Class _BNAiX_l Book 7T^ Copyright N° COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. A Manual of Elocution and Expression for Public Speakers and Readers Especially Adapted for Use by Theological Students and Clergymen By The Rev. Albert Francis Tenney, M.A. Instructor in Elocution, etc., at the General Theological Seminary, New York, and at the Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Connecticut New York E. P. Dutton & Company 3 1 West Twenty-third Street 1905 LIBRARY of CONGRESS Two Copies titxvivv. APR 28 iyu5 Copyright E. P. DUTTON & CO. 1905 Published in April, 1905 To THE STUDENTS IN THE GENERAL THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY AND THE BERKELEY DIVINITY SCHOOL WHO BY THEIR EARNEST AND SYMPATHETIC ATTENTION HAVE CONTRIBUTED MUCH TO THE SUCCESS OF MY EFFORTS IN THEIR BEHALF PREFACE THIS manual is written, primarily, for immediate use in my own classes, there being no other text- book of sufficient scope and proper arrangement for this purpose, since Dr. Russell's Use of the Voice in Reading and Speaking is no longer published. With such intention, it needs no apology, for there is little in it which has not been already tested in actual in- struction. It is adapted to young men. If any, not my pupils, get any help from it, that fact will only add to my hope that the reading and the ora- tory in our churches may, erelong, be relieved from the adverse criticism now so liberally bestowed by laymen, who, in most cases, are scarcely aware of the amount of study and practice necessary to make any man a master of the utterance of his own tongue. It is admitted that the elocutionary power of the clergy is far from what it should be. No one can emphasize this defect more than I do. For this reason, I believe that a vital error lurks in the theory, sometimes urged, that all that is necessary VI PREFACE for a student to achieve in his seminary course is to "get started in elocution," and then work out his own success. This book is planned to train those who are diligent in the use of it — completely, or, at least, to such an extent that no important principle of delivery shall need any further attention than what is given by experience in continuing the cor- rect habits already acquired. It needs, like any other text-book, the help of the living voice of the instructor, and is, in fact, only an outline of the matter taught, so numerous and minute are the de- tails of the training required. Every student of elocution needs, also, special diagnosis, special treat- ment and encouragement, which, by a system of private, individual instruction, are given in the seminaries where the substance of this book is now used. No claim is made for originality in this presenta- tion of an art which has been ably expounded for ages. But it is mainly out of the author's own ex- perience, not compiled, even in many passages which closely coincide with the teachings of others, and for which, therefore, no credit is given. If there are any special features, these may be found in the emphasis placed upon the muscular basis of breath- ing, which may be referred to works on anatomy, PREFACE Vll rather than to those on the voice; the emphasis placed upon the singing tone and upon rhythm ; also the large number of practical exercises. The ar- rangement of the instruction indicated is intended to be constructive and progressive to the end, with frequent references, at new points, to preceding work. The primary standard of expression is found in natural conversation. I believe, also, that no achievement in elocution can, by practice, be made to excel what has been sometime accomplished by some one possessing the highest natural gifts. The entire method of the work indicated, therefore, is claimed to be natural. Vocal culture first receives the larger amount of attention, for the reason that the vocal organ should be developed before it is much used for purposes of general expression. Two of our most famous orators in the last century, Wendell Phillips and Henry Ward Beecher, were trained according to this theory, before they began to win their brilliant successes in public. It is a maxim of every art that technique precedes expres- sion. Without technique an orator or reader may be, more than he suspects, like the man who, when asked if he could play on the violin, replied, "I don't know, but I can try." We have suffered too Vlll PREFACE much, in our chancels and pulpits, from untutored delivery and from incomplete or too unevenly specialized training. Without attempting to record the influence of many authorities from which information or sugges- tion has been drawn, I make special acknowledgment of indebtedness to the Rev. Francis T. Russell, D.D., — my friend and predecessor, — who gave full permission to quote from his Use of the Voice in Reading and Speaking, and to use certain exercises in Vocal Culture ; also to the veteran elocutionist, Mr. Alexander Melville Bell, whose treatment of consonants in his Principles of Elocution has been copied, with some of his illustrations, by his kind permission; and to S. S. Curry, Ph.D., President of the School of Expression, Boston, whose Literary and Vocal Interpretation of tlie Bible has been an in- valuable inspiration. Albert Francis Tenney. January 25, 1905. CONTENTS [The illustrative quotations are indicated by italics.] PART I VOICE PRODUCTION CHAPTER I THE VOCAL MECHANISM SEC I TION Tone PAGE 1 2 Parts of the Body Involved in Tone- Production 2 3 Fundamental Power in Tone- Production 2 4 Outer Muscular Case, The .... 2 5 " Action of . 4 6 " Contents of 5 7 8 Diaphragm, The " Consciousness of 5 5 9 IO ii Lungs, The . . . . . Larynx, The ...... " Interior of, Vocal Cords, etc. 6 7 8 12 Vocal Cords, Movements of the 8 *3 Laryngeal Mechanism, Delicacy of Resonant Cavities, The .... 8 9 15 " Names, etc. 9 l6 Resonant Mouth, The .... 10 17 Head, " .... 10 18 19 Pharynx, " Chest, " ... 11 11 20 Summary 11 CONTENTS CHAPTER II THE OPERATION OF THE VOCAL MECHANISM SECTION PAGE 21. Need of Training, The . ... 12 Elocution, Definition of . . . . .13 22. Muscles Involved in Utterance, Use of . .13 23. General Physical Training . . . .14 24. Muscular Exercises without Apparatus . . 15 25. Breathing Exercises . . . . . 17 26. " , Remarks on ..... 22 Jean de Reszke and Henry Ward Beecher . . 24 CHAPTER III APPLICATION OF BREATH-PRESSURE TO TONE-PRO- DUCTION 27. Singing Tone, The ..... 25 28. Exercises in Tone- Production 28 Vowel Tables A and B . 28 29. Resonance, Exercises in . 3i " 1. Frontal 32 " 2. Middle 32 j. Pharyngeal . 32 " 4. Covered Tone 33 5. Nasality, To Correct 33 6. Enlarging the Voice 35 Opening the Mouth too Widely • 35 7. Complete Tone- Form 36 8. Of the Chest 36 30. Tone- Placing • 38 " Definition .... 38 1. Forward, Exercise 39 2. Middle, Exercise . 40 3. Pharyngeal, Exercise . 40 Morning Hymn to Mont Blanc, Cc ileridge ■ 4i CONTENTS XI SECTION 31. Tone-Color, Definition, etc. " " 1. Grave 32- 33- 34. Pitch. Power The Sea — Lord Byron 2. Orotund From These Walls — Everett The Love of Liberty — Everett 3. Sympathetic We Watched Her Breathing — Thomas Hood The Death of Little Nell — Dickens 4. Aspirated .... The Stillness of Night — Byron Military Commands — Anon. 5. Blended .... The Church of God — De Koven The Murderer' s Conscience — Webster Vocal Aids to Exercises Low, Middle, and Slide or Change of Semitone " Pitch of the Room " High " Cautions " Exercises " Eloquence of John Adams — Webster 11 Notes on Power and Weakness of Voice Quality and Quantity of Voice PAGE 42 45 45 46 48 48 49 5o 5i 53 54 54 55 55 56 59 59 60 61 62 62 64 64 65 65 67 68 PART II 35- ENUNCIATION CHAPTER I VOWELS 1. Bell's Vowel Table (C) 2. Diphthongal Vowels 70 72 Xll CONTENTS 36. 37- 1. Standard Authority for Sound of Vowels 2. Vowels and Consonants in Enunciation j. Vowels, Certain Provincialisms, etc. Vowel Exercises Thanatopsis — Bryant The Aspirate H. PAGE 72 73 73 74 74 75 CHAPTER II CONSONANTS 39 Consonants or Articulations 77 40 How Produced 77 41 Bell's Table (D) 79 4- Further Classifications . 80 43 Exercises in Articulation .... 80 " Transitions in Articulation 82 Difficult Words, etc. . 83 How the Water Comes Down at Lodore— Southey .... 84 Separating Repeated Elements 85 4 + Articulation, Helps to .... 86 45 Strength and Sharpness of 86 CHAPTER III VOCAL DEFECTS 46. Stuttering, Stammering, Hesitation, etc. " Remedies for 87 88 CHAPTER IV ERRORS IN ENUNCIATION 47. I. Errors in Vowels 2. " " Consonants 3. " " Syllables 90 94 94 CONTENTS Xlll CHAPTER V PRONUNCIATION SECTION 48. Pronunciation, The Standard of PAGE 96 PART III ADAPTATION OF VOICE TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT CHAPTER I INFLECTION 49. Means of Adaptation .... 98 5°. 1. The Inflections 2. Inflection, Slide of 98 99 5i- " Degrees of 100 a < < ' 3d, 4th, 5th, etc. 100 << « ' Semitone ' Monotone ' Suspended or Partial IOI IOI 102 52. The Uses of Inflection 103 < « " " 1. Principal Points . 103 4 " " " 2. Distinction of Meaning 104 1 << " " 3- Antithesis . 104 1 a " 4- Completion . 104 < tt << <« 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. 11. Group (Over- Inflection' Series . Restrictive Phrases, etc Verbs of Saying . Ranges of Inflection Not Prescribed Value of Inflection 104 104 105 105 106 106 106 ( << << n 12. Faults in Inflection 107 XIV CONTENTS SECTION PAGE 53. Exercises in Inflection . . . . .108 Ossian's Apostrophe to the Sun. — McPherson (Extract) . . . . . . .108 Conquest of Mexico (Extract). — Prescott . .109 History of New York. Diedrich Knickerbocker. — Irving . . . . . . .110 Toussaint V Ouverture. — Wendell Phillips . . no Brutus, in Julius Ccesar. — Shakespeare . . 112 Coriolanus. — Shakespeare . . . . .112 Shylock, in Merchant of Venice. — Shakespeare . 113 CHAPTER II EMPHASIS, INCLUDING STRESS 54. 1. Emphasis Defined 2. Analyzed Word Emphasis " Radical " Median 114 us 115 116 116 " Vanishing . 117 " Compound 117 " Thorough 117 55- Uses of Word Emphasis 117 Burial of Moses. — Alexander 119 What Constitutes a State. — Sir William Jones 120 Tremulous Stress ..... 121 56. Uses of Sentence or Phrase Emphasis 121 " " " " " " Exercises 122 57- Cumulative Emphasis 124 The American Union. — Webster 125 58. Degrees of Emphasis 126 59- False Emphasis, and Examples Distributed Emphasis 127 128 Subordination of Emphasis 132 CONTENTS XV CHAPTER III RHYTHM SECTION PAGE 60. Rhythm Explained ... 134 6l. Analyzed 135 62. Quantity 138 63- Accent Measure Metrical Feet I40 141 143 64. Phrase 147 65- Movement I50 Behind Shut the Postern, etc. — Browning 152 Ccesafs Activity. — Knowles 152 66. «• Melody 154 67. " Use of ..... 156 68. Exercises . . • . 157 PART 1 V GESTURE 69. G ssture, Its Scope and Meaning . • 159 70. Analyzed .... 160 7i- of Attitude .... 160 72. " the Head .... 162 73- " " Face .... 162 74- " " Hands 164 75- General Qualities . 166 76. " Particular Uses 167 77- and Occasion 171 78. " Exercises .... 172 Speech by Abraham Lincoln 172 Spartacus to the Gladiators. — Kellogg I • 175 Parrhasius. — Willis . 176 XVI CONTENTS PART V LITURGICAL USE OP THE VOICE CHAPTER I GENERAL PRINCIPLES SECTION PAGE 79- Vocal Expression in the Services . • • 177 80. Liturgic Spirit, The .... . 178 81. Reality of True Expression • . 180 82. Intoned or Choral Service . 182 83- General Caution .... • 183 CHAPTER II APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF ELOCUTION TO THE LITURGY 84. Reference to Former Pri nciples . 184 85- Extemporaneous Prayers . 187 86. Propriety of Practising the Liturgy 190 87. Notes on the Services ■ 19 1 " " " " I. Sentences 191 " " 2. Exhortations 194 " " " 3- Concerted Portions 198 << (« (< (< 4- Absolution, The 200 a << (< Exercise the oblique and transverse abdominal muscles by expelling the breath with a motion first on the right side, then on the left, so as to make a cavity there, below the ribs (keeping position A, Ex. 1, § 24). c. Put the attention on all these abdominal muscles, and expel the breath by their combined action. Note. — There cannot be much vibrancy of voice without tension and pressure of abdominal muscle. 20 VOICE PRODUCTION Exercise 4.. Of the intercostal muscles (see § 4, b). With hands pressing on the lower "floating" ribs, exhale, then take full breath and feel a power- ful pressure outwards against the hands. Carry the expansion upwards as far as it can go without lifting the upper chest, but allowing it to be raised by the expansion. Repeat this exercise until it becomes habitual as a part of the breathing movement. Exercise 5. Of the dorsal muscles. With full breath, expand as in Ex. 4, with the thumbs pressed on the small of the back, and repeat until those muscles are found to be as firm as the biceps. Firm, erect position is necessary here. Note. — In this exercise all the muscles of the back, up to the shoulder blades, are involved and will be felt more and more by repetition. In the most vigorous breathing and expiration, even the muscles of the back of the neck are in tension. But all these muscles of the back are only a brace to the rest, not a motive power to the voice. It must be thoroughly understood that almost all the activity of the vocal mechanism is in the front of the body. Exercise 6. To combine all the previous exercises in one. a. Stand firmly on both feet with arms at sides, and, without moving shoulders or lifting chest, inhale (through the nose) slowly but so vigorously OPERATION OF THE VOCAL MECHANISM 21 (with action of previous exercises) as to feel the ten- sion of the muscles from the feet to the head. (Some of these are concerned only with the braced position.) Attend — in order — to abdominal expan- sion, rib expansion from below upward, dorsal ten- sion, and raising the upper chest by inflation, until the whole trunk seems to be a reservoir of air, under muscular control. Set all the muscles involved for an instant, while holding the breath. Then exhale and relax quickly and completely. Note. — Repeat this exercise until a consciousness of the com- plete and symmetrical muscular support of the breath becomes habitual. This and the following exercises are the ones to be repeated after the foregoing are mastered and abandoned be- cause included in the later. b. Repeat a with this change : inhale by one quick gasp through the nose, filling the lungs instantly, and then exhale slowly, observing the reversal of controlled muscular movements in a during very gradual relaxation, in this order : I. Dorsal muscles. 2. Abdominal muscles. 3. Intercostal muscles. 4. The falling of the upper chest. Note. — This order is most important to be observed, as by a slow expiration, pressed by the muscles, the tone is long sus- tained in speaking and especially in singing. 22 VOICE PRODUCTION Exercise 7. For sustaining the breath in speaking. ("Expand" indicates action of inspiration as in Ex. 6.) a. Expand. Count with full voice, one! Re- lax, expand, and count one ! two ! (on one breath). Relax, expand, and count one ! two ! three ! and so on to ten or more as strength is acquired. Note. — In this exercise retain the air by keeping the ribs ex- panded as much as possible all the time, even when counting ten or more, until a fresh breath is needed, and push the air out through the vocal cords by a quick pressure of the abdominal muscles as before described. The ribs must collapse, but very little and very gradually. b. Same as a, with the addition of a relay or partial breath at ten, fifteen, or twenty. Thus: count ten ; then relax the sides a little and take in a small supply of fresh air, in an instant, without delaying the counting, — eleven! etc. 26. Remarks on Breathing. — a. In all the breath- ing exercises, see that there is no perceptible tension about the throat or tongue. This is vitally im- portant. &. It is important that as the throat and glottis are opened at the instant of the beginning of the inspiration, so during an expiration there should be the sensation of an unobstructed open channel from the bottom of the lungs to the lips OPERATION OF THE VOCAL MECHANISM 23 and nostrils. If there seems to be any obstruction, it should be removed by relaxing the tongue or raising the soft palate, or by medical treatment, c. The breath, in actual practice, should not be held to any inconvenient or uncomfortable degree, and should be renewed as often as is needed — oftener than most speakers take it, without training. At the end of a paragraph, and sometimes sooner, the lungs should be emptied as much as possible (there is always a re- sidual supply in any living person), and a full breath should be taken, whether it seems to be needed or not. This will often prevent the sleepiness and dul- ness which occur to those reading long aloud, because of the lack of oxygen in the system. In the actual delivery of the voice, the breath-pressure should never be carried to the point of air-exhaustion. It is a good plan to breathe for every new impulse of thought or feeling. This makes a natural phrasing. d. If any dizziness occurs while taking breathing exercises, it is harmless, caused probably by the in- creased circulation, and may be cured, promptly, by resting a moment, or by reducing the vigor of the exercise, e. The set of the expanded trunk makes a drum, as it were, of the air-reservoir, upon which a very slight muscular movement, but a strong one, can produce the necessary breath-pressure for 24 VOICE PRODUCTION tone-production. The principal stroke on this drum is from the abdominal muscles, which press the vis- cera against the diaphragm and reinforce its ordi- nary vital action ; while the continued expansion of the ribs, by the intercostal muscles, allows the dia- phragm to remain still stretched out to a degree, so as to keep the lungs sufficiently full, and the whole trunk resonant. Note. — The famous singer, Jean de Reszke, a master of breath-pressure and tone-production, acquired an extraordinary development of the trunk muscles, so that, as described by one of his intimate friends, he seemed to be able to force the whole lower part of the trunk upward and within the expanded chest " like one barrel thrust into another." Henry Ward Beecher's method : — "Training had given his voice great carrying power. His contemporary and friend, Dr. Joseph P. Thompson, once said to me that the secret of vocal power without vocal weariness is knowing how to use the bellows. Mr. Beecher knew how to use the bellows. He never strained his throat in vehemence of speech ; the throat was simply used to determine the quality of the tone ; the forceful- ness of it was given by the abdominal muscles." — From Life of Henry Ward Beecher, by Dr. Lyman Abbott. CHAPTER III APPLICATION OF BREATH-PRESSURE TO TONE- PRODUCTION 27. The Singing Tone. — The tones of the human voice in speaking show so much variety in quality, power, and expressiveness that it is desirable to have some standard by which they can be observed in their best form. That standard is found in sing- ing only, because the singing tone, without conso- nantal interference, may be easily and uniformly sustained, long enough to be thoroughly observed as to its method of production, the physical sensation which accompanies its production, the distinguish- ing one quality or power from another, and its effect on the ear. In singing the sound a (as in father), for instance, the mechanism of the voice remains in the same position from the larynx to the lips, and the only change in the trunk is the gradual and uniform compression of the muscles in breath-pressure; while in articulating a word or words, the changes of position or action are many and continuous. 25 26 VOICE PRODUCTION Each singing tone, also, produces an individual and characteristic sensation in the body by its vibra- tions, and in the ear by both vibration and what is called timbre or tone-color, the ear being furnished, within, with a multitude of minute parts (as many as three thousand, it has been calculated) which are adapted to receiving and distinguishing as many varieties of sound. Tone is caused by beats, or vibrations, of air, set in regular motion by the vocal cords. Besides the primary vibrations which cause "simple tones," there are interferences with these, and additional vibrations in the head, causing what are known as harmonics or overtones. The human voice (Ency. Britt.) is analogous to a reed - pipe, the vocal cords forming the reed, and the cavity of the mouth the pipe; and, like the reed, it is rich in harmonics, as many as sixteen having been detected in a bass voice. These harmonics, whose effects are found in every good voice, are best observed in a singing tone, and they must be noticed, if one is to know and fully develop his own voice. The ear, through its fine mechanism, can be trained to feel these elements of tone, and then the fault can be corrected by experimenting, until the sensation of the true, harmonious tone, the richness of the voice, BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 2J can be felt. Must, then, every speaker be a singer? Yes, if possible, at least in an elementary degree. Singers most readily learn the refinements of tone, pitch, and modulation in speech. Those who have never sung are generally deficient in intelligent con- sciousness of the tones they utter. It has been said of a few great orators and actors that they could not sing a note (which statement may be questioned), and yet possessed the power of melodious speech. But, with regard to such cases, it is enough to say that they appreciated music in speech, as their de- livery has proved. Absolute ' ' tone-deafness' ' hardly ever occurs. Tone-dulness is often found. Singing of the diatonic scale, therefore, is a most essential practice to teach a dull ear pure tone, pitch, and even inflection. It should not be omitted from elocutionary training, for even to singers it affords an opportunity to correct and develop their speaking tones by comparing them with the best they can produce, — the singing tones. Note. — It may be added that with the study of one's own voice, it is well to give careful attention to the positive beauty of tone in singers of acknowledged eminence, in trained choruses, and in the chief instruments of the orchestra, the latter displaying, most evidently, differences of tone ; e. g., purity and clearness — the flute, violin, French horn, etc. ; warmth — the violoncello, wood and brass instruments, moderately blown, and the last of these, 28 VOICE PRODUCTION brilliant power when played fortissimo. The value of this ob- servation of tone is definite, and often furnishes a much-needed musical culture. The singing tone is the true basis and standard for the speaking tone. Save the voice and add to its carrying power by the use of the singing quality of tone in speaking (not sing-song). Use all the breath that is emitted for tone. Keep the rest of it in the lungs. 28. Exercises in Tone -production? proceeding from the singing to the speaking tone, chiefly with use of vowels, as in the following tables : Vowel Table — A a as in mate e as in mete 5 as in note ii as in use a " ah e 4 ' met 6 " wolf u " up a " fall I ' ' pine 6 " not u " put a " mat \ ' ' pin 00 " pool oi " toil ou " out Vowel Table — B [Use the vowel sounds in succession as in the four series] 1 11 00 as in pool 00 as in pool u " use 6 " log {not " like a in ah, but shorter ") u " flute e " met 6 1 note I pit 6 " wolf u " up e ' mete ea " pearl a 1 mate in a " ask (not so broad as in arm) IV 00 as in pool 00 as in pool 1 4 pine a "ah oi 1 oil a 4 ' pat ou ' out 1 See Note I, Appendix. BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 29 Exercise 1. To prevent thro at -strain, — useful for any one, but especially to those inclined to guttural tones. While seated, take full breath, opening the glottis and beginning tone and breath- pressure at the same instant (' ' stroke of the glottis ' '), and sing at any convenient pitch, but lightly, 00-00-00, about four seconds, 1 and note the vocal sensation, but with the following precautions : 1. Let almost all of the sensation of exertion be at the waist, in the breath-pressure, and diminish upwards in the intercostal and back muscles, ending at the upper part of the chest. 2. Let the throat, vocal cords, tongue, etc., feel entirely un- strained, and let the tongue lie passive. The involuntary action of the laryngeal and adjacent muscles is sufficient. Never try to increase their action except by breath-pressure below, even in the loudest shout. 3. Let there be a feeling of openness of the vocal channel from diaphragm to lips. 4. Relax completely at the end of each exercise, and take several deep breaths. Exercise 2. Sing at any convenient medium pitch, 00, u, o, three seconds each, one breath for each vowel. Exercise 3. Sing the diatonic scale with the vowel 1 (The 00 sound cannot easily be made impure, and is the most " forward " sound. (See § 30, Ex. 1.) 30 VOICE PRODUCTION a (as in ask, not as in father, which is likely to be guttural with many). Also with e and o. Either the instructor or a piano can furnish the intervals, if necessary, and the key-note, which may be middle C or the A below. Vary the pitch for exceptionally high or low voices, so that they can sing the scale through. Repeat more rapidly. Exercise 4.. Sing, as above, the chromatic scale. Exercise 5. Use the long vowels a, a, e, I, 6, u, 00, oi, ou, as follows: a. Sing each one three seconds, b. Sing each one as short as possible ("staccato"), c. Speak each one, with same quality of tone as in (a) and (b), and with falling inflection, thus : a a ! aM (b) corresponds to the usual length of a singing tone in speak- ing. This exercise carries the singing tone into speaking, with- out sing-song. Let it be repeated until the process is mastered. Exercise 6. With speaking voice and singing qual- ity, say the Vowel Table B (vowels only), each sec- tion, I, II, etc., on one breath, and gliding from 00 to each vowel in turn with the least possible change of articulating position (as if all were one compound word). This exercise tends to keep all the vowel sounds as pure as 00. Exercise 7. Speak, vigorously, vowels in Table A. Speak them rhythmically, the same length of time BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 3 1 to each, with separate breath-pressure for each one, and with falling inflection. (See § 25, Ex. 3, c.) See that the singing quality of the previous exer- cises is maintained. Exercise 8. Speak (as above) the Table A with the words, thus : a ! mate ! etc. Exercise p. To secure pure tone, or to correct false tone, in sentences : Sing a-a. Speak in same tone, but with required inflections: "All things remain under the control of the Creator of the world." Sing e-e-e. Speak in same tone, inflected : " I had a dream which was not all a dream." Sing 0-0-0. Speak in same tone, inflected : "They went and told the sexton and the sexton tolled the bell." Sing oi-oi. Speak in same tone, inflected: "Re- coiling and moiling and toiling and boiling." Note. — The above exercises, diligently practised and made perfect, will insure pure tone and melodious delivery, without sing-song and will prevent throat fatigue. 29. Exercises in Resonance. — For the study of tone resonance we begin with the most forward part of the mechanism and work backwards, to prepare the way for tone shaping or placing (see § 30). 32 VOICE PRODUCTION Exercise I. Frontal Resonance, — Hum m-m, etc., with mouth closed, first lightly, then forcibly enough to feel the vibration through the upper jaw and nose. Repeat with m-m-oo, m-m-e, m-m-u, letting the mouth open slowly at the vowel, and use enough breath-pressure to make the whole head ring with the tone — holding the head firmly by the rear neck muscles. In this way we get the sensation of Head- resonance, and of the overtones characteristic of the individual voice. (See § 27.) Exercise 2. Middle Resonance, — Hum m-m-a, m- m-6, m-m-I, as in Ex. 1, and note that the resonance is chiefly near the middle of the mouth. Exercise 3 . Pharyngeal Resonance. — Beginning with m-m-00 add m-m-a, m-m-a (awe), and m-m-&. These are felt to resound particularly in the back of the throat. Speak the same vowels alone and in words, as ah, fall, fat. The amount of this resonance depends upon the firmness with which the throat is held, — an elastic firmness, not rigidity, in such a way that the larger trumpet, so to speak, of the pharynx, is kept in form. Note A. — The tongue should be depressed to make room be- low, and the soft palate and uvula should be lifted to make room above and allow full and free emission of the tone. To realize this open position, sing a before a mirror. To assist BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 33 the raising of the soft palate and realize the proper sensation of that position, lift the upper lip as in a sneer, or a sneeze, There is a co-ordination of movement between lip and palate. Note B. — The hinge of the epiglottis is near the root of the tongue. The opening of it is farther back. This shows that na- ture has provided that the current of air should strike the roof of the throat so as to be deflected in any direction, or at any angle, and that by such deflection it can be retained or, at least, re- tarded, for an instant, in developing full resonance. Exercise 4.. Sing and speak a, 6, a, e, I with soft palate relaxed or dropped, and with tongue as in Ex. 3, Note A. (The lips, also, should be loosely held in position.) This will give a softer resonance, the k> covered tone' of singing, the mellow or sym- pathetic tone of speaking. Note. — In practising pharyngeal resonance, avoid nasality. Nasal tones are produced by forcing the breath through ob- structed nasal passages. The nose may be considerably ob- structed by cold. etc. and yet the tone need not be nasal if the vibrating breath is emitted straight through the mouth, i.e., by adaptation for such emergency. In tone-production, nasality may be caused in two ways : 1. By raising the soft palate so high as to make it press against the posterior nares and partly close them, and then trying to breathe out through them. 2. By depressing the soft palate and drawing down the ' ' pil- lars of the fauces " so forcibly as to narrow the pharyngeal chamber and the passage to the nose. The first fault may be observed in a nasal pronunciation of 34 VOICE PRODUCTION "cold" as " cobe." The second fault may be observed in a nasal pronunciation of " honk," with the back of the throat drawn stiffly down. Exercise 5. To Correct Nasality. — Open the mouth moderately, expand the nostrils while taking a deep breath, and then, with throat relaxed, pronounce, explosively, what / which ! who ! up ! cup ! etc. , until the production and sensation of a non-nasal tone are perfectly understood. Note A. — The proper opening of the pharyngeal resonance chamber is of the utmost importance in " orotund" and forcible speaking. (See § 31, 2.) Some voices are large because this chamber naturally opens fully. Some are small because of the opposite condition. A thin, narrow voice may be made broader by training a larger opening of the pharynx, i.e., by a greater lift and firmer control of the soft palate. Note B. — All the wails of this resonance chamber are soft and easily inflamed by cold or by over-exertion of the voice, and by failing to use properly, with this, the other resonant chambers. (See § 30, Tone-placing and forward tone.) Note C. — 1. Guttural tones are produced in the pharynx by stiffening the tongue so as to separate this chamber partly from the mouth and make the floor of the cavity too firm. This can be observed by curling the tongue up against the roof of the mouth and then saying " what ! " It may be called the hollow guttural. 2. Guttural tones of a worse kind than the preceding are caused by the same stiffening, with also the contraction of the external muscles of the larynx, just under the chin. A growl will illustrate this action, which produces the harsh guttural. BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 35 3. To cure a guttural habit, practise Ex. 1, § 28. 4. A few such experiments as the above will show the neces- sity of subordinating, in the consciousness and the vocal action, the resonance of the throat to the resonance of the head, espe- cially that about the upper teeth and nose. Exercise 6. For enlarging the voice by opening the pharyngeal resonance chamber. Open the mouth and throat in a wide yawn. In- stantly, as the parts are allowed to begin to relax slowly, speak explosively the long vowels, a, e, 1, 6, u, oi, ou, and then the short vowels, a, e, 1, 6, u, — each one with the lips coming into normal posi- tion as the pronunciation is finished. This exercise is sure to produce broad, full tones and shows the en- larging, driving, directing, and concentrating power of the flexible muscles in the walls of the pharynx, when thus suddenly closed from the most open position. Note. — Avoid too frequent use of a (ah) in exercises for opening the throat. It is the favorite vowel with teachers of singing, but as it opens the throat most widely, it is apt, with speakers (as well as a) without special care, to involve the contrac- tion of the posterior muscles of the throat, and, sympathetically, of the outer muscles of the larynx, so that the tone becomes guttural. The throat and mouth may be improperly opened, thus : A J^_ ~T\ i so as to bring the parts too close to- gether at B, near the glottis. It is better for it to open thus : A B, more at the back than near the lips. Hence 36 VOICE PRODUCTION the danger of "opening the mouth as widely as possible" (in speaking) or "as wide as the breadth of two or three fingers," etc. Articulation will regulate the opening of the mouth, and must not be interfered with by any wide-open practice, a, 6, and u are safer to use, until due control of the pharyngeal resonance chamber is acquired, because their normal utterance checks an undue opening of the throat. Exercise y. Complete Tone-form. — Having exer- cised the different resonant chambers of the mouth and throat, use them all at once by a vocal effort which seems to fill out the whole tone-chamber above the larynx. The consciousness of the use of all the resonant space between the lips and glottis constitutes the sensation of the "orotund" delivery. Exercise. — Pronounce, explosively, who ! what ! why ! roll! all! quick! while ! wire ! our ! oil! and similar words, and note the sensation of a mouthful of reverberation, gathered in the throat, and con- centrated in a discharge at the lips. Exercise 8. Chest Resonance. — This is used in the lower part of the scale, in the average male voice from middle C of the bass clef down ; and in a few higher notes in tenor voices, but in those with very little resonance. It belongs to the lowest speaking tones only, when predominant. It is produced by the in- voluntary lowering of the larynx, and by the slight raising and particularly the side expansion of the BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 37 upper chest (above the heart). This condition of the chest and larynx so holds the windpipe in a firm position that the vibration of the tone produced at the vocal cords is transmitted downward, and the upper chest becomes a sounding-board for the tone. In the chest tones the vibration should be percep- tibly felt. In practising this resonance great care must be exercised to avoid any tension or clutch of the throat muscles. The error of many bass singers and speakers is the harsh guttural of the lower tones. Sing and speak no deeper tones than can be kept smooth and pure. Guttural tones, though noisy, do not carry far, and are unsympathetic. Carry and feel some of the head tone down with the lower tones to the very lowest. This contributes the personal quality and compensates for the distin- guishable separateness of the lower vibrations. Let the sensation of the deepest tone be as easy and natural as breathing, except for the strong mus- cular breath pressure, which must increase as the pitch goes down, and which is far greater than is necessary for head tone. Exercise. A (Preparatory). — Take several deep breaths, exhaling slowly, with rib muscles firmly held as long as possible. 38 VOICE PRODUCTION B. — Sing with breath-pressure (as in A), ah, awe, 6, u, a, I, e (three seconds each), avoiding all effort beyond that in A. Repeat with successive lower tones to the lowest the voice can produce smoothly, increasing the effort only in strength and fulness of breathing. C. — Speak the same vowels and words containing them, as, calm, pall, tall, true, fail, time, treat. Note. — The above is a most important training for the smooth delivery of solemn passages, e.g., parts of the Committal in the Burial Service, such sentences as in Job 4: 13-17, in the Bible, and the most solemn utterances in sermons. It should be practised, especially, by those whose lower tones are rough or undeveloped. But, do not begin with a tone much lower than those already developed. Develop one lower tone at a time, in the regular sequence of the scale. 30. Tone-Placing. — This term is figurative, not literal, because no tone stays anywhere, unless in the ear, but is adopted as most convenient to in- clude the shaping, directing, and focusing of the vibrating breath. "Tone-placing" has been much misunderstood, It is not done by a fixing of the larynx, which should always be free and easy in its action. It should not be accomplished with severe effort at any point, but should be as easy as the change of direction by a bird on the wing. Definition. — Tone-placing is the conscious direc- BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 39 tion of the vibrating breath to some particular part of the roof of the throat or mouth, so as to produce there, at the instant of delivery, a resultant reso- nance, including any contributory resonance which has originated in chest, throat, mouth, or head. It is the choice and management of resonances. It is evident that by movements of the soft parts of the vocal channel above the larynx — the soft palate, tongue, and lips — it can be made to assume an infinite variety of shapes, and send the air-current on in many different directions, with corresponding results in tone. The following diagram represents the mouth, with dotted lines to indicate the principal directions of the vibrating breath : c D E F A, A, the lips ; B, the glottis ; C, the roof of the mouth just behind the teeth ; D, the middle of the roof of the mouth ; E, the roof of the throat behind the soft palate ; F, the nasal Exercise 1. For Forward Placing at C. — With the head easily poised, hum m-m-m. Repeat with m- m-00, m-m-e, m-m-e, m-m-u. Repeat with oo-pool, 40 VOICE PRODUCTION e-meet, e-met, u-up. As the vowel sound is emitted, see that the lips are a little thrust out. Note the sensation of the front vibration, and the focusing of the breath at C. This placing involves the least expenditure of breath. Exercise 2. For Middle Placing at D. — Sing and speak a, o, u, with the mind concentrated upon the place D, and with the head held more firmly than in Ex. 1. Find the sensation of a vibration running up into the head in a line from the middle of the mouth to the eyebrows. Lift the latter a little to direct attention to this line. This is a larger, but less refined resonance than the frontal. Exercise j. For Pharyngeal Placing at E. — Open the mouth more widely than before ; sing and speak ah ! awe ! a, with head held up, firmly, and upper lip and soft palate raised (see § 29, Ex. 3, Note A). This placing includes, in effect, the middle and frontal, but predominates by its openness. It is far less musical, in speak- ing, than the frontal, and if used too prominently, gives a coarser tone. Exercise 4. Sing and speak the vowels in Table A, § 28, with an effort to utter them all with a placing as near as possible to that of 00, so that even a, a, and a shall have their resonance carried BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 41 forward. Let the sensation be rather that of tast- ing than of coughing the sound. Note. — This is the most important placing for public read- ing and speaking ; for, by its combination of the gathering, concentrating, and directing power of the pharynx, with the final shaping by the articulating tongue and lips, it is the means of producing the most refined, characteristic, and far-reaching tones of the voice, with the greatest economy of energy, and the avoidance of throat fatigue. It should be assiduously culti- vated until mastered. Exercise 5. Speak the following passage with every word pushed forward in utterance to the degree of an assumed, pompous tone, with strong head resonance. When this is done, recite the same passage in a more natural tone, but still in that which contains the sensation of a frontal resonance. Morning Hymn to Mont Blanc. — Coleridge. "Thou too, hoar Mount! with thy sky-pointing peaks, Oft from whose feet the avalanche, unheard, Shoots downward, glittering through the pure serene Into the depth of clouds that veil thy breast — Thou too, again, stupendous Mountain ! thou That as I raise my head, awhile bowed low [softer voice] In adoration, upward from thy base Slow travelling with dim eyes suffused with tears, 42 VOICE PRODUCTION Solemnly seemest, like a vapory cloud, To rise before me — Rise, O ever rise, [voice increasing in fulness to the end] Rise like a cloud of incense from the Earth ! Thou Kingly Spirit throned among the hills, Thou dread ambassador from Earth to Heaven, Great Hierarch! tell thou the silent sky, And tell the stars, and tell yon rising sun, Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God!" The reciting of the above extract is also a good exercise for the sustaining of the full breath. 31. Tone-Color, also called Timbre. — Tone-color is the emotional modulation of resonance. It ex- presses feeling and imagination. The term color is preferred to quality as more expressive of the feel- ings — bright or dark, light or heavy, feeble or power- ful, etc. — which are indicated by changes of the voice. The term quality is limited to the perma- nent personal characteristics of the voice. Varia- tions of tone-color in the finest voices are instantly recognized by a sympathetic ear. In actual use of a trained voice, the speaker is more conscious of the moving feeling than of the method of expression — but does know that the instrument is ready for that expression. BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 43 But some have little or no ear for tone-color. It is well for them to observe the "color " of the pre- dominant tones of an orchestra, which, by their marked distinctions, compel attention and apprecia- tion — e.g., the flutes, clarionets, strings, and brass, — and to notice the choice made of certain instru- ments to express joy, triumph, horror, sadness, tenderness, etc. The general quality of the voice should be pure, clear, smooth, and full, never thin or harsh, in all uses except the dramatic, — i. e., in the indication of ex- treme horror, terror, contempt, etc., with which this book has little to do. Previous exercises in tone-pro- duction have led to this accomplishment. Even in ordinary conversation, care should be exercised that these qualities of the voice are maintained. For it needs no argument to prove that in daily speech the tones should be expressive and agreeable. The same is true of the voice in public use, but in a special way and degree. The ' ' conversational tone," sometimes extolled as the proper one for public speaking, is generally inadequate there. It is bet- ter to talk as if making a speech than to deliver an earnest speech as if merely conversing (with occa- sional exceptions). For the essential power of a public reader or speaker lies in the more than 44 VOICE PRODUCTION conversational projection and vibration of the voice, such as makes a stronger impression of the truth or sentiment to be conveyed than can be made by mere talking. If a voice is found to be habitually thin or gruff, the necessity for such a quality should not be ad- mitted, for a moment. Exercises should be taken, at once, to change the quality to a better one, and assiduously pursued until the habit has been changed. Some voices are also irregular in their quality, dropping or rising involuntarily to gruff or shrill tones. These flaws in tone may be called mere animal noises, — or not fully human. For such irregularities, a good remedy is the singing of the scale with uniform quality, followed by reading and speaking in the same tone-manner. Control over thought and emotion regulates tone-color, which has been called "the psychology of the voice." Cultivation of the finest qualities of the heart and of a kindly, sympathetic disposition will surely re- fine and beautify the voice. It is admitted that the possible varieties of tone- color are infinite, but, for purposes of training, three special qualities are sufficient, not including the conversational, which will inevitably enter into the others, with the personal characteristics of each voice. BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 45 These three qualities are : /. The Grave, — expressing solemnity, reverence, awe, sublimity, deep sorrow, sad tenderness, and the like. This tone is low in pitch, sometimes as low as possible, full and round, with plenty of pharyngeal and chest resonance, but always kept pure by blending with it the subordinate head tone, as before described. Exercise 1. With strong, slow breath-pressure, sing and speak a, o, e, a, a. Speak strange, old, dream, calm, thought, fall, and similar words, with expression of strong feeling. Exercise 2. Recite in the manner of Ex. 1 the following passages, the first with full, intense tone, to express sublimity, the second with lowest pitch and less force, to express the deepest awe. /. The Sea. — Lord Byron. "Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, — roll! Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; Man marks the earth with ruin — his control Stops with the shore; upon the watery plain The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain A shadow of man's ravage, save his own, When, for a moment, like a drop of rain, He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, 46 VOICE PRODUCTION Without a grave y unknelled, uncoffined, and un- known. Thou glorious mirror, where the Almighty's form Glasses itself in tempests ; in all time — Calm or convulsed, in breeze, or gale, or storm, Icing the pole, or in the torrid clime Dark-heaving — boundless, endless, and sublime. The image of eternity, the throne Of the invisible ; even from out thy slime The monsters of the deep are made ; each zone Obeys thee ; thou goest forth, dread, fathomless, alone. ' ' 2. Job 4. : 13-17 "In thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men, fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a spirit passed before my face ; the hair of my head stood up : it stood still, but I could not dis- cern the form thereof: an image was before mine eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall mortal man be more just than God? Shall a man be more pure than his Maker? " 2. The Orotund, — the tone of the orator in forci- ble passages, to some degree in all speaking. The predominant resonance is more forward than in the BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 47 grave tone, and more brilliant and projective, be- cause of the greater pressure of the breath against the roof of the mouth. The whole tone-form also — i. e., the simultaneous use of all the resonant cavi- ties of the mouth and throat (§ 29, Ex. 6) — is filled with vibrating air, and the lips are active in articula- tion. This tone includes power, warmth, life, bold- ness, — the stronger persuasiveness, impassioned appeal, etc., in its purposes. "Orotund, as a quality of voice ... is the natural resonance of notes of the middle and lower Tenor, and the upper Bass register, when uttered in a round, full, and bold style, with the glottis freely opened, and all the circumjacent parts of the throat and mouth well expanded " (William Russell, Pulpit Elocution). The Orotund may be uttered in three modes : (1) Effusive, — full tone, but no special force. (2) Expulsive, — full tone with continued special force. (3) Explosive, — full tone pushed or exploded in all the principal words by quick, forcible breath- pressure. The first is used in passages that are to be heard by many people, with only moderate emphasis ; the second, in passages that require special and cumu- lative emphasis; the third, in passages expressing 48 VOICE PRODUCTION defiance, excitement, or the greatest possible em- phasis. Exercise i. Speak forcibly vowels in Table A (§ 28) with strong head-resonance and with lips thrust out to make a trumpet of the mouth. Use full tone -form. Exercise 2. Recite the following passage with full orotund : From these walls a spirit shall go forth that shall survive, when this edifice shall be like an unsubstan- tial pageant faded. It shall go forth, exulting in, but not abusing, its strength. 7/ shall go forth , re- membering, in the days of its prosperity, the pledges it gave in the time of its depression. It shall GO FORTH, uniting a disposition to correct abuses, to redress grievances. IT SHALL GO FORTH, uniting the disposition to improve, with the resolu- tion to maintain and defend, by that spirit of un- bought affection which is the chief defence of nations " (Everett). "What was it, fellow-citizens, which gave to Lafayette his spotless fame? The love of liberty. What has consecrated his memory in the hearts of good men? The love of liberty. What nerved his youthful arm with strength, and inspired him, in the morning of his days, with sagacity and coun- BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 49 sel? THE LIVING LOVE OF LIBERTY. To what did he sacrifice power, and rank, and country, and freedom itself? TO THE LOVE OF LIB- ERTY PROTECTED BYLAW. . . . Listen, Americans, to the lesson which seems borne to us on the very air we breathe while we perform these dutiful rites. Ye winds, that wafted the pilgrims to the land of promise, fan in their children's hearts the love of freedom ! Blood which our fathers shed, cry from the ground — echoing arches of this renowned hall, whisper back the voices of other days — glorious Washington ! break the long silence of that votive canvas; speak, speak, marble lips; teach US THE LOVE OF LIBERTY PROTECTED BY LAW!" (Everett). Also "The American Union," Webster, § 57. J. The Sympathetic. — This term indicates that tone for all speech in which emotion is intended to be more prominent than intellectual purpose. It is produced by a gentle, musical resonance, particu- larly the frontal. This is nature's own way ; for in the expression of great delicacy, tenderness, love, or sorrowful sympathy, the speech seems to be at the very lips, not reserved in the throat. Awe or fear has restrained, obstructed utterance, — emotional sympathy, a freer expression. $0 VOICE PRODUCTION Exercise i. Sing very lightly, on middle pitch, with covered tone, kept forward, oo, e, a, a, some- what prolonged. (See § 29, Ex. 4.) Exercise 2. Speak, sympathetically (as in Ex. 1), bloom, feel, father, mother, love, pity, home, heaven, weary , sorry, heart to heart, etc. Exercise j. Recite the following verses in the same manner, with suppressed breath : We Watched her Breathing. — Thomas Hood, "We watched her breathing through the night, Her breathing soft and low, As in her breast the wave of life Kept heaving to and fro. So silently we seemed to speak, So slowly moved about, As we had lent her half our powers To eke her being out. Our very hopes belied our fears, Our fears our hopes belied — We thought her dying when she slept, And sleeping when she died. For when the morn came dim and sad, And chill with early showers, BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 5 1 Her quiet eyelids closed — she had Another morn than ours." Read, also, Genesis 44: 16-34. Exercise 4.. The expression sotto voce (in an under- tone), used in music, well describes a certain quality of the sympathetic voice, with subdued force, adapted to the most refined and delicate expres- sion. It should be rather thin than full, and con- trolled by suppressed breathing (a muscular control). (See § 29, Ex. 4.) Read in this manner : "There, upon her little bed, she lay at rest. The solemn stillness was no marvel now. "She was dead. No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from trace of pain, so fair to look upon. She seemed a creature fresh from the hand of God, and waiting for the breath of life; not one who had lived and suffered death. "Her couch was dressed with here and there some winter berries and green leaves, gathered in a spot she had been used to favor. 'When I die, put near me something that has loved the light, and had the sky above it always. ' These were her words. "She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell was dead. Her little bird — a poor slight thing 52 VOICE PRODUCTION the pressure of a finger would have crushed — was stirring nimbly in its cage ; and the strong heart of its child-mistress was mute and motionless forever. Where were the traces of her early cares, her suffer- ings and fatigues? All gone. Sorrow was dead indeed in her, but peace and perfect happiness were born; imaged in her tranquil beauty and profound repose. "And still her former self lay there, unaltered in this change. Yes. The old fireside had smiled upon that sweet face ; it had passed, like a dream, through haunts of misery and care ; at the door of the poor schoolmaster on the summer evening, be- fore the furnace fire upon the cold, wet night, at the still bedside of the dying boy, there had been the same mild, lovely look. So shall we know the angels in their majesty, after death." — Dickens, Old Curiosity Shop. Also, in the same manner, the Lord's Prayer, as it is said by the Minister alone before the Holy Com- munion, and "The Prayer of Humble Access," be- fore the Consecration, — but with no dramatic effect, as may be allowable in the "Death of Little Nell." Exercise 5. The following sentence from Dr. Rus- sell's Use of the Voice in Reading and Speaking may be used to illustrate different tone-colors and reso- BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 53 nances: "But in the well-developed and flexible voice, each may be called forth at will — the gravity and bass of the manly chest notes, the healthful re- sonance, the agreeable mellowing, the incisive pun- gency, the fulness and finish, which are each fitly demanded in public speaking." Analysis : "But in the well-developed and flexible voice, each may be called forth at will ' ' [conversa- tional tone, comparatively colorless] ; ' ' the gravity and bass of the manly chest notes" [chest reso- nance, grave tone-color] \ "the healthful resonance" [full head-resonance and orotund tone-color] ; ' ' the agreeable mellowing ' ' [soft frontal resonance and sympathetic tone-color]-, "the incisive pungency" [quick enunciation, marked middle resonance, and explosive orotund]-, "the fulness" [full orotund]-, "and finish " [light frontal resonance, light or " effusive " orotund]. 4. Another tone quality, hardly a color, for excep- tional and chiefly dramatic use, may be mentioned here — the aspirated, or the whisper and half- whisper (stage-whisper). It is not regarded as important in elocution, because aspiration of the voice, and con- sequent waste of breath and of sustaining power, is a frequent fault. The following passages may be used for practice : 54 VOICE PRODUCTION /. Effusive Whispering The Stillness of Night. — Byron. " All heaven and earth are still — though not in sleep, But breathless, as we grow when feeling most ; And silent, as we stand in thought too deep : — All heaven and earth are still: From the high host Of stars to the lulled lake, and mountain coast, All is concentr'd in a life intense." 2. Expulsive Whispering Military Command. — Anonymous. '* Soldiers ! You are now within a few steps of the enemy's outpost. Our scouts report them as slumbering in parties around their watch-fires, and utterly unprepared for our approach. One dis- orderly noise or motion may leave us at the mercy of their advanced guard. Let every man keep the strictest silence, under pain of instant death!" j. Explosive Whispering Military Command. — A nonymous, " Hark! I hear the bugles of the enemy! They are on their march along the bank of the river. We must retreat instantly, or be cut off from our BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 55 boats. I see the head of their column already rising over the height. Our only safety is in the screen of this hedge. Keep close to it ; be silent ; and stoop as you run. For the boats! Forward!" All of the above passages may be recited, also, in a half- or stage-whisper. 5. Different tone-colors may be blended in vari- ous degrees and ways, one of them being generally most prominent. In the examples quoted below let the first color be more emphasized than any succeeding. Exercise 6. For the orotund-sympathetic : The Church of God. — Dr. James De Koven. "I see a vision stately fair of the one church of God. Built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Jesus Christ for its chief corner- stone, I see it rise before me. Built in its walls as living stones are the martyrs of God, the bishops and doctors, the poor and unknown, little children and virgin souls. With many a blow and biting sculpture each stone is laid. Now one and now another is called to take his place — the bishop who has gone to his rest, you and I. Unfinished yet, with neither sound of hammer nor instrument of 56 VOICE PRODUCTION steel, [sotto voce] in silence wonderful, it rises still. [More sympathetic.'] As I gaze, the mists of earth, or else the tears that blind my eyes, or murky clouds that gather I know not whence, shut out the view. But as I strain my weary sight, lo ! [more orotund] the clouds are rifted, and from heaven descending comes the New Jerusalem, like a bride adorned for her husband. The two are blended into one. [Both qualities emphasized.] The gates are pearl; the streets are gold; the crystal waters shine; the tree of life is full of healing leaves. There are no weary controversies, or bitter words, or cruel misunderstandings, or mistaken divisions. There are hymns that know no discord, worship that never ceases, praise that never ends, and the Lamb of God to be our joy and peace, for ever and ever. ' ' For the ^ra^-sym pathetic : Job 4: 13-17. For the ^raw-orotund : The Murderer 's Conscience. — Daniel Webster, " He has done the murder — no eye has seen him, no ear has heard him. The secret is his own, and it is safe ! "Ah! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake. Such a secret can be safe nowhere. The whole BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 57 creation of God has neither nook nor corner, where the guilty can bestow it, and say it is safe. Not to speak of that eye which glances through all dis- guises, and beholds everything, as in the splendor of noon, — such secrets of guilt are never safe from detection, even by men. True it is, generally speaking, that 'murder will out.' True it is, that Providence hath so ordained, and doth so govern things, that those who break the great law of heaven, by shedding man's blood, seldom succeed in avoiding discovery. Especially in a case exciting so much attention as this, discovery must come, and will come, sooner or later. A thousand eyes turn at once to explore every man, everything, every circumstance, connected with the time and place ; a thousand ears catch every whisper ; a thou- sand excited minds intensely dwell on the scene, shedding all their light, and ready to kindle the slightest circumstance into a blaze of discovery. Meantime, the guilty soul cannot keep its own secret. It is false to itself; or rather it feels an irresistible impulse of conscience to be true to itself. It labors under its guilty possession, and knows not what to do with it. The human heart was not made for the residence of such an inhabitant. It finds itself preyed on by a torment, which it dares 58 VOICE PRODUCTION not acknowledge to God nor man. A vulture is de- vouring it, and it can ask no sympathy or assist- ance, either from heaven or earth. The secret which the murderer possesses soon comes to possess him ; and, like the evil spirits of which we read, it overcomes him, and leads him whithersoever it will. He feels it beating at his heart, rising to his throat, and demanding disclosure. He thinks the whole world sees it in his face, reads it in his eyes, and almost hears its workings in the very silence of his thoughts. It has become his master. It betrays his discretion, it breaks down his courage, it con- quers his prudence. When suspicions, from without, begin to embarrass him, and the net of circumstance to entangle him, the fatal secret struggles with still greater violence to burst forth. It must be con- fessed, it will be confessed, there is no refuge from confession but suicide, and suicide is confession." For the orotund - grave - sympathetic, Rev. 7 : 9-17. For various tone-color, John 20: ii~i8, especially in V. 16 — "Mary!" [grave-sympathetic] and "Rabboni!" [tender joy and confidence]. Luke 15; 21 — pathos in the word "Father." Note i. — None of the above extracts from Bible or sermon should be carried to dramatic extreme, but should be suggestive rather than fully and realistically expressive. BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 59 Note 2. — For thorough and ready application of tone-color to changes of sentiment, three vocal aids must be at command : 1. Breath-restraint, for subdued and intense expression. 2. The Vanish of Certain Vowels (§ 37), for finish and refine- ment of expression. 3. The Vanish of Power (§ 33), for control of quantity of expression. 32. Pitch. (For definition, etc., see § 27.) 1. The ability to take different degrees of pitch in speaking must be acquired in order to correct any characteristic monotony, and to command full use of inflection, emphasis, and tone-color. Exercise 1. a. Sing the diatonic scale to each vowel in turn (§ 28, Table A). b. Sing diatonic scale to a, a, e, 6, T. Exercise 2. Speak long vowels throughout on one note, then on a note higher, etc. Exercise 3. Recite: 1. With rise of pitch on each succeeding vowel, a, e, I, o, u, y! and a, e, T, o, u, y? 2. The same, with/#//of pitch on each succeed- ing vowels. 3. The same, with rise and fall of semitones. 2. Pitch, in speaking, is divided into low, middle, and high. These are relative terms. In an indi- vidual voice let the low and high pitch be found according to the corresponding yWzVz^*. The middle pitch can then be found between those two. For 60 VOICE PRODUCTION class exercises the lowest pitch may be F, below the bass clef, the highest G. In the following exercises the note selected is the initial pitch, from which variations will continually be made, for purposes of expression. The exercises are not to be intoned nor, necessarily, monotoned. Exercise 4.. For Low Pitch. — Recite, "Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll," first in lowest possible speaking tone (but pure), then on two or three notes next above, in succession. [The full quotation for further practice may be found in § 31.] Exercise 5. For Middle Pitch. — Recite, "Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God! " on two or three different, initial, notes (full orotund). [The full quotation is in § 30.] Exercise 6. For High Pitch. — Recite, with initial pitch at G : "Higher still and higher, From the earth thou springest, Like a cloud of fire, The deep blue thou wingest, And singing still, dost soar, and soaring, ever singest. Ode to a Skylark, Shelley. BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 6l j. Exercise J For Change or Slide of Pitch, Change: (High) "Strike! till the last armed foe expires! Strike for your altars and your fires ! (Middle) Strike for the green graves of your sires ! (Low) God and your native land ! " (Change gradually, also, from head to chest reso- nance.) The upward slide connects thoughts, the downward separates. Slide (Upward). In each sentence and from each sentence to the next : "Shall we adopt the measures proposed by this speaker? Are the arguments which he has ad- vanced sufficient to produce conviction? Can we proceed with perfect confidence that we shall not have to retrace our steps? " Slide (Downward) : (Middle) "I heard a voice from heaven, saying unto me, Write, from henceforth blessed are the dead who die in the Lord. Even so, saith the Spirit, for they rest from their labours." (Pitch sliding down from "Even" to the end.) Note i. — High voices should practise these exercises mostly in the upper part of the scale, and low voices in the lower — not to strain out of natural compass. 62 VOICE PRODUCTION Note 2. — But — every high voice should develop and use a relatively low tone, and every low voice a relatively high tone. Note 3. — Never carry the voice in public use lower than it can be kept clear, nor higher than it can be kept agreeably full. 4.. The Semitone, i, e., something less than a full interval of the diatonic scale — not an exact half- interval — although condemned by some, and al- though its abuse is a whine, is, when rightly used, a valuable refinement of change of pitch to express tenderness, pathos, sorrow, etc. The whine is a semitone unduly prolonged. The normal semitone is brief in duration. Exercise 8. On Semitone. —Sing Do, Si, and "Fa, Mi," of the diatonic scale. Say, with semitone on last word, ''He would die/' Also, find occasion for semitones in Genesis 44: 16-34. 5. The "Pitch of the Room." — A notion has long existed that there is a certain particular pitch of voice most effective in each auditorium, and that each speaker should endeavor to find it. The at- tempt to find that pitch is unwise because unneces- sary. One might as well try to use his thumb instead of a finger, for all purposes, because it is by nature the strongest ! In piano playing all the fingers have to be trained to equal strength in exe- cution. Music, in any building, includes varieties BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 63 of pitch octaves apart, and with many intermediate intervals. A quartette of male singers can all be distinctly heard, not only with the four ranges of pitch in the individual voices, but also with constant change of pitch in each voice. But, in good singing, the tones are pure and even throughout the scale. And this fact is the key to the truth, which is, that in unskilled speaking, with unevenly developed tones, one pitch may be so used as to produce reverbera- tion or to be inaudible, while another might be clearly heard. A skilled speaker, using the singing tone, making the voice carry by clearness and vibrancy instead of noise, can employ the same different degrees of pitch as the unskilled, but be easily heard at any one of them. He can, in the same place, read, "Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters," in a high pitch, and then, ' ' Man that is born of a woman hath but a short time to live and is full of misery," in a low pitch, and be heard equally well in both passages. What should be sought instead of "the pitch of the room," is proper management of the reverberating power of the voice at any pitch. This often requires a thinning of the tone when the re- verberation is found to be excessive. The need for this can be ascertained by a speaker, in a strange 64 VOICE PRODUCTION building, by listening intently, at a pause, to the vanish of the last sound, and judging if the rever- beration is inconvenient. If it is, the remedy of thinness, as well as of sharpened articulation and separation, can be applied. To yield to the notion of one best pitch, is to degrade expression to monot- ony or sing-song. 33. Power. — The developing of the utmost power of the voice is important to every speaker and theological student because of the situations in which it may be required — a large church, an outdoor ser- vice, noisy surroundings, etc. Also, the occasional practice of powerful tones strengthens the voice for lighter uses. It is a fact not to be ignored that the majority of clergymen are more or less hampered by lack of vocal power, but few being able to make themselves heard, distinctly, in a large building. Power should not involve throat-fatigue. In the exercises below, bear in mind the following cautions : 7. Depend entirely upon breath-pressure and openness of resonant chambers for the result de- sired. There may be much exertion in the trunk muscles, and in the firm pose of the body if main- tained for some time, but none elsewhere. The muscles of the larynx should remain at easy tension. 2. Open the glottis at the instant the tone-effort BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 65 begins (stroke of the glottis). Never hold the breath before explosive utterance so that the pres- sure of it seems to burst apart the vocal cords (" check of the glottis"). Exercise 1. Sing 00, a, 6, u, a, four seconds each, with strongest possible breath-pressure. Sing the diatonic scale to a in the same manner. Exercise 2. Shout (moderately) the vowel sounds in Table A, § 28, relaxing after each one. Shout them in regular time, with quick cessation as at the word of command. Exercise j. Shout all the a sounds in one effort. Shout all the e and i sounds in one effort. Shout all the o and u sounds in one effort. Exercise 4. Speak the following passage with the utmost power of voice : "The war must go on. We must fight it through. And, if the war must go on, why put off longer the Declaration of Independence? That measure will strengthen us It will give us character abroad. "Why then, sir. do we not, as soon as possible, change this from a civil to a national war? And, since we must fight it through, why not put our- selves in a state to enjoy all the benefits of victory, if we gain the victory? "Read this declaration at the head of the army; 5 66 VOICE PRODUCTION every sword will be drawn from its scabbard, and the solemn vow uttered, to maintain it, or to perish on the bed of honor. Publish it from the pulpit ; religion will approve it, and the love of religious liberty will cling round it, resolved to stand with it or fall with it. Send it to the public halls ; proclaim it there ; let them hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon ; let them see it who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the field of Bunker Hill and in the streets of Lexington and Concord, and the very walls will cry out in its support. "Sir, I know the uncertainty of human affairs, but I see, I see clearly, through this day's business. You and I, indeed, may rue it. We may not live to the time when this declaration shall be made good. We may die; die, colonists; die, slaves; die, it may be, ignominiously and on the scaffold. Be it so. Be it so. If it be the pleasure of heaven that my country shall require the poor offering of my life, this victim shall be ready, at the appointed hour of sacrifice, come when that hour may. But while I do live, let me have a country, or at least the hope of a country, and that a free country. "Sir, before God, I believe the hour is come. My judgment approves this measure, and my whole heart is in it. All that I have, and all that I am, and all BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 67 that I hope, in this life, I am now ready to stake upon it; and I leave off, as I began, that, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration. It is my living sentiment, and by the blessing of God it shall be my dying sentiment: independence now, and INDEPENDENCE FOREVER. : 7 —The Eloquence of John Adams, Webster. Exercise 5. Speak descriptively, with increasing power, beginning with the softest possible sotto voce, the following series : Very soft, — Soft, — Subdued, — Unimpassioned, — Moderate {prompt utterance), — Energetic (quick staccato), — Declamatory (full, slightly prolonged ut- terance), — Impassioned (louder orotund and explo- sive),— SHOUTING,— CALLING (utmost power of singing tone). Note i, — The greatest power is not in the explosive but in the singing tone. Note 2. — In these exercises, periodical and complete relaxa- tion prevents harm to the organs, and stores up power. Note 3. — Not every voice can be made to have the power which is possible to a few ; the physique may be inadequate. But training can make almost any voice relatively powerful, and sufficient for ordinary needs especially with the use of singing tone. Note 4. — Weakness of voice is caused by: (1.) Want of breath- piessure. caused by bad method or weak trunk muscles. (2.) Lack 68 VOICE PRODUCTION of intelligent use of the resonances. (3.) A contracted throat. (4.) In fatigue, the soft palate is often greatly relaxed, preventing resonance and causing a smothered tone. Note 5. — In anticipation of a demand for power, if any doubt exists, try the mechanism, by deep breathing, vigorous use of trunk muscles, and expulsive expiration, with resonant cham- bers well opened. Such exercises, to tone up, may be used in brief intervals of a service, if voice is temporarily inadequate, during singing, or in the Psalter, when the congregation is reading. Note 6. — Practice power exercises not more than ten minutes at a time. Note 7. — Power of voice must not be mere brute force, of un- varied degree, like the cry of a huckster, or a train-announcer, but is refined as well as most effective when modified by a suit- able vanish of tone, in the necessary inflection and emphasis. Exercise 6. Speak the following words with initial power of the utmost, but decreasing rapidly during the utterance : Come ! Horrible! Tolling! Trea- son ! Vehemently ! Glorious ! This is the modulation of powerful speech, very desirable in sermons. 34. "Quality and Quantity" (or tone-color and regulated power), says Murdock, "are the two great essentials of a perfected elocution." Some voices which have had more or less training possess power without purity, or purity without power. Both are necessary, and the diligent practice of the preceding BREATH-PRESSURE AND TONE-PRODUCTION 69 exercises will secure them. For the acquisition of both of these, observe continually this maxim: There is no vibration of tone without a vibration of the trunk muscles — no power (with purity) without strong breath-pressure. The front trunk muscles should be very elastic, as well as strong. For examples: History records that the finished orator of the Civil War, Wendell Phillips, who had great influence over noisy and antagonistic audi- ences, was gifted with a pure, flute-like or silver tone, musical and far-reaching, but not especially loud. This he had acquired by careful elocutionary training. Henry Ward Beecher, who vanquished a hostile audience as much by the power of his voice as by the eloquence of his speech, had the singing tone to a remarkable degree, which he had acquired by years of scientific training. Daniel Webster was famous for his organ-like tones, of the same quality as the deep bass of a singer. Nature, with practice, gave him that voice. It is often observed and regretted that the voices of many of our most prominent bishops and clergymen, although evi- dently of sufficient or even superior quality by nature, are either harsh or weak for want of sys- tematic training, and are unnecessarily limited in their oratorical power. PART II ENUNCIATION [In the preceding pages an ordinary distinctness of utterance has been assumed. The order here followed is preferred because tone comes before articulation, as the block of wood before it is carved. This chapter treats of a more cultured and finished elocution. It includes the whole subject of the perfect utterance of both vowels and consonants, and of their combination in syllables and words.] CHAPTER I VOWELS 35. (1) Bell's vowel table, as quoted in Lee's Principles of Public Speaking, is here given, to serve as a standard. The open or vowel sounds are four- teen in number. VOWEL TABLE C Sound 1. Spelled with ee (meet), ea (eat), ey (key), ie (chief), ei (receive), i (marine), etc. " 2. Spelled with i (hit), y (hymn), u (busy), o (women), e (pretty). 70 VOWELS 71 Sound 3. Spelled with a (mate), ei (eight), ai (straight), ea (great), ay (may), etc. 4. Spelled with e (met), u (bury), a (any), ea (dead), ai (said and saitk), eo (feoff), etc. 5. Spelled with a (fat), ai (plaid), ua (aquatic), etc. 6. Spelled with ea (pearl), e (her), y (myrrh), i (sir), u (hurt), o (worse), etc. 7. Spelled with a (last), — a in monosyllables before ss, st, sk, sp, etc. 8. Spelled with a (arm, ah, etc.), au (laundry), ea (heart), e (sergeant), etc. 9. Spelled with u (up), o (come), oe (does), 00 (blood), — the and a before a con- sonant. 10. Spelled with o (log), a (what), au (laurel). 11. Spelled with a (all), o (form), au (maul), aw (awl), etc. 12. (Vanishing in 14). Spelled with o (slow), eau (beau), e (sew), ou (dough), oe (hoe), eo (yeoman), etc. 13. Spelled with o (wolf), ou (would), u (pull), 00 (book), — to when obscure. 14. Spelled with o (move), 00 (pool), e (grew), u (truce), oe (shoe), etc., also u {truth). 72 ENUNCIATION * 8-1. Spelled with i (might), y (my), ai (aisle), ei (height), ie (lie), etc. * ii-i. Spelled with oi (oil), oy (boy). * 8-14. Spelled with ow (now), ou (bough), etc. * 2-14. Spelled with u (flute), eau (beauty), e (new), eu (feud), ui (suit), etc. * 9-14. Spelled with u (use, education, durable), etc. (2) Seven of the vowel sounds are diphthongal, i. e., they vanish in a sound different from that with which they begin, both being quickly blended. They are : A, as in awe, vanishing in the short sound of e, in err. A, as in art y vanishing in e, in err. A, as in ale, vanishing in e, in eel. I, as in ice, vanishing in e, in eel. 0, as in old, vanishing in 00, in ooze. Ou, as in out, vanishing in 00, in ooze. Oi, as in oil, vanishing in e, in eel, if long, vanish- ing in i, in, if short. U, as in use, flute, vanishing in 00, in ooze. The vowels are also called tonics because their pronunciation is all tone. 36. (1) It is important to follow a recognized authority (as the above) which is the standard in * These are formed by gliding one pure tone into another, and are termed diphthongs. vowels 73 our dictionaries, in every particular, and not to allow habits to continue which have sprung from provincialisms, inherited peculiarities, or personal defects. (2) The perfect articulation of the consonants is often urged as the secret of distinct speaking. Let that plea have its proper influence. But consonants furnish the noise and the interruptions and bound- aries of tone in speech, — the vowels, almost all of the sound or tone itself. Therefore, the proper utterance of the vowels is of the first importance. The music, the rhythm, the volume, the tone-color, the power and beauty of speech depend chiefly upon the vowels. Much of the understanding of spoken words depends upon such a characteristic enunciation of each vowel as to distinguish it from every other, as in rare and roar, wonder and wander, wash and dash, etc. (3) Most provincialisms and errors arising from lack of early education consist in wrong utterance of vowels. The proper characteristics of individual speech also appear in the vowel enunciation, full or light, quick or slow, etc. Vowels should be uttered with limits of time and power, in each individual use — the long vowels always of the same length (in effect), the short vowels of the same brevity, except 74 ENUNCIATION for special emphasis or change of quantity (see Rhythm). Any unregulated prolongation of vowels makes drawl. 37. Exercise 1. Pronounce all the words belong- ing to each sound in Vowel Table C — and give the vowel sound alone after each word. Exercise 2. Pronounce the long vowels and diph- thongs in this list, all with the same duration of sound : e, a, ea (in pearl), a, 6, 00, I, oi, ou, u. Repeat, prolonging each one. Exercise 3. Pronounce the following short sounds, all with same brevity of sound : 1, e, a, a (last), u, o (in wolf). Repeat, saying each one as quickly as possible. Exercise 4.. Study the following passage in con- nection with Vowel Table C, numbering each sound as in the table, and then recite it with exact utter- ance of vowels : Thanatopsis. — Bryant. *' So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan, that moves To that mysterious realm, where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death, vowels 75 Thou go not, like the quarry slave at night, Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams." 38. The Aspirate, H. — The letter h does not represent any exact formation, but simply an as- piration of the succeeding element. Thus h before e is a whispered e, etc. (Bell). This letter requires some attention, not because it is dropped or added at the beginning of initial words, as in England, but because it is very com- monly elided from pronouns when they follow other words, as "He found 'im," "We saw 'er," "In 'is arms," "He made 'em/' etc. This is, in fact, gen- eral colloquial usage, but is not permissible in public utterance. H is often too weak at the beginnings of words to be heard at any distance — a fault, because the h, as a forcible breathing, where it properly belongs, makes a word more oratorically effective. As to the usage, "an hotel," "an historian," "an hysterical patient," etc., using " an " before initial h when the accent of the succeeding word is on the second syllable, — it is most common in literature, j6 ENUNCIATION but arises, no doubt, from a customary weakness of the h in such words. It is, therefore, quite as well, certainly in public use, to make the h strong and use the article a, in accordance with the authority of the Standard Dictionary. H is frequently and erroneously omitted after w, as in "wite" for " white," etc. Exercise. Read, "Then took he him up in his arms and blessed God," "Up the high hill he heaved a huge round stone, ' ' also St. Mark, 8 : 22- 26, omitting no h. CHAPTER II CONSONANTS 39. — Consonants, or "Articulations" As every element of speech can be sounded alone, in some fashion, the consonants are called " articulations " by Bell, as a better term for the " oral action" necessary to their utterance. They are commonly called consonants, however, because in English speech they are not used except in conjunction with vowel sounds. 40. Consonants are produced by the obstruction or compression of the breath behind the conjoined or closely approximated organs. There are three modes of articulation : I. Com- plete Contact; II. Partial Contact; III. Approxi- mation. /. Complete Contact The breath is obstructed at three points : 1. By contact of the lips — P and B. 2. By contact of the fore part of the tongue with the anterior part of the palate — T and D. 77 78 ENUNCIATION 3. By contact of the back or root of the tongue with the posterior part of the palate — K and G (hard). P, T, and K are the " breath" forms of articulation. B, D, and G are the "voice" forms of articulation. While the oral organs are in obstructive contact, the breath or voice may be made to issue by the nostrils — in M, N, and Ng. For M, the lips are closed as in P and B; for N, the tongue is on the palate as for T and D ; for Ng, the posterior organs are in contact as in K and G. The nine articulations so far described are thus the result of but three actions of the mouth with the modification of — Breath Voice Nasal P B M T D N K G Ng II. Partial Contact Partial contact produces F and V, Th (thin), Th (then), and L. III. Approximation Approximation produces Wh and W, S and Z, Sh and Zh, Y, R, and Ch. Relaxed approximation gives the trilled R. CONSONANTS 79 41. The following table exhibits all the English consonantal sounds (twenty-two in number) in each of the four positions : initial, final, medial before a vowel, medial before a consonant. Table of Consonants — D p, pay a^e paper a/ricot B, bee gle£e neighbor a£ly M, max axm army arw'd Wh, why * awhile * W, way * away * F, fed dea/" de/inite de/tness V, veal leaz>e (evolve) 1 ez/(e)ning Th, third dearth ethic eMnic Th, these seethe either wreaked s, jell less essay estuary z, zone doze rosy rosebush R, rare *2 rarity * L, /eft . iell fellow fetf'd T, tale late later lameness D, day aid tracer tradesman N, nave rain waging mainland Sh, shelf Hesh fisher fu^monger Zh, giraffe rouge pleasure hedgerow (j = dzh) Y, ye Me (French) bej/ond * K, rap oack packet par^thread G, ^um mug sluggard smuggler Ng, * sing singer siwgly 42. As the vowels are called tonics, so the con- sonants are divided into subtonics and atonies as * These articulations do not occur in this position in English. 1 "Evil " in Bell's table, according to an English pronunciation. 2 Except before an initial vowel when r may be regarded as medial, as " far in." 8o ENUNCIATION producing a little tone or "murmur," or none all. Subtonics (14) B, as D, G, V, in 3-abe ' d-id 1 ^"-ig 4 z'-alve Z, as in a-2-ure Ng, 44 s\-ng L, " l-u-ll M, 44 w-ain z, Y, W, Th, ' z-one 4 y-e 4 w-oe 4 th-QXi N, 44 R, 44 R, 44 n-n-n r_ap I The same fa-r J Atonics (10) P, T, K, F, H, as in /-ipe 44 /-ent " k-i-ck 44 /-ife 44 h-e S, as in j-ick Wh, 4i wh-eat Th, " th-in Sh, 44 pu-.r>& Ch, ** ^-urch at The above may be also divided, according to the organs by whose agency they are articulated, into : Labials — chief agency the lips — b, p, w, m (also nasal). Dentals — chief agency the teeth — d> t, th-in, th-ine. Linguals — chief agency the tongue — /, r. Nasals — chief agency the nose — m, n, ng. Falatics, anterior — chief agency the hard palate — s, Palatics, posterior — chief agency the soft palate — k, Labio-dentals — v, f. 2, sh, zh, ch. g (hard), y. 43. Exercises in Articulation {Compiled from Vocal Culture" Murdoch-Russell), with additions. Exercise /. Articulate each consonant in the order CONSONANTS 8 1 of Table D, § 41, forcibly and without vowel sound, e. g. , B, not Bee. Exercise 2. Practise the following combinations : Blame, clime, flee, glide, ply, sleep, spleen. {Without roll of the r.) Brave, creep, drop, frame, grain, preach, spring, tread, stray, shrine, shroud, shrub, shriek. Small, snare, space, steer. {Final syllables.} Bald, elf, milk, elm, helm, film, gulp, tells, fault, elve, revolve. — Maim'd, gleams, and, lined, dens, bank, dance, ant, gaunt. — Barb, orb'd. — Hard, hir'd, barr'd. — Hark, work; mark'd, work'd. 1 — Arm;arm'd. — Earn, scorn, worn, shorn; earn'd, turn'd. — Verse, horse; dar'st, burst, first, vers'd, hors'd. — Bars, hears, snares. — Mart, girt. — Carve; carv'd, starv'd. Chasm, schism, criticism, patriotism. Reas'n, ris'n, chos'n. — Asp, clasp, wasp, lisp. — Vast, lest, dost; pass'd, bless'd, miss'd. — Makes, streaks, crooks. — Act, respect. — Wak'd, look'd, rock'd.— Waft, aft, left; quaff'd, scoff d, laugh'd.— Apt, wept, crept; sipp'd, pip'd, popp'd.— Op'n, rip'n, happ'n, tak'n, tok'n, drunk'n; sadd'n, gladd'n, lad'n, burd'n, hard'n, gard'n. — Grav'n, 1 All verbs ending in p or k have the sounds of pt or kt in the past tense. 6 82 ENUNCIATION heav'n, sev'n, ov'n, ev'n, giv'n, wov'n. — Bright'n, tight' n, whit'n.' Call'st, heal'st, arm'st, charm'st, harm'st. — Can'st, runn'st, gain'st, against (agenst). — Durst, worst. — Midst, call'dst. — Heard'st. — Arm'dst, form'dst, charm'dst. — Learn'dst, scorn'dst. Able, feeble ; troubled, babbled, bubbled. — Ample, triple, topple; tripl'd, crippl'd. — Cradle, bridle; cradl'd, swaddl'd. — Marl, hurl; world, whirl'd. Rings, hangs, songs; hang'dst, sing'st; hang'd, clang'd; wrong'dst, throng'dst. 2 Exercise j. Transition from one class of elements to another. (Read across the page.) Tonics SUBTONICS Atonics A-\\ B-a-de P-i-pe A-m D-x-d T-ew-t A-n G-*-g C-z-ke E-ve V-al-ve E-i-fe Oo-ze Z-one C-ea.se E-TT A-s-ure Fii-sk E-nd Th-ew Th-\n I-n J-ud-ge Ch-wx-ch 1 Words thus printed never have the e sounded, except when an additional syllable is requisite in poetry. 2 These difficult combinations are more easily articulated when a pronoun is used with them, as " Thou wrong'dst him," for then the mind helps the tongue. CONSONANTS 83 Exercise 4.. In transition from one class of organic elements to another. Labials Dentals Aspirate B-si-de D-i-d H P-i-pe T-en-t M-a\-m Th-m. Nasals W-oe Th-me N-u-n V-al-ve F-\-fe 7-oy Ck-ux-ch Si-ng Palatics C-a,-ke G-a.-g F-e A-z-ure VxL-sh C-ea.se Z-one LiNGUALS L-vl-U R-a,-x> F-a.-r Exercise 5. In difficult words and in difficult phrases. Ab'stinently Acces'sory Ac'curately Angularly Ag'riculture Anni'hilate Asso'ciate (sh) Annuncia'tion (si) Apprecia'tion (sh) Accw'mzdate ^wthor'itatively Artie' ulately AffabzTz'ty Collaterally Collo'quially Christian'ity Constitution Coagula'tion Com#zewora'tion Des'picable Dietet'ically Disin'terestedly Disingen'uousness Ecclesias'tical of many syllables, Expos'tulatory Ex'quisitely Incalculably Inexplicable Innu'merable Intolerable L«c*/bra'tion Lwgw'brious Manipulate Peripatet'ic Propitiation (ti = sh) The italics call attention to the proper pronunciation of vowels. " Inestimable benefit." "New moons." "Negligences and ignorances." "What advantageth it me? " 84 ENUNCIATION "The mirth of tabrets ceaseth, the noise of them that rejoice endeth, the joy of the harp ceaseth." "This man ceaseth not to speak blasphemous words against this holy place and the law." "Lord, show us the Father, and it sufficeth us." ' ' So soon passeth it away and we are gone. ' ' "But nourisheth and cherisheth it." (Recite the above, first slowly, then quickly). Exercise 6. To be said as rapidly as it can be made distinct. Pronounce every d in the ands. Make the repeated elements very strong. "And gleaming and streaming and steaming and beaming, And rushing and flushing and brushing and gushing, And flapping and rapping and clapping and slapping, And curling and whirling and purling and twirling, Retreating and beating and meeting and sheeting, Delaying and straying and playing and spraying, Advancing and glancing and prancing and dancing, Recoiling, turmoiling and toiling and boiling, And thumping and flumping and bumping and jumping, And dashing and flashing and splashing and clash- ing, CONSONANTS 85 And so never ending, but always descending, Sounds and motions for ever and ever are blending, All at once and all o'er, with a mighty uproar: And this way the water comes down at Lodore." Southey, Exercise 7. To separate repeated elements, etc. Recite slowly, then rapidly. Fine white wine vinegar with veal. Such pranks Frank's prawns play in the tank. Bring a bit of buttered brown bread. Keep the tippet ticket. Geese cackle, cattle low, crows caw, cocks crow. She says she shall sew a sheet. Sickening, stickling, shilly-shally silliness. Thrice the shrew threw the shoe. A rural ruler. Rural raillery. A lucent rubicund rotatory luminary. A million menial minions. Laid in the cold ground. Hear the panting spirit sigh. All night it lay an z^-drop there. Would that all difference of sects were at an end. Oh, studied deceit. Chased stars. 86 ENUNCIATION His beard descending swept his aged breast. From Bell's Elocution. The exercises in this section may be used merely as tests by those who have natural facility. 44. Helps to Articulation of Difficult Words. 1. Think the word out before enunciating. 2. Before articulating, take a deep breath, and then speak the word on a full tide of expiration. 3. Pause before a difficult word. 4. Make the accent unusually strong. 5. Articulate the syllables separately, as Neg'- li-gen-cies. 6. Speak a difficult combination rhythmically ', from accent to accent. 45. Excessively strong articulation should be avoided, as "ass-pect" for "aspect," '* good' ness"' for "goodness," "ser'v&n't" for "servunt" (obscure a), etc. Observe different degrees of sharpness ox force of articulation, — easy in conversation, forcible and crisp for public speaking in large places, without which some words are lost. CHAPTER III VOCAL DEFECTS 46. The minor defects have been treated in tone-production, such as huskiness, nasality, gut- tural tones, thick tones, etc. The defects more difficult to remove and often requiring special treat- ment are stuttering, stammering, hesitation, and lisping. These are too familiar to need explanation, but may be distinguished from one another for pur- poses of reference. Stuttering is an involuntary jerky repetition of vocal elements in the attempt to combine them in sentences. Stammering is a difficulty experienced in enunci- ating the vocal elements, but without repetition. Hesitation is simply what the word implies, equiv- alent to a low degree of stammering. All of these defects are curable, but only by the right method adapted to the individual case, and diligently and intelligently pursued by the sufferer 87 88 ENUNCIATION himself. The means of cure suggested here are only the simplest, but in many cases are efficacious. /. Acquire the habit of calm self-possession in all utterance, public or conversational. — One of the worst stutterers ever known in a certain college, having a calm temperament, never lapsed from smooth and ready speech in his excellent public speaking. Prac- tise deliberate utterance on all occasions. 2. Master the method of firm breath-control, and never speak except on the full tide of the breath. — This is practically the substance of some of the so- called methods of cure. j. Speak with the tone placed forward, where the breath is most immediately available for supplying the power of articulation. 4.. Keep the tongue, when not speaking, close to the roof of the mouth. This means that it will be more ready for speaking and also that it will not be so likely to be stiffened at its root, a serious provo- cative of stammering, etc. Lisping is a different defect from the preceding — not to be classed with them — and consists of a hiss- ing sound made by keeping the lips too close to- gether and the tongue too near the teeth, principally the latter. The remedy is perfectly simple and efficacious : practise speaking with the lips as open VOCAL DEFECTS 89 as possible and the tongue withdrawn from the teeth. Thickness and reediness of tone are common de- fects, caused by too great elevation of the middle of the tongue, so as to narrow the passage for the breath. The remedy is to train the tongue to "lie low" by pressing it firmly against the lower teeth, then relaxing it, and at the moment of relaxation practising the pure sound which it is desired to sub- stitute for the thick or reedy one. CHAPTER IV ERRORS IN ENUNCIATION 47. (1) Errors in Vowels. — A as in AIL 1. Not broad enough, as "offul" for awful, "wotter" for water, etc. 2. Too broad, as waater, etc. 3. Adding r to law, etc., before a vowel, as "the law'r in such a case." A as in Arm (or as it should be in Ah!). 1 . Flatten- ing it to a in an, as psalm (samm) or father for father. 2. Too long, as in aask instead of ask, the shortened form of a. For a standard pronunciation of a as in ah ! — put the mouth in the position of a moderate yawn, with teeth and lips a little apart, tongue concave and down, and throwing the tone forward, speak it promptly. A prompt pronunciation of a is accept- able even in localities where it is habitually flat- tened, — a lengthened pronunciation is not. A as in An or Pat (except before ss, st, sk, sp). Sometimes made a, as in arm. The word man is 90 ERRORS IN ENUNCIATION 91 pronounced by some as man (mahn). Reference to a standard dictionary is advisable, on account of different usages and authorities in respect to this sound. Avoid und or 'nd y often said for and. A final as in Soda (u). A very common fault is to add r before a vowel, as " There was sodar in it," "The mannar in the desert," etc. E as in Meet. Seldom mispronounced, except by pressing the tongue too closely against the roof of the mouth, thus causing a sort of squeak. To remedy this serious fault, train the tongue to keep down by pressing it against the lower teeth and say- ing e quickly, as it is relaxed, and with the mouth as open as possible. / as in Hit. Sometimes made like e in eel by an affected nicety of enunciation — as "peety, pheelos- ophy, possibeelity, inspeeration," etc. This is not only Scotch, but also American — as a fault. / as in Ice. Making the a part of 1 too long, as " tahime " for time. Remedy — pronounce the long i more quickly. O as in Log and Top. Making it like the ah sound, as "lang" for long, " Strang" for strong, etc. (very common in New York). An affectation of nicety. O as in Old. The New England custom of saying 92 ENUNCIATION boat, coat, etc., with a shortening of the o sound, as in wainscot (once a true long o in England), is now obsolete. Oo as in Tool; oo as in Took. The usage varies in different words. Oo is long before a subtonic ele- ment, short before an atonic. Exceptions — good, wood, stood. Food, spoon, and soon are wrong. Oi as in Oil, Strangely enough, such usage as is ridiculed in the ignorant who say, " I see the p'int" (point), appears among the educated, sometimes, in an approximation to the sound of I, as in "rej'ice" for rejoice. Remedy — open the mouth more widely at the beginning of the sound. Ou as in Pout. Error, aou — a provincialism or rus- ticism. Remedy — Open the mouth less at the be- ginning, and purse the lips more closely and quickly together at the close of the sound. Ea as in Appear. Not uncommonly spoken eyar, as in Neyar (near), Heyar (hear or here), in America (affectation of nicety). Not so bad as an exagger- ated form said to have been heard in England as fol- lows: "He that hath yaws to yaw, let him yaw," for "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." A similar affectation is heard in "raw of the sea" instead of "roar," etc. Several examples of inadequate or undignified ERRORS IN ENUNCIATION 93 pronunciation of sacred names need to be noticed here. ' ' God ' ' is pronounced as ' ' Gawd' ' or * ' Gard. ' ' It should have the vowel precisely as in log. Prac- tise the latter word with intention to say the sacred name with the same vowel sound when it does occur. Strength and dignity may be added to the word by a firm and deliberate articulation of its con- sonants. "Jesus" is generally uttered with the u too obscure. To correct, say "He frees us" very distinctly and then apply the full sound of u to the name of the Saviour. "Saviour" should not be pro- nounced differently from the same word with inferior meaning, in "Savior of his country " i. e., not Sav- your, but Sav-yur t or vowel sound as of o in atom. A very general error in the enunciation of vowels consists in changing them to entirely different sounds in unaccented syllables, as " ecknowledge " or "icknowledge" for acknowledge, "Ull-mighty" or " Ol-mighty " for All-mighty in the word Almighty, " cummitted" iox committed, " cun-fess" or "cn-fess" for confess, "furgiveness" for forgiveness, "ubtain" for obtain, "begutten" for begotten, in Nicene Creed, etc. In correcting this error be careful not to ac- cent the unaccented syllable. The above errors, and many others, emphasize the prime importance of correct vowel articulation. 94 ENUNCIATION (2) Errors in Consonants. — A positive articulation of the consonants will prevent most errors in their utterance; but in some cases special care must be exercised to pronounce them fully, especially when a consonant is doubled, either in the middle of a word, as in immortal, or when a word begins with the same consonant with which the preceding word ends — e. g., in the Creed, "Was crucified, dfead," and "the third day"; "O God, make clean our hearts within us," not "make lean" ; "eternal life," not "eterna-life," in the Collect for Peace (Morning Prayer); "mortal life," not "morta-life," in the Advent Collect (Cautions by Bishop Hall), (3) Errors in Syllables. — Other common errors consist in obscuring or slurring unaccented syllables and the small words, as "blieve" for believe, in the Creed ; ■ ' nur ' ' for nor, ' * nut ' ' for not, * ' unf tJi throne " for unto the throne, " atall" for at all ; and in running words together — e. g., " Here-rendeth the first lesson," "Glory be to the Father-rand to the Son, " " Let us-spray, " " Stand in aw r of him (Venite), etc. It should be a fixed habit in public reading and speaking to make every syllable and element of the language perfectly audible, for dignity as well as distinctness ; and even in announcing a Lesson, not ERRORS IN ENUNCIATION Q$ to omit "of," etc., as is frequently done, in conse- quence of inattention to this point — e. g., "Here beginneth — eleventh verse fifteenth chapter Gospel according to St. Luke." CHAPTER V PRONUNCIATION 48. Correct pronunciation is that which is ac- cepted in the best usage and authorized in the standard dictionaries. It is here distinguished from enunciation. It is unwise for any one who is not a special student of this subject and an acknowledged authority in it to adopt pronunciations peculiar to himself. It is best for students to test their ability to pronounce as the dictionaries direct by a daily reading from some good author, especially in a scholarly style, and looking up all words of which they have any doubt. After a fair proficiency is thus acquired, it is well to continue to correct occa- sional uncertainties in pronunciation by further ref- erence to a dictionary. Avoid the following of local peculiarities of pronunciation — provincialisms — no matter into what part of the country one may go. The clergyman should represent a standard pronun- ciation. Avoid all personal peculiarities in speech 96 PRONUNCIATION 97 as well as in anything else ; also all obsolete and ob- solescent forms, such as the separate pronunciation of final -ed in words found in the Prayer Book or Bible. Occasionally, for rhythmic purposes, in poetic passages, the -ed may be separated, as in "The parch-ed ground shall become a pool," but not as " The soul of our deceas-ed brother " (in the Com- mittal), and many others which disturb the rhythm as well as the correct pronunciation. Accept all authorized contractions, as '- seth" for "sa-ith." Observe the changes that arise in the best usage, — e. g. r pronunciation for "pronunshia- tion," — when authorized by the dictionaries. Let the pronunciation be full at all times, bring- ing out all the vocal elements, but especially in pub- lic reading and speaking, according to the size of the auditorium, its acoustic properties, etc. Under difficult circumstances, it is sometimes necessary to utter every word slowly, more separately than usual, and with emphasized distinctness, so that the sound of a word may not be mingled with that of the pre- ceding one. Perfectly formed vocables help the economy of power. Here the vanish of tone is useful (see § 33). In the Appendix will be found a list of the most common and representative mispronuncia- tions. 7 PART III ADAPTATION OF VOICE TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT CHAPTER I METHODS, AND INFLECTION 49. To express variations of thought and senti- ment, the voice is changed in (1) Pitch (Inflection) ; (2) Breath-pressure (Emphasis); (3) Placing (Tone-color). 50. Inflection. — Inflection is a raising or lower- ing (or both) of the pitch, either suddenly or gradu- ally, during the utterance of an accented syllable (or monosyllabic word). It is less often carried through several words, on the accented syllables, and then is called the slide of inflection. It is gen- erally accompanied by a vanish of the voice from the beginning to the end of the syllable, but this element of expression belongs to emphasis. (1) The inflections are three: (a) Rising — "Is it he?" (b) Falling— "It is he." (c) Compound or 98 METHODS, AND INFLECTION 99 circumflex — a combination of {a) and (b) in either or- der — rising-falling, or falling-rising — e. g., "Aha!" "Oh, really?" "Oh, really!" "N6t f?" "Yes, in- deed ! ' ' This may be carried to any extent for ex- pression of sarcasm, defiance, irony, contempt, etc., as in "Cry aloud, for he is a God ! " (2) The Slide of inflection is another form of change of pitch — here confined to a gradual change extending through a phrase or sentence; to be noted, always, on the accented syllables. It may be rising or falling, sometimes, in expressions of very strong emotion, after the form of the circumflex — e. g. y "Advance our standards, set upon our foes!" "fs the chair empty? " "Is the sword unswayed?" "6 upright judge ! Mark, Jew : — learned judge ! " "They that make a graven image are all of them vanity ; and their delectable things shall not profit ; and they are their own witnesses; they see not, nor know, that they may be ashamed " (and so throughout Isaiah 44: 9-20). In the above exercises there is a sense of slide from the word marked ' to that marked \ This slide is natural in impassioned expression and in connection with cumulative emphasis. (See § 57.) The upward slide is used to connect, the downward to sepa- rate, thought. LofC. IOO ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT 51. Degrees of the Change of Pitch in Inflection. — (1) These are said by many authorities to corre- spond to the musical intervals of the 2d, 3d, 5th, and octave; but experience proves that seldom, if ever, can any of these intervals be exactly observed in speech, for the reason that the sudden, essential change of pitch in inflection prevents the impression of any single pitch from remaining on the ear. In- stead of attempting precision in this matter, it is better to vary the amount of change of pitch accord- ing to the amount of thought-difference, feeling, or kind of temperament. "Not y£t prepared?" may be said with a quiet remonstrative rise on "yet" — 3d; or with a more emphatic remonstrance — 5th; while the octave would express an excessive or frantic appeal. Even the 4th could be used in a solemn appeal, or the 6th in a most impassioned- solemn appeal, or the 7th in a frenzied appeal. The amount of change is the point, rather than the exact relation of that change to the scale. The most that can be claimed for the 2d, 3d, or 5th, etc., in speech is that it may be and often is the pitch of the first or last accented syllable of a slide in inflection ; and these intervals are best used in practice — for a dull ear, or monotonous voice— just before a recitation and separately from it, for the purpose of calling METHODS, AND INFLECTION IOI attention to a desired change of pitch in inflection. This practice is especially desirable for the purpose of eliminating misplaced semitones from the deliv- ery, by using the diatonic scale and major intervals. These semitones make a whining delivery, and, in fact, one that is founded on the chromatic scale (of course, unconsciously). A person of melancholy temperament or condition, or of low breathing power, may talk, habitually, in the chromatic scale — i. e., with all the natural, major intervals dimin- ished (or increased in excitement) by a semitone, or smaller interval. (2) The semitone properly used in minor 3d, etc., is a little more or less than the sum of regular or whole intervals, as in the frantic cry of ' ' Fire ! ' ' "He is lostM " It is natural, as in the tones of a mother soothing her child, or in the expression of pathos; but used precisely, as in the scale, or pro- longed, it degenerates into whine or sing-song. (3) The Monotone may be regarded as a variety of inflection because the natural changes of pitch are reduced in extent to express awe, solemnity, rever- ence, majesty, etc., as in "We praise Thee, O God, we acknowledge Thee to be the Lord." The emphasis is increased, the inflection decreased. But, note the essential difference between a proper 102 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT monotone and monotony (after the fashion of intoning, to which the wrong use of monotone is apt to lead). Intoning keeps the pitch absolutely the same from the beginning to the end (except for variations at the beginning or end). It is devoid of all expression during the progress of the sentence except the one general expression of solemn, musical tone. Monot- ony is similar, but without the musical element, and is, therefore, a positive fault. In monotone the in- flections are reduced to almost nothing, but enough is left to make speech instead of song. Continued emphasis takes the place of inflection, in part, be- cause sentiment is more prominent than intellectual- ity. E. g. , some inflection may be noted in a not too rigid or monotonous delivery of the Te Deum, as marked below ; with very slight changes of inflection and emphasis (the latter denoted by dotted lines). "We praise Thee, O God, we ackndwledge Thee to be the Lord/' etc. Monotone is frequently used at the end of solemn sentences in the Scriptures and in the Liturgy, to prevent too practical an effect, as in "Thus saith the Lord," not "Lord," "in the world to come life everlasting," not "everlasting" and in the Te Deum at the ends of all the sentences. This may be called a suspended or partial inflec- METHODS, AND INFLECTION 103 Hon. Its effect is to make the conclusion of one passage an introduction to the following one or a suggestion of the expected response. It is not sing- song or monotony, but an intentional expression of a relation. At the marks / \ used above, the pitch does not rise or fall quite to the extent of a regular inflection. The different degrees of change in pitch, instead of being referred, precisely, to the intervals of the scale, may be called : (1) Monotone — less than "moderate." (2) Moderate — as in ordinary conversation. (3) Emphatic, as in a speech. a. Light, b. Strong. (4) Dramatic — more than a fifth. Note. — A Monotone is reflective. A Rising Inflection is prospective. A Falling Inflection is retrospective. — (Bell.) 52. The Uses of Inflection. Note i. — Inflection is almost always accompanied by empha- sis, the one varying with the other. Note 2. — Punctuation does not indicate inflection. Inflection is used : (1) To mark the principal point of thought — e. g., " This was the firsf gleam of hope.' ' " Is it this' ? ' ' (2) To indicate distinction of meaning. Every new 104 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT thought requires a change of pitch or emphasis, generally both — e. g., "The world is full of wrongs" and evils, and full of wronged and suffering men. But I do say that, of all wrongs' ' , slavery is the greatest. ' ' — Dewey. "Is* that the wdrst of evils? " Note. — The falling inflection before another word may have an almost imperceptible rise at the end, to suggest continuity of meaning. (3) To indicate contrast or antithesis — e.g., "As in the beginning, so in the endV Also the circumflex here, e. g., " As with you, so with him." (4) To indicate completion or end of statement — e. g. y "This was all that was said." "His property consisted of houses, stocks, and $1000 in cash." (5) A group of words, not to be especially em- phasized in one more than in another, has but one inflection, at the close. Here is seen the fault of over -inflection, often observed in children's recita- tions and in the crude recitation of adults — e. g., "This N was the house that Jack built." The em- phasis should be distributed by the sliding inflection through the entire phrase "house that Jack built," and, therefore, no inflection should interrupt it. (6) A real series should have no interruption un- METHODS, AND INFLECTION 10$ less the members are individually emphatic. "And in her was found the blood of prophets, and of saints, and of all that were slain upon the earth" (Rev. 1 8 : 24). But there are series with interrupting emphasis and falling inflection — e.g., "And there shall be no more curse; but the throne of God and of the Lamfr shall be in it r ; and his servants shall serve x him: And they shall see his face x : and his name shall be in their foreheads" (Rev. 22: 3, 4). A careful distinction should be made between these two kinds of series in reading the Bible. (7) Restrictive phrases and clauses should not be separated from the words modified and explained by them, by a falling inflection, as, ' ' The powder that sits behind the throne" is wrong. It should be "The power that sits behind the throne. ' ' [Similar to (5).] (8) A verb like saying, said, etc. , followed by a quotation, no matter how long, should not be sepa- rated from the quotation which is its object, by a falling inflection, as in, "And he took up his parable and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said ; He hath said, which heard the words of God, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open: How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob." — Num. 24: 3, 4. 106 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT " And he opened his mouth and taught them, say- ing, Blessed are the poor in spirit : for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." — Matt. 5:2, 3. Note this especially in reading from the Bible, where this error of falling inflection is often heard. Exceptions. Occasion, ally ,' 4 Thus saith the Lord" may have the falling inflection, before an especially formal or solemn declaration. Also "as follows." (9) Inflections may lie within the lower or higher ranges of the voice, as — {—^ — , the line indicating medium pitch. Strong inflections may proceed from one range to the other, as ^-^ — ^^ , etc., but in ordinary use the falling inflection should not start in the lower range for fear of weakening at the end, and monotony, nor should the rising inflection start in the upper range, for fear of a shriek. (10) Inflections cannot all be prescribed, but may vary with the feeling or interpretation of the reader, — e. g. y one may say, "A sudden shower put an end to their pleasure, and sent them to shelter" ; while another might say with the same sense, "A sudden shower," etc., using a slight emphasis throughout, and inflection only on " shelter" to denote comple- tion of statement. (11) The value of inflection in public reading and speaking is so great as to demand training. Its thorough and intelligent use insures the conversa- METHODS, AND INFLECTION I07 tional method, but not manner, as the basis of all expression, in the larger delivery, which will have its larger manner and degree of expression. Excess of inflection in public utterance belittles it to the manner of a less important occasion. For weighty, dignified speech, avoid quick and lively inflections; they must be slower there than in conversation. (12) A most injurious fault in public reading, etc., is the failure to give the falling inflection where the sense demands it to indicate the salient points of thought or the ends of statements, especially in reading the Scriptures. This fault is likely to be fostered by the recent and growing over-use of the rising inflection. The rising inflection naturally in- dicates question, doubt, indeterminate statement, leaving some of the responsibility of it to the sym- pathy of the person addressed. Misused, it destroys the form of statement, perhaps by a quasi-polite attempt to combine question with statement, as, "And I want some Vienna bread?" (heard in a grocery); "I went to see the Smiths? " — i. the Benedicite, Psalm 130, and Rev. 7: 9-12. (In the last let there be a cres- cendo — gradual increase of volume and emphasis — in the twelfth verse, diminishing again in "for ever and ever. Amen." The perorations of great ora- tions are also in monotone— ^. g., Daniel Webster, " When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time," etc., § 57.) Exercise 4.. Moderate Inflection. — In ordinary state- ments, descriptions, narratives, etc. Examples: "Of all that extensive empire which once acknowledged the authority of Spain in the New World, no portion, for interest and importance, can be compared with Mexico ; — and this, equally, whether we consider the variety of its soil and climate; the inexhaustible stores of its mineral wealth ; its scenery, grand and picturesque beyond example; the character of its ancient inhabitants, not only far surpassing in intelligence that of the other North American races, but reminding us, by their monuments, of the primitive civilization of Egypt and Hindustan; or lastly, the peculiar cir- cumstances of its Conquest, adventurous and ro- mantic as any legend devised by Norman or Italian bard of chivalry. It is the purpose of the present IIO ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT narrative to exhibit the history of this Conquest, and that of the remarkable man by whom it was achieved." — Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, Chap. I. "Among the musical disciples who assembled one evening in each week to receive his instructions in psalmody, was Katrina Van Tassel, the daughter and only child of a substantial Dutch farmer. She was a blooming lass of fresh eighteen ; plump as a partridge, ripe and melting and rosy-cheeked as one of her father's peaches, and universally famed, not merely for her beauty but her vast expectations. She was withal a little of a coquette, as might be perceived even in her dress, which was a mixture of ancient and modern fashions as most suited to set off her charms." — From A History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker. Exercise J. Emphatic Inflection. — In lively de- scription, with dialogue, strong antitheses, forcible arguments, and earnest appeals. Examples: "I am loath to close. We are not enemies but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it must not break our bonds of affection." — Abraham Lincoln. "Cromwell manufactured his own army. Napo- leon, at the age of twenty-seven, was placed at the METHODS, AND INFLECTION III head of the best troops Europe ever saw. Crom- well never saw an army till he was forty ; this man never saw an army till he was fifty. Cromwell manufactured his own army — out of what? Eng- lishmen, the best blood in Europe. Out of the middle class of Englishmen — the best blood of the island. And with it he conquered what? English- men — their equals. This man manufactured his army — out of what? Out of what you call the despicable race of negroes, debased, demoralized by two hundred years of slavery, one hundred thou- sand of them imported into the island within four years, unable to speak a dialect intelligible even to each other. Yet, out of this mixed, and, as you say, despicable mass, he forged a thunderbolt and hurled it at — what? At the proudest blood in Europe, the Spaniard, and sent him home con- quered ; at the most warlike blood in Europe, the French, and put them under his feet ; at the pluck- iest blood in Europe, the English, and they skulked home to Jamaica. Now, if Cromwell was a general, at least this man was a soldier. I know it was a small territory ; it was not as large as the continent : but it was as large as that Attica, which with Athens for a capital has filled the earth with its fame for two thousand years. We measure genius by 12 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT quality, not by quantity." — Toussaint VOuverture, Wendell Phillips. Exercise 6. Dramatic Inflection. — (i)In the most passionate appeals, and in dramatic description. Examples : "Who is here so base, that would be a bondman? If any, speak; for him have I of- fended. Who is here so rude, that would not be a Roman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so vile, that will not love his country? If any, speak; for him have I offended. I pause for a reply." — Brutus m Julius Ccesar, Shakespeare, " You souls of geese, That bear the shapes of men, how have you run From slaves that apes would beat! Pluto and Hell! All hurt behind; backs red, and faces pale With flight and agued fear! MEND, and CHARGE HOME, Or, by the flres of heaven, I '11 leave the FOE, And make my wars on you : look to *t: Come ON!" Coriolanus, Shakespeare. (2) Under dramatic inflection may be classed the compound or circumflex, which expresses satire, ridi- cule ; or extreme pathos and indignation, etc. METHODS, AND INFLECTION 113 Examples: "I 'd rather be a dog, and bay the moon, than such a Roman! " (Indignation.) "I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not V V V V V V a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? . . . subject to the same diseases . . . as a Christian is?" (Satire.) "O save me, Hubert, save me! " (Horror.) >* v ^ "Cry aloud; for he is a god; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or perad- venture he sleepeth, and must be awaked." — 1 Kings 18: 27. (Irony.) CHAPTER II EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 54. i. Emphasis is, primarily and chiefly, a change of power in the utterance to express a change in the force of thought or feeling, more often in feeling than in thought. This change is from the normal and expected to the special and unexpected, thus giving the speaker power over the hearer. It is closely associated with inflection, generally coin- cident with it, and always on the accented syllable of a word. The purpose of inflection is to express the meaning clearly: the purpose of emphasis is to express the meaning more intensely. Unlike inflection, emphasis is produced : (/) By increased breath-pressure. (2) By increased resonance, causing a swelling tone. (j) By explosive utterance. (4) By pause — not rhythmic. (5) By various other means, as quickened or 114 EMPHASIS — INCLUDING STRESS 115 retarded movement, sharpened articulation, separa- tion of syllables, etc., all of which belong to other modifications of utterance, but may be connected with emphasis, also, if used to increase a desired im- pression. Emphasis includes Stress and involves Slide, as will be shown below. 2. Analysis of Emphasis: Emphasis, for convenience in study and practice, is divided as follows : (7) The emphasis of a word. (2) The emphasis of a sentence or phrase. (j) The emphasis of a succession of sentences. "As every word of more than one syllable has an accented syllable, and every grammatical group of words has an accented word, so every sentence or association of grammatical groups has an accented or emphatic idea. Emphasis is to verbal or clausal accents what the accents themselves are to unaccented syllables." — Bell's Principles of Elocution, p. 135. Word Emphasis. — This always falls on the ac- cented syllable. The only apparent exception is when the regular accent is changed for some pur- pose, as ' ' in-deed ' * for indeed (satirical). But even this comes under the law of the accented syllable. The change is in accent, not in emphasis. In fact, accent, itself, is the lowest degree of emphasis, but is not included within the meaning of that term, as Il6 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT here used, because accent, alone, does not neces- sarily emphasize thought or feeling. It belongs, rather, to the rhythm of speech (see Rhythm). It is evident that emphasis may fall on the begin- ning, middle, or end of the accented syllable, alone, or may run through the entire syllable, — to express various kinds of emotion. This variation of em- phasis has been called Stress, and has been treated as a separate principle; but as stress is nothing more or less than specially applied breath-pressure, and as emphasis is identical with it, in method and purpose, it is here included under emphasis. We have, then : A. Word-emphasis with initial or Radical Stress, the breath-pressure being applied at the beginning and vanishing to the end, — thus: O-o-oh! 1 repre- sented by O . B. Word-emphasis with middle or Median Stress, — thus: o-O-oh! with swell of tone in the middle, represented byO. This has the falling inflection delayed or held up, or coming at the end of a very short monotone or slightly rising inflection. The whole inflection of it may be represented thus / "X . 1 The hyphens do not indicate any break in the continuous tone. The capitals indicate the relative places of the increased breath- pressure. EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 117 C. Word-emphasis with final or Vanishing Stress, — thus : 0-0-Oh ! represented by <\. D. Word-emphasis with the Compound Stress, — thus: O-o-Oh! represented by £><3, or by B. intensified. This is coincident with compound or circumflex inflection and is the emphasis of that inflection. E. Word-emphasis with Thorough Stress, — thus: O-O-Oh ! represented by 1 i _ 55. Uses of Word- emphasis. (/) Emphasis is applied, in some degree, to the principal words of any sentence, to bring out by the light and shade of utterance the meaning in its ele- ments. It is sentence-analysis by emphasis, to the ear — e. g., "It is natural to man to indulge in the illu- sions of hope " ; " As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be. ' ' Other than principal words are unemphasized because they are necessary merely to the grammatical structure. (2) The Radical emphasis is used to call attention to the principal points of thought, or the antitheses of thought, rather than to the feeling. It gives life to statements and arguments. It has the falling inflection. Exercise. " Come all ! "• — "It is splendid/ " — "And it shall be, as with the people, so with the Il8 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT v ^ ^ priest; as with the servant, so with his master; as with the maid, so with her mistress ; as with the buyer, so with the seller ; as with the lender, so with the borrower; as with the taker of usilry, so with the giver of usury to htm." — Isa. 24: 2. The proper use of the strong ox percussive radical adds greatly to the clearness, and prevents dulness, in the expression of ab- stract thought and high moral and religious reflections. ( j) The Median Emphasis expresses solemn, sub- lime, and tender emotion. It is especially useful in poetry, in sympathetic speaking, and in the Bible and Prayer Book, where it may be considered as the ecclesiastical emphasis, because of the constant oc- currence of words that require reverent utterance. It admits of a variety of the most delicate shades, and needs much practice so as to produce the right impression and not be overdone. For instance, if unduly prolonged in the swell of the tone, it be- comes a wail, a howl, or a whine, characteristic of the most illiterate speakers — e. g., "And lose his own s-o-u-1," represented by «^^> , instead of <^> , or, in the inflection, by / \, in- stead of /' \ . Such a misuse also interferes with rhythm. EMPHASIS — INCLUDING STRESS II9 Exercises : "O lonely tomb in Moab's land! On dark Beth-peor s hill ! Speak to these curious hearts of ours, And teach them to be still : God hath His mysteries of grace, Ways that we cannot tell ; He hides them deep like the secret sleep Of him He loved so well." Burial of Moses, C. F. Alexander. "We must all repent." — "For thou hast made of a city a heap ; of a defenced city a ruin: a palace of strangers to be no city; it shall never be built." — Isa. 25 : 2. In the "General Thanksgiving," "for all thy goodness and loving-kindness to us and to all men." In the Prayer for the "whole state of Christ's Church militant," — "to the maintenance of thy true religion and virtue " "all the days of their life." {4) The final or vanishing emphasis expresses strenuous, invincible determination, unlimited sor- row, etc. — i. e. y any feeling so strong as to have no sign of ending. It is seldom used in church or pul- pit. A few passages in the Bible require it. The inflection is monotone. 120 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT Exercise. "Attend all! " (authoritative). "How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people! how is she become as a widow ! she that was great among the nations, and princess among the pro- vinces, how has she become tributary!" — Lam. I : I. (In similar manner to the end of the eighth verse.) (5) The compound emphasis — emphasis with the cir- cumflex inflection — expresses satire, contempt, etc. Exercise. "What! All? did they all fail?" and see § S3* Exercise 6 (2). (6) The thorough emphasis is used in some strong passages in poetry and in speeches that require sus- tained orotund, but is not so marked a species of emphasis as the others. It should be avoided in most places where it is misused in heavy monotony. It makes words sonorous throughout and is equiva- lent to an emphatic monotone. Exercises. ' ' Come one — come ALL ! " — " Awake, arise, or be forever fallen." "What constitutes a state? Not high-iaised battlements or labored mound, Thick wall or moated gate ; Not cities proud with spires and turrets crowned ; Not bays and broad-armed ports, Where, laughing at the storms, rich navies ride; EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 121 Not starred and spangled courts, Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. "No; men, high-minded men, With powers as far above dull brutes endued, In forest, brake or den, As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude — Men who their duties know, But know their rights, and knowing, dare main- tain — Prevent the long-aimed blow, And crush the tyrant while they rend the chain. " Sir William Jones. To the above may be added the Tremulous Stress, expressing horror, despair, etc. It should be voluntarily employed but seldom, if ever, in church or pulpit. .a. >v Exercise. " O s-a-v-e me, Hubert, s-a-v-e me ! 56. Sentence {and Phrase) Emphasis. — This is ap- plied to the word which expresses the leading idea among words rhetorically grouped, generally in a sentence, sometimes in a phrase. It is mostly used to express irony, scorn, defiance, and the like. It is given in three ways : A. By sudden emphasis on the particular word — 122 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT e.g., "I say without prejudice or regard for conse- quences, that he is a traitor! ' ' B. By use of the Slide of emphasis, or a gradual increase of emphasis on the accented syllables until the principal word is reached. This involves a gradual rise or fall of pitch. What has been called the slide of inflection is not justifiable except with the crescendo of emphasis, or, rarely, the diminuendo, in pathetic passages. C. By use of the Pause of Emphasis. This may accentuate an entire phrase or sentence, by setting it apart, — with or without special word- emphasis. It is different from the rhythmic pause in that it interrupts the movement, and is not marked off by the beat of the rhythm (see Rhythm). By its length is determined the amount of feeling to be expressed at that point in the delivery. It is some- times accompanied by ellipsis. Used in vivid de- scription, startling statement, defiance, etc. Exercises in Sentence Emphasis (slide and pause). "But where, thought I, is the crew? — their struggle has long been over: — they have gone down amidst the roar of the tempest ; — their bones lie whitening in the caverns of the deep." "Caesar had his Brutus! — Charles the First his Cromwell! —and George the Third — [in the ellipsis. EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 123 cries of'' treason, treason ! "]— If this be treason — make the most of it ! ' ' " The war is inevitable — and let it come! — I repeat it, sir, let it come!" — Patrick Henry. Recite, also, "Brutus in Julius Ccesar," and Tous- saint rOuverture (§ 53). (In these, notice the ora- toric interrogation, with pause.) For sentence emphasis with slide of increase, and emphatic falling inflection, to express irony and scorn, read : "They that make a graven image are all of them vanity ; and their delectable things shall not profit ; and they are their own witnesses ; they see not, nor know, that they may be ashamed. . . . Then shall it be for a man to burn : for he will take thereof, and warm himself; yea, he klndleth it and baketh bread; yea, he maketh a god, and wor- shipeth it ; he maketh it a graven Image, and falleth down thereto. He burneth part thereof in the fire ; with part thereof he eateth flesh ; he roasteth roast, and is satisfied ; yea, he warmeth himself, and saith, Aha! I am warm, I have seen the fire: — and the residue thereof he maketh a god, even his graven Image; he falleth down unto it, and wor- shipeth it, and prayeth unto it [series'], and saith, Deliver me, for thou art my God. [Long pause. 124 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT resume with low tone.'] They have not known nor understo6d : for he hath shut their eyes that they cannot see; and their hearts, that they cannot understand. And none considereth in his heart, 1 neither is there kndwledge nor understanding to say, — I have burned part of it in the fire; yea, also, I have baked bread upon the coals thereof; I have roasted flesh, and eaten it: and shall I make the residue thereof an abomination? shall I fall down to the stock of a tree? {Pause, resume with low tone.] He feedeth on ashes : a deceived heart hath turned him aside, that he cannot deliver his soul, nor say, Is there not a lie in my right hand?" — Isaiah 44: 9, 15-20. 57. Emphasis extended through a succession or repetition of sentences, or Cumulative Emphasis. It is sometimes well to make a whole paragraph, or more, emphatic, but care must be taken to apply this kind of emphasis only to a most elevated style, which is sufficiently strong in meaning and feeling to bear it. Exercise. "Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So AM /. Are they the seed of Abraham? So AM/." (Emphasis in repetition.) 1 These circumflex marks indicate the satire of the author, rather than of the idolater. EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 125 Observe sustained and cumulative emphasis, with pause, and declamatory force, with full orotund, in the following : "While the Union lasts, we have high, exciting, gratifying prospects spread out before us, for us and for our children. Beyond that I seek not to pene- trate the veil. God grant that, in my day, at least, that curtain may not rise ! God grant that on my vision never may be opened what lies behind. When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the last time, the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious Union; on States dissevered, dis- cordant, belligerent ; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood ! Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the gorgeous ensign of the republic, now known and honored throughout the earth, still 'full high ad- vanced,' — its arms and trophies streaming in their original lustre, — not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star obscured; bearing, for its motto, no such miserable interrogatory as, 'What is all this worth?' nor those other words of delusion and folly, 'Liberty first, and Union afterwards,' — but everywhere, spread all over, in characters of living light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float 126 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT over the sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that other sentiment, dear to every true American heart, — 'Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!'" — The American Union, Webster. For cumulative emphasis recite also, "From these walls," etc., Everett, §31. 58. The degree of emphasis (as of inflection) can- not be exactly prescribed for any passage or for any speaker. It depends upon temperament, which must have its own free expression, and upon the occasion, including the acoustics of the building. Wise judgment, practice, experience, and cultivated feeling are needed here, and should be diligently employed before one feels qualified as a public speaker or preacher. It is not enough to say, "This is my way" ; but it is well to learn the way that will make the best use of one's temperament, vocal power, education, and opportunity, — under due control. One method of securing a tender, reverent em- phasis, of the most refined order, should be especially cultivated. It consists in opening the resonant cavities of the throat and mouth and making words fuller, without manifest increase of power — espe- cially when power would be offensive. In the office EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 1 27 of the Holy Communion, at funerals, in sympa- thetic or memorial addresses and the like, this use of the voice is especially desirable. 59. False Emphasis. — False emphasis, the indi- cation of a crude thinker, or an unmanageable voice, must be avoided by careful study of Bible, Prayer Book, and Sermon, before the public delivery ; and this study should be kept up during the lifetime, of course with a decreasing amount of uncertainties to settle. Certain errors and difficulties are discussed below : (1) In the Decalogue, emphasis upon "not" alone is wrong. It should be, "Thou shalt not," accord- ing to the colloquial use, "can't, won't/' etc., and according to the "emphatic conjugation." In the Creed, "He rose again" is wrong. It should be "rose again," — i. e., not a second time, but back from the dead. (2) Emphasis upon the personal pronouns is often misplaced. They are simply for grammatical form, and unemphatic, except when one person is to be distinguished from another. "Suffer us not at our last hour, for any pains of death, to fall from thee," suggests an unpleasant application to the person departed, instead of a general petition. In regard to pronouns referring to the Almighty, 128 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT in many of the collects: "So rule the hearts of thy servants," is wrong; "servants" is the emphatic word. " We beseech thee" is generally wrong, especially in the Litany, the emphasis properly falling upon "beseech" "Almighty God, who hast given us grace" is wrong. It should be "grace" that word conveying the new idea. (3) Distributed Emphasis. — Special attention should be given to certain expressions, the emphasis of which has been disputed — e. g., some read, "And God said, Let there be light, and there was light," and "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." Others read, "And there was light " "The Word was with God, and the Word was God. ' ' The author is of the opinion that the former reading, emphasiz- ing "was," but not too much, is the better, because more in accordance with natural usage, as in the following extract from Beveridge's The Russian Advance: "American flour looks better, tastes better, is better than that produced in B ." This is the natural emphasis. With no emphasis on ' ' was, ' ' in the Biblical passages, the new or additional thought is not brought out, and so the law of em- phasis is ignored, if not directly violated. The new meaning in the first sentence is : " And light came EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 129 into being, or was ; hence the demand for some emphasis on "was." In the second sentence, the addition or differentiation of idea is expressed only in the words "with" and "was." Therefore some emphasis, at least, is demanded for those words. Now, if some regard the sacred passages quoted above as requiring a more dignified emphasis than the conversational, and if it is well to effect a com- promise, where so many differ, so that the reading of those verses may not be an offence to either party, it is recommended here that the emphasis be distributed, in this manner: "And there was light" "And the Word was with God, and the Word was God." "And they spoiled the Egyptians" (Ex. 12: 36) should be emphasized as marked, to bring out the particular meaning of spoil (despoil) and save the sentence from a ridiculous suggestion. "Behold the man " (St. John 19 : 5) should be emphasized thus, instead of on the word " man " alone, because Pilate was urgently calling the attention of the Jews to their victim — not distinguishing him as a man from any one or anything else. Similar study and use of distributed emphasis may be applied to many other passages, with advan- tage to reader and hearer. 130 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT A beautiful instance of this use was once given in the reading of St. Mark 16: 3, 4, by a celebrated preacher. It expressed the joy of the faithful women, as follows: "And they said among them- selves, Who shall roll us away the stone from the door of the sepulchre? And when they looked, they saw that the stone WAS rolled away: for it was very great.' ' (4) A common error is to substitute drawl for emphasis, prolonging the word instead of giving it more volume. It alters the true quantity of vowels and syllables, breaks up the rhythm, and is, after all, ineffective. "I be-1-i-e-v-e" is not so forcible as "1 believe," promptly uttered, and is no more rever- ent. "The L-o-r-d be with you" is not so correct as "Th£ Lord be with you." (5) The following instances have been noted by Dr. Russell: [In 3d, 4th, and nth note rhythmic pause.] " Determined to sail by Ephesus " should be " sail by Ephesus." — Acts 20: 16. " Saw in a vision evidently " should be as marked. — Acts 10 : 3. '* There were also two other, | malefactors/' etc. Emphasize "other" and pause. — St. Luke 23: 32. "They found Mary and Joseph, | and the babe lying in a manger." Without the pause at EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 131 "Joseph," or with a pause after "babe," the read- ing is painfully absurd. — St. Luke 2: 16. "Servants, obey in all things your mhsters, ac- cording to the flesh." — Col. 3: 22. (Correct.) "And they that have believing masters, let them not despise them, because they are brethren." — 1 Tim. 6: 2. (Correct.) "By that which is called the Circumcision | in the flesh I made by hands." — Eph. 2: 11. "In the flesh" is a parenthesis. "For then would they not have ceased to be dffered?" not "offered." — Heb. 10:2. Rising in- flection. "Because greater is he that is in you than he that is in the w6rld." — 1 John 4: 4. (Correct.) "And he spared to take of his own flock." — 2 Sam. 12:4. (Correct.) "They took him even as he was | in the ship." — St. Mark 4: 36. (Correct.) "Take heed to thyself that thou offer not thy burnt offering in every place that thou seest: but in the place which the Lord shall choose in one of thy tribes, there thou shalt offer thy burnt offer- ings." — Deut. 12: 13, 14. (Correct.) "Cast ye the unprofitable servant into outer dark- ness, there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth. 132 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT —St. Matt. 25 : 30. (Correct.) [But,— read "weep- ing I and gnashing of teeth," not " weeping-and- gnashing | of teeth."] " Surely He hath borne our griefs" is correct in Isa. 53:4. (6) Subordination of Emphasis. — Whole phrases or sentences are sometimes made to express their subordinate relation to the context, by a reduction of the power in utterance, as if printed in small type. This is very important in narration and dialogue. In the following examples the small type denotes the subordinated passage : 1 Kings 18. V. 24: And call ye on the name of your gods, and I will call on the name of the Lord: and the God that answereth by fire, let him be God. And all the people answered and said, It is well spoken. V. 26 ; Saying, O Baal, hear US. But there was no voice, nor any that answered. And they leaped upon the altar that was made. V. 30: And Elijah said unto all the people, Come near unto me. And all the people came near unto him. And he repaired the altar that was broken down. Daniel 5:2: Belshazzar, whiles he tasted the wine, com- manded to bring the golden and silver vessels, which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple which was in Jerusalem; that the king, and his EMPHASIS— INCLUDING STRESS 1 33 princes, his wives and his concubines, might drink therein. St. John 4 : 26, 27 : Jesus saith unto her, I that speak unto thee am he. And upon this came his disciples, and marvelled that he talked with the woman : yet no man said, what seekest thou? or, why talkest thou with her? From a sermon: "But this subject is interminable. I am circumnavigating the whole orb of human experience. There is no end to it. Yet there is this clue. When our Master says to men who are weary and heavy laden, 'Come to me and I will give you rest,' he strikes that one single note, that blessed chord, which has vibrated through the ages. ' ' CHAPTER III. [Under this heading are included all the elements of the flow of speech.] 60. The value of a "smooth delivery" in reading the service and in preaching cannot be over-esti- mated ; and its effect is well understood by our congregations. It is that quality which stamps a reader or speaker as above the ordinary, aside from his intellectual ability. It is indispensable to persuasion or eloquence : with good tone it consti- tutes the music of oratory, which a fine voice, alone, cannot produce. In some instances, for the satisfaction of an instinctive desire for musical smoothness, resort is made to sing-song; that is, a regular rise and fall of the voice, perhaps with pauses, regardless of adaptation to the meaning or different values of the words. But sing-song is 1 Much of the substance of this chapter was published in the Church Eclectic for February, 1904. 134 RHYTHM 135 rightly regarded by the intelligent as an offence to the cultivated ear. Now the true satisfaction of the instinct which is falsely expressed by sing-song, the remedy for that fault, and the secret of a smooth delivery, is the observance of rhythm. Rhythm, in reading or speaking prose, may be defined as the vocal expres- sion of the symmetrical and harmonious progression of thought. The rhythmic poetic form of Tenny- son's I11 Memoriam, although a meditative, philo- sophic poem, makes it finer than any plain prose treatise on the same subject. So, to a high degree, in the peroration of Webster's famous speech: " When my eyes shall be turned to behold | for the last time | the sun | in heaven" | etc., the strongly marked rhythm was an essential accom- paniment to his sonorous tones and his finished sentiment. Read this with a slide of the voice up to "time" and "heaven " and the rising inflection and pause there, only, and you have sing-song. ' ' When my eyes, ' ' etc. , of even power and emphasis, would be unmusical; and, to take a metaphor from the animal kingdom, would be plantigrade — a flat- footed, clumsy progression. 61. The sense of rhythm, for any purpose, is best learned from the highest kind of music. In orches- 136 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT tra or chorus, the time is kept as an essential and predominant feature, and is absolute, — even retard or acceleration, rests or pauses, being governed by a physical or mental time-beat, with accent in every bar. The music, so-called, of congregational sing- ing "drags" when the sense of exact rhythm is lacking in the singers, or is not imperatively given by a leader. Music of some elaboration is most in- structive as to rhythm, because it involves so many details of melody and harmony ; and it should be noticed, also, in this connection, that all properly written music is built up with phrases, and the marking of these is indispensable to an artistic per- formance, either in two or more parts, or in solo. In poetry we find a second inspiration to rhythm, not absolute, but coming between the rhythm of music and that of a speech, as in the following lines from Tennyson : "And if his fel'low spake, His voice was thin' y as voices fr<5m the grdve; And de£p asleep he seem'ed, yet *SS! awake, And mtisic in' his ears his beating hedrt did makeY* It will be noticed that, in poetry, the accent often falls on the less important words, the form being of more special importance than in prose, for the RHYTHM I37 sake of melody; but the accent, in such cases, is more lightly given in proper reading, and each line or phrase has its own chief emphasis, as indicated above. This adjustment shows the connecting link between the rhythm of poetry and the rhythm of prose. There is even a poetical element in good prose; but the rhythm of prose is approximate, as to regularity and exactitude, to that of poetry and music, and frequently changes its form. The ques- tion may be raised whether verses, even if rhymed, are poetry when the rhythmic form is largely absent throughout the lines. They are, at best, poetic thought rather than poetic form, as in Whitman and, sometimes, in Browning. Poetry emphasizes the general truth that rhythmic expression, in some form, is demanded for rhythmic thought. All thought that is clear has its accentua- tion, its phrasing, its pauses. Even logic, in the syllogism, suggests rhythm. Analysis, by expres- sion in progressive series of elements, may be rhythmical; premises, conclusions, balanced state- ments, — any parts of a symmetrical whole, — corre- spond in length and importance, and their expression is rhythmical. Spasmodic, obscure, or incomplete thinking is unrhythmical and cannot result in good poetry or good prose. 138 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT The essential elements of prose rhythm are : 1. Quantity. 2. Accent. 3. Phrase. 4. Move- ment. 5. Melody. 62. Quantity is the relative length of tone in syl- lables and monosyllabic words. It corresponds to the whole note, half note, etc., of music, and to the probable pronunciation of *'long" and "short" syllables in Greek and Latin poetry. It belongs under the subject of rhythm because it is a regula- tion of the time employed in pronouncing syllables and is, therefore, one of the primary elements in the flow of speech. Quantity should not be ignored because so few speakers regard it. But there are always to be observed persons of refined speech, most of them women, whose conversation becomes even and rhythmic largely from making long vowels generally of the same length, in effect, and short vowels of the same brevity. But regulated quantity should be learned in preliminary practice, not adopted, con- sciously, in public use of the voice. According to the best authorities,' syllables may be classified, with respect to quantity, into : (1) Long — i. e. y containing the long vowels, — made, mode, etc. 1 E.g., Murdoch-Russell in Vocal Culture. RHYTHM 139 (2) Short — i. e., containing the short vowels, divided into : a. Immutable — L e., such as are, from their nature, incapable of prolongation, on account of the con- sonants associated with them, without positive mispronunciation, — as sick, convict, infect. b. Mutable— i. e., such as are capable of a slight degree of prolongation, zsyet in "not yet prepared? " Also, some consonants may contribute to the lengthening of the quantity by a more gradual formation of their sound than usual, as in b-oy, do, etc. , especially b, d, g, 1, m, n, r. This applies to the reverent utterance of the word God, which should be so pronounced as to have long quantity. A whole sentence may have longer quantity given to its long vowels for the expression of the greater emotions, as, "Deep calleth unto deep," — "Alone, alone, all, all alone. 1 ' We praise Thee, O God, we acknowledge Thee to be the Lord. ' ' ' ' Holy, holy, holy : Lord God of Sabaoth. ' ' "In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth" This longer quantity, however, must be generally uniform or it will degenerate into drawl, which is unmeasured, un- rhythmic, indefinite prolongation — an element of sing-song. I40 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT 63. Accent. — "All speech is composed of a suc- cession of heavy and light sounds, or accented and unaccented syllables, produced by the alternate action and reaction of the larynx, this organ being subject to the law of pulsation and remission common to all muscular effort" ' (or impulse and relaxation). In spoken English, the distinction between ac- cented and unaccented syllables is strongly marked. Every word has one or more accents, according to authorized pronunciation ; except ; , that monosyllables and some dissyllables may not and often do not have an accent of their own, but are used as enclitics, throwing their accent back upon the preceding word, or as proclitics, throwing their accent forward to the next word, as in "He found it." "He," when un- emphatic, is a proclitic ; "it" is an enclitic. Such words may have the secondary accent, only, as in "In" a wor'd." The "pulsative act," referred to, above, necessi- tates the utterance of successive syllables in groups, in each of which a primary accent predominates, as, mor'-al-ly, spiritually, "Look at it ! " In the form- ing of these groups, which are sometimes called measures, and may be composed of one or more words, not more than five syllables can be included 1 Murdoch in Analytic Elocution, p. 378. RHYTHM 141 in one of them, one accented and four unaccented, and each group is uttered by one impulse and one relaxation of the voice. The impulse, or accent, may be upon one word, the relaxation upon an- other, as in " Fi'nd him ! " There are five kinds of accentual group or measure ■ : (1) The Emphatic Measure. — One syllable, long quantity, effect of accented and unaccented utter- ance in one syllable. "Stand I fast!" "Cry | fire!" (2) The Common Measure. — Two syllables, as hum- ble, indeed, — accent on either first or second syllable. (3) The Triple Measure. — Three syllables, the im- pulse on the first or third, the relaxation on the two others, in one word or parts of two words, as, "natural," "speaking in | parables," "In the end I he was found." (4) The Quadruple Measure. — Four syllables, in one or more words, relaxation on three of the syl- lables, as, comfortingly, "Give' it to me," — when "me" is unemphatic. "Give' it | to m£" would be in common measure. But quadruple is often made common measure by a secondary accent, as, "Give it to" me!" (5) The Accelerated Measure. — Five syllables — the 1 See Murdoch, Analytic Elocution, in part. The accent here does not indicate inflection. 142 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT relaxation in four of them, as, spiritually, volunta- rily. This is a possible measure, but, in fact, is gen- erally formed into two, one Common and one Triple, by a secondary accent, as, spiritu- | al"-ly, volun- | tarily — to prevent the tumbling of too many unac- cented syllables. It is called "accelerated" because it necessitates a very rapid enunciation of the un- accented syllables, an evidence of the strong and characteristic tendency, in this country, at least, for the common and triple measures to predominate. E.g., the Syrian immigrant says, " Je'r-u-sa-lem," the American, "Je-ru-sa-le"m." Some Englishmen say "necessary" with tumbling, unaccented syl- lables; the American, more rhythmically, says, ' ' nec'-es-sa"-ry . /. e. y in words of more than three syllables, a secondary, or even a tertiary, accent may be added to form an accentuation in the effect of common time, as in In-com /// -pre-hen"-si-bil-ity, by "accelerating" any triplet, or quadruplet, so that the quantity is even. Words may be so arranged as to make an agree- able and measured sequence of accents — e. g., "He was there, always, for business that was important" 1 may be changed to, "He was always th6re for im- portant business." 1 Accelerated — toward the last syllable of the measure. RHYTHM 143 The only excuse for pronouncing the final ed of the past tense, separately, in the Bible, is the demand for rhythmic ac- centuation, as in: " The parch-ed ground shall becom'e a pool," and "A bruis-ed reed shall he n6t break." But " Hallowed" is better than "hallow-ed" in saying the Lord's Prayer. It is clearly seen, in the foregoing explanation, that agreeably regu- lated accent works into rhythm. The examination of the Measure shows that there are metrical "feet" in prose as well as in poetry, also that the accent of a measure or foot is not necessarily on the first syllable of a word. For these reasons, prose rhythm is best formed on the basis of the metrical foot, not on the musical "bar" the accent of which is always on the first note, or beat. The effort, in some former treatises on elo- cution, to mark off prose in bars seems mechanical, unreal, irritating, and often futile. In fact, no arrangement, of much length, according to the bar, can be made without frequently introducing pauses, or rests, at the beginnings of the bars to eke out the measure. These difficulties may explain why prose rhythm has been so much neglected or mis- understood. But as the sense of rhythm arises in musical feeling, where the time and accent are abso- lute, and comes through the modified and less exact forms in poetry, as in language distinguished from music, and then finds satisfaction in a close approxi- 144 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT mation to poetic form and more distant approxima- tion to musical form, it seems more correct and natural, and certainly is more effective, to base the rhythm of prose, not upon the musical bar, but upon the poetic foot, with a poetic freedom in loca- tion of accent. Various poetic feet enter into prose, as will be seen in the following illustrations : Quick, nervous appeals and the like may be dac- tylic, as "Give' him his | due!" or anapestic, as, "In a word' | he is false 7 ! " The Trochee is found only in the briefest expressions, and therefore needs no consideration. Feet accented on the first syllable do not enter largely into serious prose, being too light and lively in effect for sustained expression. But the Iambus, ^ — , is the prevalent foot in all urgent or eloquent speech, especially when that is long sus- tained and periodic, and leads up to a climax. (See Note II, Appendix.) The coming instead of the departing accent is consistent with the coming word of emphasis, as in "No ey'e | has seen him, | No ear | has heard him, | The se'- | cret is' | his ow'n | and it" | is sdfe" Webster. " Is " and " it " have very light, secondary accent, enough for the special distinctness of oratory; "him" in both instances RHYTHM 145 stands precisely as the additional syllable at the end of a line of poetry, and as an enclitic in Greek. The general effect is de- cidedly Iambic. The following Trochaic or musical-bar arrange- ment is contrasted with the Iambic : "It re- I mains with | you then | — to de- | cide | whether that | freedom | — at | whose | voice | — the I kingdoms of | Europe | —a- | woke from the I sleep of I ages | " etc. (Quoted as marked; the accent is on the first syllable of the bar and — indi- cates a rest instead of the missing primary accent.) The poetic or Iambic : (2) " It I remains' | with y6u | — then' | to decide | 1 whether | that free'- | dom at" | whose voice | the (2) (2) (2) king' I doms of Eu- | rope awdke | from the sleep | of a- I ges, ' ' etc. Recite the two arrangements rapidly with strong accent to test the rhythm. Anapests are found in this as in many poetic lines, without marring the Iambic effect. They are "accelerated." Recite also : "/ J am the res"- | urrec- | tion | and the life' | saith the Lor'd | — h£ | that believ- | eth in m£ | — though I he were dead | — ye"t | shall he live' " (Anapestic). 1 Rhythm interrupted, or, better, a measure of four syllables, as | whether that free | . 2 Anapests. 146 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT In the above examples it is seen that prose rhythm is liable to interruption or cessation of foot-form, and to change of foot, as in poetry. But these would be fatal to musical arrangement. An un- varying regularity of accent, like the scanning of poetry, would be artificial and obnoxious ; but, as a basic element of rhythm, recurring accent, with proximate regularity, is real, and a large contribu- tion to the smoothness of delivery. Rhythmical accentuation in delivery gives ease to articulation. It also helps to prevent the eccentric, exaggerated, or misplaced emphasis which belongs to sing-song, especially the undue prominence given, sometimes, to prepositions, conjunctions, and pro- nouns that are grammatically necessary, but not emphatic. For example, "All the deceits of the world," "the communion of saints," "the forgive- ness of sins, ' ' and the like, are wrong. [' ' Light of light," etc. (right), in the Nicene Creed, are excep- tions, the "of" having there a peculiar meaning re- quiring emphasis.] "For all thy goodness " (Gen. Thanksgiving), "Let all the earth keep silence be- fore him" frequently heard, are wrong. They should be, "For all thy goodness," "Keep silence before him," i. e. "in his presence" not "in his presence," because in either example there is no RHYTHM 147 possible doubt as to whose goodness or presence is referred to. "As it was in the beginning" (too rigidly rhythmic) for "As it was \ in the beginning." "Lord God of Sabaoth" for "Lord God of Sab- aoth." And so in scores of examples that might be cited. 64. Phrase or Phrasing. — This is an element that may or may not include prosodial feet. It is the grouping of words in the delivery (not necessarily by following the punctuation), so as to concentrate attention upon a section of the thought and indi- vidualize it, differentiate it, or cause it to balance another phrase. 1 Phrasing is effected by (1) Pause, which separates from surrounding words ; or by (2) A gradual approach or slide to the chief emphasis on the last accented syllable. This pause may be just long enough to make the separation, or it may, for emphasis, become a part of a phrase, and in that case must have its rhythmical measure, short or long, according to the emphatic or solemn character of the style. Too long a pause for emphasis, only, may cause attention to relax by disturbing the rhythm ; too short a pause may fail to effect the phrasing. Apart from poetic feet, but not from poetic suggestion, we may regard phrasing as the most 1 See Note III, in Appendix. 148 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT characteristic and essential element of prose rhythm. It may or may not include a regular accentuation, but the swing and balance of phrases, varied in force and time, make a flexible medium for the expression of rhythmic thought, prevent sing-song, and consti- tute, with fine tone, the music of oratory. In cases where phrases balance one another, a long one may be spoken more rapidly, or a short one more slowly. The few words are likely to be more weighty, individually, than the many words of a longer phrase, as : Yet we suf- | fer ourselVes | to go on || y£ar | after year | . The second phrase may take about as much time as the first. [In this and in many cases, the speech-phrase is the passage be- tween pauses, and may be a grammatical sentence.] As an example of proper phrasing the Prayer of St. Chrysostom is marked, below : " Almighty God 1 || who hast given us grace (1) | at this time with one accord to make our common supplications unto thee; || and dost promise (1) | that when two or three are gathered together in thy name | thou wilt grant their requests ; | Fulfil, now, 1 At these lines which indicate a single or double pause, in some cases the pause is almost imperceptible, a slight lift of the voice on the last word of the phrase taking its place, as at (1). RHYTHM 149 O Lord, I the desires and petitions of thy servants, | as may be most expedient for them ; [granting us in this world (1) | knowledge of thy truth | and in the world to come | life everlasting." The rhythmic character of the Bible and the Prayer Book is generally admired. The translators and compilers seem to have been saturated with the essence of Hebrew poetry and the rhythm of the Elizabethan English. Why should not the reading correspond? The rapid, monotonous utterance in ' ' short services ' ' is inexcusable. Far better to ab- breviate than to scramble. In sermons, the same principles apply, especially in passages intended to persuade or inspire. It is often well to recast a sentence, while writing, so that it may be spoken rhythmically. But, on the other hand, there may be some sentences, especially in our modern, nervous, writers, which seem to be made unrhythmic for the sake of producing a suc- cession of strongly individualized emphases, or for the lack of language more adequate to express the desired meaning. An example is taken at random from one of Bishop Brooks' sermons, with the rhythm, phrasing, etc., indicated: "Now use the tl-lus-tra- tion. I do not know that /can state it better" (regu- larly iambic). ' ' The law of constraint | is that which 150 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT grows out of man's outward relations with God. j| The law of liberty | is that which issues from the tendencies of a man's own nature \ inwardly filled with God." This is unrhythmic except in the balance of sentences and phrases, which reveals the rhythm of the thought. But, as the writer comes to the conclusion of the paragraph, the style changes into the rhythm of accentuation: "Just as soon as a man gets into such a condition \ that every freedom \ sets toward duty, \ then \ evidently | he will need no law | except | that freedom | and all duty | will be reached and done." Other examples of phrasing will occur in the quo- tations that follow, in this chapter. 65. Movement, or the rate of utterance. (1) This would be of no consequence unless con- nected with the preceding elements of rhythm, for it is a regulated and measured movement, alone, that belongs to the art of delivery, as a tempo marked off by beats, alone, belongs to music. For convenience, movement may be divided into slow, moderate, and quick. The moderate movement may be considered as the natural rate of ordinary speech, where there are no peculiarities, in calm description, statement, and argument. It has vari- ous degrees of speed within its own limits. Slow RHYTHM 151 and quick movements are those especially used for solemn or emphatic effect. They, only, need attention. (2) In general, three cautions may be observed by each speaker in regard to this element : a. To ascertain if his own natural rate of utter- ance in reading or speaking, appears to good judges abnormally fast or slow; if it does, to practise the opposite kind of movement. b. To observe that every passage of strong mean- ing or emotive power needs its own appropriate movement, which must be followed, or the effect of the passage will be entirely lost. The torrent of words affected by some speakers, as if rush meant solid fervor, is fatal to rhythmic delivery, and leads almost inevitably to sing-song. Tumultuous think- ing results in unrhythmic style, however forcible it may seem, and the language of it is not easily understood by the multitude. c. To change the movement from moderate to slow or quick, etc., as changes occur in the passages delivered. An undeviating rate is monotonous and wearisome. In the same chapter in the Bible, in the same sermon, there may be several changes of sentiment which should affect the movement. (3) For practice in slow movement, read Genesis 1 : 152 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT i— 13, Psalm 130, and the Burial Service, especially the Committal. 4. For practice in moderate movement, read the Exhortation in the Prayer Book. Also, apply this rate to the first part of sermons. 5. For practice in quick movement, which for the sake of command of articulation, etc., should be made by degrees as rapid as possible, and then adapted to the passage, recite : (a) "Behind shut the postern, the light sank to rest, And into the midnight we galloped abreast. Not a word to each other; we kept the great pace, Neck by neck, stride for stride, never changing our place ; I turned in my saddle, and made its girth tight, Then shortened each stirrup, and set the pique right, Rebuckled the check-strap, chained slacker the bit, Nor galloped less steadily, Roland, a whit." Browning. (b) "To form an idea of Caesar's energy and activity, observe him when he is surprised by the RHYTHM 153 Nervii. His soldiers are employed in pitching their camp. The ferocious enemy sallies from his con- cealment, puts the Roman cavalry to rout, and falls upon the foot. Everything is alarm, confusion, and disorder. Every one is doubtful what course to take — every one but Caesar. He causes the banner to be erected, the charge to be sounded, the soldiers at a distance to be recalled — all in a moment. He runs from place to place ; his whole frame is in action ; his words, his looks, his motions, his gestures, exhort his men to remember their former valor. He draws them up, and causes the signal to be given — all in a moment. The contest is doubtful and dreadful; two of his legions are entirely surrounded. He seizes a buckler from one of the private men, puts himself at the head of his broken troops; darts into the thick of the battle, rescues his legions, and overthrows the enemy." — Julius Ccesar, J. S. Knowles. 6. Note that expressions of approval and pathos are slow; e.g., the Beatitudes (Matt. 5), Matt. 25: 23, and the story of the crucifixion ; of disapproval, are quick-moderate (Matt. 25 : 26, 27). Note change of movement in dialogue, as from the light, thoughtless words of the woman of Samaria to the grave and gentle replies of our Lord. (Note 154 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT also tone-color here.) Also in the Parable of the Prodigal Son, Luke 15: 11-32. V. 12, quick. V. 14, slow. Verses 17-19, slow. V. 20: "And he arose and came to his father" (moderate). "But when he was yet a great way off " (slow), "his father saw him, and had compassion on him, and ran, and fell on his neck, and kissed him" (increasing in quickness). Note also that a parenthesis is quick, if unem- phatic, slow if emphatic ; e. g., Eph. 2 : 5, "By grace ye are saved " (slow). 7. The subject of movement is a very complex one, and explicit directions cannot be given; but much study and practice should be devoted to it. 66. Melody. — In music this term is used to denote an agreeable succession of sounds, not all on the same pitch, and giving the impression of a begin- ning, a progression, and an ending, like a complete sentence in speaking. It is often equivalent to "tune " or "air." In elocution the term is limited to agreeable successions of pitch, both in single words and in successive phrases and clauses. It consists of the "employing and combining of in- flections" (Raymond). In conversation, every ut- terance contains changes in pitch, as we saw under "Inflection "(§ 50). RHYTHM /"-"^"I55 Is he here?" "* / Examples : ' * Where has he gone ? ' ' He was here. -" / In poetry we observe similar changes. Example : "For woman is not undevelopt mdn, _ — _ __ / But diverse : could we make he> as a mdn, Sweet Love were slain : whose dearest bond is this, Not like to like, but like in difference." In well-written prose, the successions of pitch are strongly marked in its proper delivery, as in, "She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, noble Nell • ™^™ ■"■" ™~ ~ was dead." 156 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT The above marks are used to indicate the possible relative changes in separate words, As will be evi- dent, in many cases these changes run into each other, producing the slide of inflection, and with this there is always the slide of emphasis ; i. e., the change of pitch and emphasis runs through the sentence, clause, or phrase, without abrupt break anywhere. Note. — Change of pitch regulated by thoughtful sentiment is Melody. Change of pitch unregulated by thought is Sing-song. Other examples, illustrative of melody, may be found in this book, especially those of marked beauty of style, among which may be mentioned : Webster's The American Union, Everett's Love of Liberty, both in sonorous melody; The Death of Little Nell, by Dickens, throughout, in pathetic melody. 6j. Although we find, as shown by the examples, strong reasons for securing that musical and poetic culture which shall so train the ear that rhythmic reading and speaking shall become an instinctive necessity, yet rhythm must be regarded as a means and not an end. The rhythm may be strongly marked in practice for training, but in the ordinary rendering, it is safest to give the sense, and let the RHYTHM 157 rhythm, whether in prose or poetry, take care of itself, which it certainly will, after sufficient train- ing, remaining as a desirable element of the "swing" and " flow " of speech and the basis of that general movement, fast or slow, which distinguishes one passage, throughout, from another, just as the "tempo" of one "movement" of a symphony differs from that of another. The practising of rhythm corrects many faults of expression ; for rhythm is vivid, musical, and agree- able — the method of culture. Sing-song is mechani- cal, involuntary, tedious, and undignified — a crude expedient. "Sing-song is the rhythm of feeling without the rhythm of ideas " (Dr. Curry). Breath- ing and gesticulation, or any oratorical action, can be made to fit in with the rhythm of thought and speech, and then, if the foregoing principles are observed, the whole personality of the speaker is in harmonious activity. 68. Exercises in Rhythm. 1. The rhythm of a clear, simple, and fervid style, especially as shown in successive phrasing and bal- anced emphases, like the throbbing of a great heart, is finely exemplified in the following passage from Lincoln's second inaugural address: "Fondly do we hope J fervently do we pray | that this mighty scourge 158 ADAPTATION TO THOUGHT AND SENTIMENT of war I may speedily pass away. ||Yet, | if God wills that it continue | until all the wealth \ piled by the bondman s two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil I shall be sunk, || and until ^wrj/ dfo?/ of ^/l tky servants," "thy honour and glory," in the Prayer for the President, are wrong. So, also, with 206 THE LITURGICAL USE OF THE VOICE regard to undue accent — the quiet swell or openness of the tone, making emphasis, is better. pronouncing the eight woes upon the Pharisees and Sadducees, St. Matt. 23: 13-36, with- out denunciatory tone, or St. Matt. 23: 37-39, "O Jerusalem," etc., without pathos; reading the Christmas lessons without the tone of joy, or the Good Friday lessons and the account of the cruci- fixion without the tone of sorrow. This lack is the cause of many improprieties. 3. Extremes of tone or expression — among which may be mentioned : a. The purely dramatic manner. GENERAL SPIRIT AND MANNER 233 The dramatic element, such as is found in the stories of David and Goliath and of Elijah on Mt. Carmel, should be suggested, not vocally acted out. The highest emotions appear in the Bible, but their ex- pression should be moderate, b. Monotony, which has no place in any reading, c. The plaintive voice, which, in its excess, degenerates into a whine, reminiscent of those days "when the 'language of Canaan,' droned through the nostrils, was the vocal indication of a peculiar type of piety." d. Manner- ism, or undue refinement of expression, mincing tones, attenuation of voice, etc. "Beauty," in voice as in other things, "is the economy of strength," not of delicacy alone. It should always be evident to the ear that it is a man who is reading. CHAPTER II ADAPTATION OF THE READING TO DIFFERENT STYLES OF COMPOSITION 96. It is difficult to classify precisely particular passages in the Bible according to the characteristics of style, because of the exuberance and complexity of Oriental expression. A merchant of to-day in a bazaar in Damascus may include the historic, the descriptive, the oratoric, and the dramatic elements, in his plea for the purchase of a rug. In the largest way, the Bible reveals a similar blending of styles, because of its purely Oriental origin. But, for con- venience in study, a general classification may be made, with the understanding that different styles often enter into the same chapter or even the same paragraph. The following are the varieties selected, with references to illustrative passages 1 : 1. Narrative and Description (the historical por- 1 Throughout the use of this section, it is expected that students will have the Bible at hand, to avoid the printing of copious extracts here. 234 ADAPTATION TO STYLE 235 tions of the Bible). — This may be simple or elevated, the latter often reaching the epic spirit, or the sub- lime, with many grades between. The use of the voice needs only the application of foregoing ex- planations here, but is quite natural and of the con- versational method in the simpler passages. The effort should be to make the story real, the descrip- tion clear, and elevated passages impressive. It is essential that the reader should have his imagination so vivid and intelligent that he can pic- ture to himself all the scenes of which he reads. Biblical learning, even to a moderate degree, is all helpful here. Lack of imagination makes many a reader dull, monotonous, and like a child reciting by rote a story which he does not understand. Abra- ham before his tent, — Joseph in the pit or the palace, — the hosts of Pharaoh overwhelmed in the sea, as Moses and Miriam saw them and sang of them, — Samuel in his little room hearkening to the voice of God, — David, the youth, facing the giant Goliath in the presence of two armies, — David, the king, in his glory and his contrition, — Solomon praying before the multitude at the dedication of the temple, — Elijah on Mt. Carmel, — Jesus with His disciples and on the cross, — the Apostles and Stephen, as they stood in dramatic situations, — and 236 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE the visions of the prophets and of St. John : — all these scenes must take form in the imagination of the reader, before he can do justice to his reading. This faculty is emphasized here because it is sluggish or unformed in many a man who, although devout and earnest, wonders why he cannot read the de- scriptive lessons as some imaginative men do read them. It applies as well to mere details of narra- tive, as in St. Matt. 5:1, which is at once a narrative and a picture. Passages for illustration and practice are noted be- low : some of these pass into other styles, which will be mentioned in advance, to be referred to again. Simple, familiar, or but little elevated : Oriental hospitality, Gen. 18: 1-15 ; — Betrothing of Rebecca, Gen. 24; — Joseph and his brethren, Gen. 42; — Judah's pathetic appeal, Gen. 44 ; — the Book of Ruth (idyllic); — Samuel before Eli, 1 Sam. 3 (" Samuel, Samuel," in verse 10, should be read with rising in- flection on both words. So, also, " Moses, Moses," in Exodus 3:4. "Here am I," always with sus- pended inflection on "I"); — Elisha, 2 Kings 4; — the story of Naaman, 2 Kings 5 ; Job 1 : 1-5 ; — and most of the Gospel narratives. Elevated narrative and description : The Creation and Fall, Gen. 1, 2, 3. (The first chapter is epic in ADAPTATION TO STYLE 237 form. The first five verses should be read very slowly and weightily, with pauses at the punctua- tion, and falling inflection at the periods and on "void," 2d v., and "good," 4th v. ; for the reading of the 3d v., see § 59, ( j), — Distributed Emphasis) ; — the Flood, Gen. 7 and 8; — Abraham's vision, Gen. 1 5 ; — the Trial of Abraham (Good Friday lesson), Gen. 22;— Mission of Moses, Exodus 3 and 4; — Giving of the Law, Exodus 19 and 20 ; — the Golden Calf, Exodus 32; — the Rebellion of Korah, Num. 16. (Occasion here for much variety in tone-color, etc. — e. g.> v. 3, bold assertion, v. 4, pause and very grave tone, change of movement at verses 31 and 36, also some of the dramatic element). — Balaam, Num. 22, 23, 24, (24: 15-24, prophetic and epic); — the Dedication of the Temple, 1 Kings 8, including the element of prayer in sustained, high-middle pitch and sympathetic tone; — Elijah, 1 Kings 17, 18, 19, in 18: 20-40, dramatic; (compare v. 24 with v. 39, and see that in v. 39 strong falling inflection with radical stress must be used in "the Lord\ he? is the G6d !" etc.); — Hezekiah, etc., Isaiah 37, with the prayer of Hezekiah, 14-20, and the didactic- prophetic passage, 21-35 ; — tne story of Daniel, largely dramatic, Dan. 2, 3,4, 5, 6; — the Nativity, St. Luke 2: 1— 1 5 ; — Narratives of the Resurrection; 238 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE — Day of Pentecost, Acts 2 ; — Triumphs of faith, Heb. ii; — Description of vision, Rev. 1, 7, 14, 15, 22. (Compare also Ezekiel 37, etc.) There are passages scattered through the preced- ing which might be characterized as didactic, and somewhat oratoric in style — e. g., Rev. 22: 13-21. 2. Didactic Style. — This may be divided into the simple and the elevated. It is the language that contains appeal to sense of duty and to obligation to think concerning life and death, etc. It teaches divine truth in direct form. It makes the least de- mand upon power of expression except in its most elevated forms, as in St. Paul's Epistles, which sometimes rise to eloquence, as in 1 Cor. 2, and into poetry, as in 1 Cor. 13. The didactic style requires, however, the most careful interpretation and, con- sequently, most accurate inflection and emphasis. For the simpler form of the didactic, we may read the Book of Proverbs, noting that a verse here and there rises to the prophetic style. The Book of Ecclesiastes may be called elevated- poetic-didactic. Many passages in the Prophets which warn their contemporaries against the evil tendencies of the times are on the same plane, as in Jeremiah 9 and Ezekiel 14. The Epistles of St. Paul and the Epistle to the ADAPTATION TO STYLE 239 Hebrews are of the higher order, involving much of the oratoric spirit in the didactic form. The shorter Epistles of St. John, St. Peter, St. James, and St. Jude are simpler in style, but have their own characteristics. St. John is emotional and eloquent, — see 1 John 4; — St. Peter is plain, terse, and emphatic, — see 1 Pet. 2; — St. James is collo- quial and argumentative, with some " Oratoric In- terrogative," as in 4: 1-5; — the Epistle of St. Jude is condensed emphasis, but must not be read in a way to suggest personal authority in the reader. In the Apocrypha we find the " wisdom-teaching " in Ecclesiasticus 37, and the more elevated and pro- phetic style in Wisdom of Solomon 3 : 1-10. The teachings of our Lord are partly in this form, but have supreme emphasis because of their author- ship, their clearness and brevity, their style being undoubtedly affected by the oral delivery. Special attention should be given to the Beatitudes, which are not always read with proper expression. They should be after this manner: "Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven," — i. e., emphasis on "Blessed" and falling inflection before "for" in each one. In His teaching, the "Verily, verily" should be read deliberately and emphatically, because it is used to call special 240 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE attention to what follows. In St. Luke 21, He rises to the prophetic style, and also in some shorter pas- sages, which, however, are included in the didactic purpose. In St. John's report of His discourses, we may not have so close a record of His very words, but the spirit of His teaching is most manifest there. In St. John 14, 15, 16, we have the highest form of teaching by statement, made with the power of Him "that came down from heaven, even the Son of man which is in heaven" (St. John 3: 13), and in St. John 6, He teaches of His Divinity. All these teachings of our Lord should be read with peculiar care and reverence, and in a more subdued tone than the words of the Apostles. There is in them the repose, the serenity of perfect and infinite wis- dom unmingled with human speculation, which should be reflected or, at least, suggested in our reading. The Epistles of St. Paul are the most difficult of all portions of the Bible to read because of the in- volved character of his epistolary style in many passages in which his thoughts seem to rush like the waters of Niagara, clearly enough at first, but soon with separate currents, which intermingle, and over- ride one another, making apparent confusion, yet coming out with wonderful clearness and power at ADAPTATION TO STYLE 24 1 the end. We find this characteristic very marked in Eph. 1, which might be punctuated as only one complex sentence, and is so pointed in the Author- ized Version, save for two periods, after the 12th and 14th verses, the first being followed by a relative clause. Similar to this is the third chapter, ending, however, in clear and majestic doxology. Such a style is difficult to read. It requires unusual slowness and distinct pauses, with marked empha- sis, in order that the hearers may have time to take in such meaning as the reader may be able to indi- cate. It is possible that this first chapter has never been made perfectly clear as a whole, to any one, at any single reading ; but in parts, at least, it may be made clear by the method just suggested. St. Paul's most perfect writing is undoubtedly in 1 Cor. 13, the Epistle for Quinquagesima Sunday, and in 1 Cor. 15:20-58. The latter, the burial lesson, has been discussed in its place. The former deserves particular attention because of its high poetic form, and because it is so often read without the proper inflections, especially the falling, the explicative in- flection, always most necessary in such philosophic- didactic style. It is added, with some marking to assist expressive reading : "Though I speak with the tongues of men and of 16 242 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE an'gels,* | and have not charity, | I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cym^bal. And though I have the gift of prophecy,** | and understand all mysteries,** and all knowledge**; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, | and have not charity, || I am ndthing. And though I bestow all my goods to feed the pdor, | and though I give my body to be burned, || and have not charity, | it profiteth me nothing. Chanty suffereth I6ng, and is kind* ; | charity enVieth not ; | charity vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up, doth not behave itself unseemly 1 ; | seeketh not her own', is not easily pro- vdked, thinketh no evil 1 ; | rejoiceth not in iniquity, | but rejoiceth in the tritth *; \ beareth all things', be- lieveth all things', hopeth all things', endkreth all things. 1 1| Charity | never faileth : | but whether there be prophecies, | they shall fail*; | whether there be tongues, | they shall cease*; \ whether there be kn6w- ledge, | it shall vanish away. 2 1| For we know in part, *The rising inflection on "angels," as often given, fails to impart the real meaning, which is "or even of an^gels," those who have the higher knowledge and expression (under our present conditions, seeing " through a glass, darkly"). ** These words are too important, individually, to make a mere series with falling inflection at the end, as each points out a particular kind of learning or "gift " of St. Paul's time. J = Pause. I = Longer pause. 1 Series. 2 Antithesis. ADAPTATION TO STYLE 243 and we prophesy in part, 1 | but when that which is perfect is come, | then that which is in part shall be done away". || When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child 3 ; | but when I became a man, I put away childish things* || For now | we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face V | now | I know in part ; but then shall I know even as also I am kndwn, h \\\ And now abideth FAITH, I HOPE, I CHARITY, [ these three ; || but the greatest of these | is CHARITY. 6 " j. The Oratoric Style. — This differs from the di- dactic, to which it frequently furnishes a climax, by the addition of a purpose to convince and persuade, as well as to instruct. Even when found in passages that were written, not delivered as speeches, the author evidently, in imagination, was full of the oratoric spirit. This is true of the prophets, who may have delivered many of their utterances as ser- mons, and of St. Paul, whose style is mostly ora- toric rather than epistolary. (The purely epistolary style may be seen in the third Epistle of St. John.) The oratoric style of delivery, then, should be I = Pause. I = Longer pause. 1 1 1 = Longest pause. 1 Series. 2 Antithesis. 3 Not emphatic, subordinate for illustration. 4 Distributed emphasis. 5 Slide of cumulative emphasis. 6 Very emphatic throughout the sentence. 244 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE suggested, in reading the Prophets and the Epistles, by a strengthening of the tone, the accentuation, the emphasis, and the pauses. The passages that are given strictly as speeches require this delivery in every word, with, generally, more of the effusive than the expulsive or explosive orotund, because the intention of the Bible oratory is to awaken something in the hearers themselves, " not to drive something into them from without." Es- pecially should the beginning and the end of such a passage be marked by the oratoric manner of utterance. The various purposes of oratory appear in all their forms in the Bible, — conviction, persuasion, rebuke, denunciation, consolation, encouragement, etc., and should be brought out by the reading. Examples for illustration are: Nathan's rebuke of David, 2 Sam. 12 : 7-12, (strong emphasis on "Thou," v. 7); — Isaiah's warnings, etc., Isa. 5: 20- 30, 9: 8 to 10: 4; 28, 30, 31, 40. (This last chapter is most eloquent with consolation in "Comfort ye," etc., with encouragement in "O Zion," etc., v. 9; with oratoric interrogation in verses 25, 27, 28. — Isa. 44: 9-20; 52, 53, 54 (most eloquent encourage- ment); — 55 (a perfect evangelistic sermon); etc. — Ecclesiastes 11: 9 to 12: 7 is plainly a sermon to ADAPTATION TO STYLE 245 young men. — Ezekiel 18, especially vv. 19-32, is strongly oratorio. So is Malachi, throughout. The poetic form of the prophetical writings does not conflict with the oratoric style, because Oriental eloquence has always been poetic. "Hebrew litera- ture centres in the lyric and the oratoric ' ' (Dr. Curry). In fact the influence of that kind of ex- pression has passed along through the oratory of the ages and is found to affect the finest passages of modern orators, doubtless because of their familiarity with the Bible. For example, note Webster's great peroration, "When my eyes shall be turned to be- hold, for the last time," etc., and Lincoln's second inaugural, quoted in this book. The sermons and addresses of our Lord may have this style in a moderate degree. That He was capable of the most powerful speaking we know from several examples of denunciation; but He chose to restrain Himself, generally, more than ordinary men. His speeches, or sermons, there- fore, should be read with corresponding restraint. The passage in Matt. 6 : 24-34 is the most oratoric portion of the Sermon on the Mount. Matt. 18: 3-20 is distinctly oratoric. But the most striking example of all is His denunciation of the Scribes and Pharisees in Matt. 23. The points of delivery 246 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE to be noticed are : a calm but weighty utterance of "Woe unto you, ] Scribes and Pharisees, | hypo- crites!" as here marked; a long pause before the 37th verse, and the most pathetic reading of verses 37~39- This chapter has been variously interpreted by different readers, but the result of their discus- sions seems to be that the prevalent tone should be one of sorrowful but positive denunciation. The extremely forcible style and the repetition of the "woes" does not admit of a sorrowful feeling as the only one. Matt. 24 contains a forcible speech. The discourses in St. John's Gospel cannot be classed under the oratoric style, because they were spoken, mostly, to an individual or to the inner circle of His disciples, and therefore quietly, and, further, are not, probably, so verbatim a report, as the sayings in the other Gospels. The exceptions to this may be in John 6 and 8. There remain the speeches and sermons quoted in the Acts of the Apostles : St. Peter's sermon on the Day of Pentecost, Acts 2: 14-40, Acts 3: 12-26; St. Stephen's historic appeal, Acts 7; St. Peter to Cornelius, Acts 10: 34-43; St. Paul's sermon, Acts 13: 16-41 ; St. James' address to the council at Jerusalem, Acts 15: 13-29; St. Paul's remarkable sermon on Mars' Hill, Acts 17: 22-31 ;— St. Paul be- ADAPTATION TO STYLE 247 fore the chief captain at Jerusalem, Acts 22 : 1-2 1 ; — in answer to Tertullus, Acts 24: 10-21 ; — before Agrippa, Acts 26: 2-29. 4.. The Prophetic Style. — This differs little, in the delivery, from the oratoric, because we may call the Prophecies simply heraldic oratory. Prophets have had two functions, — forth-telling and fore-telling, those of the preacher and the seer, but the predom- inant style is that of the forth-teller. The bolder passages require energy and fulness of voice; the expulsive orotund and sometimes the singing tone with straight inflection, i. e., mono- tone, is most appropriate. Examples : Joel 2: i-n, 3: 9-17; — Isaiah 55 : 1-5 (a little of the calling tone in v. 1) ; — Isaiah 1 (tone of indignation, but not too strong) ; — joy and triumph, Isaiah 52, 60 (a prophetic song); — the glory of the kingdom, Micah 4;— reproof of Jerusalem, Zeph. 3; — etc. The gentler passages should be read with subdued power and with much of the straight inflection. Examples : Isaiah 43 : 14-28, 52 : 13 to 53 : 12, 61 ; — the Lamentations of Jeremiah ; in chapter 1 : i~8, there is particular occasion for the vanishing stress (see § 55). 5. The Epic, Dramatic, and Lyric Styles. — It is 248 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE universally conceded that the highest forms of poetry are found in the Bible. In the Bible espe- cially the epic seems to include the other two as the prevailing mode. It is, for approximate definition, the poetic representation of great events and great men that show forth the highest truths. The dra- matic in some instances is less poetic in form than the others, but has a similar spirit. In English, Milton may be regarded as the finest exponent of the epic form, Shakespeare of the dramatic, Byron (though not exclusively), in his sacred poems, of the lyric. All of these drew large inspiration from the Bible. The dramatic style deals more minutely with the personages : the lyric is the pure song, ex- pressing an individual emotion in some cases, but always in the Bible with reference to some large or national or universal idea and, therefore, is allied there to the epic. These elements also enter into other kinds of writing, but deserve attention and proper rendering there. In the vocal expression of these forms there is re- quired an artistic sense of special inflection, emphasis, and rhythm, and of the tone-color which indicates the varying moods. The imagination must be fully alive to every picture and every shade of emotion. ADAPTATION TO STYLE 249 Examples: The Song of Moses, Exod. 15; — the Song of Deborah, Judges 5 ; — the Song of Hannah, 1 Sam. 2; — the Song of the Bow, 2 Sam. 1 : 19-27; — Isaiah 35 ; — the Magnificat, St. Luke 1 : 46-55 ;— the Song of Simeon, St. Luke 2 : 29-32 ; — the Song of Solomon, and the Psalms. These are generally lyric-epic. The Song of Solomon is also dramatic. For the dramatic, we have the story of Judah, etc., Gen. 44; — the story of David and Goliath, 1 Sam. 17: 32-51 ; — the story of Absalom, 2 Sam. 18; — Elijah and the prophets of Baal, 1 Kings 18 : 17-46, and 19; — the story of the crucified malefactors, St. Luke 23 : 39-43. We have also the entire book of Job, which is a dramatic poem, or a sacred drama. ' ' For the stage, we have a hill outside the city ; for scenery, a rising storm, the flashing lightning, the rolling thunder, and a rainbow ; for characters, Job and his friends, Satan, and even God; and for a theme, the mystery of human suffering, the same found in the ' Prometheus Unbound ' of ^Eschylus, and Hamlet's 'To be or not to be,' the problem of all problems, the mystery of human existence." — Dr- Curry's Literary and Vocal Interpretation of the Bible. The histories of the Creation and the Flood are also epic in character, and much of the Revelation of St. John is dramatic in the loftiest form. 250 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE In the reading of these passages, while the im- agination is fully alive, care must be taken not to imitate the supposable tones of personages in the dialogues. Suggestion is sufficient and better. A strictly dramatic rendering of any part of the Bible is entirely inappropriate, at least in Divine Service. Let there be reading, not dramatic recitation there. The Consciousness of the Divine Word should make this certain. 6. The Allegoric Style. — This is found in all early literature and is especially developed in the Orient ; hence it is prominent in the Bible and was selected by our Lord as the best method of instructing a people who could understand story better than phi- losophy or theology, and who were to be taught that the " kingdom" was not to be a literal one, but a community of souls under personal spiritual power. His parables are to be read as symbolic of greater meaning than appears on the surface, and with active imagination to see the scenes which He presents. We may take the Prodigal Son as the greatest of them all, because of its universal application to the spiritual history of men. Its reading should be expressive of it as a masterpiece of word-painting, with sure touch in every line. It is one of the richest passages for expression; e.g., "and when he ADAPTATION TO STYLE 25 1 had spent all," — "with the husks that the swine did eat," — the reflective tone of his soliloquy, verses 17-19, — the vivid picture in v. 20, "And he arose and came to his father. And when he was yet a great way off [slow movement'] his father saw him, [the following in quicker movement expressive of feel- ing] and had compassion, and ran, and fell on his neck, and kissed him." — v. 21, the pathos of the son's confession, especially in the word Father, — verses 22-24, the joyous tone of the father's voice, — verses 28-30, 1 the suggestion of anger, — verses 31, 32, the father's calm, dignified joy. There is much allegory in the Old Testament, but it can be included under other heads, as it is mostly within the epic form. 7. Prayer. — This is the remaining form of ex- pression in the Bible ; it demands the utmost rever- ence combined with clear tone and fervid emphasis. Here, we cannot make the prayers our own, but suggest the feeling of the authors. For examples, we have the intercessory prayers of Abraham, Gen. 18; — the prayer of Solomon at the dedication of the Temple, 1 Kings 8, and 2 Chron. 6; — the prayer of Elijah, 1 Kings 18: 36, 37; 1 In verse 29, give falling inflection and median stress to the word 1 ' kid,** so as to contrast the inferior feast with the greater. 252 PUBLIC READING OF HOLY SCRIPTURE — the prayer of Hezekiah, 2 Kings 19: 14-19; — Ezra 9 : 6-1 5 ; — Daniel 9 : 3-19 ; — Jonah 2 ; — also Psalm 5 1 — in the Old Testament. In the New Testament we have the prayers of our Lord. "The Lord's Prayer" in Matt. 6: 9-13 should be read more slowly and with more emphasis, pause, and interpretation than in the Service, because it is given in the Scripture as a model. The last prayer in St. John 17 requires more reverence and restraint of the reader's per- sonal element, than any other passage in the Bible, because it is the sacred personal outpouring of the heart of the Divine Son of Man. PART VII PULPIT ORATORY CHAPTER 1 THE PURPOSE AND METHOD 97. — In the pulpit, man speaks to man concerning divine truth. Pulpit oratory depends upon the same forces of soul, mind, voice, and action, as any- other kind of oratory, with a difference only in the psychic attitude and the purpose involved. The oratoric spirit must direct these forces within as well as without the pulpit. As long as there are ears to hear, minds to think and hearts to feel, there will be a demand for oratory in the pulpit. Any good oratorical training, therefore, is valuable as a prepar- ation for the function of preaching. But the attitude of the whole man within, and of the whole external expression of the man as a preacher, must be a con- centration of all available resources upon a single, 253 254 PULPIT ORATORY comprehensive purpose — the setting forth, with personal power, of the truth that saves and uplifts the souls of men. What is pulpit " delivery "? Not, as one might suppose from hearing some sermons, merely dis- charging from the lips what has been committed to the manuscript or to the memory of the speaker, but the placing, and, even better, the planting of the preacher's ideas in the minds of hearers. Not getting the truth out of the speaker, for the dis- charge of his duty, but getting it into the hearers, for their good. "Behold a sower went forth to sow." "The seed is the Word of God." Sermons that are distinctly theological or histori- cal do not require oratory, but, rather, the simpler, quieter reading of an essay. They may be omitted, therefore, from this discussion, which treats of per- suasive preaching, rather than of pulpit instruction. CHAPTER II THE FUNCTION OF PREACHING ANALYZED The following elements of the function of preach- ing are necessarily included in it : 98. The Endeavor to Express Truth through Per- sonality. — There is no effective delivery of a sermon unless the truth of it is already in the preacher's life, or unless what is uttered is felt. The message is of God, but through the man, who should be able to express, by every resource of oratory, what he undertakes to deliver. Without a message of truth, the personality is useless ; without an educated per- sonality, the message is delivered feebly, if at all. Hence, the personality of a preacher must include the following qualifications : /. Spiritual culture and development, which come through consecration to the work of the ministry, — for all that follows will be deficient without this foundation; through habitual reverence for divine truth, — for a full sense of its value gives weight to 255 256 PULPIT ORATORY its expression ; through a clear, personal faith and sound conviction of truth and its application to the life of man ; through a definite and growing purpose to help men, — for no man can be an orator without a distinct end to be gained and a determination to reach it; through enthusiasm, — for, though the in- spiration of prophets and apostles may have ceased, yet no preacher can properly deliver the message of Christ unless he has that degree of inspiration, or, at least, fervor, which can come into every conse- crated man and give him glowing words and an earnest manner. The sermon should be a mani- festation of the soul of the preacher enriched and strengthened by other souls and other ideas than his own— not a rehearsing of another's words, the representation of another's purpose, the reflection of another's enthusiasm. 2. Mental training and furnishing, — sufficient learning to possess the truth and its proper terms, sufficient logical ability to present it in due order and with persuasive force, and a literary style which is not only correct, forcible, and attractive in itself, but one that is adaptable to various subjects and occasions. For such furnishing, it is well for every preacher if he can write and speak something be- sides sermons. The oratoric delivery of many a THE FUNCTION OF PREACHING ANALYZED 257 sermon has been made impossible by "fine writing," on the one hand, or by loose and crude expression, on the other. The former precludes simplicity, directness, and fervor; the latter, precision, charm, and power. 3. Physical training. — Voice and action are the instruments of the oratoric forces already men- tioned. It is unwise to depend on natural voice alone, or on any favorite use of the voice. Its re- sources should all become available — quality, power, pitch, modulation, and a cultivated pronunciation, somewhat fuller and more precise than in conversa- tion. Nor should voice be depended upon without some gesture, because, for reasons suggested by the psychic attitude, the whole man—soul, mind and body — should be active in the delivery. (See Note 1, Appendix.) ^. A trained consciousness — not of self to any large degree, but of the subject, of the audience, and, lastly, of the speaker, a part of one's sense of self being reserved for the sake of intelligently con- trolling the rest. Two faults, in this connection, if they exist, ought to be trained out of a preacher. First, the "losing of one's self in the subject." This is oratoric blindness or insensibility. It makes delivery vague, loose, extravagant, aimless. The 258 PULPIT ORATORY hearers may not be so much interested in the subject as the speaker, he fails to observe that condition, or to take any measures to meet it, and the sermon becomes effective to the speaker, only. A wise layman once said to a young preacher, ' ' Remember that the exercise of composing while on your feet may be more interesting to you than to your con- gregation." Secondly, too great self-consciousness, which makes the preacher unduly sensitive to the incidents and accidents of the congregation and the occasion, so as to lose sight of the main object of the speaking, or be led into conceit, affectation, or mannerism. There is always the danger of carrying into the pulpit too much of the consciousness of the priest and not enough of the prophet, or the preacher. The consciousness of the pulpit should be predominantly oratoric. 5. Naturalness or Reality. — This should be the naturalness of oratory, not of conversation, or ordi- nary society. It should be real in its own sphere, but the sermon should be on a higher plane than conversation. The colloquial style may be used occasionally, but not continually, lest oratoric power should be weakened. Naturalness, here, in accord- ance with the oratoric spirit, should be expressed in intense, projective tones, after the manner of THE FUNCTION OF PREACHING ANALYZED 259 St. Paul, who, though "all things to all men " yet "spake boldly, as (he) ought to speak." There is, indeed, the conversational/^;^ of inflection, etc., but it should attain to the oratoric degree. Affected sentimentality, prolonged semitone or whine, involuntary cadence or "tune," or sing-song, recurring repeatedly or regularly, or any other peculiarities, are unnatural and do not belong to a symmetrical personality. Naturalness is well tested in the use of a manuscript. If it cannot be read as if ex tempore, then it is a " wet blanket ' ' between speaker and congregation, as it has been called. A preacher should have learned to break through, or speak through, that possible barrier, before he de- livers many sermons, because the speaking must be, and must seem to be, a spontaneous activity, not an effort limited by the presence of the written sermon. Naturalness permits a man to expand in his style of delivery as he is inspired by the greater occasions. Simplicity of purpose and of consciousness ought to prevent a preacher from becoming nervous, when there seems to be more than usual to face. If the inner earnestness is always ready, it will come out to fit the occasion. A great preacher once said that one could hardly be eloquent to fewer than fifty people ; but St. Paul was, and many preachers of our 200 PULPIT ORATORY day are, because, in a measure like him, it is natural for them to be earnest before any congregation, and to feel that the message they bring is greater than the occasion. 6. Imagination. — This is an essential aid to effec- tive preaching, in that it puts truth into pictures in the minds both of the speaker and his audience. But its influence goes farther than the illustrative form, or realistic picture — as in the parables of the New Testament. It makes a certain arrangement, mentally visible, for every train of thought, which gives a clearness to the speaker's vision, and leads to a style of expression which an audience cannot fail to understand. This power of imagination affects the delivery more than is generally realized. It is the secret of the eloquence of a poetic mind. The lack of it is the cause of a vague, dry, un- rhythmic delivery. Experience, both in writing and speaking, teaches what to eliminate from sen- tences, what to add to them, and how to rearrange, sometimes by an instantaneous act of the mind in ex tempore speaking, so as to get matter suitable for a clear and picturesque delivery. It is hardly neces- sary to add that the study of poetry and poetic prose, and familiarity with the Bible, are very help- ful to the imagination of the preacher. THE FUNCTION OF PREACHING ANALYZED 261 7. The true personality of a preacher is entirely free from imitation, in style, voice, or gesture. The following passage from Bishop Brooks' Lectures on Preaching should be known to every clergyman or candidate for orders: (< Iam convinced that the only escape from the power of imitation when it has once touched us — and, remember, it often touches us without our consciousness — you and I may be imitating other men to-day and not at all aware of it — lies in a deeper seriousness about all our work. What we need is a fuller sense of per- sonal responsibility and a more real reverence for the men who are greater than we are. Give a man real personal sense of his own duty and he must do it in his own way. The temptation of imitation is so insidious that you cannot resist it by the mere determination that you will not imitate. You must bring a real self of your own to meet this intrusive self of another man that is crowding in upon you. Cultivate your own sense of duty. The only thing that keeps the ocean from flowing back into the river is that the river is always pouring down into the ocean. And again, if you really reverence a great man, if you look up to and rejoice in his good work, if you truly honor him, you will get at his spirit, and, doing that, you will cease to imitate his 262 PULPIT ORATORY outside ways. You insult a man when you try to catch his power by moving your arms or shaping your sentences like his, but you honor him when you try to love truth and do God's will the better for the love and faithfulness which you see in him. So that the release from the slavery of superficial imitation must come not by a supercilious con- tempt, but by a profounder reverence for men stronger and more successful than yourself." 99. Attention to the relation between Style and De- livery, — A written sermon should be composed in the style of a speech, with attention to simplicity, direct- ness, emphasis, and rhythm. If not so composed, the delivery is hampered by the style. Not all that can be well written can be well spoken, however clear and valuable in its own way. We can see this in the difference of style between St. Paul's Epistles and his addresses. A sermon, serrno, is a speech. We know how the preaching of the Gospel in the Christian Church began with St. Peter on the Day of Pentecost, with St. Paul in his journeys, at Athens — where a theological treatise would have been a failure — and before Agrippa. Even in the Epistles of St. Paul the oratoric style frequently appears. There are different kinds of delivery suitable to — a. Exegesis; b. Explication or Analysis ', or the setting THE FUNCTION OF PREACHING ANALYZED 263 forth of a topic, perhaps with undramatic illustra- tion, — (these two in the didactic style, with delivery of moderate force and action on the conversational plane); c. Argument — with forensic spirit, orotund voice, and oratoric gesture ; d. The Hortatory style, including application, appeal, and (perhaps) peror- ation, — this style to be delivered with feeling that induces strong tone and tone-color, and emphatic action — in a word, eloquence : and here is the place for rhythmic speech. It is a grave error to deliver all sermons, or all parts of one sermon, in the same manner. This constitutes the tiresome monotony of some preach- ers, besides the want of inflection, and might be described as merely drifting on the weekly tide of sacred rhetoric. Eloquence is out of place in exe- gesis, — the lack of it is fatal to a concluding appeal. The complete change in the style of delivery, at the beginning of a new section of a sermon, admitting, of course, the persistence of the same personality, may be the means of making forcible what, other- wise, would be wearisome. The speaker knows, or ought to know, his own purpose in changing the style of presentation, and should make the people know it, by a suitable change in the delivery, which, like similar changes in reading the Scriptures, may 264 PULPIT ORATORY be indicated in the beginning, at least, if not con- tinued through the whole passage. For special practice in this, read Shakespeare aloud. 100. Attention to Voice and Gesture. — These should be somewhat subdued, generally, in comparison with their use in secular speeches, on account of the spirit of reverence for divine truth and the pro- prieties of the sacred edifice. The quality of voice should often be sympathetic and persuasive, with in- stinctive and not affected use of the vanishing tone (see § 33, 6). The action, by limitation of its sphere in a pulpit, or because of vestments, should be moderate — rarely dramatic. And yet, it is an error to omit all action except that of mere utterance, because, without it, there is not a full and harmoni- ous expression. Gesture of the head and face with moderate use of the hands may be made very effec- tive. And here it should be noted that mannerisms, i.e. y involuntary, untrained, and habitual motions, are a worse error in the pulpit than anywhere else, in- dicating, as they do, unintelligent, unsympathetic, and uncontrolled expression — a contradiction of es- sential elements of a true speech, viz., consciousness, naturalness, and imagination. But let both voice and gesture be spontaneous activity, the result of previous training. (See Note 1, Appendix.) THE FUNCTION OF PREACHING ANALYZED 265 101. Attention to such general requisites for effec- tiveness as: Life, which depends upon clear articulation, varied inflection and emphasis, full tone — often the ex- pulsive or explosive orotund, and vigorous rhythm. Clearness y which depends largely upon the rhyth- mic phrasing. Power y which is the result, not alone of an earnest spirit, but of vibrant orotund voice, strong empha- sis, and emphatic gesture. 102. Attention to practical details of delivery. a. Command attention to the text by a pause and a glance at the congregation. Announce the text but once and with great distinctness (with occasional exception of repetition). The manner of announce- ment, whether "In it is written,' ' "The text is written," etc., or words of text and then the place where found, or simply thus: "The fourteenth chapter of the Gospel according to St. John and the first verse " — is unimportant. The use of the simplest way seems to the author to be the best, for the sake of avoiding the multiplication of an- nouncements or rubrical statements. b. Command attention to the beginning of the discourse by a pause and a look at the congregation. Never rush from text to sermon. Here, as at other 266 PULPIT ORATORY points, secure the attention and sympathy of the people by the use of the eye. The same after the invocation, "In the name," etc., if that is used. c. Command attention and reverence at the end of the sermon by a pause before the ascription, or the next movement or announcement in the service. Never mutter or hurry the ascription, — a common fault ; — it should be said reverently, or not at all. d. When using manuscript, which should be writ- ten in a large and perfectly plain hand, — large especially, in order that the eye can quickly find a place in it, — learn to keep the eyes off the page most of the time. This is done by a quick glance at phrases — which are made familiar by fresh and suffi- cient preparation — and, for the instant, committing them to memory. This is the secret of a free, ora- toric delivery from manuscript. e. When extemporizing, due preparation of the thought being assumed (Daniel Webster once said, "Remember, young man, that you cannot extem- porize preparation"}, if necessary to think out words or their arrangement, do that thinking in the normal pauses of the speech and not in the midst of sentences, so as not to betray, by hesitation, the process of composition. This rule, though an im- portant one, may have exceptions for a purpose, as, THE FUNCTION OF PREACHING ANALYZED 267 sometimes, the frank hesitation in thinking, and the result in a well-chosen word or phrase, are more than pardonable, even especially telling. But habitual indulgence in hesitation is one of the worst blem- ishes, especially when accompanied, as it generally is, by spasmodic "ur's " and indistinct enunciation. (Load the cannon well, before pulling the lanyard.) The following are good rules: (1) Speak from manuscript as if extemporizing ; (2) Extemporize as if furnished with manuscript; — the first, to secure freedom and naturalness ; the second, to secure ful- ness and precision. /. In platform speaking, or preaching from the chancel without pulpit or lectern as a shield, greater freedom of gesture is permissible, but should be carefully guarded. Moving about is unseemly ; the hands should not be clasped behind the back (a most common resort), nor should they grasp the stole, nor, if without vestments, hang on pocket or watch- chain. Such actions in a speaker give the impression that he needs help, or wants to lean on something ; whereas, the proper impression to be made by the position and action of the speaker is that the audi- ence can accept him, for the time, as their master, or, at least, an independent thinker. Every minister should have learned, before he begins his life-work, 268 PULPIT ORATORY to control himself in the first position of the orator, i. e. y with hands at the sides, and to depart from that position only with gesture or some graceful and nat- ural movement, such as referring to a memorandum. It would seem unnecessary to mention and depre- cate the fault of extravagant action, such as pound- ing or stamping, did it not appear now and then with otherwise good speakers, and if impulsive men were not liable to fall into it. One illustration will suffice: A person who had heard a strong address from a prominent clergyman, who repeatedly em- phasized his remarks by a powerful slap on his l e g(-)> thus reported his impressions: "I cannot recall a word of the address; but I still hear that resounding slap! " CHAPTER III IS IT BETTER TO USE A MANUSCRIPT OR NOT ? 103. This has been a much debated question, which ought to be answered, at least in a way to definitely guide the individual preacher. It is fair to say that much study and experience have brought out the following considerations, leading to a definite conclusion for the majority. 1 'Reading maketh a full man, conference ' a ready man, and writing an exact man; and, therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth not." — Lord Bacon's Essay on Studies. Through the ages, great orations on special occa- sions, full preparation for which was feasible, have generally been written and re-written and then de- livered memoriter. But there have always been 1 Which may be taken to include speaking without notes. 269 270 PULPIT ORATORY exceptions. Cicero's orations against Catiline were probably, in part at least, extemporaneous. Hence the fire in the style. (There were shorthand re- porters in those days.) Webster, after lifelong general preparation, delivered his great speech on the ''American Union" ex tempore, as appears in comparison of the verbatim report with the now published form. So has it been with the great sermons. This is the history of occasional oratory. For such unusual efforts, reading from manuscript has always been avoided, if possible. For regular and continued speaking, in which some comprehensive subject is treated continuously or successively in parts, by professional lecturers, lawyers, etc., notes or briefs are generally used, without elaboration, beforehand, of the diction. The greatest preachers of modern times, with few exceptions, have been great extemporizers, but never without full preparation. Some of these, and some of lower order, have preached memoriter with considerable success. But experience has shown that either the speaking from memory was possible because of extraordinary natural power of remembering, or has been based upon an equal talent for extemporaneous expression, as in the case of the late R. S. Storrs, D.D., a preacher re- BETTER TO USE MANUSCRIPT OR NOT? 27 1 markable for both of those qualifications. The union of the two gives confidence because, if lapse of memory occurs, the gap may be extemporane- ously supplied. Experience has also shown that the tax on the mind in memoriter preaching is a burden for which its possible advantage over reading is hardly a sufficient compensation. The vitality expended in extemporaneous speaking is also far more than the reading costs. Every minister should write sermons, whether he afterward reads them or not, for the sake of the necessary study, for fulness and exactness of state- ment of his own knowledge, for experience in col- lecting, arranging, and expressing his personal view of all the great topics of Christian doctrine, and for the sake of acquiring and polishing his own literary style. This is the work of years, should not cease before full maturity, and should be resumed, on occasions, to the end of his career. After such thorough experience, say of five or ten years, at least, the ordinary man may be qualified to preach as well without notes as with them, because he has a general preparation for all ordinary topics, in his constant possession. But, meanwhile, as a collateral training, he can be gaining experience in ex tempore speaking by using 272 PULPIT ORATORY that method, secondarily and subordinately, in short addresses at a second Sunday service, in week- day services, in the Sunday-school, etc. This will be thoroughly good practice all the time, for free- dom of expression and for accepting the inspiration of the occasion, while the more careful presentation of the Gospel in written sermons is constantly en- riching and clearing his extemporaneous utterances. He will also find, from time to time, the power of extemporaneous writing, i. e.> not careless work, but writing with a feeling as if the people were be- fore him (certainly possible to a man of imagination) and so adapting the style for speaking, something lacking in men who never extemporize. In other words, by this double practice, he will be enabled to carry the extemporaneous spirit into his writing, and the spirit of accurate composition into his extemporizing. There is no doubt whatever, that for the ordi- nary parochial preaching, after such experience as has been described, extemporizing is a most effective method, because of the opportunity for an uninter- rupted magnetic or oratoric communication between preacher and people. The question of no notes at all or how many notes is entirely unimportant, so long as their presence is not seen or felt by the congrega- BETTER TO USE MANUSCRIPT OR NOT? 273 tion. Let every man choose the details of his own method, but to quote a great authority, 1 ''Do no violence to your own nature; if your power is greater with the pen and reading, use it so; if greater without reading, use it so." Finally, to meet all the considerations, let every candidate for the ministry master the art of ORA- TORIO READING, which has been sufficiently set forth in the foregoing pages. After all that can be said in favor of reading or not reading, this is, for the average man, the safest method, the one most economical of strength in preparation and delivery, and the most effective for the early years of his ministry, in the principal Sunday service. To those who have had many years of experience, no advice is offered here. 1 Dr. Storrs. CHAPTER IV THE COURSE OF PREPARATION FOR THE DELIVERY OF SERMONS 104. This should include: /. Readings from sermons of the best modern preachers, before the class, and privately to the in- structor for minute personal criticism; with refer- ence to the principles of elocution and expression, full oratoric use of the voice, and practice in gesture. Only the best sermons should be used, because of the incidental advantage of familiarity with them, and because of the greater stimulus which they afford to the ideal of a sermon and its proper delivery. 2. Extemporizing on familiar and general themes, before the class, and privately to the instructor for practice and criticism. j. Oratoric reading of original sermons, first be- fore the instructor and secondly before the class in chapel or church, with due formality. 274 PREPARATION FOR SERMON DELIVERY 275 4.. Ex tempore delivery of carefully prepared original sermons, first before the instructor, sec- ondly before the class. In the criticism of these exercises, constant refer- ence should be made to the principles of elocution and expression, with applications and corresponding corrections. 105. Extracts from sermons for practice are not given here, because the best sermons are always accessible to students, and it seems better to read them in the integrity of their connection, than otherwise. To conclude this subject the following extract is added as a fine example of simple, rhythmic, ora- toric style, and an excellent statement of the func- tion of preaching, suggestive of an effective delivery : ''Preach what you know of man's needs and God's grace, of brotherhood, of righteousness, of sonship in the kingdom of God, and leave your questionings and doubts, your processes and debatings, for your hours of study and the companionship of your books. Let your preaching be the strong, affirma- tive, positive message of your Master, who met the needs of His age and of all ages, with a declaration of the simple and eternal verities of the life of faith and sonship. ... If you carry the processes CHAPTER IV THE COURSE OF PREPARATION FOR THE DELIVERY OF SERMONS 104. This should include : 1. Readings from sermons of the best modern preachers, before the class, and privately to the in- structor for minute personal criticism; with refer- ence to the principles of elocution and expression, full oratoric use of the voice, and practice in gesture. Only the best sermons should be used, because of the incidental advantage of familiarity with them, and because of the greater stimulus which they afford to the ideal of a sermon and its proper delivery. 2. Extemporizing on familiar and general themes, before the class, and privately to the instructor for practice and criticism. j. Oratoric reading of original sermons, first be- fore the instructor and secondly before the class in chapel or church, with due formality. 274 PREPARATION FOR SERMON DELIVERY 275 4.. Ex tempore delivery of carefully prepared original sermons, first before the instructor, sec- ondly before the class. In the criticism of these exercises, constant refer- ence should be made to the principles of elocution and expression, with applications and corresponding corrections. 105. Extracts from sermons for practice are not given here, because the best sermons are always accessible to students, and it seems better to read them in the integrity of their connection, than otherwise. To conclude this subject the following extract is added as a fine example of simple, rhythmic, ora- toric style, and an excellent statement of the func- tion of preaching, suggestive of an effective delivery : "Preach what you know of man's needs and God's grace, of brotherhood, of righteousness, of sonship in the kingdom of God, and leave your questionings and doubts, your processes and debatings, for your hours of study and the companionship of your books. Let your preaching be the strong, affirma- tive, positive message of your Master, who met the needs of His age and of all ages, with a declaration of the simple and eternal verities of the life of faith and sonship. ... If you carry the processes 276 PULPIT ORATORY of your study, however interesting in themselves, into your pulpits, you will fail to reach men. You are not to be Christian essayists; you are to help men and women smitten with very ancient and homely sins, pressed upon by very common temp- tations, and suffering the sorrows that are as old as humanity, yet as fresh as every new wrench that tears human companionship asunder and wrecks hopes dear to men and women. Do not go before your congregation without some message for those on life's common, dusty road. Have something which may make the man or woman burdened with common toils and humble worries, and the universal griefs, look up and feel that God is over all and in all, and that He has spoken to them through your word." 1 Such maxims as the above will be true and safe for the guidance of the preacher, to the end of time. But, between all the spiritual and intellectual power of the minister and the good he wishes to do, stand the vocal expression and the oratoric action to make or to mar the results of his efforts as a pulpit orator. Christian thought and doctrine demand a corre- spondingly clear and vigorous expression. The 1 Professor Williston Walker to the graduating class at Yale Theo- logical Seminary, 1904. COURSE OF PREPARATION 277 antagonisms of the world must be met by manly, skilful utterance of the everlasting strength and beauty of holiness. Without oratory, the message of Christ to a sinful, tempted, and suffering hu- manity is only recited, not driven home in the minds and hearts of men. Without gracious and cultivated expression, much of the desired effect of a well-meant sympathy is lost. Without an en- thusiasm voiced with fervor, the inspiring influence of the Gospel is dulled or contradicted. May all men who are preparing for the sacred ministry, whether especially gifted or only moder- ately endowed, feel that nothing is more vital to their profession than such training of natural powers as will give to the messages that fall from their lips the power of eloquence. APPENDIX I THE PRONUNCIATION OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES The list below is intended to present only a few typical names, especially those which occur frequently and are liable to be mispronounced. For a complete list, the student is referred to the Sup- plement to the Standard Dictionary, or to the new Inter- national Webster. The indications of authorities are generally omitted from this partial list, and are given only where two or more opinions balance. C. stands for the Century Dictionary, S. for the Standard, Ch. for Cheyne. The secondary accent, *, is inserted in a few words. The following rules may be helpful: i. Those names which are commonly used in English, as Samuel, Isaac, etc., are to be pronounced according to popular usage, in order to avoid the appearance of pedantry. 2. The vowels are generally pronounced as in similar English syllables ; but in names not Anglicized, a is ah, u is oo, e ending a syllable is a. 279 280 APPENDIX 3. The consonants are generally pronounced as in Eng- lish. But note, — that ch is always k, except in Rachel; c before e, i, and y is s, c before a and o is k, but c in Hebrew words is always k. Initial g is hard, except in Genesis and Gentile. J may be pronounced as y in Jah, Kirjath-jearim, etc., but not in Anglicized names, or in Jehovah and Jesus. 4. Accents vary between the penult and the ante- penult. In Old Testament names, as a general rule (subject to many exceptions, but convenient in case of doubt), accent the antepenult, as Hab'-ak-kuk, Am'-ra- phel, El'-la-sar, Rab'-sha-keh. Names ending in iah are always accented on the i, unless iah is preceded by a vowel, in which case the ac- cent is on the penult, and iah is pronounced yah or yu, as I-sa'-iah, Ma-as-se'-iah, etc. Names ending in iab are accented on the i. Names ending in iel, eel, or melech are generally accented on the antepenult. 5. In case of Old Testament names occurring in the New Testament, give the familiar Old Testament forms, adopted in the Revised Version, and in the Marginal Readings Bible. Thus, St. Luke 4: 26, 27, Elias should be Elijah; Eliseus, Elisha; Acts 13: 21, Cis should be Kish; Rom. 9: 25, Osee should be Hosea. II PARTIAL LIST OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES Aa'-ron, air, C, ar, S. Ab'-a-na, or Ab-a'-na, Ch. PARTIAL LIST OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES 28 1 Ab'-a-rim, or A-ba'-rim, Ch. Ab'-de-el. Ab'-di-el. A-bed'-ne-go. A-bi'-a-thar. A-bi'-el, or A'-bi-el, Ch. Ab-i-le'-ne. A-bish'-a-i, or A-bi'-shai, Ch. A-bish'-a-lom, or -a'-lom, Ch. A-bish'-u-a, or -shu'-a, Ch. A-cel'-da-ma-, c=s; or c=k, Ch. A-chai-a, a'-yah or I-a. A-cha'-i-cus. A-chit'-o-phel (ch=k). Ad'-be-el. Ad-o-na'-i. A-do ff -ni-be'-zek. Ad"-o-ra'-im. A'-dri-a. ^E-ne'-as. Ag'-a-bus. A-has'-u-e'-rus. A-him'-a-az. A-hith'-o-phel. A'-i (a-1). Am-phip'-o-lis. An'-a-kim. An-dro-ni'-cus. An-ti'-o-chus. An'-ti-pas. An-tip'-a-ter. An-tip'-a-tris. 282 APPENDIX Aq'-ui-la. Ar-che-la'-us. Ar"-e-op'-a-gite (jite). Ar"-i-ma-the'-a. Ar-is-tarch'-us. Ar-is-to-bu'-lus. A-ro'-er. Ar'-te-mas. As'-a-hel. As'-e-nath. Ash'-ta-roth. As-mo-de'-us. As-nap'-per. As-ty'-a-ges. A-syn'-cri-tus. At-ta-li'-a. A-zo'-tus. Bal'-a-dan. Bar-ti-me'-us. Be-el'-ze-bub. Be-er'-she-ba. Be'-he-moth, or -he'-moth. Be'-li-al. Be-re'-a (in Acts). Be'-re-a (in Apocrypha). Ber-ni'-ce, I. Beth-ab'-a-ra. Beth'-pha-ge (g soft). Beth-sa'-i-da. Bi-thyn'-i-a. PARTIAL LIST OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES 283 Note. — c before e, i, y = s, except in Hebrew words, c before a, o = k. ch = k. Caes'-a-re-a (Sess). Cai'-a-phas. (ai = l). Ca'-naan (nun). Can'-da-ce. Cap-pa-do'-ci-a (shi-a). Ce'-dron, c = k. Cen'-chre-a, c = s or k. Ce'-phas. Chal-de'-a. Ched-or-la'-o-mer (or a-o'-mer). Che'-rith (k). Chi'-os (k). Chit'-tim (k). Chub (k). Chun (k). Ci-li'-ci-a (shi-a). Cle'-o-pas, or phas. Cni'-dus (nai or kni, Ch.). Co-los'-se. Cy-re'-ne. Cy-re'-ni-us. Dan'-iel (yel or i-el). Deb'-o-rah. Di-an'-a. Ed'-re-i. El'-El'-o-he-Is'-ra-el, El'-i-hu, or E-li'-hu. 284 APPENDIX El'-i-phaz. El-ish'-u-a. El'-ka-nah. E-lo'-i. Em-ma'-us. E-paph"-ro-di'-tus. E-pen'-e-tus. E'-phah. Eph'-pha-tha. Eph'-od. E'-phron. Ep-i-cu-re'-ans. Es'-ther (ester). Eu'-nice, or Eu-ni'-ce (W). Eu'-pa-tor, or er. Eu-roc'-ly-don. E"-vil-me-ro'-dach. For-tu-na'-tus. Gad-a-renes'. Ga'-ius, a. Gen-nes'-a-ret. Ger'-i-zim. Gol'-goth-a. Hag'-ga-i. Ha-nan'-e-el. Ho-se'-a. Hy-me-nae'-us, and e'-us. Ich'-a-bod. I-du-mse'-a, and e'-a. PARTIAL LIST OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES 285 I-sa'-iah, a. Ish'-bo-sheth, Ch. Is'-ra-el (Iz). It-u-ras'-a, and e'-a. Jah. J may be = y. Ja'-ir. Ja-i'-rus. Jeb'-u-site. Jez'-re-el. Kib'-roth-hat-ta'-a-vah. La-od ff -i-ce'-a. La-se'-a. Lem'-u-el. Lib'- er- tines. Mag'-da-lene, or Mag'-da-le'-ne. Mat'-thew (Math'-ew). Mat-thi'-as (Mathi'-as). Me-phib'-o-sheth. Mi-le'-tus. Mit-y-le'-ne. Na'-a-man. Na'-in. Na'-o-mi. Ne-mu'-el. Ni-ca'-nor. Nic"-o-la'-i-tans, or -tanes. O-meg'-a. O-ne-siph'-o-rus. O-ri'-on. 286 APPENDIX Pal-es-ti' na, I. Par-es-tine, 1. Pa'-phos. Par'-me-nas. Pen'-i-el. Pen'-u-el. Per'-ga-mos. Pha'-raoh, ro (or a-oh). Phe-nf-ce, but in Acts 27 : 12, Phe'-nice (really Phoenix). Phi-le'-mon. Phl-le'-tus. Phil-ip'-pi. Phil-is'-tine, tin. Pi'-late (hit, not late). Ple'-ia-des. Proch'-o-rus. Rab'-bi (bai). Rab-bo'-ni (ai). Ram'-e-ses. Sa-bach'-tha-ni. Sab'-a-oth. Sa-lo'-me. Sapph-i'-ra. Sa-rep'-ta. Sa'-tan. Se'-ir. Se-leu'-cia (shia). Sen-nach'-er-ib, or -cher'-ib (Ch.). Shad'-da-i. Shad'-rach (Ch.). WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED 287 Shar'-on, or Sha'-ron (Ch.). She'-chem, or She'-chem. Si-lo'-am. Si'-nai, Si-nl. Si'-nim. Si'-on (s = z, by usage). Sis'-e-ra. Steph'-a-nas. Te'-kel. Thad-de'-us, or -ae'-us. Thes"-sa-lo-ni'-ca. Tra"-cho-ni'-tis. Troph'-i-mus. Tych'-i-cus. Uz. Zac-chae'-us. Zar'-e-phath. Ze-rah'-iah (ra-yah). Ze-ru'-iah (ya). Ill WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED [Many of these represent classes of words.] Address', not ad'dress. Alternate, verb. Alter'nate, noun and adjective. Alternately, adverb, ^-thority, not ^r-thority. 288 APPENDIX Begotten, not begutten. Bestial, bestiality, e as in yet. Blessed, one syllable if part of verb, two syllables if used as adjective, e. g., "God bles-sed forever," "In thee shall all nations be blessed." Cher'ubim, u as in us, not as in use. Chrys'ostom, not Chrysos'tom. Com'bated, not combated. Com'bative, not combative. Com'parable, not comparable. Des'picable, not despicable. Devil, dev'l, not dev-ill nor dev-ull. Direct, etc., i as in pin, not die-rect. Discourse' (noun), not discourse. Due, endue, etc., not as doo, but as dew. Either, etc., not I-ther, but ee-ther. Endure, etc., ure as your, not as oor. Erred, err like ir in bird, not er-red. Espec'ial, not especial. Even, ev'n, not ev-en. Evil, ev'l, not e-vill or e-vull. Formidable, not formidable. Gape and gaped, not gape. Gospel, not gos-spell, but light el. Governor, or not as in for, but as in honor. Heaven, heav'n, not heav-en. So with many words end- ing in en: but op'-en with very light-en. Hos'pitable, not hospit'able. WORDS OFTEN MISPRONOUNCED 289 Implacable, not im-plack'-able. Inquir'y, not in'quiry. Interesting, not interesting. Is'-olate, not I-solate. Jerusalem, not JerussJum. Lam'entable, not lamentable. Lugubrious, not loo-goo-. New, not as noo, but as you. Often, of n not of-ten. Or"-gan-i-za'-tion, not I-zation, but i-zation. Pageant, not pa-geant, but padj'-unt. Peradventure, per like ir in bird. Pre-ce'-dence, not as the word prec'-edents. Process, not process. Salvation, not shon, but shun, lightly, no accent on sal. Saviour, not " yure," but yii, as in Savior. Sinew, not as 00, but as yew. Staves, not staves (plural of staff). Staves is archaic, or plural of a word of different meaning. Subtile is sub'-tile, or better sut'l (Cent. Diet.). Subtilly is sub-til-ly, or better sut'l-y (Cent. Diet.). Towards, not to-wards, but in one syllable like forth. Tremendous, dus, not jous. Ve'hemently, not vehe'mently. Whereof, f as v in C. E. I. W, 3 as f in W. 1 Wr. —Better as ov. (The above are the principal errors heard in the seminaries.) 19 290 APPENDIX IV PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE QUOTED OR REFERRED TO IN THIS BOOK Acts 2: 2: 14-40 3: 12-26, 7: 10: 3 . 10: 34-43 13: 21 . 13: 16-41 15: 13-29 17: 22-31 20: 16 . 22: 1-21 24: 10-21 26: 2-29 Addresses and Sermons of our Lord 2 Chron. 6: . Col. 3: 22 1 Cor. 2: 13 . 1 Cor. 13: 1 Cor. 15: 20-58 Dan. 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: Dan. 9: 3-19 Deut. 12: 13, 14 . Ecclesiastes, Book of " 1 1 : 9 to 1 Ecclesiasticus 37 . Ephesians 1:3: . 1: i5- 2 3 " 2:5 • 2: 7 §96,/ 96, J 96, J 59,5 96, J Appendix 1,5 96, J 96, 3 9 6 ,3 59,5 96,3 96,3 96,3 96,3 96,7 59,5 9 6,2 96,2 9 1 96, 1 59, 5 96,7 59,5 96,2 96, 3 96,2 96,2 Appendix VI, Note m, 1 . . . . 6 5 ,d PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE QUOTED 291 Ephesians 2: 11 . §59, 5 Epistles, generally 96,^ Exodus 3: 4: 19: 32: 96,^ " 12: 3 6 . 59,J " 15: • • 96,5 Ezekiel 14: . 9M " 18: 19-32 96,3 ;; 34:3-6 . . Appendix VI, Note in, 1 " 37: . . 9 6 ,' Ezra 9: 6-15 96,7 Genesis i: 2: 3: 7: 8: 15: 22: . . . . 96, 1 1: 3 59,J 1: 1-13 • • • . . .65 18: . 96,7 18: 1-15; 24: 42: 44: ... 9 6 , z 40: 23 . 95,^ 44: . • 3i, J, 32, 4 96,5 Gospels, The, 96,^ Hebrews, Epistle to the 96,^ Hebrews 10: 2 59,5 n: . 96, z Isaiah 1: 96,4 5: 20-30 . 96,J 9: 8 to 10: 4 96,3 24: 2 . 55 25: 2 . 55 28: 30: 31: 40: 96,3 35: • 96,5 37: • 9*>,i 43: 14-28 . . . . . . 96, 4 44: 9-20 . 5°,^,9 6 ,J 44: 9 and 15-20 56 52: 13 to 53: 12 .96,4 52:55: i-5; 60: 61: 96,4 292 APPENDIX Isaiah 53: 4 ..... •§59, 5 " 52: 53: 54: 55: • 96, J St. James 4: 1-5 .... . 96,2 Jeremiah 9: . . 96,2 Job, Book of, • 96,5 ;; 1: i-s . . . 96,7 " 4: 13-17 • ■ Ex. 8, c, note, 29 Ex. 2,31 " 38: 41: • . • 96,5 Joel 2: 1— 11, 3: 9-16 . . 96,4 St. John 1:1 • 59, 3 « 3: *l ' . 96,2 4: 26, 27 • 59,5 6: 8: . • 96, 3 6: . . 96, ;? 14: 15: 16: . 96, 2 :: ** - • 96,7 ig: 5 • 59,5* " 20: H-18 • 3i,5 1 John 4: . 96,^ " 4: 4 • • 59,5 3 John • 96, 3 Jonah 2: • 96,7 Judges 5: . • 96,5 1 Kings 8: 17: 18: 20-40, 18: 17-46, 19: • 9 6 ,5 "8: • 96,7 18: 27 . . Ex. 6, 53 " 18: 24, 26, 30 • 59,5 " 18: 3<>, 37 • 96,7 2 Kings 4: 5: • 96, ^ 19: 14-19 • 96,7 Lamentations 1: 1-8 55, 96,4 St. Luke 1: 46-55 • 96,5 2: 16 . • 59,5 2: 1-15 . • 95,' 2: 29-32 . 95,5 PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE QUOTED 293 St. Luke 4: 26-27 15: 21 15: 11-32 21: 21: 25-26 23: 32 . 23: 39-43 Append Malachi .... St. Mark 4: 36 . 8: 22-26 " 16:3,4. • • St. Matthew 5:1. 5: 3-12, Beatitudes 5:2,3 • • 6: 24-34 . 18: 3-20 . 19: 1, 2 . 23: 24: . 23: 13-16 . 2 3: 37-39 • 25: 23, 26,27 • 25: 30 Micah 4 Numbers 16: 22: 23: 24: 15-24 24: 3, 4 • 1 Peter 2: . Prophets, The Proverbs, Book of Psalms, The « u Psalm 51 " 130 " 130 24, 121 Appendix 1, 5 §3i,5 65, 6; 96, tf 96,2 ix VI, Note in, 1 59,5 96,5 65,(5 96, J 59,5 38 59, J 96, 1 ; 96, 2 52,