade divisions and thus relieve the congestion of work therein. If the school day lasts three hours in the first grade, with chil- dren varying around 6^^ years of age, and should increase one-half hour each year, it would reach five and one-half hours in the sixth grade, with children varying around 13 years. This increase should not be continued on thru the elementary grades and into the high school, because the strains of puberty and adolescence render the older students unable to bear increased strains of school work and confinement. And the older children can profitably spend more time out of school in preparation or in other educational interests. However, a shorter school day for the high school than for the gram- mar grades seems an extreme application of this principle; second- ary school boys and girls ought to get without strain as mych or more profit out of the maximum school time. Thruout the school, A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 9 individual, cases of chronic or temporary inabilit}^ to stay in school without injury for the full time required can be met by special re- duction, tho such excuses may easily be abused. An increase of fifteen minutes each year, or 30 minutes every other year, from the fifth to a maximum of one hour in the eighth grade (the first year in Virginia high schools) could be added to the total school time to allow^ more preparation of lessons in school under supervision and thus decrease the time for home study. It is to be doubted whether the length of the school day should be thus extended beyond a total of six and one-half hours, even in the high school. Time must be left for the exercise, recreation, home associations, social relations, and individual pursuits of the out-of- school life. This paper does not recommend an all-day school, extending until the late afternoon and including many of these out-of-school activities. Altho the schools in some industrial centers and in the comparatively disadvantaged parts of great cities may have to sup- ply to children a home and social life they could not otherwise get, there is at present no evidence that an approach to a modified Spar- tan barrack system for children is needed in most American urban and rural communities to replace and reduce, rather than increase, home responsibilities in the afternoon. Suggested Schedule of Recesses. On the basis of the total school time here mentioned, theoretical calculation of the total recess time could be made. Starting with twenty minutes for the first grade, the recess time could be increased by ten minutes for every half hour of total school time. This would give a maximum of 70 mmutes, or 21 per cent, of the five and one- half hours in the sixth and higher grades, one minute of recess be- ing given for every 3.7 minutes of school work. For every fifteen minutes of study added there could be five minutes more of recess, making a maximum of 90 minutes, or 23 per cent, for six and one- half hours and of one minute of recess for every 3.3 minutes of school work. Thruout this schedule the proportion of time devoted to recess becomes larger as the total school time increases. But this theoretical calculation partially fails before the problem of dis- tribution of the recess time in the earlier grades. The increases per grade up thru the sixth would make combined recesses almost im- possible and would cause confusion in most schools thru the exit and re-entrance of individual classes thruout the day. However, this difficulty would not apply to the sixth and higher grades with a short recess from 10:40-11:00 and a long recess from 12:30-1:20. Such a schedule would give 1-/3 hours of school work from the open- ing of school at 9:00 until the first recess, then 114 hours until the second recess, and then 1 1/6 hours until dismissed at 2:30 — the in- 10 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES tervals of work decreasing bj' ten and twenty minutes, respectively, as the school day advances. Of course, an earlier opening of school would not afifect the proportions of this schedule. A compromise for the sake of easy organization could be made in case of the earlier grades by letting the entire school have recess from 10:40-11:00, by dismissing the tliird grade along with the second at 12:30, and by giving the fourth and fifth grades the recess from 12:30-1:;20 and dismissing both at 2:00. With this schedule all recesses would be at the same time and no class would be kept at work when the play of others might cause distraction. If this distraction is not a local problem, the third grade could be held until 1:00 (or 12:45 on ac- count of insufficient previous recess); the fourth grade could be brought in from the second recess at 1:00 and dismissed at 1:30; and the fifth grade could be brought in even at 1:10 and dismissed at 2:00. In case of increased length of school day thru additional study time from the fifth grade up, the second recess could well be given from 12:00 to 12:50 {with rearrangements for lower grades) and a third recess added from 2:10 to 2:25 for the sixth and later grades. The extra 15 minutes of recess would serve as a compro- mise for the 10-20 minutes suggested. If a large percentage of the children go home at the second recess for luncheon or dinner, fifteen, or preferably 30, minutes should be added to the suggested allowance of 50 minutes. The additional time should be added to the total school day, vvitliout clianging the above- mentioned intervals of school work, and ])ostpone to that extent the dismissal of the grades concerned. Sucli an extension could be made temporarily or permanently for purposes of extra play or so- cial recreation. A great difficulty in a'l schedules is tlie length of recitation pe- riods, especially in the high schools with their unit credits for pe- riods of 40 minutes. It would be better to work out first a satis- factory schedule for the school work as a whole and for the re- cesses, and then try to adapt the periods to this schedule, rather than c'icc 2'crsa as is usually done. These i)criods ought not to be the same for each grade or for some of the subjects in the same grade; and the fetish of uniform length for high-school periods will be gradually discarded thru various combinations of recitation and study time. Furthermore, there is little valid proof in favor of spe- cific subjects at specific times of the day or in a hard and fast se- quence. It does seem probable that some such schedule as is here suggested could be used in many schools without much modifica- tion. But the schedule is given primarily as a basis for suggestions from others. Two Functions of Recesses. Before discussing the management of recesses, it is well to men- tion tlioir two main functions. On tlic basis of tests before and A STUDY Oi' SCHOOL RECESSES 11 after recess, especially the noon intermission, several German and American students have drawn positive conclusions as to the recu- perative value of such pauses; but the technique of some of these researches is open to criticism. There is an almost universal belief that recesses relieve the strain of school work, and this belief seems justified in practice tho with little scientific proof. The relief prob- ably comes more thru a change from the immobility of seat-work, the repression of discipline, and the boredom of instruction than thru a reduction of actual fatigue; and the recuperation is to be sought more in better will to work and better discipline than in the quality or quantity of test results. However, the point of the pres- ent study is that the negative tho highly important function of re- lief is secondary to the positive function of exercise, recreation, and association. Recesses are not merely essential in the daily schedule; they are essential in education. And the real worth of these periods can never be realized thru emphasis upon one of their functions alone. Keeping-in. The bad practice of keeping-in at one or more recesses exists in sixteen schools, while 25 schools prohibit or greatly discourage the practice. There are some partially extenuating conditions, as de- tention for only a small part of the recess, detention of only those who must leave in wagons or for work immediately after school, detention of only those who are disorderly in marching or in play, letting the kept-ins go out for a little while after recess, etc. However, if the recess is a hygienic and social need, no punish- ment should deprive the child of his right, not merely privilege, to get the full value of it; if the recess is not such a need, it should not be a part of the daily program. One deprivation may not injure a child, but the practice tends to grow into a habit and is nearly al- ways open to abuse. Furthermore, it is a poor method of discipline, it interferes with flushing the rooms by opening the windows (a hygienic need in most schools), and it generally keeps in a teacher when she ought to be outdoors or, at least, free from responsibility. The author has had confessions from a large number of teachers in his summer-school classes that keeping-in does not generally check disorder or increase diligence. Superintendents and principals often complain that some of their teachers hinder them from prohibiting the practice; but this excuse is hardly valid, as the prohibition should be made and the local faculty then be expected to find other forms of punishment, if really necessary. That other forms have been found, successful is daily proved in many schools. When keeping-in at recess is abolished, it is very seldom rein- stated; in fact, the abolition of keeping-in after school is the natural next step in reform. This does not apply, of course, to an extra study period for students that need some extra instruction in a 12 A STUnv OF SCHOOI. RECESSKS given subject. Most of the schools included in tlie present report allow keeping-in after school, tho a few may use this time only for individual instruction and not for punishment. Many set maximum time limits, generally 30 minutes. Detention of students for disorder or neglect seems necessary to the peace and sanity of mind of some teachers, and few schools have the courage to deprive the faculty entirely of this nervous outlet. In any case, the kept-in child should be given a short recess at the time of dismissal, and then be called in for some truly educative work or personal conference, not for sullen study at, rather than of, some penal task. All children and teachers must be out of the school before a stated time when the janitor takes charge to clean up for the day. Staying-in. Should students be allowed to stay in at recess of their own ac- cord during fair weather? Xot any more than they should be al- lowed to stay away from a recitation. If they are too unwell to at- tend the recitation, they ought not to be made to do so; if they are too unwell to attend the recess, they ought not to be made to do so. As has been suggested, the recess belongs to the child as a right, not merely as a privilege; but it also belongs to him as a duty, just as much as his geography or his geometry. It is an obligatory pe- riod during the school day. Studying at recess ought to be as rep- rehensible in discipline as playing in a study period; in fact, its consequence may be more serious, especially when indulged in by just those overstudious boys and girls that need the recess the most. Loafing or gossiping in classroom and hall do give some relaxation and recreation, but they are feeble substitutes for outdoor move- ment and play. Even those students not vigorous enough, tempo- rarily or chronically, to take part in games are far better strolling, or even standing, in the open air. Small school grounds do not al- low much play, but they allow at least some exercise and fun and noise — three essentials of growth. Outdoor recesses change both physical and mental attitudes and tend to neutralize the effect of less natural attitudes in schools. (The rainy-day schedule will be discussed later.) About half of the schools or systems here studied prohibit stay- ing-in without special permission, except in play or toilet rooms. Others permit students to stay in or return to their own classrooms, others permit use of hall or halls, and a few permit free use of the building as a whole. The requirement of outdoor recesses for all students, except an excused few who can be congregated in one room, is grcatlv to be desired. Marching, Marching in and out at recess is not a matter of taste, not even 13 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES •Of convenience, but a matter of order, of co-operat.on. of emphases Ion Jroup a her than incUvidual action. Its purpose is pnmarxly W In large schools children may be marched out to Prevent inter erence and loss of time, but such reasons are --f"-* m sma schools with adequate exits. Children in school should be- com tizen of a society and merge their "^d^-^-^^^-^. ^ /^^ J. Tecessarv into the general good. However, as their individual tend cncies must be considered by teachers in instruction and, to a less degree discipline, children often fail to see the greater signih^ cance of the group life as a whole and their proper subordination to ■t The excessive individualism in American homes, often leadmg o ov r-indu Igerce and self-importance, may be encouraged by m- Svidualistic school methods, however admirable in themselves and twevetev table to some extent in all good teaching. Along with tl^Te me hods could well go exercises that demonstrate the expre - sin of the individual thru and for the group, the — ^f ili y of be ing out of place and out of step, the impertinence o^ -^-^ ^^U^^ the inefficiency of confusion, and the ughness of disorder. All these points mv be%nd sometimes are, emphasized in the instruction and Tscip ine of th; school, but children generally are not -^^ure enough to s e and especially not mature enough to appreciate them while the in- carnation of these ideals in bodily -cement impresses itsel thru eye and ear and especially thru the kmaesthetic sense, /h author /as no intention of suggesting a scheme of symbolism ^^^ this ^sm has alreadv done much harm in education; he is simply stating the impresses gained over and over again, not only from the demon- T:Z of social order and co-operation by children --hingJ_o gether but also from the recognition and enjoyment ^^ this socia ■order and co-operation by the children themselves^ They do not Understand its full social significance but they see the value o scU- control and subordination to thfe group purpose. They uncon sciously develop thru it an esprit de corps of love and pride m their "Furthermore, the hygienic value of such marching will be readily granted, imbued as it is with genuine pleasure. It builds up the body and lifts up the spirit. A child that does not like to -rch w th his school should be sent to a doctor; there s something out of gear in his bodv or mind. , . , Recesses ofier the most frequent opportunities for this group dem- on^tratJL thru marching. Each child in his place in the c ass Une .ach class in its place in the school hne and all m unison represen ing the school. Recreation and disciphne fused mto one^ On fai days the marching could well be continued out on the school grounds and be elaborated into attractive figures, becommg a recre- ative drill. Classes or divisions could compete with each other l?h banners to be carried by the winners. Even on city sidewalks a little diversion of this kind would not be unwelcome. 14 A STUDY OK SCHOOL RECESSES In 34 of the schools or systems here studied the children march out and in at recess, and in two they march in but not out; while in eighteen some form of music — piano, phonograph, or drum — is used. In some of the large high schools there is no marching at all, and apparently no need of it for purposes of control; but prob- ably the students would enjoy, take pride in, and greatly benefit by this social exercise if well done. The trouble with niost school marching is that it is not taken se- riously by anybody. It is just a way of getting in and out. In some of these schools the marching would inspire the most phlegmatic, but in other schools there are various degrees of carelessness. No snap and fun and pride can develop out of slovenly marching. If this school service is worth doing at all, it is worth doing precisely. Within suitable limits for the age of the children in each grade and their power of exact muscular control without strain, the stricter the requirements, the better the results. Erect carriage, proper place, even distance between individuals, hands by side, no talking, exactness in time, orderly turning, etc. — these and other character- istics add dignity, power, beauty, and enjoyment to marching and should be insisted upon by ofificial authority and the public senti- ment of the school. Should boys and girls march separately? This depends upon cir- cumstances. Segregation of the sexes tends tc increase, rather than decrease, sex consciousness and should not be required except when necessary. If there are separate playgrounds for boys and for girls, it is more convenient to march the boys out to their playground and the girls to theirs; yet even then the separation could generally be made out of doors and not interfere with the combined marching. However, there is a possible disadvantage in having the grammar and high-school boys use the stairways at the same time as the girls. When the entire class does march together in double file, the boys had better march with boys and the girls with girls, probably a pair of boys alternating with a pair of girls. This arrangement generally seems to give better order, time, and appearance, tho it may be largely a matter of training. Space, Equipment and Games. These necessities of recess have been so well discussed in the lit- erature on play that it would be superfluous to take up much space in repeating the well-recognized principles of these discussions. The national movement for play has probably given proportionately too little attention to the school and recess side of the question, a side that might appeal to most communities first and thereby open the way for wider development. Just a few words are here needed about the meager but encouraging beginning in the schools here represented. The average playground space per school in 26 schools A STUDY OF SCHOOIv RECESSES 15, or systems reporting such acreage" is about three acres; but these figures do not include the larger city schools, which generally have very little space for recess. The small city, town, and consolidated rural schools are the best favored in this regard. A great deal more interest should be shown in using vacant lots near the school, even if a small rent be required; and it is surprising that so few schools avail themselves of such advantages. Furthermore, not half a dozen schools report much playground apparatus, exclusive of simple equipment for basketball — the most popular game for the older children. Baseball is a general favorite with the boys, of course, but is played informally in most schools. Fortunately, football is not generally encouraged, and volley ball and soccer are becoming better known. Tennis courts are mutiplying rapidly but cannot ■often be used at recess, as too much space is required in proportion to the number of players. Games for little children are taught by teachers in a few of these schools, and some high-school teams are ■coached after school hours. One of the greatest needs in our curricula is some requirement that in each grade certain games at least be taught and frequently played. An education without play is anemic, and adherence to the rules of games is as necessary as adherence to the rules of any ef- fort for efficient activity. Slipshodness and deceit are Immoral in play as in other enterprises. So games must be taught outdoors and in; and if the playground space is small, it should be constantly used during the day in combination with indoor instruction. And all the children must play, not a few while the others look on. Separate Playgrounds. Should there be separate playgrounds for boys and for girls? Only insofar as necessary. The children of the first and second grades ought to play together in games taught by teachers. Even in some schools where older children are separated, these little ones have their games in common. When boys from the third grade up show ^any tendency toward rudeness to girls, or take- possession of their space and apparatus, or play with them too roughly, then separation of the sexes may become necessary. The possibilities of trouble are ■greatest in the grammar grades and tend to die out, or become partic-^ ularized to a very few students, in the best high schools. Of course, boys and girls will and should have their own games under any circumstances and will tend to segregate naturally. Some principals of the thirteen schools, generally small, reporting no separate playgrounds, say that the matter takes care of itself in this way, and some even encour- age the boys and girls to play together. But separate playgrounds are reported, by 25 schools or systems and are generally considered essential, especially in city schools. The entrances to toilets may be so placed that some separation of the sexes near them is obligatory. 16 A STUDY OF SCHOOr. RECESSES However, boys and girls co-operate in all forms of school Avork, so wh}^ fear, discourage, forbid co-operation in the freer and more spirited life at recess? Does the recess naturally tend to sex con- sciousness and even to disorder? Boys and girls tend to become what we iniiuite tlicni to be; and, by advertising and incalculating our fear of social intercourse between them in schools, we make them conscious of and sometimes interested in possible trouble. Better expect no trouble, erect no barriers, put up no sign-posts; and then believe in, watch for, insist upon, stimulate to, and gen- erate pride in the courtesy "that good society expects between boys and girls. Of course there are backgrounds of bad breeding, as welf as good, in most schools, but the esprit dc corps of conscientiously and wisely administered public or private schools tends to lift up rather than drag down, to seek standards above rather than at the le\el of the majority. A supervised recess shorld offer little cliancc for trouble, and the spirit of the school should tolerate no breach of decorum. Of course, if the co-operative recess for all cannot be even tried in a given scliool, the matter is settled so far as that school is con- cerned. But where such a recess can be given a trial, it deserves the trial; then, if with the best available intentions and wisdom the plan fails, the separation of the sexes can easily be renewed. Separate playgrounds for age groups are desirable only if neces- sary to keep the children from crowding each other out of their rightful space. This encroachment may easily happen to gain- room for the games of the older children, especially for high-school athletics, which are sometimes unjustly favored in space, equipment, and prestige. The need will generally be met by informal divisions for the older boys, the older girls, the younger boys, and the younger girls. As most boys take more exercise after school than girls do, the space should be proportionately equal or even larger for the girls, who should be induced, probably required, to make full use of it. The children not participating in the games with their own group should be allowed to move about freely from one division tO' another, so long as they did not interfere. Of course, disciplinary^ trouble over, any of these divisions would force stricter boundary lines and rules. The occasionally expressed fear that some older children, espe- cially boys, will set bad examples to the younger is a confession of weakness in the school management, as the faculty is there pri- marily to inculcate and enforce responsibility for better individual and social life. If our schools cannot expect children to associate without injury, then our society is in a bad way. As previously em- phasized, there is little reason in most schools to fear that the very large majority of the children will not keep up to a high standard of decorum at school. The small number of older and younger chil- A STUDY OP SCHOOL RECESSES 17 dren needing attention ought to be watched and trained to conform- ity; if this is impossible, they ought to be eliminated. The public school is not a reformatoi-y; and the manners and morals of the nor- mal child must be protected from injury, especially thru public in- stitutions. If the school authorities ever fear democratic recesses of different age and sex groups, they had better omit some textbook work and concentrate on solving recess problems rather than dodg- ing them. Supervision, The supervision of recesses is not a separate problem but an in- tegral expression of the spirit of the general administration. The best way to find out what a school really is at heart is to study the "behavior of children at recess, especially if they are allowed to be spontaneous. To reach an acceptable degree of order and consid- eration, every effort should be made through suggestion, control, and punishment, if necessary; but children should not be interfered with, certainly not policed, insofar as they reach by themselves a creditable standard of happy co-operation. They must grow up to self-control, not teacher-control; and too many pedagogical strings at school are as bad as too many apron strings at home. Yet most children need some adult leadership at recess. They often stand around in a helpless inactivity that tempts an observer to use a prodding-rod; or they engage in haphazard amusements as monotonous and meaningless as "chop-sticks" on a piano. They are like people who cannot speed their wealth, especially in ways that are beneficial to themselves and others. By suggestion and example teachers can lead these children to put more fun into and get more out of recess, to have more organization and variety in their games, and to bring about a wider and heartier association with others. A kill-joy teacher should be ruled off the grounds, and repressive rules avoided. A recess without a good time is not a recess; it is only a breathing-spell. And. a recess without laughter and noise is unnat- ural. But with busy, happy children disciplinary problems tend to vanish and be forgotten. Public opinion will enforce its own social requirements, and the rules of recess will attain ethical sanction. And what if children do sometimes become excited at recess and get happily tired? The classes immediately following may suffer somewhat, and, the relief function of recess may be lessened, at least on the physical side. But children go to school more to live and learn than to learn and live; and they generally live more at recess than in the classroom, and sometimes learn more too. The custom of assigning the supervision of recesses to most of the teachers in turn — alternately by day or week or month — is uncertain and unwise. The capabilities and methods of teachers in meeting" this responsibility will vary so much that no consistent development of leadership will be possible. Police duties can be bandied about 18 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES from person to person, but leadership never. Better select the best qualified and expect constant service from them, with partial com- pensation in greater prestige and salary and in relaxation periods at other times in the day. Further compensation will come to the su- pervisors in the service itself. About three-fourths of the schools here represented report regular^ though often informal, supervision at recess. Three have none at all, and two none in the high school. This supervision is mainly done by teachers on duty but sometimes by the principal alone. The of- ficials seem pleased with their present arrangements and report very little disciplinary trouble at recess. But the leadership side of the supervision has rarely been developed, and then mostly with the little children or in connection with high-school athletics. Only gifted supervisors have the desired, combination of leadership and of police control, the latter being latent because unnecessary. They need a rainbow of good qualities. They should let the chil- dren run their own recesses but should infuse the right spirit into the running; should break up unsocial cliques and check disagreeable individuals; should know and direct the standard games; and should make all anxious to do their part. Above all. the reticent or offish or afflicted children should be brought forward to a recognized place in the group life. Social maladjustments in childhood cause much unhappiness and promise mere in the future. And recesses ofifer ta the supervisors fine opportunity for correcting some of these mal- adjustments by reproving the unjust, restraining the bully, shaming the profane, and boycotting the obscene; by encouraging the timid^ teaching the backward, befriending the lonely, and introducing the stranger. Truly this is no trivial responsibility, no mean role for a supervisor. A recess is not an ciitr' acfc; it might even be the climax of the play. Eating at Recess. The meal times of school children will be studied later on in this series, but the present report includes some data on the school side of this question. In about one-half of the schools a large propor- tion, in one-third a small proportion, and in one-sixth none of the children go home for dinner or luncheon. Although family dinners are seldom suited to children near the middle of the school day and although luncheons or even lunches at school are better, it is difficult to oppose home wishes in this matter at the second recess. The average amount of time allowed for the second recess is little influ- enced by the number of children going home, except, negatively, in the large city schools with short recesses. About six of these schools serve luncheon. Children staying at school are generally allowed to take their lunch outdoors, where they eat and play at the same time and scatter around their paper and "left-overs," unless severe rules or an unusual esprit dc covins forbid. Only two or three schools keep A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 19 children in the classrooms until lunch is hastily eaten. Which is the better way of dealing with this problem it is difficult to decide; prob- ably the outdoor plan is generally more satisfactory, if luncheon cannot be served. The prevailing custom, or neglect, of allowing children to eat lunch at two or even three recesses should be condemned. There is no hygienic good in giving the digestive system this extra work to do, especially when the school is demanding mental alertness in reci- tation and study. Frequent nibbling at food is a bad. habit, due to home indulgence and to individual lack of self-control. Eating at the first recess should be prohibited entirely, and children going home at the second recess should not be allowed to bring any lunch at all. If some children have had breakfast so soon that they be- come hungry early in the school day, then the first recess, instead of the second, should be their one and only time for lunch. All this discussion is based upon the expectation of school dismissal before or at 3:30, and upon the belief that children should have something to eat on their return home, as the third of the four light meals due them during the 24 hours. On account of this third meal, the second at home or school ought not to be heavy or produce that mental heaviness so noticeable after the second recess in many schools. Drinking of Water. The drinking of water during the school day should be confined to recesses. With opportunity at two or more such periods and be- fore and after school, a child can get all the water he needs, if only he thinks about getting it; and he should be made to think. In fact, a neglect in meeting any real need of this kind and a nervous desire to break the monotomy of school work by m.oving about in or out of the room are the actual causes of most requests to get a drink of water. A first bell could be rung five minutes before the end of re- cess as a warning to the thirsty and thoughtless to prepare for a dry session; and a little parching later on would be a gentle reminder to those that heeded, not. One regulation or very similar regulations for going out either to get a drink of water or to use the toilet, as in most of the schools here represented, imply failure to distinguish between different needs. Use of Toilets. In connection with the general supervision of the school there is another problem that centers in the recesses but is not confined to them. This is the use of toilets during school hours. Though neg- lected in the literature and class instruction on educational questions, this daily problem is perplexing in many schools, and is dealt with in a multitude of ways. Every child, if possible, should attend to hygienic needs before 20 A "STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES coming to school in the morning. It is mistaken prudery not to in- sist upon this to the children and to their parents. As constipation is becoming one of the most widespread evils of cur civilization, both home and school must combine to prevent it in the children. Talks to the boys by a man and to the girls by a w^oman have proved very helpful in some schools; and especially ought not the subject to be dodged in parents' meetings. If a child still comes to school without having attended to such matters, he should feel free to "go out" of study or recitation class without embarrassment or punishment. Better sacrifice time and attention to school work than undermine health. But other hygienic needs can generally be met by recesses that are less than two hours from each other or from the opening and dismissal of school; and self-control in regard to these needs should be encouraged. In all cases the child must tell some designated authority at some appointed time the hygienic reason for his going out. If there is much repe- tition in the case of any child, the parents or even the family doctor must be consulted. It is better to allow going out without request but with explanation later on than to restrain individuals by requir- ing such interruptions and publicity. Sufficient requirements are those that a slip with name be put on the teacher's desk as the child goes out quietly, that a maximum time be not exceeded, and that ex- planation and estimate of time be reported to some advisor. In case of little children requests may sometimes be needed, but with older children, especially with girls, they do more harm than good. Hy- gienic counsel, differentiation of needs, general regulations, individual freedom, and proper explanation— these will meet nearly every case in both an orderly and a hygienic way. The use of toilets on request during school hours is allowed in most of the schools here represented, the request being omitted in five high schools. There are a few reports of keeping-in or demerit, either for going out at all, for overtime, for more than one in a class out at the same time, or for going out soon after recess. Re- cords are seldoin kept, but sometimes names are put either on the blackboard, on the teacher's tablet, or on individual slips. There is very little report of dissatisfaction with present plans. Rainy-Day Schedules. Of 24 of the schools here represented eleven do and thirteen do not make some change in their schedule on account of bad weather: and naturally the representation of town and rural schools is greater in the first group and of city schools in the second. The change is generally a shortening of the second recess, or even a combination of two recesses into a short one, and a proportionately early dis- missal of school. With children moving about the building and A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES 21 eating their lunch, discipline is more difficult, even when all the teachers are on duty. The children who generally go home for a meal either anticipate a rainy-day schedule and bring lunch with them, or they share the lunch of friends, or they wait until their return home. A change of schedule after the school day has begun sometimes in- conveniences these children and especially those parents that come or send for students. Some principals are strongly opposed to rainy- day schedules and seem to be supported by the homes in this op- position. The problem is primarily one of local conditions and sentiment, but the burden of proof in every case should rest upon those that introduce changes for inclement weather. Every effort should be made to get the best into and out of the regular schedule before cutting down the recess time. This cutting down really amounts to cutting out the recesses, which are too valuable to be omitted thought- lessly. Why not omit a singing lesson every time a few children have the sniffles, or a history lesson every time the teacher is not pre- pared? Bad weather is more often a state of mind than a meteorological fact. It is fear of the weather bogey. And children soon learn from parents and teachers this kind of phobia; they must not get wet, they must avoid the mud, they must not get cold, they must keep out of the wind. Most of this teaching weakens body and character. A child that is scared of a raindrop oifght to be made ashamed of him- self; and so ought a child that runs for cover as soon as he sees a cloud in the sky or shrinks from mud on his garments as from a spot upon his soul. Children ought to be dressed properly for cold or rain or mud and then be turned out with little regard, for weather, rain coats and rubber caps and overshoes being as necessary equip- ment for school children as pads and pencils. Learning to meet changes in weather without timidity or whimpering is no small part of education both for boys and girls. Of course, these arguments may not be valid for invalids, for whom exceptions must be made; but schools are not sanitaria. Schools in city, town, and country ought to give rainy-day recesses a fair trial, demanding some ingenuity on the part of teachers and children in arranging for outdoor activities in rough weather, with due regard for character and size of playgrounds. Everyone should take pride in making such recesses healthful and pleasant. Over- shoes can save many schools from an overdose of mud; but there is no reason to revolt against a little mud brought in on shoes or clothes or hands, for it is not deadly and will be cleaned away sooner or later. When the weather is really too severe for outdoor activities, then indoor recesses should be planned with great care. A search- ing test of school management is the success of these indoor exer- cises and recreations. Are they orderly, livelj*. and enjoyable? And 22 A STUDY OF SCHOOL RECESSES there is sonictinics suspicion that rainy-day schedules are due to poverty in nianagment, the line of least resistance being to avoid rather than master difficulties. Conclusion. Most of the suggestions made in this report arc tentative and de- pendent on local conditions; they are stated in the hope of promot- ing discussion. But there is often emphasized in the preceding pages a conviction not at all tentative: that recesses can have inestimable values beyond those generally granted in theory or realized in prac- tice. The dictionary definition of recess as "cessation from employ- ment" is still accepted and applied in many schools thruout the nation. In these schools children are let out for an interim, with little sense of responsibility in the heads and hearts of the faculty for what the children do or say or think, so long as they do not run against the barriers of discipline. The main purpose of the present paper is to substitute for this negative attitude a positive one of help- ing children to gain more health and happiness, initative and per- sistence, courtesy and consideration, fellowship and service thruout the recesses. For this high purpose these periods deserve space and time and equipment and, above all, special leadership, just as the recitation and study periods do. And probably the recesses will pay the highest interest on such an investment of public funds and individual devotion. >■ H 323 79 L^/" *^'% <" g" / - '0^ ^ %/^^^,^^ \^f.^>A^ V^^«^\g^^ ^o. •- .0" ^^./ •^0 ^0' <.